Psychology in Action 2e sample/look inside

eyondblue welcomes this addition
to the literature which we hope will
contribute to raising awareness of
depression/anxiety and encourage
people to seek help.

This edition published in 2021 by
Matilda Education Australia, an imprint
of Meanwhile Education Pty Ltd
Level 1/274 Brunswick St
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www.matildaeducation.com.au
First edition published in 2009 by Macmillan Science and Education Australia Pty Ltd
Copyright © Nicole Letch and Edwina Ricci 2009
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National Library of Australia
cataloguing in publication data
Letch, Nicole.
Psychology in action : an introductory text
Bibliography.
Includes index.
For year 10 students.
ISBN 978 1 4202 2937 0.
150
1. Psychology – Textbooks. I. Letch, Nicole. II. Title.
Publisher: Peter Saffin
Project editor: Hayley Hawkins and Debbie Fry
Editor: Frith Luton
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Cover image: Copyright © iStockphoto/James Thew
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CONTENTS
Preface
beyondblue
Acknowledgements
ix
x
xii
M O D U L E one WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 1
c h a p t e r 1 What is psychology? 3
Working as a psychologist 4
Roles of a psychologist 4
Areas of specialisation 6
Where psychologists work 18
How do I become a psychologist? 19
Academic requirements 19
Registration requirements 20
Responsibilities of a psychologist 23
Competence 23
Privacy and confidentiality 24
Propriety 25
c h a p t e r 2 Psychology as a science 28
Psychological research methods 28
The scientific method 29
Sample and population 34
Types of psychological research methods 36
Experimental methods 36
Non-experimental methods 43
Ethics in psychological research 49
Responsibilities of the researcher 50
Participants’ rights 50
Professional conduct 50
Use of animals in psychological research 51
Module one review questions 57

iv
CONTENTS
M O D U L E two SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 61
c h a p t e r 3 What is sport psychology? 63
Working as a sport psychologist 64
Roles of a sport psychologist 65
Areas of specialisation 66
Where sport psychologists work 67
c h a p t e r 4 Motivation 70
What is motivation? 71
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 73
c h a p t e r 5 Goal setting 80
What is goal setting? 81
Types of goals 82
Tips for setting goals 84
Principles of goal setting 86
c h a p t e r 6 Self-confidence and sporting performance 90
What is self-confidence? 91
Levels of self-confidence 92
Improving an athlete’s self-confidence 95
c h a p t e r 7 Arousal and sporting performance 99
What is arousal? 100
Stress 100
Anxiety 101
Arousal 101
The human nervous system 102
The effects of prolonged arousal 104
The relationship between arousal and sporting performance 105
Techniques to vary levels of arousal 110
Energising techniques to increase arousal 111
Relaxation techniques to decrease arousal 111
c h a p t e r 8 Mental skills for peak sporting performance 115
What is mental imagery? 116
Mental imagery for competition and motivation 117

CONTENTS
v
What are focus and flow? 118
Focus 119
Flow 120
Comparing focus and flow 122
Focus and flow in action 122
Techniques to improve focus 125
Module two review questions 128
M O D U L E three CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 131
c h a p t e r 9 What is clinical psychology? 132
Working as a clinical psychologist 133
Roles of a clinical psychologist 133
Areas of specialisation 134
Where clinical psychologists work 134
c h a p t e r 10 Psychological assessment 137
Clinical interview 138
Developing and maintaining rapport 138
Questioning style 139
Reflective listening 141
Psychological testing 143
Questionnaires 143
Personality tests 145
Intelligence tests 148
Behavioural observations 153
Verbal behaviour 153
Non-verbal behaviour 154
Clinical case formulation 155
Making a diagnosis 157
c h a p t e r 11 Diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders 159
Mood disorders 161
Major depressive disorder 161
Psychotic disorders 168
Schizophrenia 169
Anxiety disorders 173
Phobias 173

vi
CONTENTS
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 179
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 182
Module three review questions 189
M O D U L E four FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY 191
c h a p t e r 12 What is forensic psychology? 193
Working as a forensic psychologist 193
Roles of a forensic psychologist 194
Areas of specialisation 196
Where forensic psychologists work 196
c h a p t e r 13 Stalkers and stalking 199
What is stalking? 201
Is stalking a crime? 201
Types of stalkers 203
Who can become a victim of stalking? 206
The impact of stalking 210
Helping victims of stalking 211
c h a p t e r 14 Criminal profiling 214
What is criminal profiling? 215
Offender signature 216
Criminal profiling methods 216
When is criminal profiling used? 219
c h a p t e r 15 The forensic psychologist in the courtroom 229
The forensic psychologist as expert witness 229
Criminal responsibility 231
Age and criminal responsibility 233
Diminished responsibility 239
c h a p t e r 16 Dangerousness 244
What is dangerousness? 244
Assessment of dangerousness 245
Accuracy of dangerousness assessments 246
Dangerousness and mental disorders 249

CONTENTS
vii
c h a p t e r 17 The psychology of eyewitness memory 255
What is eyewitness memory? 255
Factors contributing to eyewitness memory errors 256
How human memory works 257
Problems with encoding 259
Problems with retrieval 260
Methods used to help eyewitnesses remember what they saw 263
The cognitive interview 263
Forensic hypnosis 265
Line-up 266
Mugshots 267
Constructing a facial composite 267
Module four review questions 270
M O D U L E five EDUCATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY 273
c h a p t e r 18 What is educational and developmental psychology? 275
Working as an educational and developmental psychologist 278
Roles of an educational and developmental psychologist 278
Areas of specialisation 278
Where educational and developmental psychologists work 279
c h a p t e r 19 Early childhood: the development of play 280
What is play? 281
Age differences in play 283
Gender differences in play 286
Types of play 288
c h a p t e r 20 Adolescence: the development of interpersonal
relationships 300
What is an interpersonal relationship? 301
Why do people form relationships? 302
Relationships with parents 304
Peer relationships 307
Romantic relationships 315
Interpersonal relationships in cyberspace 323

viii
CONTENTS
c h a p t e r 21 Disorders first diagnosed in infancy, childhood and
adolescence 331
Pervasive developmental disorders 332
Asperger’s disorder 332
Learning disorders 339
Reading disorder 340
Feeding and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood 347
Pica 348
Module five review questions 354
Glossary 356
Bibliography 365
Index 370

CONTENTS ix
PREFACE
Welcome to the second edition of Psychology in Action. We
hope that this book may be the beginning of a life-long
interest in psychology for you.
We have been amazed and encouraged by the number of
teachers and students who have enjoyed our Psychology in Action course and
know that you won’t be disappointed with our new edition.
Since our first edition was published we have been thrilled to see psychology,
a subject of immediate relevance to us all, increasingly forming an integral part
of the Year 10 school curriculum. We are passionate about this continuing and
even hope that one day it becomes a ‘core’ subject at Year 10 level.
Psychology in Action, second edition, aims to connect with teachers and
students by using contemporary examples to highlight concepts. We believe
that all students will be able to relate to the concepts studied. This will not
only make it easier for them to understand, but motivate them to learn.
We have enhanced each of the four existing Modules: Introduction to
Psychology, Sport Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Forensic Psychology
with new activities, break-out boxes, case studies and research, which we
hope will stimulate interest in a very practical way. We are also delighted to
announce that the Second Edition has a new, fifth Module: Educational and
Developmental Psychology. This is sure to simulate student interest and create
much lively debate within the classroom. This module focuses on topics
relevant to early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence, including:
cyberpsychology, romantic relationships, friendship difficulties and more
mental disorders. Our selection of topics has been based on our experience
as teachers, being the parents of children and adolescents, and clinical
psychology experience.
The second edition is also different from the first in that it has the support of
a fantastic organisation, beyondblue (incorporating Youthbeyondblue). This
organisation shares our vision for education about the importance of good
mental health and recognition of the early warning signs of mental ill-health.
We would like to thank beyondblue for their support. Please visit them at
www.youthbeyondblue.com.
Again we would like to thank our families for their support and Macmillan
for their continued belief in our product. We look forward to hearing from
students and teachers via our website www.psychinaction.com, which will
continue to support you every step of the way on your journey through
Psychology in Action.
Best regards
Nicole Letch and Edwina Ricci

eyondblue: the national
depression initiative
beyondblue is a national, independant, not-for-profit
organisation working to address issues associated with
depression, anxiety and related substance misuse disorders in Australia.
It is estimated that, at any one point in time, approximately 120 000 or 3 per
cent of young Australians have severe or ‘clinical’ depression with many more
(about 15 per cent) experiencing periods of prolonged sadness leaving them at
risk for ‘clinical’ depression. Other than the extreme distress depression causes
a young person, it can significantly impact on their schooling, relationships and
community participation.
Although depression has
serious consequences only a
minority of young people with
depression (estimates in Australia
suggest less than one in three)
receive professional help e.g. from
a psychologist. Some don’t get
the professional help they need
because they’re unaware of the
services and professions that exist
to help young people with mental
health difficulties. Conversely,
some young people won’t seek
help because they are worried
about what others will think or they believe (quite mistakenly) that nothing or
no-one can help.
Over the past decade, schools have become increasingly aware of the impact
mental health problems such as anxiety and depression have on students and
the broader school community. Since 2000, beyondblue: the national depression
initiative has taken a leading role in raising community awareness about
depression, anxiety, and related disorders. The Youthbeyondblue website (www.
youthbeyondblue.com) was developed for young people 12 to 25 years to
provide clear information about mental health difficulties, as well as information
on how to support a young person experiencing difficulties. Its key messages are:
■ LOOK for the signs of depression
■ LISTEN to what the person is saying
■ TALK about what’s going on
■ SEEK HELP together
The other area beyondblue has been keen to address is the development of
curriculum programs to develop the life skills of young people, often referred to
as skills for resilience. These programs focus on prevention, targeting those skills

and capacities that ‘protect’ against mental health difficulties – making a young
person less vulnerable to experiencing depression (and anxiety) in the future.
Developing life skills has important pay offs for the whole school community.
Students with better skills are more able to cope with the stressors of daily
life, have better relationships with parents, teachers, and peers, and do better
academically. .
The beyondblue Curriculum Program was developed by health and education
professionals and is a comprehensive 30-session curriculum program delivered
to students over a 3-year period beginning in Year 8. The Program is based
on cognitive-behavioural principles. Cognitive approaches to mental health
regard thoughts as playing a central role in influencing feelings and consequent
behaviour. Specifically, when an event happens to us, it is our thoughts and
interpretations of that event, and not the event itself, that leads us to feel certain
emotions and act in particular ways. One of the more obvious examples occurs
when students receive exactly the same scores on an exam but have completely
different emotional reactions.
The beyondblue Curriculum Program was
developed with the view to enhancing
students’ thinking around themselves, their
world and future though the development of
six key senses. These are:
1 Sense of Self-worth (knowledge of
and belief in one’s strengths, skills,
and abilities – an acceptance of one’s
inherent value)
2 Sense of Belonging (feeling valued,
needed and accepted – being connected
meaningfully to a social network)
3 Sense of Control (belief that one has
the skills and ability to cope with life
challenges and to manage one’s own
emotions)
4 Sense of Purpose (capacity to make
sense of the world and to perceive some
meaning in one’s life)
5 Sense of Future (hopefulness about the
future enabling us to act purposely and
positively)
6 Sense of Humour (being able to see
the lighter and ‘funnier’ side of life –
including ones own foibles).
The beyondblue Curriculum Program was originally trialled across 25 schools
in three States as part a larger research project. Upon the completion of the trial
in early 2006, beyondblue has made these materials freely available to schools
through its website www.beyondblue.org.au/schools.
beyondblue is in the process of updating and repacking its Curriculum Program
(due to be completed early 2010) providing specific modules on each of the six
key senses as well as a school-community module which will provide teachers
and parents with information on how to support young people experiencing
difficulties
Both beyondblue and Psychology in Action have a strong commitment to
enhancing the mental health of young people through education about the signs
and symptoms of depression and anxiety and related disorders.
Visit www.beyondblue.org.au and www.youthbeyondblue.com.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
COVER
iStockphoto/James Thew
PHOTOGRAPHS
AAP/AP Photo/Unsolved Mysteries, 260, /Joe Castro, 212 (left),
/Tracey Nearmy, 293 (bottom), /PR IMAGE, 72 (right), /Julian
Smith, 241 (left); Copyright © Australian Institute of Criminology,
Canberra, 197 (top); Image copyright © Australian Institute of
Sport, Ausport - 7 (top), 68; Charlie and Lola TM and © Lauren
Child 2005. Charlie and Lola is produced by Tiger Aspect
Productions and distributed by BBC Worldwide Ltd, 290 (top);
Brand X Pictures, 191, 193, 199, 214, 229, 244, 255; © Corbis/
Bettmann, 186 (top), /Michael Cole, 105, /Digital Stock, 61, 63,
70, 80, 90, 93, 99, 115, 124, /Henry Diltz, 277 (left), /Attila Dory/
MGM/Bureau L.A. Collection, 335, /Fat Chance Productions, 266,
/Victor Fraile, 97, /Justin Lane/epa, 209, /Kurt Krieger, 339,
/Walter Weissman, 317, /Clifford White, 64 (left), 81; Digital
Vision, 1, 3, 14, 24, 28; Fairfax Photos/SMH News/Penny
Bradfield, 197 (bottom), /The Age Insight/John Donegan, 192,
/The Age/Wayne Hawkins, 34, /SMH News/Picture by Dallas
Kilponen, 185, /SMH News/Andrew Meares, 217, /The Age/
Cathryn Tremain, 226, /The Age, John Woudstra, 302 (bottom);
Flickr image licensed under Creative Commons - http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en, 223; Image
copyright © Forensicare, 214 (right); Image copyright © Chris Fry,
279 (top); Getty Images/AFP, 172, /Carlos Alvarez, 342 (bottom),
/Nicolas Asfouri/AFP, 115, /John W Banagan, 2, /Robyn Beck/
AFP, 121, /Dave M. Benett, 342 (top), /Hamish Blair/Allsport,
90 (left), /David Cannon, 200, /Robert Cianflone, 75 (bottom),
79, 95, 161, /Mark Dadswell, 212 (right), /Kristian Dowling, 109
(top), /Bill Frakes/Sports Illustrated, 62, /Mike Hewitt, 99, /Harry
How, 109 (bottom), /Jed Jacobsohn, 63, /Ross Land, 111, /Cliff
Lipson/CBS Photo Archive, 265, /Copyright 1987 NBAE (Photo
by Jerry Wachter/NBAE via Getty Images), 90 (right), /Ryan
Pierse, 180, 208 (bottom), /Alberto E. Rodriguez, 208 (top), /Jim
Spellman/Wire Image, 350 (right), /Michael Steele, 109 (bottom),
/WireImage, 221; Image copyright © John Gollings, Gollings
Photography, 235; Image copyright © Australian Innocence
Project, Griffith University, 256; Images from Fast Lane copyright
© Jannine Barnes, Happening Films, 237 (both); © iStockphoto/
asiseet, 305, /Jane Brennecker, 40, /Ben Conlan, 107 (left),
/Gerville Hall, 74, /Patricia Hofmeester, 244, /Brad Killer, 131,
132, 137, 159, /Rich Legg, 117, /David H. Lewis, 107 (right),
/Mark Swallow, 31, /Kent Weakley, 324 (top right); Copyright ©
Jonas Images, 196, 293 (top right), 350 (left); Jupiter Images/
Willy Huvey, 201, /Jupiter Images Unlimited, 18, 345, /Jupiter
Images Unlimited/Stockexpert, 273, 275, 280, 300, 331; The
Kobal Collection, 171, /CBS-TV/Zink, Vivian, 194 (right),
/Lions Gate, 251, /Orion/Regan, Ken, 215, /Paramount, 309,
/Paramount/Rysher, 194 (left), /Showtime/LittleJohn, Dan, 222,
/Warner Bros/Hamill, Brian, 325, /Working Title/Polygram, 290
(bottom); Image copyright © La Trobe University, www.latrobe.
edu.au, 135 (top); © Nicole Letch, 7 (bottom), 20, 21, 22-3, 140,
170, 181, 276 (all), 281-3, 285-6, 288 (all), 289 (all), 291, 302
(top), 319, 343 (top); Copyright 2009, Linden Research, Inc. All
Rights Reserved, 324 (top left), 329; © Dale Mann/Retrospect,
29; MEA Photos, 12, 32 (right), 135 (bottom), 139, 176 (bottom
right), 225; Image copyright © Monash University, 240;
Kenneth Crane. Picture of Don Bradman. nla.pic-an11555750.
Copyright © National Library of Australia, 76; Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, 36, /New York University. College
of Medicine. New York City. 1955. Courtesy of the National
Library of Medicine, 149; Image copyright © New Scotland Yard,
Metropolitan Police Service, 214; © Newspix, 75 (top), 83, / News
Ltd / 3rd Party Managed Reproduction & Supply Rights, 66, 249,
264, 311, 320; Photodisc, 46 (bottom), 85, 92, 176 (top both,
middle, bottom left); Photolibrary, 13, /Japan Travel Bureau,
38, /Photo Researchers/Omikron Omikron, 56; REUTERS/Will
Burgess, 108, /Adreees Latif, 195, /Lucy Nicholson, 277 (right),
/Ho Old, 267, /Radu Sigheti, 17; © Edwina Ricci, 3, 10, 11, 28,
32 (left), 41, 43, 46 (top), 64 (right), 72 (left), 97, 132, 279 (top);
Image copyright © Medical Illustration Department, The Royal
Melbourne Hospital, 9; Rubberball, 35; Image copyright © Peter
Saffin, 293 (top left); Science Photo Library/Mauro Fermariello,
268; Shutterstock/Yuri Arcurs, 203, 308, /Galina Barskaya, 174,
/Brenda Carson, 279 (bottom), /Deigo Cervo, 297,
/Clearviewstock, 333, /Elena Elisseeva, 346, /Debra James, 274,
/Dusan Po, 10-11, /Piotr Sikora, 119 (top), /Jamie Wilson, 295;
Stockbyte, 164; Image copyright © Thinkin Pictures, 337.
OTHER MATERIAL
Article, ‘Post-trauma check for returned Diggers’ by Julie-Anne
Davis, The Australian, 13 September 2008, 187; Screenshot ©
beyondblue: the national depression initiative, www.beyondblue.
org.au, 167; Book cover, children’s audio CD edition, Harry Potter
and the Prisoner of Azkaban by J.K. Rowling, Bloomsbury 2006,
ISBN: 9780747586500, 343 (bottom); Cartoon by Mike Baldwin,
copyright © Mike Baldwin, Cartoon Stock, www.CartoonStock.
com, 324 (bottom); Cartoon by Jerry King © Jerry King, Cartoon
Stock, www.CartoonStock.com, 321; Screenshot of www.
cybersmart.gov.au, © Commonwealth of Australia 2009, 326
(left); Screenshot of Veterans and Veterans Families Counselling
Service, www.dva.gov.au. Copyright © Commonwealth of
Australia reproduced by permission, 186 (bottom); Article, ‘Not
dumb, dyslexic’, Dolly Magazine, January 2005. Copyright © ACP
Magazines, 342; Logo copyright © Toddler Kindy GymbaROO
Pty Ltd, 289 (top); Article, ‘Help us find this maniac’ by Mark
Buttler, The Herald Sun, 14 November 2008, Courtesy of The
Herald and Weekly Times, 220; Article, ‘Mum forcibly pulled
out fingernails of four month old daughter’ by Shelley Hadfield,
The Herald Sun, 5 September 2008. Courtesy of The Herald and
Weekly Times, 242; Article, ‘Dore closes its doors’ by Susie O’Brien,
The Herald Sun, 2008. Courtesy of The Herald and Weekly Times,
345-6; Screenshot © howstat.com, 334; Book cover Stalker by
Hazel Edwards, Lothian , http://www.hazeledwards.com/books/
yafiction/stalker.htm, 207; Screenshot copyright © Orygen
Youth Health, 136 (top); Extract from Meg and Mog by Helen
Nicoll and Jan Pienkowski, Penguin, 2007, 292; Advertisement
copyright © Quit Victoria, 15; Book Cover, The Curious Incident
of the Dog in the Night-time by Mark Haddon, Random House,
2004. ISBN: 9780099450252, 338; Book cover, Touching the Void
by Joe Simpson, Random House, 1998. ISBN: 9870099771012,
71; Screenshot © Smart Online Safe Offline, www.soso.org.au,
326 (right); Article ‘Boy, 7, goes on croc feeding rampage’, by
Rob Taylor, Sydney Morning Herald, 3 October 2008, copyright ©
Reuters, 233; Article ‘Briton ends marriage on Facebook, court
hears’, Sydney Morning Herald 7 February 2009, 321; Screenshot
copyright © Truth in Justice, www.trusthinjustice.org, 257;
“Image courtesy of Turning Point Alcohol and Drug Centre Inc.”,
136 (bottom).
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge
copyright, the publishers tender their apologies for any accidental
infringement where copyright has proved untraceable. They
would be pleased to come to a suitable arrangement with the
rightful owner in each case.

MODULE one
WHAT IS
PSYCHOLOGY?
It is alleged that in January 2009, Arthur Freeman drove
to the top of the Westgate Bridge, took his four-yearold
daughter Darcey out of the family car and threw
her 58 metres off the bridge to her death. A few days
later, the public learnt that Freedman and his ex-wife had
just been part of a Family Law dispute over custody of their
children in the Federal Magistrates’ Court.
Ben Cousins is a professional Australian Rules footballer.
During his career, he has won several of the Australian
Football League’s highest individual awards including the
Brownlow Medal, the League’s Most Valuable Player, a
premiership medallion, six selections in the All-Australian
Team and represented Australia in the International Rules
Series. He was also West Coast’s Club champion for
four seasons and captain for five seasons. However, at
the height of his career, Cousins also became involved
in several off-field incidents, (involving drug use, traffic
convictions and associations with criminal activities), which
attracted considerable negative publicity. These incidents
eventually led to him being temporarily suspended from the
game. Fortunately for Cousins, in November 2008, the AFL
Commission lifted his suspension and cleared him to play
football in 2009 – but with conditions. He was required
to submit to regular drug tests, including urine testing up
to three times per week and hair testing up to four times
per year.
In April 2008, the world was left shocked and speechless
when the case of 73-year-old Josef Fritzl broke. We learnt
that Fritzl had imprisoned one of his daughters, Elisabeth,
for 24 years in a small, soundproof and windowless cellar
in the basement of the family home in Austria, claiming she
had run away and joined a cult. During her captivity, his
daughter had given birth to a total of seven children, all of

2 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
whom had been fathered by Fritzl. One of the children died shortly after birth,
and Fritzl simply disposed of the body in a furnace. The discovery was made
when one of his children to his daughter, Kerstin, fell unconscious, and Fritzl
agreed to seek medical attention at the local hospital. Fritzl’s wife, Rosemarie,
had, apparently, been unaware of what had been happening to Elisabeth. We
also learnt that Fritzl had a very disturbing background – his unaffectionate
mother used to beat him until he was left lying in a pool of blood, he had
served time in prison in the late 1960s for raping a 24-year-old woman, he had
a history of indecent exposure and was the prime suspect in another case of
attempted rape. On 19 March 2009, Fritzl was sentenced to life imprisonment at
a secure institution for mentally disordered offenders.
What possibly could have driven a father to do such a thing as throwing a
child off the Westgate Bridge? Why did Ben Cousins, a talented footballer at the
height of his career, behave in ways that jeopardised his future in the game?
What could possibly have motivated Josef Fritzl to imprison one of his daughters
against her will and father seven children with her?
If a psychologist had been involved with Freeman, Cousins and Fritzl at some
stage earlier in their lives before these incredible turns of events, could the
outcomes have been different? If so, what type of psychologist would have
been the best suited to help these individuals and how might the psychologist
have helped? In the chapters to follow, we seek to provide you with the answers
to these and many other questions related to the understanding of human
behaviour and the mind.

CHAPTER
1
What is
psychology?
The term ‘psychology’ originates from two Greek words: psyche, meaning
the mind; and logos, meaning study or knowledge. Psychology was
formerly defined as the study of the mind but now its definition is much
broader. Psychology is now commonly defined as the scientific study of
behaviour and the mind.
In psychology, the term ‘behaviour’ refers to any observable action made by
a living person or animal. Eating, sleeping, sneezing, watching TV, and reading
this book are all examples of behaviours that can be observed. Mind refers to
the experiences or mental processes that occur within an individual, which
cannot be directly observed. That is, those activities that go on inside our
heads, such as sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, feelings, dreams,
motives and emotions.
The relationship between behaviour and mental processes is frequently
studied in psychology, and psychologists often attempt to determine what is
going on inside a person’s mind by observing their behaviour (see figure 1.1).
Psychology is a science: a systematic study based on observations,
measurements and experiments. As scientists, psychologists
conduct research following scientific approaches and use
observation, experimentation, and mathematical procedures
(statistical analysis) to evaluate the results. All psychologists
are trained as scientists, which is what makes psychologists
different from others in the helping professions (e.g. nursing).
Psychology as a science is discussed in more detail in
chapter two.
Psychology is also a profession (occupation) that requires
advanced education and training. Modules two to five
of this textbook focus on psychology as a profession and
investigates four of the specialist areas of psychology and
the type of work undertaken by psychologists working in
these areas.
p Figure 1.1
By observing this girl hug her grandmother, psychologists
may determine that this girl is feeling affectionate.
Psychology is the scientific
study of behaviour and the
mind.
Behaviour refers to any
observable action made by
a living person or animal.
Mind refers to the
experiences or mental
processes that occur within
an individual, which cannot
be directly observed.
A psychologist is someone
who practises psychology,
the scientific study of
behaviour and the mind.
3

4 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
Activity 1.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
1 Define psychology in your own words.
2 Psychology is both a science and a
profession. What is the difference between
these two aspects of psychology?
3 The aim of this exercise is for you to think
about the relationship between behaviour
and the mind. Complete the following
table in your workbook.
Under the heading ‘Behaviour’, list five
behaviours that psychologists are able
to observe. Under the heading ‘Mind’,
list what psychologists may be able to
determine about what mental processes
are occurring by observing that behaviour.
An example has been done for you.
Eating
Behaviour
Mind
The person may be experiencing hunger,
sadness or boredom
Working as a psychologist
Roles of a psychologist
Close your eyes and picture a chemist at work. What do you see? Most people
imagine a scientist in a lab coat surrounded by glassware and high-tech
equipment. Now close your eyes and picture a psychologist at work. What do
you see? Did you see:
■ a person sitting and listening to someone’s problems?
■ a person wearing a white coat probing a rat’s brain?
■ a person wearing plain clothes, holding a clipboard in a shopping centre
who is stopping people and asking them questions?
■ a person wearing a suit giving a lecture to bank managers about a new
‘healthy life-styles’ program?
■ a person sitting at a computer keyboard analysing data?
You may be surprised to find out that any one of the above descriptions
is correct: each person is a psychologist. This example highights how the
title ‘psychologist’ doesn’t always describe the role the person performs. For
example, many registered psychologists are called a range of titles, such as
‘counsellor’, ‘career consultant’ or ‘research assistant’.

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Despite popular belief, psychologists do not just work with people who have
mental disorders. Some of the many diverse roles that may be undertaken by
psychologists include:
■ conducting research
■ counselling or interviewing people
■ examining the causes of accidents in the workplace and introducing ways
to reduce how often they occur
■ assessing and treating people with mental disorders and psychological
problems
■ teaching or lecturing
■ giving evidence in court
■ helping athletes improve their performance.
Sometimes, people confuse the role of a psychologist with that of a
psychiatrist (see box 1.1).
Box 1.1 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGISTS AND PSYCHIATRISTS
People often confuse psychologists with
psychiatrists. This could be due to the fact
that psychologists and psychiatrists both may
work with people with mental disorders.
However, there are some significant
differences between the two professions.
Psychiatry is a branch of medicine
concerned with the prevention, causes,
diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders.
Psychiatrists first train as medical doctors
and undertake six years of university study
and training to gain their basic medical
qualifications. After they have obtained their
medical degree, doctors must then work as
interns in a general hospital for a further
12 months to gain experience in specialist
aspects of medicine and surgery, in order
to become fully registered as medical
practitioners. Following their internship, they
must complete at least a further year as a
Resident Medical Officer. In Australia and
New Zealand, specialist training for doctors
to qualify as psychiatrists is conducted by the
Royal Australian and New Zealand College
of Psychiatrists (RANZCP). RANZCP’s program
for postgraduate training in psychiatry takes a
minimum of five years, during which time, the
doctors work under supervision in hospitals
and community clinics.
Because all psychiatrists are medical
doctors, they are legally permitted to
prescribe medication. For example, a
psychiatrist can prescribe anti-depressant
medication in the treatment of severe
depression. Psychiatrists can also perform
medical procedures. For example, a
psychiatrist can administer electroconvulsive
therapy (electrical currents through the brain)
in severe cases of schizophrenia if a client’s
symptoms are not helped by other treatments.
Unlike a psychologist, a psychiatrist is a
fully qualified medical specialist who has
completed at least 13 years of medical
education in all aspects of medicine, surgery
and psychiatry. In contrast, psychologists
complete at least four years of full-time
undergraduate and postgraduate study in
psychology. Psychologists are not legally
permitted to prescribe medication or perform
medical procedures. However, they are
permitted to conduct psychological tests
(e.g. IQ tests) whereas psychiatrists are not.

6 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
Although psychiatrists and psychologists
are trained differently and have different
roles, they sometimes team up to help people.
For example, psychiatrists and psychologists
often work together to help children with
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). When working with children with
ADHD, the psychiatrist will usually prescribe
the child medication, and the psychologist
will help the child in other ways such as
managing their anger and/or improving their
social skills.
Areas of specialisation
In the same way that some doctors continue their studies and specialise in
areas such as psychiatry, paediatrics or obstetrics, psychologists can also
choose to specialise in one of a number of different areas of psychology.
Each of these is now discussed. The Australian Psychological Society (see
page 21) identifies 10 specialist areas of psychology.
Sport psychology
Imagine combining a love of sport and exercise with psychological theories you
have learnt about, in order to push your client that fraction of a second closer to
Olympic gold.
Sport psychology is a specialised area of psychology that deals with the
psychological factors that influence, and are influenced by, a person’s
participation in sport, exercise and physical activity. Sport psychologists
are interested in how participation in activities may improve personal
development and wellbeing throughout life. However, despite what you might
think, sport psychologists do not only work with professional athletes. They
may work with a range of people, such as:
■ recreational, elite and professional sport participants/athletes
■ coaches, managers, and administrators
■ trainers, physiotherapists and other sport scientists
■ umpires and referees
■ performing artists (e.g. musicians, dancers and actors)
■ employees and employers in any occupation concerned with optimal (the
best) performance.
Sport psychologists can help people with:
■ improving performance through mental skills training (e.g. setting goals,
applying imagery, managing self-confidence)
■ anxiety management and relaxation (e.g. coping with competition anxiety)
■ concentration and mental preparation (e.g. teaching athletes how to focus)
■ team building and leadership (e.g. before an important match)

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■ recovering from an injury (e.g. returning to show-jumping after a fall)
■ grief and loss (e.g. de-selection and retirement from a sport)
■ weight management and health behaviours (e.g. eating disorders).
Since 1984, Australia has been leading the world in the use of sport
psychology. At the Sydney 2000 Olympics there were twelve Australian sport
psychologists accredited with the Australian Olympic Committee. National
sport governing bodies and institutes/academies of sport across Australia
continue to value the services provided by sport psychologists.
p Figure 1.2
A major focus of a sport
psychologist’s work is
to help improve the
performance of individual
athletes and teams.
Clinical psychology
Imagine being able to help someone leave their house for the first time in three
years or to help someone who has felt that life isn’t worth living feel happy again.
If you’d like to have the knowledge and skills to do these things, then clinical
psychology could be a career choice for you.
Clinical psychologists specialise in the assessment,
diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders and
psychological problems that affect children, families
and adults. Clinical psychologists are trained to
work with people of all ages and may work with
psychiatrists and other health professionals in
hospitals, universities, community health centres
and private practice. Clinical psychologists may
work, for example, with people who:
■ have starved themselves intentionally (anorexia
nervosa)
p Figure 1.3
Clinical psychologists often
provide psychological
treatment to people with
mental disorders such as
major depressive disorder.

8 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
■ are experiencing depression (major depressive disorder)
■ are experiencing difficulties sleeping (insomnia)
■ have irrational fears (phobias)
■ drink too much alcohol (alcohol abuse).
Forensic psychology
Imagine working as a criminal profiler helping the police catch criminals,
researching why some people refuse to believe a relationship is over and stalk
their ex-partner, or working with victims or perpetrators of crime. If you like
the idea of combining psychological theories with the legal and criminal justice
system, then forensic psychology could be a career for you.
Forensic means related
to or associated with legal
issues.
Forensic psychologists specialise in the application of psychological theory and
skills to the understanding and functioning of the legal and criminal justice
system. The types of people seen by forensic psychologists may include:
■ convicted offenders, who have been given a prison sentence and need
treatment in a psychiatric hospital
■ people who are accused of crimes, but are considered ‘unfit to plead’
because of their mental disorder
■ people who are considered not guilty of alleged crimes because of the
presence of a mental impairment
■ offenders or alleged offenders, who are referred by courts for assessment or
treatment
■ offenders living in the general community, who are considered a potential
threat to others.
Forensic psychologists may use their skills in a number of different
situations, for example:
■ performing psychological assessments and providing psychological reports
for the courts
■ appearing in court as an ‘expert witness’ and giving opinions on
psychological matters
■ assisting the police with the profiling of potential suspects, particularly for
serious crimes such as serial murders
■ assessing and treating people who are the victims of crime or witnesses of
crime
■ conducting research in areas of forensic psychology such as, witness
studies, jury behaviour, psychology of the courtroom.
Clinical neuropsychology
Imagine you are in a car accident and your brain is injured. If you can’t remember
your life pre-injury, including the names of your family members and friends, how

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do you relate to them now? Or if you can’t lay down new memories – you’re stuck
in the past – how would you cope? If you can only respond with an eye-blink, how
do you share your thoughts with others?
Neuropsychology is concerned with the relationship between how thinking and
behaviour are affected by brain dysfunction. Many things may cause brain
dysfunction, for example:
■ illness, such as dementia or epilepsy
■ injuries, such as those caused by a car accident
■ other things, such as alcohol abuse.
Clinical neuropsychologists have particular expertise in conducting
neuropsychological assessments and treating people with brain dysfunction.
The results of the neuropsychological assessment are then used to:
■ understand the nature of the brain dysfunction (i.e. how it affects the
person)
■ diagnose the cause of the brain dysfunction
■ make recommendations about what course(s) of action could be taken in
order to help improve the problem. For example, if a client is found to have
a poor memory, the clinical neuropsychologist will provide them with ideas
about how to remember new information.
Neuropsychology is
concerned with the
relationship between how
thinking and behaviour
are affected by brain
dysfunction.
Brain dysfunction is an
impairment of brain function
(i.e. ‘brain damage’).
Neuropsychological
assessment involves
the measurement and
evaluation of a client’s
thought processes and
behaviours through
interviews, observations and
use of specific psychological
tests.
p Figure 1.4
Clinical neuropsychologists are experts in conducting neuropsychological assessments. Here a clinical
neuropsychologist is administering a neuropsychological test called the Austin Maze.

10 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
Activity 1.2 CLINICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY ROLE-PLAY
Neuropsychology is concerned with
the relationship between how thinking and
behaviour are affected by brain dysfunction.
Many things may cause brain dysfunction,
for example: illness, such as dementia or
epilepsy; injuries, such as those caused by
a car accident; and other things, such as
alcohol abuse.
A neuropsychological assessment is
the measurement and evaluation of a client’s
thought processes and behaviours through
interviews, observations and use of specific
psychological tests.
YOUR TASK:
1 Get into pairs.
2 Research one of the following
conditions commonly seen by clinical
neuropsychologists:
■ Aphasia
■ Amnesia
■ Cerebro-vascular attack (CVA) (stroke)
■ Dementia of the Alzheimer’s type
■ Epilepsy
■ Korsakoff’s syndrome
3 Choose one of you to play the role of the
client and one of you to play the role of
the clinical neuropsychologist.
4 Prepare a five-minute role-play of a
session with a client and a clinical
neuropsychologist.
The task of the client is to behave as
someone with that condition would.
The task of the clinical neuropsychologist is
to provide the client with feedback regarding
the outcome of the neuropsychological
assessment. This should include an
explanation of the following:
■ their diagnosis
■ which part of the brain is affected by their
condition
■ what causes the condition
■ what can be done to help them.
The teacher may decide that some or all
of the role-plays could be shown to the rest of
the class.
Counselling psychology
How would you go about helping a 76-year-old man who has
just lost his wife of 50 years? How would you help a 15-yearold
girl whose father has just died? If you love to talk people
through their problems – and really get to the bottom of them –
perhaps you should consider a career in counselling psychology.
Counselling psychologists specialise in assisting individuals,
couples, families and organisations in the areas of personal
wellbeing, relationships, work, recreation, health and crisis.
Counselling psychologists generally deal with psychological
problems that are less severe than those dealt with by a
p Figure 1.5 One role of a counselling psychologist could be to
help people deal with the loss of someone in a car accident.

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clinical psychologist. Examples of ways in which they can offer assistance
include helping:
■ individuals increase their self-esteem or manage stress
■ couples to manage disagreement
■ families cope with issues such as separation, divorce or re-marriage
■ organisations resolve interpersonal work conflicts.
Educational and developmental psychology
A small girl sits sullenly in the corner, her education (her
future?) slipping away before the teacher’s eyes. What’s her
problem? Can you discover what it is and help her?
Educational and developmental psychology is concerned
with how people develop and learn throughout their lives.
Educational and developmental psychologists assist children
and adults with learning and developmental issues by
providing assessment and counselling services. They may
work in many different settings with individuals, couples,
groups and organisations. As a result, they have many titles
such as school psychologist, guidance officer, and child
and adolescent counsellor. Areas in which educational and
developmental psychologists provide help include:
■ early childhood (e.g. concerns about development or
sibling rivalry)
■ school years (e.g. bullying)
■ adolescence (e.g. peer pressure)
■ adulthood (e.g. parenting)
■ older adulthood (e.g. healthy ageing).
p Figure 1.6 Educational and developmental
psychologists may assess a child’s development by
observing the way they play with their toys.
Activity 1.3 BULLYING RESEARCH PROJECT AND POSTER PRESENTATION
One of the roles that may be undertaken by
educational and developmental psychologists is
to provide students and teachers with help on
the issue of bullying in schools. For example,
they may be involved in counselling students
who have been bullied, or in advising teachers
on ways to reduce bullying in their school.
Conduct research on bullying in
newspapers, magazines and the internet,
and then display your information in an eyecatching
poster, which could be displayed
around your school. Your poster must include
the following information:
■ a description of bullying and the different
types of bullying that exist
■ a list of ways to prevent bullying in your
school
■ how being a victim of bullying can affect a
person psychologically
■ a list of what people can do if they are
being bullied.

12 P S Y C H O L O G Y I N A C T I O N 2 N D E D I T I O N
p Figure 1.7
Organisational psychologists
can help large organisations
improve their effectiveness
and productivity.
Organisational psychology
What psychological knowledge would you use to increase the effectiveness of
organisations, and to improve the job satisfaction of workers? If you want to use
your psychological knowledge to change lives of large numbers of people in one
go, perhaps organisational psychology is for you. The wheels of industry are oiled
by happy workers, performing to the best of their ability in a safe and healthy
environment. This is where you would come in as an organisational psychologist.
Organisational psychology applies psychological
principles and methods to the areas of:
■ work
■ human-resource management
■ training and development
■ market research
■ advertising.
Organisational psychologists try to understand
the complex relationships in workplaces in order
to improve an organisation’s effectiveness and
productivity. They have a broad range of skills, such as:
■ selection and assessment (e.g. devising selection
criteria for job applications)
■ career development (e.g. assessing an individual’s
career potential and career options)
■ organisational development (e.g. helping with
change in an organisation)
■ wellbeing management (e.g. conducting work-stress or job satisfaction
surveys)
■ occupational health and safety (e.g. examining the causes of accidents and
introducing ways to reduce how often they occur)
■ consumer and marketing psychology (e.g. identifying consumer reaction
to products).
Activity 1.4 SELECTING A SCHOOL PRINCIPAL
Your school has a problem. The principal
has left yet again. Over the last year, no
principal has managed to stick with the job
for more than three months. Recently, the staff
have approached you, an organisational
psychologist, for help.
1 Write down the characteristics of someone
who you think would make a good school
principal and who you think would be
committed to the job.
2 Based on your profile, write and design
a job advertisement for a newspaper,
advertising for this position.
3 a As a class, compare your answers and
advertisements.
b What were the similarities and
differences in the characteristics that
students thought would make a good
school principal?

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Community psychology
What is the impact of crowded living conditions on someone’s mental health?
What features of a school environment could be changed in order to maximise
students’ learning? Why do some people recycle and others don’t? If you are
interested in finding out the answers to questions such as these, then community
psychology could be for you.
Community psychology developed in Australia in
the 1970s when it was recognised that people’s
psychological wellbeing could not be understood in
isolation from broader society and the environment.
Community psychology is about understanding
people within their social worlds and their
environment, and using this understanding to
improve their wellbeing. Community psychologists
work with community members and policy makers
on the individual, social and environmental factors
that contribute to a person’s psychological wellbeing
within communities. Box 1.2 provides one example
of how the environment can impact on people’s
psychological wellbeing.
Community psychologists undertake a variety of roles that can include:
■ training staff
■ conducting community-based research
■ coordinating projects
■ conducting community consultation and project development
■ counselling or providing support for people.
p Figure 1.8
Community psychologists
play a role in training staff.
Activity 1.5 ANALYSIS OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The aim of this activity is to consider your
school environment and the effect it has
on you.
1 When I am in this classroom, I generally
feel (list in your workbook all that apply):
happy
comfortable
relaxed
motivated
calm
encouraged
sad
uncomfortable
tense
unmotivated
angry
frustrated
2 What do you think could be changed
about your classroom in order to make it
a better learning environment? Consider
things such as noise levels, temperature
and lighting, as well as the positioning of
entrances, exits, furniture, etc.
3 Where do you feel most comfortable in the
school? Why?
4 What area of the school do you find least
comfortable? Why? What do you think
could be changed about this area in order
to make it more comfortable for students?