Essential Cell Biology 5th edition

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198 CHAPTER 5 DNA and ChromosomesQUESTION 5–16A single nucleosome core particle is 11 nm in diameterand contains 147 base pairs (bp) of DNA (the DNA doublehelix measures 0.34 nm/bp). What packing ratio (ratio ofDNA length to nucleosome diameter) has been achieved bywrapping DNA around the histone octamer? Assuming thatthere are an additional 54 bp of extended DNA in the linkerbetween nucleosomes, how condensed is “beads-on-astring”DNA relative to fully extended DNA? What fractionof the 10,000-fold condensation that occurs at mitosis doesthis first level of packing represent?
CHAPTER SIX6DNA Replication and RepairFor a cell to survive and proliferate in a chaotic environment, it must beable to accurately copy the vast quantity of genetic information carried inits DNA. This fundamental process, called DNA replication, must occurbefore a cell can divide to produce two genetically identical daughtercells. In addition to carrying out this painstaking task with stunning accuracyand efficiency, a cell must also continuously monitor and repair itsgenetic material, as DNA is subjected to unavoidable damage by chemicalsand radiation in the environment and by reactive molecules that aregenerated inside the cell.DNA REPLICATIONDNA REPAIRYet despite the molecular safeguards that have evolved to protect a cell’sDNA from copying errors and accidental damage, permanent changes—or mutations—sometimes do occur. Although most mutations do notaffect the organism in any noticeable way, some have profound consequences.Occasionally, these changes can benefit the organism: forexample, mutations can make bacteria resistant to antibiotics that areused to kill them. What is more, changes in DNA sequence can producesmall variations that underlie the differences between individuals of thesame species (Figure 6–1); such changes, when they accumulate overhundreds of millions of years, provide the variety in genetic material thatmakes one species distinct from another, as we discuss in Chapter 9.Unfortunately, as mutations occur randomly, they are more likely to bedetrimental than beneficial: they are responsible for thousands of humandiseases, including cancer. The survival of a cell or organism, therefore,depends on keeping the changes in its DNA to a minimum. Without thesystems that are continually inspecting and repairing damage to DNA, itis questionable whether life could exist at all. In this chapter, we describethe protein machines that replicate and repair the cell’s DNA. These
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ESSENTIALCELL BIOLOGYFIFTH EDITION
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W. W. Norton & Company has been ind
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viPrefaceanswer and others invite s
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viiiPrefaceDenise Schanck deserves
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ABOUT THE AUTHORSBRUCE ALBERTS rece
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xiiList of Chapters and Special Fea
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PrefacexvCONTENTSPreface vAbout the
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ContentsxviiThe Equilibrium Constan
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ContentsxixCHAPTER 6DNA Replication
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ContentsxxiPOST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL CON
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ContentsxxiiiCHAPTER 11Membrane Str
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ContentsxxvCHAPTER 14Energy Generat
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ContentsxxviiCHAPTER 16Cell Signali
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ContentsxxixCHAPTER 18The Cell-Divi
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ContentsxxxiGENETICS AS AN EXPERIME
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CHAPTER ONE1Cells: The FundamentalU
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Unity and Diversity of Cells3mechan
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Unity and Diversity of Cells5nucleo
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Cells Under the Microscope7The Inve
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Cells Under the Microscope9cytoplas
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The Prokaryotic Cell110.2 mm(200 µ
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The Prokaryotic Cell13SUPER-RESOLUT
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The Prokaryotic Cell15(A)HSV10 µmF
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The Eukaryotic Cell17nucleusnuclear
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The Eukaryotic Cell19chloroplastsch
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The Eukaryotic Cell21lysosomenuclea
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The Eukaryotic Cell23duplicatedchro
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PANEL 1-2 CELL ARCHITECTURE 25ANIMA
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Model Organisms27(C)(D)(A) (B) (E)
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Model Organisms29Figure 1-34 Drosop
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Model Organisms31INTRODUCE FRAGMENT
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Model Organisms33(A) (B) (C)50 µm
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Model Organisms35TABLE 1-2 SOME MOD
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Questions37• Free-living, single-
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CHAPTER TWO2Chemical Components of
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Chemical Bonds41number of protons.
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Chemical Bonds43+atoms+SHARING OFEL
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Chemical Bonds45Four electrons can
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Chemical Bonds47Because of the favo
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Chemical Bonds49Some Polar Molecule
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Small Molecules in Cells51with othe
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Small Molecules in Cells53optical i
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Small Molecules in Cells55can be re
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Small Molecules in Cells57O _O _ ph
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Macromolecules in Cells59Figure 2-3
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Macromolecules in Cells61ultracentr
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Macromolecules in Cells63BBAAthe su
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Questions65KEY TERMSacid electrosta
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67C-O COMPOUNDSMany biological comp
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69WATER AS A SOLVENTMany substances
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71ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTIONSElectros
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73α AND β LINKSThe hydroxyl group
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75LIPID AGGREGATESFatty acids have
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77ACIDIC SIDE CHAINSNONPOLAR SIDE C
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79NOMENCLATUREThe names can be conf
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CHAPTER THREE3Energy, Catalysis, an
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The Use of Energy by Cells83(A) (B)
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The Use of Energy by Cells85ABraise
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The Use of Energy by Cells87H 2 OPH
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Free Energy and Catalysis89thermody
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Free Energy and Catalysis91lake wit
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Free Energy and Catalysis93FOR THE
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Free Energy and Catalysis95REACTION
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Free Energy and Catalysis97to the c
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Free Energy and Catalysis99Figure 3
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Activated Carriers and Biosynthesis
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Essential Concepts113ESSENTIAL CONC
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Questions115a kilocalorie (kcal) is
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118 PANEL 4-1 A FEW EXAMPLES OF SOM
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120 CHAPTER 4 Protein Structure and
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140PANEL 4-2 MAKING AND USING ANTIB
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144HOW WE KNOWMEASURING ENZYME PERF
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Page 182 and 183: 148 CHAPTER 4 Protein Structure and
Page 198 and 199: 164 PANEL 4-3 CELL BREAKAGE AND INI
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Page 208 and 209: 174 CHAPTER 5 DNA and ChromosomesTh
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Page 228 and 229: 194CHAPTER 5DNA and Chromosomesform
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Page 234 and 235: 200 CHAPTER 6 DNA Replication and R
Page 236 and 237: 202HOW WE KNOWTHE NATURE OF REPLICA
Page 238 and 239: 204CHAPTER 6DNA Replication and Rep
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Page 280 and 281: 246HOW WE KNOWCRACKING THE GENETIC
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248 CHAPTER 7 From DNA to Protein:
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CHAPTER EIGHT8Control of Gene Expre
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An Overview of Gene Expression269(A
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How Transcription Is Regulated271de
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How Transcription Is Regulated273tr
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How Transcription Is Regulated275Li
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How Transcription Is Regulated277fo
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Generating Specialized Cell Types27
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Post-Transcriptional Controls287Alt
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Post-Transcriptional Controls289rib
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Post-Transcriptional Controls291At
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Questions293• MicroRNAs (miRNAs)
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Questions295specialized cells is ba
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298 CHAPTER 9 How Genes and Genomes
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324HOW WE KNOWCOUNTING GENESHow man
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5′ 3′5′3′330 CHAPTER 9 How
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CHAPTER TEN10Analyzing the Structur
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Isolating and Cloning DNA Molecules
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IIIIIIIIIIIIIDNA Cloning by PCR341D
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DNA Cloning by PCR343HEAT TOSEPARAT
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DNA Cloning by PCR345(A)ANALYSIS OF
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Sequencing DNA347single-stranded DN
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Sequencing DNA349repetitive DNAinte
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Exploring Gene Function351each loca
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Exploring Gene Function353(A)CONSTR
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Exploring Gene Function355E. coli,
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Exploring Gene Function357(A)(B)Fig
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Exploring Gene Function359fused to
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Exploring Gene Function361Figure 10
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Questions363• DNA sequencing tech
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CHAPTER ELEVEN11Membrane StructureA
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ECB5 e11.05/11.05The Lipid Bilayer3
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The Lipid Bilayer369hydrogen bondsC
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The Lipid Bilayer371sets a lower li
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The Lipid Bilayer373Figure 11-16 Ne
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Membrane Proteins375TRANSPORTERS AN
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Membrane Proteins377A Polypeptide C
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Membrane Proteins379Figure 11-26 SD
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Membrane Proteins381spectrin dimera
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Membrane Proteins383apical plasmame
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ECB5 e11.36/11.36Membrane Proteins3
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Questions387• Most cell membranes
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CHAPTER TWELVE12Transport Across Ce
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Principles of Transmembrane Transpo
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Principles of Transmembrane Transpo
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Transporters and Their Functions395
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Ion Channels and the Membrane Poten
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Ion Channels and Nerve Cell Signali
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Essential Concepts423• Ion channe
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Questions425QUESTION 12-18Amino aci
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428 CHAPTER 13 How Cells Obtain Ene
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436PANEL 13-1 DETAILS OF THE 10 STE
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442PANEL 13-2 THE COMPLETE CITRIC A
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444HOW WE KNOWUNRAVELING THE CITRIC
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN14Energy Generation
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Energy Generation in Mitochondria a
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Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphor
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Molecular Mechanisms of Electron Tr
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Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis479c
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Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis481F
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Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis483T
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Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis485r
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Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis487s
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The Evolution of Energy-Generating
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Essential Concepts491(A)1 µm(B)Fig
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Questions493C. The electrochemical
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CHAPTER FIFTEEN15Intracellular Comp
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Membrane-Enclosed Organelles497mito
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Membrane-Enclosed Organelles499DNAm
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Protein Sorting501proteins that are
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Protein Sorting503they have the sam
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Protein Sorting505prospective nucle
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Protein Sorting507the first six mon
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Protein Sorting509mRNAgrowingpolype
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Vesicular Transport511hydrophobicst
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Vesicular Transport513(A)(C)25 nm(B
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Secretory Pathways515receptorcargo
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Secretory Pathways517KEY:= glucose=
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Secretory Pathways519cisGolginetwor
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Secretory Pathways521ERGolgiapparat
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Endocytic Pathways523protein in the
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Endocytic Pathways525shed their coa
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Endocytic Pathways527Figure 15−35
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Essential Concepts529• Nuclear pr
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Questions531their destination. Thus
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534 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalingconsid
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536 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalingcontac
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538 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signaling(A) he
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540 CHAPTER 16 Cell SignalingFigure
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544 CHAPTER 16 Cell SignalingTABLE
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548 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalinga diff
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554 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalingby mem
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556 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalingouters
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ECB5 e16.32/16.29558 CHAPTER 16 Cel
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562 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalinggrowth
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564CHAPTER 16Cell Signalinginvolve
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570 CHAPTER 16 Cell Signalingcyclas
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572 CHAPTER 16 Cell SignalingQUESTI
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574 CHAPTER 17 CytoskeletonFigure 1
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576 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeleton(A)NH 2C
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578 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeletonbasal ce
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582 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeletonnucleati
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584 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeleton(A)GROWI
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586 CHAPTER 17 CytoskeletonQUESTION
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588HOW WE KNOWPURSUING MICROTUBULE-
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594 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeletonactin wi
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596 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeletonof actin
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598 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskeletonplus end
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myofibrils602 CHAPTER 17 Cytoskelet
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606 CHAPTER 17 CytoskeletonThe cont
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608 CHAPTER 17 CytoskeletonQUESTION
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610 CHAPTER 18 The Cell-Division Cy
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616CHAPTER 18The Cell-Division Cycl
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628PANEL 18-1 THE PRINCIPAL STAGES
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ECB5 EQ18.14/Q18.14648 CHAPTER 18 T
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CHAPTER NINETEEN19Sexual Reproducti
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The Benefits of Sex653Figure 19−2
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Meiosis and Fertilization655In this
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Meiosis and Fertilization657(A)MITO
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Meiosis and Fertilization659duplica
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Meiosis and Fertilization661(A)(B)m
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Meiosis and Fertilization663gamete
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Mendel and the Laws of Inheritance6
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PANEL 19-1 SOME ESSENTIALS OF CLASS
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Genetics as an Experimental Tool677
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Exploring Human Genetics679With the
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Exploring Human Genetics681remainde
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Exploring Human Genetics683prevalen
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Exploring Human Genetics685Such lin
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Essential Concepts687and function a
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Questions689C. Genotype and phenoty
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CHAPTER TWENTY20Cell Communities: T
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Extracellular Matrix and Connective
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ECB5 e20.11-20.11Extracellular Matr
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Epithelial Sheets and Cell Junction
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Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal709cyt
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Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal711epi
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Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal713LUM
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Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal715SEL
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Stem Cells and Tissue Renewal717reg
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Cancer719normal epithelial cellprim
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Cancer721Figure 20−43 Cancer inci
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Cancer7232. Cancer cells can surviv
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Cancer725(B)(A)loss-of-function mut
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Cancer727(A)Figure 20-50 Colorectal
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Essential Concepts729Figure 20-53 A
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731It turns out that APC regulates
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Questions733KEY TERMSadherens junct
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AnswersChapter 1ANSWER 1-1 Trying t
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Answers A:3proteins, nucleic acids,
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Answers A:5B. The volume of the pag
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Answers A:7X YYYY Zenzyme lowers th
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Answers A:9ANSWER 3-16A. From Table
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Answers A:11on its surface; however
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Answers A:13rate (µmole/min)210 5
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Answers A:15transcriptionally inact
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Answers A:17HNNadenineNNHNH 2NH 2NO
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Answers A:19(A) NORMALsplicing173 b
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Answers A:21Figure A8-2minor groove
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5′ 3′3′Answers A:23proliferat
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Answers A:25that its function is ve
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Answers A:27additional fragments ge
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Answers A:29slightly water-soluble,
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Answers A:311 2 3 4OUTSIDEFigure A1
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Answers A:33ANSWER 12-21 The membra
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Answers A:35STEP1STEP2STEP3STEP4COO
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Answers A:37in their reduced form.
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Answers A:39D. Prokaryotic cells do
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Answers A:41cells that evolved. New
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Answers A:43ANSWER 16-14 Activation
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Answers A:45becomes localized by bi
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Answers A:47ANSWER 18-3 For multice
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Answers A:49overlapping interpolar
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Answers A:51large amounts of alcoho
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Answers A:53chromosome during a mei
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Answers A:55ANSWER 20-9A. False. Ga
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Glossaryacetyl CoAActivated carrier
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Glossary G:3Ca 2+ /calmodulin-depen
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Glossary G:5cyclic AMPSmall intrace
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Glossary G:7a chain of enzymatic re
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Glossary G:9homologousDescribes gen
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Glossary G:11membrane of a cell or
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Glossary G:13oxidative phosphorylat
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Glossary G:15as a molecular marker
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Glossary G:17stromaIn a chloroplast
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IndexNote: The index covers the tex
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IndexI:3BB lymphocytes/B cells 140F
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IndexI:5internal membranes 19, 365-
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IndexI:7cultured cell types 285cult
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IndexI:9endosomes 497-500, 507, 511
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IndexI:11familial hypertrophiccardi
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IndexI:13integrases 319integrinsin
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IndexI:15mitochondrial DNA 17, 245,
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IndexI:17oxaloacetate 110F, 142, 43
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IndexI:19pyrophosphate (PP i) 111,
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IndexI:21spindle poles 627F, 629F,
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IndexI:23water-splitting enzyme (ph
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