Essential Cell Biology 5th edition
xviContentsCHAPTER 2Chemical Components of Cells 39CHEMICAL BONDS 40Cells Are Made of Relatively Few Types of Atoms 40The Outermost Electrons Determine How Atoms Interact 41Covalent Bonds Form by the Sharing of Electrons 43Some Covalent Bonds Involve More Than One Electron Pair 44Electrons in Covalent Bonds Are Often Shared Unequally 45Covalent Bonds Are Strong Enough to Survive the Conditions Inside Cells 45Ionic Bonds Form by the Gain and Loss of Electrons 46Hydrogen Bonds Are Important Noncovalent Bonds for Many Biological Molecules 47Four Types of Weak Interactions Help Bring Molecules Together in Cells 47Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water 49SMALL MOLECULES IN CELLS 50A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds 50Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules 51Sugars Are both Energy Sources and Subunits of Polysaccharides 52Fatty Acid Chains Are Components of Cell Membranes 54Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins 56Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA 56MACROMOLECULES IN CELLS 58Each Macromolecule Contains a Specific Sequence of Subunits 59Noncovalent Bonds Specify the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule 62Noncovalent Bonds Allow a Macromolecule to Bind Other Selected Molecules 62ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 64QUESTIONS 65CHAPTER 3Energy, Catalysis, and Biosynthesis 81THE USE OF ENERGY BY CELLS 82Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells 83Cells Can Convert Energy from One Form to Another 84Photosynthetic Organisms Use Sunlight to Synthesize Organic Molecules 85Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Organic Molecules 86Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers 87FREE ENERGY AND CATALYSIS 88Chemical Reactions Proceed in the Direction That Causes a Loss of Free Energy 89Enzymes Reduce the Energy Needed to Initiate Spontaneous Reactions 89The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction Determines Whether It Can Occur 90G Changes as a Reaction Proceeds Toward Equilibrium 92The Standard Free-Energy Change, G°, Makes It Possible to Compare the Energetics ofDifferent Reactions 92The Equilibrium Constant Is Directly Proportional to G° 96In Complex Reactions, the Equilibrium Constant Includes the Concentrations ofAll Reactants and Products 96
ContentsxviiThe Equilibrium Constant Also Indicates the Strength of Noncovalent Binding Interactions 97For Sequential Reactions, the Changes in Free Energy Are Additive 98Enzyme-catalyzed Reactions Depend on Rapid Molecular Collisions 99Noncovalent Interactions Allow Enzymes to Bind Specific Molecules 100ACTIVATED CARRIERS AND BIOSYNTHESIS 101The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction 101ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier 104Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together 106NADH and NADPH Are Both Activated Carriers of Electrons 106NADPH and NADH Have Different Roles in Cells 108Cells Make Use of Many Other Activated Carriers 108The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input 110ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 113QUESTIONS 114CHAPTER 4Protein Structure and Function 117THE SHAPE AND STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS 119The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence 119Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy 122Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes 124The a Helix and the b Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns 126Helices Form Readily in Biological Structures 127b Sheets Form Rigid Structures at the Core of Many Proteins 129Misfolded Proteins Can Form Amyloid Structures That Cause Disease 129Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization 129Proteins Also Contain Unstructured Regions 130Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful 131Proteins Can Be Classified into Families 132Large Protein Molecules Often Contain More than One Polypeptide Chain 132Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres 134Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes 134Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages 135HOW PROTEINS WORK 137All Proteins Bind to Other Molecules 137Humans Produce Billions of Different Antibodies, Each with a Different Binding Site 138Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts 139Enzymes Greatly Accelerate the Speed of Chemical Reactions 142Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works 143Many Drugs Inhibit Enzymes 147Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins 148HOW PROTEINS ARE CONTROLLED 149The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Often Regulated by Other Molecules 150Allosteric Enzymes Have Two or More Binding Sites That Influence One Another 151Phosphorylation Can Control Protein Activity by Causing a Conformational Change 152Covalent Modifications Also Control the Location and Interaction of Proteins 153Regulatory GTP-Binding Proteins Are Switched On and Off by the Gain and Loss of a Phosphate Group 154
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- Page 8 and 9: viPrefaceanswer and others invite s
- Page 10 and 11: viiiPrefaceDenise Schanck deserves
- Page 12 and 13: ABOUT THE AUTHORSBRUCE ALBERTS rece
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- Page 31 and 32: ContentsxxixCHAPTER 18The Cell-Divi
- Page 33 and 34: ContentsxxxiGENETICS AS AN EXPERIME
- Page 35 and 36: CHAPTER ONE1Cells: The FundamentalU
- Page 37 and 38: Unity and Diversity of Cells3mechan
- Page 39 and 40: Unity and Diversity of Cells5nucleo
- Page 41 and 42: Cells Under the Microscope7The Inve
- Page 43 and 44: Cells Under the Microscope9cytoplas
- Page 45 and 46: The Prokaryotic Cell110.2 mm(200 µ
- Page 47 and 48: The Prokaryotic Cell13SUPER-RESOLUT
- Page 49 and 50: The Prokaryotic Cell15(A)HSV10 µmF
- Page 51 and 52: The Eukaryotic Cell17nucleusnuclear
- Page 53 and 54: The Eukaryotic Cell19chloroplastsch
- Page 55 and 56: The Eukaryotic Cell21lysosomenuclea
- Page 57 and 58: The Eukaryotic Cell23duplicatedchro
- Page 59 and 60: PANEL 1-2 CELL ARCHITECTURE 25ANIMA
- Page 61 and 62: Model Organisms27(C)(D)(A) (B) (E)
- Page 63 and 64: Model Organisms29Figure 1-34 Drosop
- Page 65 and 66: Model Organisms31INTRODUCE FRAGMENT
- Page 67 and 68: Model Organisms33(A) (B) (C)50 µm
Contents
xvii
The Equilibrium Constant Also Indicates the Strength of Noncovalent Binding Interactions 97
For Sequential Reactions, the Changes in Free Energy Are Additive 98
Enzyme-catalyzed Reactions Depend on Rapid Molecular Collisions 99
Noncovalent Interactions Allow Enzymes to Bind Specific Molecules 100
ACTIVATED CARRIERS AND BIOSYNTHESIS 101
The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction 101
ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier 104
Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together 106
NADH and NADPH Are Both Activated Carriers of Electrons 106
NADPH and NADH Have Different Roles in Cells 108
Cells Make Use of Many Other Activated Carriers 108
The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input 110
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS 113
QUESTIONS 114
CHAPTER 4
Protein Structure and Function 117
THE SHAPE AND STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS 119
The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence 119
Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy 122
Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes 124
The a Helix and the b Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns 126
Helices Form Readily in Biological Structures 127
b Sheets Form Rigid Structures at the Core of Many Proteins 129
Misfolded Proteins Can Form Amyloid Structures That Cause Disease 129
Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization 129
Proteins Also Contain Unstructured Regions 130
Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful 131
Proteins Can Be Classified into Families 132
Large Protein Molecules Often Contain More than One Polypeptide Chain 132
Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres 134
Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes 134
Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages 135
HOW PROTEINS WORK 137
All Proteins Bind to Other Molecules 137
Humans Produce Billions of Different Antibodies, Each with a Different Binding Site 138
Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts 139
Enzymes Greatly Accelerate the Speed of Chemical Reactions 142
Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works 143
Many Drugs Inhibit Enzymes 147
Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins 148
HOW PROTEINS ARE CONTROLLED 149
The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Often Regulated by Other Molecules 150
Allosteric Enzymes Have Two or More Binding Sites That Influence One Another 151
Phosphorylation Can Control Protein Activity by Causing a Conformational Change 152
Covalent Modifications Also Control the Location and Interaction of Proteins 153
Regulatory GTP-Binding Proteins Are Switched On and Off by the Gain and Loss of a Phosphate Group 154
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