Origin: A Genetic History of the Americas

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humans, not scavenging animals (13). Many archaeologists are still quite cautious about the poop and the cutmarks; they’re just not convincing enough. And apart from these findings, arguing that there’s simply no other archaeological evidence supporting either the Out of Beringia or the Out of the Arctic hypothesis. Nearly all of the locations that could have served as refugia for people are currently underwater at the bottom of the Bering-Chukchi Sea, and the Arctic Ocean north of present-day Siberia. Future underwater archaeologists will someday be able to investigate these areas using submarines, but for now it remains an unanswerable question. 24,000 Years Ago, Somewhere in Beringia? Either just before or shortly after the start of their period of isolation, the Beringians split into several groups: the Ancestral Native Americans, who would move below the ice sheets and become ancestors of the First Peoples; the Ancient Beringians, who would stay behind in Beringia; and a mystery group (Unsampled Population A) known to us only indirectly from the traces of ancestry it contributed to some Mesoamerican populations (14).
Hypothesized population migrations. Inset shows a phylogenetic tree and time scale, with dotted arrow denoting gene flow. We have recovered the genomes of the Ancient Beringians from an archaeological site that tells us a story of another heartbreaking loss of children. A little over 11,000 years ago, three children—a prenatal girl, a three-month-old girl, and a three-year-old boy—were laid to rest under a hearth inside their home in the Tanana River Valley in Alaska. Like the Mal’ta boy, they were buried with care and provisions: hunting equipment (including stone points and bifaces) and carved rods made out of antler. The boy was cremated. Like the Mal’ta children, they were sprinkled with red ochre. We don’t know their names, but the peoples who live in the region today —the Tanana Athabaskans of the Healy Lake tribe—call one of the girls Xach’itee’aanenh T’eede Gaay (Sunrise Child-Girl), the other Yełkaanenh T’eede Gaay (Dawn Twilight Child-Girl), and the boy Xaasaa Cheege Ts’eniin (Upward Sun River Mouth Child). Their remains were discovered by archaeologist Ben Potter in 2013, at a site known today as the Upward Sun River, in the Tanana River Valley (15). The Healy Lake Traditional Council and the Tanana Chiefs Conference (the broader regional consortium of tribal leaders) were interested in knowing more about them and so gave permission for archaeological and genetic research. “I would like to learn everything we can about this individual (Xaasaa Cheege Ts’eniin),” the Healy Lake Traditional Council’s First Chief Joann Polston said in 2011. The Tanana Chiefs Conference President Jerry Isaac agreed: “This find is especially important to us since it is in our area, but the discovery is so rare that it is of interest for all humanity.” (16) The mitochondrial genomes from both the girls and the complete nuclear genome from Xach’itee’aanenh T’eede Gaay showed that they belonged to a population that didn’t have any direct contemporary descendants. Their ancestors had split off from the other Beringians sometime between 22,000 and 18,000 years ago and remained in eastern Beringia (Alaska) after the ice wall melted and the other groups moved southward. We can tell from another genome recovered from the tooth of an 18-month-old child found at the Trail Creek Cave site on the Seward Peninsula in Alaska (450 miles away) that this population wasn’t small, but
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Copyright © 2022 by Jennifer Raff
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Contents Cover Title Page Copyright
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For Colin
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Land Acknowledgment Statement This
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Introduction For ten thousand years
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spring. It was clear to archaeologi
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dominated by the story of how Europ
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a tooth in Siberia, in layers of di
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understanding of the past, beginnin
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own creation/origin stories, I bala
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historic property, the cave was cal
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PART I
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terrific view of the Raccoon Creek
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construction has been dated to abou
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constructions made out of earth tha
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weren’t sophisticated enough to h
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obsessively detailed description of
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not the tombs of dead warriors, but
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maps designated many of these lands
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promoted by cable “history” sho
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or “mere wantonness,” but rathe
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“To me, [Heye] was a looter,” S
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World cephalic index map (1896), ad
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Another major implication of polyge
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Jackson). He published extensively
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Earnest Hooton of Harvard Universit
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underlying genetic variation in dif
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B2, C1b, C1c, C1d, C1d1, D1, D4h3a)
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everything from the notion that the
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more plausible that the Clovis peop
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ecovered from the Ancient One (also
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have had the opportunity to visit t
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through the debris deposited by flo
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McJunkin’s site uprooted the foun
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abandonment of a site with a prolon
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archaeology course, was completely
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present in the Americas before Clov
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coal seams near the site, or perhap
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I found out how wrong my professor
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temporal limit to the histories the
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linguistic groupings. Despite a bri
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there—note that the Page-Ladson s
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een open in time for an initial peo
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distinctive population. However, th
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of the interior route. While travel
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Ancient DNA is a more precise and r
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194,000 and 177,000 years ago, and
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oken rocks that could be mistaken f
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additional evidence consistent with
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of wildlife than credited in this h
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intense interest in the area, the e
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Gender, in anthropology, refers to
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archaeological evidence of people l
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archaeologists classified artifacts
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Dyuktai complex microblade core fro
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Mesa complex projectile point from
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several interpretations. The oldest
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end by applying pressure with a bon
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EVIDENCE FOR CHILD TOOLMAKERS? Thro
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hypothesized to have been made by a
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in interior Alaska are located just
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show us the kind of archaeological
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1. Who were the First Peoples of th
Page 132 and 133: Chapter 4 Twenty years ago I took m
Page 134 and 135: formation), because the oil from yo
Page 136 and 137: other monument was carved so that i
Page 138 and 139: homelands. Over 6 million people to
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Page 142 and 143: probably involved two teams passing
Page 144 and 145: supervise projects and students and
Page 146 and 147: necessary). Although it had been a
Page 148 and 149: identified as belonging to a group
Page 150 and 151: This obsessive attention to sterile
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Page 158 and 159: sister gets into a fight with the r
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Page 166 and 167: Chapter 6 All geneticists and most
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Page 184: ather large and geographically disp
Page 187 and 188: American dogs and present-day Arcti
Page 189 and 190: Chapter 7 Imagine a nondescript cor
Page 191 and 192: But Halligan told me that “people
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Page 197 and 198: archaeologists as Anzick-1 (the two
Page 200 and 201: Peopling South America Following th
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Page 206 and 207: lands. We will discuss NAGPRA in ch
Page 208 and 209: Anne Jensen, an archaeologist who l
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Page 214 and 215: Eske Willerslev at the Centre for G
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Page 226 and 227: Chapter 9 On July 28, 1996, just 24
Page 228 and 229: ancestral to all later Native Ameri
Page 230 and 231: ones. Geneticist Eske Willerslev wa
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Chaco, and they were upset that the
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identity; the suppression of langua
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It’s important that we learn thes
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confidently do detailed population
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eveal stigmatizing information. But
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archaeology to houses with crumblin
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history. The movement out of Bering
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emphasis of the early Alaskan archa
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A memorial made of stone marks the
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A Folsom point between bison ribs
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These Clovis points were excavated
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An archaeologist excavates under wa
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Archaeologist Heather Smith screens
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Archaeologist Marion Coe works at t
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Geneticist Krystal Tsosie (Diné) t
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Echo-Hawk (Pawnee), Ken Feder, Terr
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Discover Your Next Great Read Get s
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Notes A note about citations: This
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8. I think this requires a bit more
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10. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the
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Critique of Anthropology 7, no. 2 (
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https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24208.
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above as well as the American Socie
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Two Rare mtDNA Haplogroups,” Curr
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Chapter 2 1. John F. Hoffecker, Mod
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Stafford Jr., and David L. Carlson,
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Southern Chile,” American Antiqui
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27. Braje, Erlandson, Rick, et al.,
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https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20112
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Chapter 3 1. James E. Dixon, “Pal
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Pleistocene Archaeology: Historical
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Chapter 4 1. My family and our club
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Chapter 5 1. Quoted in Charles Peti
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Chapter 6 1. References for this se
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Exploration and Settlement of the A
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Chapter 7 1. This is an ongoing cha
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7. Pontus Skoglund, Swapan Mallick,
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6. References for this section incl
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Spaniards talk about the Taino of t
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Human Subjects of Research (Governm
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30. K. G. Claw, M. Z. Anderson, R.
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Epilogue 1. Keolu Fox and John Hawk
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Origin: A Genetic History of the Americas

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