HISTORY of CEYLON - Sleepinbuff.com

HISTORY of CEYLON 

-King Ravana of Ceylon abducts Sita, Queen of King Rama of Northern India. King Rama heads South, builds a 

bridge to Ceylon and battles Ravana, killing him. The bridge touches the isle of Rameswaram. When returning 

to India he builds a shrine to Siva there. 

HOUSE of VIJAYA at TAMBAPANNI 

543 Wijeya, son of Singhebabu, king of Gujerat, banishes his son Wijeya the sub-king for wickedness: Wijeya lands 

Supparaka (Surat) where he is forced back to sea: Prince Vijaya and seven hundred of his followers land in in 

the region called Thambapanni near Puttalam. He establishes a monarchy and names the new race of people 

Sinhala (Lion Race) after his grandfather who was perhaps a man nicknamed as “lion”. Tambapanni, his 

capital, is where he allies with native prince Kuweni, then slaughters all nobility and establishes authority over 

Sirivattha and Lankapura. Wijeya sends an embassy to king Pandawa of Madura requesting his daughter in 

marriage: Kuweni, broken-hearted, leaves and is killed near Lanka-pura. On the new queen's arrival (her name 

is Wijeya too) she is installed with much pomp and ceremony. Wijeya's rule commences the Mahawansa Period 

of Ceylon's history. Wijeya commences a reign of justice in which he consolidates his newly acquired power. 

The capital is at Tammana (Tammana Nuwara). (505) Wijeya invites his brother Summitta to succeed him then 

dies. 

505 Upatissa, PM, takes over as regent. 

HOUSE of VIJAYA at VIJITAPURA 

504 Panduwasa, the son of Summitta, arrives (his father Summitta couldn't accept Lanka's sovereignty because he 

has succeeded his father Singhebabu of Gujerat) in Lanka at Gonagamaka-tittha. He takes over from Upatissa 

who turns the government over to him. He abstains from solemnizing his inauguration until he provides 

himself with a royal consort. He gains the daughter of king Pandu - a cousin of Buddha and who reigns beyond 

the Ganges - named Bhuddakacchana as queen. Later in his reign, her six brothers are allowed to enter the 

kingdom and set up six principalities throughout Lanka to accelerate colonization and spread agriculture: 

Prince Rama establishes a place called Ramagona; others are Uruwela, Anuradha (named after those two 

princes); Prince Wijita establishes Vijitigama, Dighayo establishes Dhigayo and Rhona establishes Rohana. 

Sometimes later these six provinces are resolved into three great geographical divisions: North of the 

Mahaweliganga is Pihitti-Ratta, or Raja-Ratta (it contains the capital Vijitapura); South of this is Rohana 

surrounded by the sea, North by the Mahaweliganga, West by the Kaluganga; Maya-Ratta surrounded by the 

Deduru Oya, South by the Kaluganga, West by the sea and on the East by the mountains. Early in Panduwasa's 

reign, his brother-in-law Andura constructs a reservoir, the "Abeya-wewa" of 133,000 cubic feet. The 

Brahmins predict Abaya, eldest of Panduwasa's ten sons, will be dethroned and to prevent this daughter 

Ummada-citta must be sacrificed. Abaya has her imprisoned instead and then marries her to a nephew of the 

king. 

474 Abaya, son. A son of Pandukabhayo is born to his sister Ummada-citta. Abaya continues conquest of the island 

to introduce and extend agriculture. (460) Ummada-citta entrusts the education of Pandukabhayo (now 16 

years old) to the Brahmin Pandula, who makes his son Canda a fellow student. To continue their education, 

Pandula sends them to fight out their destiny. Pandukabhayo carries off Princess Pali, daughter of his uncle 

Girikandasiva. Battle of Kalahanggara; Pandukabhayo defeats Girikandasiva (who is captured). Battle of 

Lohitavahakhanda, defeat and slaying of Pali's five brothers by Canda. Pandukabhayo now takes position on 

Dola mountain near the Mahaweliganga. (456) Pandukabhayo's uncles begin fortifications near 

Dhammarakkha mountain (= Dumbara?) and attack Pandukabhayo who counterattacks and drives them across 

the river. He occupies their fortifications. The uncles repent to Abaya who orders Pandukabhayo to rule beyond 

the river and not advance beyond the opposite bank. (454) Abaya sends an embassy to Pandukabhayo without 

his brothers' knowledge. They depose him and set up one of their members 

454 Tissa, brother, as king. (444) After having allied with the Yakkinni leader and widow Cetiya, Pandukabhayo 

marches to Arittha. Here he prepares for war. (437) His uncles (except Abaya and Girikanda) attack 

Pandukabhayo at Labugama but Pandukabhayo defeats and slays his uncles. He proceeds to the capital which 

is turned over to him. 

HOUSE of VIJAYA at ANURADHAPURA 

437 Pandukabhayyo, nephew. He appoints Canda as Purohita, his uncle Abaya as Nagaraguttika (major of the city), 

his friend, Canda (son of his Brahmin teacher), to the office of Adigar (Minister) and to his father-in-law 

Girikandasiva he restores the territory Girikandaka. He founds Anuradhapura, establishing it as the capital. 

Since his success was partly due to the power of the Lanka aborigines, the Yakkas, he establishes Kalavela and 

the chief Citta in Eastern quarter of the city and lower side of the Abaya tank. (425) The boundaries of all the 

villages in Lanka are demarcated for better administration under the Village Community system of government 

The island is divided into fields and gardens. Pandukabhayo pays attention to the adornment and civil

government of the new capital; forms four suburbs; improves the Abaya tank (built by king Panduwasa) and 

orders construction of two more, the Jaya-wewa and Gamini-wewa. 

367 Mutasiwa, son. Not having the rough energy of his father, his reign is peaceful and given to aesthetic pursuits. 

He has a royal palace constructed called Mahamega. During his and his father's reigns, the pearl oyster and 

gemming industries became highly developed. 

307 Dewanampiyatissa, son. He sends an embassy (nephew Mahaaritha; Brahman of the Hali mountain; Malla the 

Minister of State and Tissa, the accountant) to Dhammasoka, king of Dambadiwa (Magadha). After five 

months at Pataliputra, the embassy returns with the message that Dhammasoka, having adopted Buddhism, 

hopes king Dewanampiyatissa would too. Later, Mahinda, son of Dhammasoka (Emperor Asoka), is sent to 

Lanka to convert the land to Buddhism. Soon Sanghamitta, Dhammasoka's daughter and high priestess, is sent, 

so that women could be ordained into the priesthood, along with a Bo-tree branch. A nunnery, the Upasika 

Vihara, is established and afterward the Hatthalhaka Vihara is established, having more seclusion and offering 

more solitude. Mahinda sends his nephew Sumana to bring relics of Buddha to Lanka. From king Sakka of a 

country in the Himalayas (Nepal?) he brings Buddha's dish and collar bone. They are placed in the temple 

Pamojawatthu. Many temples and colleges are built during this reign. Anula (the Queen) attempts to get rid of 

Mahanaga, the king's brother, but the plot backfires and the king's son dies. Mahanaga, fearing reprisals flees 

and sets up a Buddhist kingdom in Rohana. Construction of Tissa-wema and Tarraccha-wema. The former to 

provide for the paddy fields around Anuradhapura. 

NOTE: The island at this time is divided into three kingdoms: The most northerly, Pihiti Rata (or Raja 

Rata, Country of the Kings) contains the royal capital Anuradhapura. Its southern border is the rivers Maha 

Weli Ganga (Great Sandy River) and Deduru Oya. Second is the kingdom of Ruhuna, the flat country as far as 

the Kalu Ganga. Third kingdom of Maya Rata comprises the central mountainous district and western low 

country between the Kalu Ganga and Deduru Oya. 

267 Uttiya, brother, continues the work of his brother. (258) Death of Uttiya's son Mahinda who had renounced his 

father's throne for the priesthood. Also, death of Sanghamitta, Mahinda's sister at the convent at Hathalhaka - 

she had established her religion in a foreign land. 

257 Mahasiva, brother. Peaceful reign. Constructs the Vihara Naga-rangana. (250) About this time arrival of the 

Great Mahinda Thero and introduction of Bhuddhism to Sri Lanka. (249) About this time arrival of Theri 

Sanghamitta with a branch of the original Sri Maha Bodhi in India. 

247 Suratissa, brother. He continues his predecessor's policy of advancing the religious and social development of 

the people and building without committing oppression. He brings into his pay the Indian youths Sena and 

Gottika, mercenaries with their army and navy, to handle Ceylon's defenses. 

SENA and GOTTIKA 

237 Sena and Gottika, two Tamil chiefs, horse dealers, usurp the throne, murdering Suratissa. They administer 

competently in a joint-reign. 

HOUSE of VIJAYA 

215 The adherents of Asela, brother of Suratissa, dethrone and slay Sena and Gottika. Asela rules. 

ELARA 

205 A Tamil invader, Ellala (Elara), from Sollee (Tanjore) lands at the mouth of the Mahaweliganga and at Battle of 

Anuradhapura, defeats and slays Asela. Though not a Buddhist he is soon acclaimed by all Lanka. He is a just 

and impartial ruler. There are two subdivisions of the island administered by sub-kings: Rohana by Kavan 

Tissa and Maya Rata by Kelani Tissa. Ellala has the tank Paliwewa (Vavunik-kulam) constructed. 

KINGS OF ROHANA (RUHUNA): A kingdom located in the south of Ceylon, the capital is Magama, near between 

modern Ambalantota and Tissamaharama in the Southern Province. The kingdom's boundaries are the 

Mahaveli River to the North, and the Kalu Ganga River to the North West. 

275 About this time Mahanaga, brother of Dewanampiyatissa, establishes a capital at Magama. Devoted to religion. 

Construction of Mahanaga and Uddhakandhara Viharas. Construction of Tissawewa. 

___ Yatalakatissa, son. Extends rule to Bintenne on the northeast and beyond Saffragam on the northwest. Capital 

fixed at Kelaniya. He builds the Kelaniya Dagaba. 

___ Gotabhaya, son. Reigns at Magama leaving the Kshatriya Kelani Tissa at Kelaniya (while he reigns there the sea 

inundates much of the coast near Kelaniya). 

205 Kakawanatissa (Kavan Tissa), son, marries Viharadewi, daughter of Kelani Tissa. Builds many edifices 

including Tissamaha Vihara. Construction of the tank Digha-vapi (Kandiya-kattu). Goods arrive from the East 

on Arabian trading ships. His main desire is to avoid aggressive military operations against Ellala. (170) About 

this time Duttu Gamunu asks his father Kakawanatissa to allow him to expel foreign rule from Lanka (i.e.; 

Ellala). His father states that within the banks of the river is sufficient area to rule. Duttu Gamunu ridicules him 

and is forced to flee to Kotta. Meanwhile, Kakawanatissa has the warriors swear that they'll not take part in any

contest for the succession between Duttu Gamunu and his brother Sadda Tissa. (C165) Death of 

Kakawanatissa. Prince Tissa hurriedly takes care of the funeral then hurries back to Digawapi in case his 

brother Duttu attacks. 

165 About this time Duttu, son, moves to Mahagama where he assumes sovereignty: He demands custody of their 

mother and the state elephant from Tissa; he is refused. Battle of Chulanganiyapitthi; Duttu is defeated; he is 

pursued to Mahagama. (C164) In another battle, he defeats Tissa, who manages to escape but Duttu gains his 

mother and Kandula, the state elephant. Soon the brothers are reconciled. Tissa becomes superintendent of 

agriculture works in Batticaloa district. Duttu is pushing agricultural work in preparation for a great campaign 

against Ellala. A road is built through the Malaya country. (162) Duttu Gamunu marches; a four month battle 

with Indian chieftain Titthamba at Amba ferry enables him to cross the Mahaweliganga. Siege of Wijitapura 

lasts about five months and finally falls. Its commander Digajanthu escapes to Anurandhapura and informs 

Ellala that Duttu is a force to be reckoned with; he persuades the king to summon the assistance of his nephew 

Bhalluka with an army from India. (161) After capturing many forts (Girilaka, Casaw Totta, Mahawetta and 

Mahela), Duttu Gamunu fortifies at the foot of Kasa Mt. Ellala attacks and is forced back into Anuradhapura: 

In personal combat, Duttu slays Allala and his elephant. Meanwhile, Ellala's nephew Bhalluka arrives 

Mahatitha and begins marching to Anuradhapura. But Duttu is ready and on the Northern side of the Great 


Cemetery, he soundly defeats Bhalluka, slaying him. Now Duttu turns to furthering the cause of religion in the 

country. Construction of Mirisvettiya Vihara begun. Later construction of Lowa Maha Paya (the Brazen 

Palace) begun, the labor for these paid with money demonstrating that by this time Ceylon has adapted a 

money economy. Silver is used on the Lowa Maha Paya. Next is constructed the Ruwanwelisaye of which a 

massive foundation is built of which some of its components are silver, brass, cement and oil paint. Duttu 

establishes 18 hospitals and appoints a doctor, astronomer and priest for every 16 villages in the country. 

Construction of the tanks Pavatkulam and Yoda-kandiya. (137) Death of Duttu Gamunu. His son Sali has 

married the maiden Asokamala of the scavenger class and is therefore disqualified from rule. 

137 Saddha Tissa, brother, ascends the throne. He finishes off the Ruwanwelisaye according to his brother’s wishes, 

finishing off the top with a pinnacle of glass (lightening rod?). Reconstruction of the Brazen Palace after it 

burned down. Construction of many viharas (including Mulgerigal Vihara) and agricultural works (including 

Digawewa Tank). 

119 Thullathanaka (or Thulna), second son. He rules 40 days. His eldest brother marches from Digawapi, kills him. 

119 Lajjatissa, brother, shows utmost contempt for the priesthood for their disrespect for seniority in raising his 

brother to the throne before him. (116) Lajjatissa relaxes his rigorous treatment of the priests and turns to 

ornamenting and extending existing edifices. 

109 Kalunna (or Khallatanaga), brother, to the throne. He embellishes the Brazen Palace. (104) The minister 

Maharattaka murders Kalunna. 

104 Wattagaminiabaya (or Walagambahu I), brother, ascends the throne and puts Maharattaka to death. He adopts 

his brother Kalunna's son Mahachula as his son and raises his mother Anula to Queen-consort. Five months 

later a Brahmin youth from Rohana revolts and an army of 7,000 Indians led by seven chieftains lands at 

Mahatitha demanding Walagambahu's surrender. He manages to have the Rohana rebels attack the Indians (he 

recognized the "rights" of the Brahmin). The Indians defeat the Brahmin and his forces and march on 

Anuradhapura. Walagambahu flees to Tanasiva. During his rule he raised the Abhayagiri Dagoba, a mighty 

structure eight acres in extent, 400 feet high. The Indian (Pandyan) chieftain 

THE FIVE DRAVIDIANS 

103 Pulahattha, a Tamil chief, assumes rule with the chieftain Bahiya his minister. (100) Pulahattha is murdered by 

100 Bahiya who assumes rule with the chieftain Panayamara his PM. Bahiya is murdered by 

98 Panayamara who assumes rule with Pilayamara his PM. (91) Panayamara is murdered by 

91 Pilayamara who assumes rule with Dathiya his PM. Seven months later Pilayamara is murdered by 

90 Dathiya. (88) Walagambahu and Tanasiva quarrel and the chief is killed. Walagambahu claims himself to be the 

Raja and sets out to rid Lanka of the seven infidels who have plundered Anuradhapura. (two had crossed the 

ocean, one taking Queen Somadewi and the other Buddha's reflection dish). He attacks Dathiya, slaying him; 


88 Walagambahu I reascends the throne. He demolishes the Tittharama (a residence to people of foreign religion) 

and begins construction of a vihara with 12 pirivenas (schools) and a dagoba. (80) About this time is begun 

embellishments to the stone caves of Dewa-raja-Vihara and the Maha Vihara. Walagambahu has 500 priests at 

Alu Vihara commit to writing the Banapotha (Buddhist scripture), the Pitakattaya (exhortations of Buddha) 

and the Atthakatha (Commentaries). Construction of the tank Nuwarawewa near Anuradhapura. During his 

reign, there is a dissension in the priesthood; the Abhayagiri fraternity separates itself from the Vihara, calling 

itself the Dharmaruchi Sect.

76 Maha Chula (or Mahadailitissa), adopted son and nephew (son of Khallantanaga), assumes the throne. His first 

year he works incognito reaping a paddy crop and donates it to a priest. (75) Maha Chula begins working in a 

sugar factory. (72) He donates his earnings from the sugar factory to the priesthood at Anuradhapura. He now 

begins bestowing lavish gifts on the priesthood. All during his reign his cousin Naga (Coranaga) and his band 

of robbers roam the countryside. (62) Death of Maha Chula; his successor is 

62 Chora Naga, cousin, son of Walagambahu I. He gives the priests who refused him asylum during his marauding 

days a hard time of it; razing their abodes to the ground. During his reign famine visits Lanka. He is murdered 

by poisoned food given to him by his consort Anula. 

50 Kudatissa, son of Maha Chula, seizes the throne and makes himself king and takes Anula as his Queen. Anula 

soon develops a passion for Siva, the senior gate porter at the King’s Palace, and poisons the king. 

47 Queen Anula. She associates her lover, Siva, senior gate porter, in the rule as her consort. (46) Tired of Siva, 

Anula poisons him and replaces him with Vatuka, an Indian carpenter. (45) Tired of Vatuka she poisons him, 

replacing him with Dharubatissa, a palace fire wood carrier. During his stretch a reservoir is built in Mahamega 

garden. (44) Dharubatissa, poisoned, is replaced by the Adigar, a Brahmin named Neeliya who is (43) 

poisoned. (41) Queen Anula is burned alive by 

41 Kalakannie Tissa (Makalan Tissa), second son of Maha Chula, who succeeds. Construction of a great 

Uposathasala on Mihintale. Construction of the great canal Vannakanna and the tanks Amadugga and 

Bhayoluppa. Improvement of the capital's defenses; a wall "seven cubits high" around Anuradhapura. He has a 

new palace built considering the old one polluted by the burning of Anula. 

19 BCE Bathikabeya (Bhattika Raja), son, succeeds. He puts into effect all of his fancies regardless of cost [one 

being the use of hydraulic machinery to create a water festival in the Abaya tank]. 

9 CE Mahadithaka Mahanaga (Maha Dalia Mana or Dathika), brother. He is devoted to religion and a slave to the 

priesthood, making offerings and building religious edifices. His reign is peaceful and prosperous. 

21 Addagamunu (or Amanda Gamunu) son of Dathika. A pious ruler, he prohibits the killing of any animal 

whatsoever prohibits the commission of sin and enjoins his people to do the work of charity. To substitute for 

meat, he has a great number of fruit trees and creepers planted throughout the country. Founder of Ridi Vihara 

in Kurunegala District. During his reign King Meghavahana of Kashmir visits (induces Addagamunu to ban 

killing of animals). (30) Mahadithaka is murdered by 

30 Kanijanu Tissa (Kinihiridaila), brother, who succeeds. He decides a controversy which had suspended the 

performance of religious ceremonies in the Uposatha hall of Mihintale. He has 60 priests engaged in a 

conspiracy against him imprisoned. 

33 Culabhaya, son of Amanda Gamini Abaya, succeeds. Builds a vihara on the banks of the river south of the 

capital. (34) Dies and succeeded by 

34 Sivali, sister. Deposed after 4 months by 

34 Illa Naga (Elluna), nephew. He visits Tissa tank and punishes his Lambakanna men who deserted him thereby 

placing inferior caste members as overseers during their punishment. Infuriated at this indignity the men, 

supported by the people, rise (35) and imprison Illa Naga. Soon he escapes and flees to India. (38) He returns 

to Ceylon with an army, lands Sakarasobba, repairs the Naga Maha Vihara (dagaba at Tissamaharama) and the 

Tissa and Dura tanks then sets out after the Lambakannas. After a series of near defeats, he manages to 

overcome them and enter his capital, Anuradhapura. 

44 Chandamukha Siva (Sanda Muhuna), son. Construction of a tank dedicated to Isurumunni Vihara. His wife 

Damiladewi dedicates the profits from Manikara village to the same vihara. Four ambassadors are sent to 

Emperor Claudius at Rome. (52) Chandamukha Siva murdered. 

52 Yasalaka Tissa, younger brother. A jovial and undignified ruler, he carries out farcical games at court, one of 

which backfires (60) resulting in his death and usurpation of the throne by the hall porter 

60 Subha, ruling as Suba Raja. He carries out construction of various viharas. Jealous, he searches out everyone 

named Vasabha whom his predecessor had predicted would be the name of a future ruler. One Vasabha, 

nephew of the CIC of north of Lanka escapes into the hills then crosses the Rohana and begins building up a 

powerful and organized force. (66) Vasabha attacks Subha; in the course of battle his uncle is killed, but so is 

Subha. 

HOUSE of LAMBAKANNA I 

66 Vasabha, a member of the Lambakanna clan, raises his uncle's wife Metha to Queen-consort (she saved his life 

during Subha's search). He undertakes construction of religious edifices, the construction of tanks (eleven) and 

irrigation canals so that cultivation can be extended. The Elahera channel takes water to Kawdulu-vewa. A 

tunnel is constructed to supply Anuradhapura with water as the city's population density makes the old supply 

unfit. The city's rampart is raised from seven to 18 cubits. 

110 Wankaanasika (Waknais), son, whose wife Mahamatta is daughter of Subha Raja. (111-12) The Chola Karikkal 

from Tanjore lands in northwest and ravages Lanka coming in sight of Anuradhapura. He withdraw taking

much plunder and 12,000 prisoners to work on an irrigation project of the Kaveri river in south India. 

113 Gajabahu I, son. After construction of a dagoba and tank and carrying out other rites, he heads an army 

commanded by Nela-Yadhaya, crosses Adam's Bridge and attacks the Tamils He devastates the countryside and 

threatens to raze Tanjore unless the 12,000 Sinhalese are returned and double that number are returned to 

Lanka as hostage. This is done, in addition Buddha's reflection dish taken from Walagambahu I is regained in 

addition to the tooth relic. He restores to their ancient possessions all those who were carried away and places 

the Indians in the Cooroo Rata (Alut Cooroo Corle). He introduces the Pattini cult to Ceylon. Toward the end 

of his reign construction of the Rama Vihara and Maha Asana Hall at Anu-radhapura. 

125 Mahallaka Naga (Mahalumaana), father-in-law. He spends his reign erecting sacred edifices. 

131 Bhatika Tissa (Batiya Tissa II), son. Kind-hearted and has profound respect for the priesthood. Peaceful and 

prosperous reign. His successor is his brother. 

155 Kanittha Tissa, brother, spends a good deal of his revenues erecting pirivenas (schools) and many other religious 

edifices. 

183 Chulanaga, son. Murdered by his youngest brother 

185 Kudanaga, brother. The great famine "Ekanalika" strikes. (186) Sirinaga, the king's brother-in-law and minister 

at head of the military, raises a rebellion and assumes the throne: 

186 Siri Naga (Kuda Sirina), brother-in-law, has a gilt chatta fixed on the Ruwanweli dagoba of king Amanda. 

Rebuilds the Brazen Palace (five stories). Adds four entrances to the Bodhi Tree. Releases persons of good 

families in the Island from royal revenues. 

205 Tissa (Vahoraka Tissa, or Waira Tissa), son. Humanizes the administration of justice by abolishing torture. 

Religious construction. Spends large amounts to maintain the priests who read the recorded lives of great men 

to the people on stated occasions. The Brahmin Wytulya attempts to establish his own brand of Buddhism (a 

Mahayana or northern form) but this is suppressed (C225) Tissa's brother Abhaya is forced to flee to the 

mainland because of his affection (which is returned) for Tissa's queen. (227) The queen's father Subha Dewa 

informs Abhaya that the time for revolution is right; Abhaya returns, Tissa flees into Malaya country but soon 

loses his queen to, and is murdered by 

227 Abhaya Naga, brother. Spends much on robes for priests. 

235 Sirinaga II, son of Waira Tissa. Religious construction. 

237 Wijaya II (Vijay Kumara), son. He gives the three Lambakannas (Lemeni; 'having ears with long lobes') 

Sangatissa, Sanghabadi and Gothakabhaya, of a branch of the royal family of Bintenne, high offices. They 

(238) murder the king and by common consent 

238 Sangha Tissa, a Lambakanna, usurps the throne. To win the hearts of his people, he adorns the Ruwanweli 

dagoba. (242) Sanghatissa is murdered (poisoned) by the residents of island of Paenina, tired of his visits to the 

ladies of their palace. 

242 Sanghabodi (Sirisanghabodi I), CIC of Sanghatissa, also a Lambakanna,is installed on minister Abhaya's 

recommendation. A great famine strikes, thinning Lanka's population. He takes the vows of the order Atta Sil 

which includes prohibition of destruction of animal life. This leads to anarchy as criminals are not killed or 

punished but released and admonished to reform. (244) State treasurer, the Lambakanna Gothakabhaya 

marches on the capital; Sanghabodi flees to the forest and the throne is seized by Gothakabhaya as 

244 Gothabhaya (Meghavannabhaya or Goluamba). He adheres to the letter the Dharma, prohibits the taking of life, 

an act that throws the country into anarchy as capital punishment cannot be carried out. Feeling unsafe with 

Sanghabodi alive, he issues a reward for his head, which is soon procured. Gothabhaya turns to pleasing the 

priests as they have great influence over the masses (religious adornment, construction and donations). (248) 

The Wytulian heresy again appears as some Abhayagiri monks adopt it; a secession occurs at the Dakunugiri 

Vihara as the Sagaliya sect, but it is suppressed. The priest Sanghamitta from Chola is given as tutor to 

Gothabahaya's two sons Mahasena and Jetthatissa. A rebellion breaks out and Gothabhaya, not wanting to be a 

cause of bloodshed, abdicates and flees from Anuradhapura and is beheaded at Attanagalla. 

257 Jetthatissa, son. He earns the epithet "the cruel" by executing 60 ministers for not showing proper respect at his 

father's funeral by impaling them. The Wytulian heresy breaks out anew, bringing fierce repression. Fearing 

retribution for such ferocity Sanghamitta flees but maintains correspondence with Mahasena. Jetthatissa 

devotes attention to agricultural development (i.e.; constructs six tanks). Construction of Mulginigala Vihara in 

Hambantota District, and restores Mutiyangana Vihara at Badulla. Raises the Brazen Palace to seven stories. 

(269) Death of Jetthatissa. Succeeded by his brother 

269 Mahasena, brother. He recalls his tutor Sanghamitta and 60 other expelled priests: Mahasena is determined to 

establish the Wytulian sect paramount over Lanka. The Maha Vihara fraternity leaves and sets up in the 

orthodox province of Rohana. (278) Realizing the people are against him; Mahasena, who values his crown 

more than Wytulianism, orders the execution of Sanghamitta and Sona (another minister) and reestablishment 

of the old religion. The minister Megavannabhaya (who had begun a revolt from the Adam's Peak area) is

made adigar. Destroyed temples are rebuilt and the priests in Rohana recalled. But now the king shows 

preference for the Thera Tissa of the Dakkhina fraternity: The Maha Vihara again desert in protest of the king's 

arbitrariness. Minister Just holds a trial - against the king's wishes - and has the Thera Tissa expelled and 

disrobed. Construction of the Jetawanarama dagoba, numerous schools (pirivenas). Attention given to paddy 

cultivation extension. Construction of 16 tanks (Julluva Khanu, Mahamani, Kokavata, Maraka, Paraka, 

Kumbalaka, Vahata, Rattamalakandaka, Tissava, Velangawitthi, Maha-gallaka, Ciravapi, Mahadaragalla, 

Kalapasanavapi and Minneriya). A great canal is built connecting the Minneriya Kanthalai (= Gantalawa) and 

Kowdelly tanks. Construction of (modern=) Naccaduwa tank 3 1/2 miles below the tank of Walagambahu I. 

(296) Death of Mahasena – 

End of the Mahawansa Period 

296 Sirimeghawanna (= Kitsiri Maiwan), son - Begining the Suluwansa Period. He continues his father's 

restorations. Complete restoration of the Brazen Palace. He builds a three story Aramaya at Buddha Gaya for 

the monks. A festival in honor of Mahinda is held. (305) Gautama Buddha's right eye-tooth is brought from 

Danthapura (to escape capture by king of the city Sawat Nuwara from Guwaseenam Raja, king of Kalinga) by 

the Raja's daughter Ranewalenam Kumari and husband Dantanam Kumara. The village Kirawella is set aside 

for the princess and her consort and the royal rank of their descendants is recognized. The King ordains there 

should be a physician for every ten villages. He also composes the Sararthasangraha, a work on medicine. 

Fourth Century: Roman ships arrive Ceylonese ports carrying on trade. Roman coins in this period form the bulk of 

currency. The chief port is in the north-west at Mahatittha or Mantota. 

324 Jetthatissa, brother, is an artist, renowned for his skill in painting and carving. He teaches art. 

333 Buddhadasa (= Bujas Raja), son, a renowned surgeon, able to perform the operations of Caphalatomy and 

Laparatomy. Composes a text on medicine - Saratthasangha in Sanskrit with Sinhalese commentary. Appoints 

a physician for every group of 10 villages. Veterinarians appointed. Asylums set up for the lame and blind. 

Preachers appointed, one per 16 villages, to inculcate morality and thereby eradicate crime. Every 16 villages 

also has an astrologer. Construction of the Mayura or Monara Pirivera (Peacock College). The priest Maha 

Dhammakathu translates the sutras of the Pitakattaya from the Magadhan language of Pali into Sinhalese. 

During the King's reign, composition of the semi-religious works Mulasika and Kudusika. (362) Death of 

Buddhadasa; leaves 80 sons. 

362 Upatissa, son. Construction of homes for the crippled, pregnant women, the blind and those with incurable 

diseases. He feeds the squirrels in his parks. To alleviate dry seasons, he has seven tanks (the Rajuppalla, 

Gijjhakula, Pokkharapasava, Valahassa, Ambutthi, Gon-digama and the Kandaraji) built. Upatissa is a religious 

man to the point of zealousness: Construction or religious edifices, adornment of existing ones and 

contributions. He leads a simple life, eating the same fare as the priests living on alms. He observes the eight 

precepts twice a month; Ata Sil: (1) Not to kill, (2) Not to Steal, (3) Not to commit adultery, (4) Not to lie, (5) 

Not to indulge in strong drink, (6) Not to eat by day, (7) Not to attend any parties of pleasure, (8) Not to dress 

the hair with flowers or anoint the body with perfumes. He refuses to allow capital punishment. (404) 

Upatissa's wife, having grown tired of him, induces his brother to murder him, cast aside his yellow robes, 

seize the throne and take her for consort. The deed is done and 

404 Mahanama, brother, ascends the throne. Undertakes religious construction to placate the people for his crime, 

plus maintenance of stores in the alms-houses as did his predecessor, construction of hospitals. During his 

reign the celebrated Buddhist from India, Buddhaghosa, visits Lanka. He translates the Atthakatha (Sinhala 

commentaries on the Buddhist scriptures) into Pali and composes the philosophical work Visuddhimagga.. 

(405) An embassy is sent to China via India bearing a Jade Stone image of Buddha (arrives 415). (413) Arrival 

of Chinese traveler Fa Hian for a two-year stay. Later in the reign embassies are sent to the Emperor of China 

and Emperor Julian at Rome. (426) Death of Mahanama. 

426 Sothisena, son by a Tamil mother, who is immediately poisoned by his sister Sangha whose husband 

426 Jantu (Laimini Tissa II) accedes. (427) Death of Jantu without issue. The Chief Minister decides to appoint a 

noted Tamil marauder on the throne and in strict confinement both to end his depredations and so that he, the 

minister, can control the administration. He places on the throne the marauder 

427 Mitta Sena, a noted plunderer. Bowing to the clamoring people, the PM allows the king greater liberty; Mitta 

Sena is devoted to acts of piety. (428) An army of Indians (Tamils) commanded by one Pandu invades Lanka, 

defeats and kills Mitta Sena and gains control of Anuradhapura and the country on its side of the 

Mahaweliganga. 

The SIX DRAVIDIANS 

428 Pandu orders a search for a rumored youth of royal blood who may challenge his rule. But the youth, 

Dathusena, has gone to Rohana where he is proclaimed king. 

433 Parinda, son, doesn't last long on the throne. 

433 Khudda Parinda, brother of Pandu, who oppresses the people. He is fighting a constant war with Dathusena.

449 Tiritara succeeds, battles Dathusena and is killed in 2 months. 

449 Dathiya succeeds, battles Dathusena. (452) Dathiya is killed in battle with Dathusena after a three-year war. 

452 Pithiya succeeds and seven months later is killed in battle by Dathusena; this extinguishes the Indian dynasty. 

HOUSE of MORIYA 

452 Dathusena succeeds to the throne. He is of the royal Moriyan race, son of Sanga, daughter of Mahanama. He 

expels the Tamils and reunites Lanka in one sovereignty, reestablishing peace, happiness and Buddhist 

ascendancy. He confiscates the lands of those who joined the invaders; those that chose to fight are honored. 

Much agricultural work is carried out, including 17 tanks and the damming of the Mahaweliganga 

(Mahawaluka). The huge tank Kala-wewa is constructed with a 54 mile long canal supplying village tanks and 

Anuradhapura with water. Construction and repair of religious edifices. It is possible that the Mahawansa is 

composed during this reign by Dathusena's uncle Mahanama. Construcion of hospitals. The king, however, is 

plagued with family problems; his son Kassapa of a low-born woman conspires with Migara, the brutish 

husband of the king's daughter (and son of the king's sister) who is CIC. The king punishes his sister for 

allowing Migara to treat his daughter so roughly. Eventually (470) Dathusena is killed by being plastered up in 

a wall by 

470 Kassapa, son. Tries to kill his step-brother Mogallana (by Dathusena's high ranking wife) but fails; Mogallana 

goes to India with one Silakala. Realizing he has estranged himself from the people's sympathy by his acts, 

Kassapa constructs a largely inaccessible palace 11 1/2 miles northeast of Dambulla called Sihagiri, moving 

the capital there. Migara constructs a pirivena (school) and a house for the Abhiseka Jina. Migara is spurned by 

Kassapa in further attempts at religious ceremony and joins Mogallana against him. Despite his devotion to 

perfection of religious observation and succor of the people's intellectual shortages, Mogallana easily raises an 

army and joined by Migara attacks and defeats Kassapa who commits (488) suicide. 

488 Mogallana, brother, takes out revenge on those who held offices under Kassapa (death or mutilation). Soon he 

mellows and returns to he religious orientation of the king's duties. He converts the fortress Sihagiri into a 

vihara, moving the capital back to Anuradhapura, and bestows it on his grand-uncle Mahanama. Establishes a 

navy to protect the coast from foreign invasion. Silakala returns, bringing a lock of Buddha's hair. For this 

priceless relic Silakala is given the king's sister and a dowry. (500) About this time a Persian Christian 

(Nestorian) colony is set up, probably in the chief port of Mahatittha or Mantota which at this time is in the 

hands of an independent prince. 

506 Kumara Dass (Kumaradatusena), son. Sends an embassy to China Passionately devoted to literature, he 

convenes an assembly of learned priests and revises the sacred Buddhist writings, purging them of all 

alterations and additions. Visit of the Indian poet Pandita Kaalidaas who (515) is killed by a jealous courtesian. 

The courtesian is executed by Kumara Dass who then commits suicide at Pandita's funeral. 

515 Kirti Sena, son, who sends an embassy to China. He is very religious. After nine months murdered by 

515 Maidi Siwu (or Siwaka), uncle, who performs pious acts to atone for the murder of his nephew but 25 days later 

his is killed by 

515 Upatissa III (= Laimini Upatissa), son-in-law of Kumara Dass, an old man with failing eyesight. He appoints 

Mogallena's brother-in-law Silakala CIC, giving him his daughter and a dowry. Silakala is greedy, however, 

and, raising an army in Rohana, tries to seize the throne but is repulsed eight times by Upatissa's son Kassapa. 

(517) Silakala tries a ninth time, forcing Kassapa and Upatissa to flee but he surrounds them; Kassapa commits 

suicide and Upatissa dies of grief. Silakala attains the throne as 

517 Ambasamanera Silaka, a Lambakkana, son-in-law of Dhatusena and brother-in-law of Mogallana, who proves 

to be a wise and humane ruler. Increases hospital services. He entrusts the island's administration to his three 

sons; Mogallana over the Eastern part; Dathapabhuti over the Southern part (Rohana and Malaya regions, 

including naval patrol of the seacoasts there); Upatissa remains at court. (529) A Sinhalese merchant visits 

Benares and returns with the sacred book Dhammadhatu (unknown to the king to be of the Wytulian heresy) 

and is honored by the king. Death of A. Silaka; the throne is seized by 

530 Dathapabhuti, son, who has his brother Upatissa murdered to become king. Mahanaga, a descendant of the 

Moriya race is appointed Minister of War. Dathapabhuti slaying of his younger brother Upatissa has angered 

Mogallana who marches against him. Dathapabhuti suggests single combat as the citizens of Lanka have no 

involvement in their quarrel. Mogallana defeats Dathapabhuti, ruling only six months, who commits suicide. 

530 Mogallana II (= Dalamagolan), brother. An accomplished poet and learned Buddhist. Furthers children's 

education and agriculture (constructs three tanks; Pattapasana, Dhanavapi and Garitara). Mahanaga begins 

engineering a rebellion in the Rohana district. 

550 Kirti Sirimegha, son, after the queen (Mogallana's wife) had all possible claimants poisoned. His sentimentality 

and socialist ideas begin squandering the state revenues. 19 days into his reign, the old man Mahanago slays 

him and ascends the throne as 

550 Mahanaga (Senewi), Minister of War under Dathapabhuti and of Moriya stock. He raises his cousin Aggabodhi

to sub-king. Repairs and adorns religious edifices and grants large tracts of land to the Jetawana and Maha 

Viharas. 

553 Aggabodhi I (Akbo), cousin. He works to restore order and tranquility to Lanka, disturbed by the rapid 

succession of power changes. Gives Rohana to his brother as king of that district; his uncle's son sent as Raja 

of Malaya country giving him his daughter: He soon wins over the hearts of the people. Poets (12) flourish 

during his reign; Dehemi, Temal, Bebiri, Bisodala, Anurut, Dalagot, Puravadu, Dalasala, Kumara, Kitsiri, 

Kasubkota and Epa. About this time author Gurulugomi writes Pradeepikawa and Amawatura. Many schools 

and religious works constructed. During this reign the Wytulian heresy arises, largely due to the book 

Dghammadhatu but is put down by high-priest Jotipala: The King gives him a monastery. The King restores 

Mahasena's channel to Minneri (no doubt the Elahera channel). 

587 Aggabodhi II (Kuda Akbo), nephew and son-in-law, Raja of Malaya. Continues his predecessors policies. 

Constructs 14 tanks including Ganga-tata, Valahassa and Giritata. Sculpture flourishes during this time. The 

king of Kalinga, with his wife and chief minister arrives to become a recluse at Vettavasa Vihara (his queen 

enters Ratana Convent). 

597 Sanghatissa, brother and sword bearer, who shows promise of being a competent ruler But through treachery, 

Mogallana, CIC under Aggabodhi II after two months of rule, dethrones him through machinations by a 

treacherous general; the king and his son flee into Rohana disguised as priests. 

597 Mogallana assumes the throne and rewards the treacherous general as Malaya Raja and his son as sword bearer. 

The boy prince left behind has his hands and feet cut off. Rewards are offered and Sanghatissa and his minister 

are captured and executed. Mogallana nest tries to win the good-will of the priesthood with gifts and good 

works. Soon it is discovered the Malaya Raja is guilty of intrigue against the king, his hands and feet are cut 

off: His son, the sword bearer, flees to Rohana with his son and is joined by Jetthatissa, son of king 

Sanghatissa. They quickly raise an army (603) and Mogallana marches against them. Battle of Sihagiri; 

Mogallana is defeated and killed; the Lambakanna sword bearer ascends the throne as 

603 Silameghavama. Extends his rule over Lanka; capital at Anuradhapura. He defeats Sirinaga, uncle of Jetthatissa, 

who came from India with an army to gain the sovereignty. A famine strikes and king Silameghavama devotes 

himself unsparingly to the alleviation of suffering of the poor. (607) The Brahman Kew-mo-lo with 30 vessels 

goes to meet the arriving embassy from China Chang Tsuen. The remainder of the reign is spent attempting to 

reform the priests of the Abhayagiriya fraternity and in so doing out rages the Maha Vihara fraternity. 

612 Aggabodhi III (= Sirisanghabodi II), son. He appoints brother Mana governor of Rohana. Soon Jetthatissa from 

the east attacks (a part of his army under general Dathasiva is repulsed from the western province by Mana) 

defeats and routs the king who flees to India. 

613 Jetthatissa, son of Sanghatissa, occupies himself with winning over the priesthood with gifts and works. After 

five months of rule, Aggabodhi III returns with an Indian army and defeats Jetthatissa who commits suicide. 

624 Aggabodhi rules at Anuradhapura and restores tranquility. (624) Execution of the king’s brother Mana for 

misconduct in respect of the queen. Another brother, Kassapa replaces him as sub-king. Angered, Dathasiva, 

Jetthatissa's general, raises in rebellion: Battle of Tintini; he defeats the royal forces (Aggabodhi flees to India) 

and ascends as 

624 Dathopatissa I. Instead of paying his respects to the priesthood, he sets about despoiling their temples of their 

great wealth. Soon he repents his crimes and begins to make good his crimes. He sends an embassy to China. 

(628) Aggabodhi III returns from India and deposes him. Aggabodhi pillages the temples further. Soon 

Dathopatissa returns and defeats Aggabodhi who soon dies. Now Dathopatissa's sub-king 

636 Kassapa defeats Dathopatissa (who goes to India) and assumes the government. He begins, through works and 

construction and reconstruction, to make his predecessor's deeds against the temples good. (636) King 

Dathopatissa returns from India but is defeated and slain. Kassapa now rules as 

636 Kassapa II and continues his religious benefactions. He patronizes learned priest Maha Dhammakathi. He raises 

a great number of temples, schools and hospitals in the Rohana district. As his children are all young, one 

Mana from Rohana is appointed regent: He determines the Indians to be the source of disturbances in the 

country and so deprives them of all offices and power. They raise a rebellion (645) while Mana is away in 

Rohana. Soon Mana, with his father Dappula (brother and successor of Aggabodhi and chief of Rohana) 

reduces the Indians to subjection. Dappula is crowned king of Lanka as 

645 Dappula I, son-in-law of Silameghavama. Tranquility prevails for a short time until the Tamils, led by 

Dathopatissa's nephew Hatthadatha, returning from exile in India, rise in rebellion and depose Dappula who 

flees with Mana to the eastern and southern Rohana. Hatthadatha is crowned at Anuradhapura as 

645 Dathopatissa II, nephew of Dathopatissa I. (648) Mana, having raised an army, marches against Dathopatissa. 

Battle of Tipucullasa; Mana is defeated and killed. Soon aged Dappula II dies (he was Mana's father). (650) 

About this time Manavamma, son of Kassapa I and husband of Sangha, daughter of a Malaya district chief and 

assisted by Indian king Narasingha, invades, compelling Dathopatissa to retreat; but soon Manavamma's army

largely deserts and he is forced to retreat to India and the court of Narasingha. Dathopatissa turns to placating 

the priesthood (endowments, gifts, construction, offices, etc.). Having built a temple for the Dhammaruchi 

fraternity makes him unpopular with the Theriya Bretheren. ( 

654 Aggabodhi IV, brother. Not ambitious of keeping all power in his hands alone, he bestows offices according to 

ability. Pays special attention to the Maha Vihara fraternity (Theriya bretheren). He is a man of culture and 

advocates the furtherance of Buddhism. Schools and colleges built. (670) Death of Aggabodhi at Polonnaruwa. 

Tamil officer Potthakuttha siezes power, imprisoning any opposition and sets up a chief of royal blood 

670 Datta (Walpiti Wasidata, or Dantanama) as king. (672) Death of Datta. Pottha-kuttha places the youth 

672 Hattha-datha II (Hununaru Riandalu) on the throne. Six months later Manavamma, with a powerful Indian army, 

invades, defeats and kills Hatthadatha II. Potthakuttha is a suicide. 

HOUSE of LAMBAKANNA II 

672 Manavamma (Mahalepa), son of Kassapa I, seizes the throne with Pallava assistance, firmly embedding Tamil 

influence in the island's culture. The dynasty he establishes is heavily indebted to Pallava patronage. Pallava 

influence extended to architecture and sculpture, both of which bear noticeable Hindu motifs. He undertakes a 

wise rule, giving special attention to education, building several pirivenas (colleges); Uturalamula, Vadumula, 

Kapugam, Dematahal, Alagiri, Satveliya and Uturu. Construction of terraced houses and repair of religious 

edifices. 

707 Aggabodhi V, son, a wise and pious ruler. Construction and repair of religious edifices. Restores Gondigama 

tank. 

713 Khattiya Kassapa (Kasubu) III, brother, proves to be an ideal monarch: Constructs three pirivenas, one being the 

Helaham school. 

720 Midel (Mahinda I), brother. Sentimental and altruistic, he attaches special sanctity to friendship, not assuming 

the crown or clothes of his office because of the death earlier of his friend Nila. He assumes the title Adipada 

(governor). Aggabodhi, son of his brother Kassapa, is raised to sub-king and given the eastern district. His own 

son, also Aggabodhi, is given Rohana district. (723) Death of Midel; his son in the Rohana district is raised to 

the throne but he calls Aggabodhi the sub-king to the throne who succeeds as 

723 Silamegha (Aggabodhi VI), son of Kassapa III, appoints Midel's son Aggabodhi sub-king who assumes the 

country's administration: He soon regains order throughout Lanka. But his administration is rigorous and soon, 

those suffering under it raise Silamegha's jealousy and the sub-king flees to Rohana where he raises an army 

and begins a civil war. Battle of Kadalinivata; the sub-king is defeated and goes to Malaya district. Soon the 

two are reconciled, the king giving his daughter Sangha in marriage. (742) An embassy is sent to China. (745) 

King Djayapida of Kashmir sends to Ceylon for engineers to build a lake in his country. (746, 750 and 762) An 

embassy is sent to China. 

763 Aggabodhi VII, son of Midel. He devotes his reign to the furtherance of religion (repairs, gifts, etc.). (769) 

Mahinda, son of Silamegha goes to Anuradhapura (death of Aggabodhi) from Mahatittha (= Mantotta). He 

hears of restlessness, puts that down, imprisons the queen (widow of Aggabodhi) for conspiring against him 

and at Anuradhapura is crowned as 

769 Mahinda II, son of Silamegha. He is challenged by his cousin Dappula who seizes Kalawewa (Kalawapi) and 

advances. Battle of Sanghagama; Dappula is defeated but Mahinda cannot pursue because the northern chiefs 

have taken the capital which, after a prolonged struggle, he retakes. Now for a few years tranquility descends 

but Dappula uses the time to rebuild his strength: He besieges Anuradhapura but is surprised by a sudden sortie 

by Mahinda that soundly defeats and routes Dappula's forces. Dappula goes into Rohana country. Now 

Mahinda turns to reduce the peoples in the northern portion of the country to subjection. He marries a captive 

queen who is his uncle's wife. Later, Dappula again, this time with his two brothers advances on Anuradhapura. 

Mahinda leaves a garrison in the city and at Battle of Kovilara defeats and routes Dappula whose two brothers 

are killed. Mahinda now advances into Rohana and brings Dappula to seeking a treaty: A tribute is determined 

and Rohana's western boundary is Kaluganga. Mahinda now turns to taking care of the welfare of his subjects 

and carries out religious construction. 

789 Dappula III (Udaya I), son who was sub-king, establishes his capital at Pollonnaruwa. The northeastern chiefs 

revolt. He sends his son and CIC against them but his son joins the rebels. Battle of Duratissa; Dappula defeats 

the rebels, slaying the leaders including his son. Mahinda, son of Rohana chief Datasiva, seeks aid against his 

father: It is granted along with Dappula's daughter Deva. Construction of two hospitals and many shrines. 

Dappula realizes the importance of preserving records of all legal proceedings which are ordered to be 

deposited in the palace. 

794 Mahinda III (Dhammika Silamegha), son. He is religious. Restores dilapidated religious edifices and 

construction of a water course. 

798 Aggabodhi VIII, brother. Also religious. Reveres his mother. Feast of the Tooth-relic and Feast of the Golden 

Buddha (made during his grandfather Mahinda II's reign). Construction of two colleges.

809 Dappula IV, brother. His two nephews, sons of his sister, wife of Mahinda chief of Rohana, banished, seek aid 

from Dappula. It is granted but the nephew's flee in the face of battle leaving their loaned army at Mahinda's 

mercy. Soon however, Mahinda dies quelling a revolt in Rohana. To his nephew Kittaggabodhi, Dappula gives 

his daughter Deva and sends him out to obtain rule of his father's realm. This Kittaggabodhi does. Dappula 

devotes the rest of his reign to furthering religion (repairs, etc.). 

825 Aggabodhi IX, son. Challenged by cousin Mahinda (son of Aggabodhi VIII) from India. Defeated and slain: 

827 Sena I (Silamegha II), brother. His nephew Mahinda, son of Aggabodhi IX, crosses over to India to raise an 

army against him; Sena orders him killed. Now he sets about winning the goodwill of the people and the 

priesthood. His brother Mahinda is made sub-king. (846) A large Indian army under the king of Pandu invades 

and seizes the northern provinces then Anuradhapura; king Sena flees with his treasure. at Battle of 

Mahapellagama, Sena's brothers Mahinda and Kassapa die. After plundering, the king of Pandu offers the 

return of Northern Ceylon for a payment, Sena agrees, the Indians withdraw, Sena reenters Anuradhapura and 

raises the remaining brother Udaya to sub-king. Death of Kittagabodhi, chieftain of Rohana and is succeeded 

by his sister (who has had his eldest son killed). Kittagabodhi's remaining children go to Sena; Kassapa is 

given an army and he dethrones his aunt and assumes the rule, with brothers Sena and Udaya, of Rohana. 

Later, Udaya dies and the king's nephew Sena (son of Kassapa) is raised to sub-king; he is married to Sangha, 

daughter of Kittaggabodhi. Later part of the reign is spent embellishing the capital, construction of tanks, 

schools and monasteries. 

847 Sena II, nephew. Raises his wife Sengha to queen-consort and brother Mahinda to sub-king and to maintain his 

loyalty has his son Kassapa married to Mahinda's daughter Sangha. (851) Visit of Arabian topographer 

Soleyman to Lanka. (866) A large force under general Tuttha is sent against Pandu; Madhura is taken; the 

Pandu forces are ousted. A great celebration is held then Sena II begins looking to upgrading his island's 

defenses. (880) Death of Mahinda. His brother Udaya is raised to sub-king. Construction of tanks, a hospital, 

religious edifices, a student residence at the Uttaralha pirivena, etc. Pestilence at times during this reign. Also 

during his reign he suppresses various heretical sects, which had appeared in Lanka in his predecessor's time, 

and places guards round the coast to prevent the entry of their adherents. Dies in his 35th year. 

882 Udaya I, brother. He appoints Sena II's son Kassapa sub-king. Kittaggaboni, son of Udaya's brother Mahinda, 

raises a rebellion in the Rohana area; Mahinda (sub-king's son) with CIC Vajiragga, crush the rebellion and 

Mahinda is given Rohana. King Udaya furthers agriculture (construction of tanks) and constructs the temple 

Tumbarup Vihara. 

893 Kassapa IV, son of Sena II, is challenged by Mahinda, chief of Rohana. Mahinda routes the royal forces but 

Kassapa IV, by appealing to Mahinda's father the sub-king Kassapa; manages to retain the throne. CIC Ilanga 

Sena is an important person in Lanka; constructs religious edifices, hospitals, dispensaries, etc. 

910 Kassapa V, son (mother is Tissa, sister of Mahinda of Rohana). Son Dapula is made sub-king. A great 

administrator and man of learning. He is author of Dampiya Getapada. Construction of colleges. Purges the 

Buddhist religion by enforcing the rules of discipline (Dhamma Kamma). Restoration and embellishment of 

religious edifices. Construction of a hospital. Force under son Sakka Senapati sent to aid the king of Pandu 

against the king of Chola but the Panduans abandon the Sinhalese force on the battlefield and it is withdrawn, 

wracked by pestilence. (911) The Arab Ibn Wahab visits Lanka. 

920 Dapula IV, son. Raises his brother to sub-king. Rules seven months, dies and is succeeded by the sub-king as 

920 Dapula V (or Kuda Dapula), brother. Raises one Udaya to sub-king. Offers asylum to the king of Pandu fleeing 

the Cholans who have overrun Pandu. Dapula is unable to send aid because a civil war disrupts Lanka; the king 

of Pandu leaves and seeks aid from the king of Kerala. After the civil war is ended and order restored, Dapula 

devotes himself to the furtherance of religion. The Mohammedan saint Imaum Abu Abd Allah visits and 

ascends Adam's Peak. 

922 Udaya II, nephew of Sena II. Reigns during a great Church-State controversy (certain political refugees had 

been captured and beheaded at Tapovana (forest of ascetics)). 

925 Sena III, brother. Devotes himself to furthering the spiritual and material welfare of his subjects. 

934 Udaya III, was sub-king, is a drunkard and sluggard. Taking advantage of this, the king of Chola demands the 

return of the crown and apparel left behind by the king of Pandu under Dapula V's reign. Udaya refuses; the 

Cholans invade and take over all until checked by the Rohanans who force the Cholans to withdraw. Now CIC 

Viduragga crosses to India, destroying 'the borders of the dominion of the king of Chola' forcing the Cholan 

king to give up all plunder taken from Lanka. 

942 Sena IV, was sub-king, son of Kassapa V. A learned man, a peaceful and prosperous reign. Expounds the 

Suttanta - Buddha's sermons - in the Brazen Palace. 

945 Mahinda IV, brother, was sub-king. Taken as wife a princess of the Kalinga Cakkavatti race of India. (954) King 

Vallabha of Chola sends an invasion force but the Sinhalese under Sena cut them to pieces; the Cholans sue for 

peace out of fear of counter invasion. Now Mahinda devotes himself to good works. He decrees temple lands

shall never contribute to the royal exchequer (i.e.; they are tax-free). Construction of alms halls, hospitals and 

prison upgradings; construction of convents, temples, etc., including colleges and baths. The returning 

Dravidian force that defeated the Cholans, begins taking over the country, starting in the north. 

961 Sena V, son (by a queen from Kalinga),12 years old . Appoints brother Udaya sub-king and retains general Sena 

as CIC. The king is hot-headed and intolerant of anyone not showing him servile obedience; bringing about the 

(963) execution of the CIC's brother. The CIC, enraged, assembles the Tamils living in the country and hands it 

over to them. He heads for the capital; Sena flees to Rohana. The CIC allows the queen-mother to assume 

administration at Anuradhapura but places influential Indians as Lanka's administrators. The CIC resides at 

Pollonnaruwa, where he fends off an attack by royal forces. With Indians ravaging (i.e.; having free rein over 

the country) Sena comes to terms with the CIC (marries his daughter) and regains his capital where he 

becomes addicted to strong drink. 

971 Mahinda V, brother. It is difficult for him to govern as the city is full of foreigners introduced by his late 

brother's general; so he allows the affairs of state and tax collection to drift. (983) Revenue is withheld and he 

is unable to pay his Malabar mercenaries who revolt, besieging the palace, demanding their wages. The king 

escapes to Rohana, leaving the country in the hands of the Malabars, Sinhala and Canarese. He constructs a 

stronghold at Sidupabbata, living there with king Sena's queen and daughter. Soon he moves to Kappagullaka 

and rules Rohana while the rest of the country falls to the Malabars (Keralas), Sinhalese and Carnatics 

(Kannatas). (1007) Learning of the disreputed political state of Lanka, Cholan king Rajaraja I sends over an 

army which conquers and plunders a large portion of the island; they capture the queen and the royal jewels. 

CHOLA DYNASTY at ANURADHAPURA 

1007 Rajaraja I: Most of the island is under Cholan rule. (1017) They capture Mahinda V, send him to Chola and 

assume rule of Lanka. Polonnaruwa is renamed Jananatha pura. During Chola rule, many Hindu shrines are 

erected in the city. Hearing of the royalty of Mahinda's son Kassapa in Rohana, a Cholan army of 95,000 

overruns Rohana searching for him: The two noblemen Kitti (native of Makkhakudrusa) and Buddha (of 

Maragalla), supported by their villages' inhabitants, establish a stronghold at Palutupana and after six months 

warfare drive out the invaders, forcing them to retire to Pollonnaruwa. (1019) Death of Mahinda V in captivity 

in India. The people of Rohana raise the boy prince Kassapa as 

1019 Vikkrama Bahu (Kassapa VI), son of Mahinda, who sets out to rid Lanka of foreign domination: Begins 

raising money and a large army. (1031) With an army of 100,000, Vikkrama Bahu is ready to go but dies of an 

illness. Anarchy supervenes, Sinhala adventurers and dispossessed Indian princes from the Pandyan country, 

and even one Jagatipala from Kanauj assert their authority over portions of the island. The nobleman Kirti 

(Kirthi) assumes the government but is challenged by the chief 

1031 Mahalana Kirti who kills him after seven days of rule. Mahalana Kirti has himself crowned at Rohana. (1034) 

The Cholans defeat the king who commits suicide. The Cholans again seize the crown and other royal treasure. 

Soon, the prince of royal blood 

1034 Vikkrama Pandu, a Sinhala prince, arrives from India and establishes at Kalutara (Kalatittha); Rohana accepts 

him. (1035) Vikkrama Pandu's rule is successfully challenged by 

1035 Jagatipala, a native of Ayoddhya. (1039) Jagatipala is killed in battle with the Cholans who carry off his queen 

and substance to Chola. 

1039 Loka (Lokeswara), of Rohana, defeats a Cholan army sent against him and is named king; establishes capital at 

Kataragama. His rule is challenged by a prince named Kirti and during their struggles (1045) Loka dies. The 

government is seized by keeper of the hair-relic, 

1045 Kassapa VII, a chief. The Cholans invade Rohana and head for Kataragama but are routed by Kassapa who 

pursues them across the border. Then at Kataragama, he is defeated and slain by a rebel force under prince 

Kirti, 17 years old, proclaimed as 

1045 Vijaya Bahu I, grandson of Vikrama Bahu and a member of the Sinhala Royal Family: Reorganizes Rohana's 

administration and prepares to rid Lanka of Cholans. The king of Chola orders his general at Pollonnaruwa to 

take over Rohana, capture the king and annex the area. The Cholans invade and head for Kataragama, plunder 

the city (for Vijaya Bahu has taken refuge in the hills) and return to Pollonnaruwa. Vijaya Bahu sends for 

assistance from the king of Ramanna (between Arakan and Siam [Burma]) but being peace loving, she sends 

only goods that could be used by Vijaya Bahu who, without reinforcement, lies low. Meanwhile, resistance to 

Cholan rule is growing in the rest of Lanka: Assistance is requested from the king of Chola: Reinforcements 

are sent and a great slaughter of the inhabitants takes place. The Cholans now prepare to march against Vijaya 

Bahu who sends a fifth column as deserters to the Cholan army. At Battle of Pulutupana (Pollutthapabbata) the 

Cholans are defeated and pursued to Tambavitthi where the Cholan general is captured. Pollonnaruwa is taken. 

Now the Cholan king sends another army to retrieve this disaster: Battle near Anuradhapura; the Sinhalese are 

defeated: Vijaya Bahu abandons Pollonnaruwa, goes to Villikabana and reorganizes. Battle of Vatagiri, after a 

three month siege, Vijaya Bahu defeats and routes the Cholans. Now rebellion against Vijaya Bahu is raised by

Kassapa's (guardian of the hair-relic) brother supported by Guttahalaka district. Battle of Khadirangani; the 

rebels are defeated. Battle of Kubula-galla, they are again defeated. Now he returns against the Cholans: One 

division takes fortress after fortress up to Mantotta, including Anuradhapura. The other division reaches 

Pollonnaruwa at which the Cholans are massing. After a six week siege (1060) Pollonnaruwa falls. Vijaya 

HOUSE of VIJAYABAHU at POLLONARUWA 

Bahu now works at settling his chaotic nation. A minor rebellion under Adimalaya is put down. (1062) Vijaya 

Bahu has himself crowned king of Lanka at Anuradhapura as Siri Sanghabo. At Anuradhapura, Vijaya Bahu 

appoints his brother Jaya Bahu governor of Rohana. Equitable taxation is decreed. Proper courts of justice are 

established. (1064) three ministers, having fled the country, return and raise a rebellion in Rohana, Malaya and 

western Lanka. It is quickly crushed. Fortification of Pollonnaruwa which becomes the capital of 

administration. Hindu Devale’s are respected and Tamil soldiers are maintained in the service of the king. 

Since the Cholan occupation has all but destroyed Buddhism in Lanka, Vijaya Bahu sends to Ramanna (part of 

Burma) for priests to reestablish the religion. Construction of religious edifices and embellishments to others. 

Vijaya Bahu translates the Dhamma Sangani. (1075) Embassies arrive at Pollonnaruwa; one from Kanpata (in 

the Deccan) and from Chola. An embassy is sent to Chola; the Chola king is angered at the lack of respect the 

embassy shows him and has him mutilated. War is declared preparations for war are made but before Chola 

could be reached a mutiny breaks out in Vijaya Bahu's army by the Velakkara mercenaries who are unwilling to 

fight their Tamil kinsmen. They burn the royal palace; the King flees to Wakirigala, but returns and crushes the 

insurrection, the ringleaders being burnt at the funeral pyre of the royal generals whom they murdered. The 

expedition against Chola must be abandoned. The Velakkara learn a lesson and become guardians of the Tooth 

Relic temple. Construction of numerous tanks. One of Vijaya's last acts is the construction of resting-places 

on the roads to Adam's Peak, and the grant of the village of Gilimale in Ratnapura District for the purpose of 

supplying food to pilgrims. 

1095 Jaya Bahu, brother, governor of Rohana which position is now filled by his son Vikkrama Bahu. Jaya is 

crowned at Pollonnaruwa by Vijaya Bahu's sister Mitta (of the Pandyan faction). She, in violation of ancient 

custom, has her eldest son Manabharana appointed sub-king. He leads an army against Vikkrama Bahu (of the 

Kalinga faction) who defeats them in six battles and reaching his father's capital: Manabharana and his brothers 

have brought the Rohana and Maya areas under their control. Jaya Bahu and Queen Mitta reside with Kirti 

Sirimegha at Maha nagakula in Giruwapattu district. (1096) Battle of Bodhi-sena-pabbata; Vikkrama Bahu 

routes Manabharana's army. Next, an Indian army under Viradeva of Palandipa invades and forces Vikkrama 

Bahu to Pollonnaruwa; Battle of Antaravitthika; Vikkrama Bahu defeats the invaders and becomes ruler as 

1096 Vikkrama Bahu I, son of Vijaya Bahu, ruling Pihitirata while his cousins (Manabharana et al) administer other 

districts. An Indian invasion led by an experienced chieftan, Viradeva of Palandipa, arrives and receives a 

crushing defeat at Polonnaruwa. Eventually the administration of Manabharana and his brothers become so 

odious that they lose support of their peoples. V. Bahu’s three cousins, Manabharana, Kirti Sri Megha and Siri 

Vallabha make preparations to wrest the administration of Pihiti Rata from him. He advances with his army 

into Maya Rata and routes their conjoint armies. Deaths of Jaya Bahu, Mitta and Manabharana. Parakrama 

Bahu is son of Manabharama; brother Kirti Sirimegha rules Mayarata while brother Siri Vallabha administers 

Rohana. 

NOTE: With the accession of V. Bahu I, the country is divided into four parts: The `King's Country,' 

with its capital at Polonnaruwa is held by V. Bahu I; he seizes the lands dedicated to Buddha and oppresses the 

priests, who remove the Tooth and Bowl Relies to Ituhuna. The `Southern Country' is ruled by Manabharana, 

while Ruhuna is divided between the other two brothers, Siri Vallabha having Dolosdahas-rata, roughly the 

Southern Province, and Kitti Sirimegha Atadahas-rata or the modern Uva and most of the Eastern Province. 

1117 Gaja Bahu, son. His uncles Kirti Sirimegha and Siri Vallabha (brothers of Manabharana) attept to wrest his 

domain of Pihitirata from him, but Gaja Bahu defeats Siri Vallabha and general Gokanna defeats Kirti 

Sirimegha. Soon the brothers begin grooming Parakrama Bahu (son of Manabharana) for the succession. Later, 

Parakrama Bahu makes his way to Pollonnaruwa, greeted by Gaja Bahu; there Parakrama Bahu ascertains the 

military readiness of Pihitirata. To ally suspicion, sister Bhaddarati is married to Gaja Bahu. He then begins 

gaining the confidence of the people and reconnoitering the city for military advantages and disadvantages. He 

returns to Punkhagama; there Kirti Sirimegha dies Parakrama Bahu assumes rule of Mayarata He informs 

Pihitirata and Rohana he intends to unite all of Lanka: He begins war preparations; construction of waterworks, 

causeways and tanks; grain stored up, new areas brought under cultivation, army training. To assure 

enough money for the campaign he reorganizes the tax system and exports gems. (1138) Parakrama Bahu 

attacks, successfully defeating Gaja Bahu's forces: Gaja Bahu turns to bribery but this fails and finally 

Pollonnaurawa is stormed, taken and plundered; Gaja Bahu is captured. Manabharana (son of Siri Vallabha) of 

Rohana, at request of the Pihitirata chiefs, enters and defeats Parakrama's forces for their excesses in the 

capital. Manabharana decides to do in Gaja Bahu and assume rule. But Gaja Bahu appeals to Parakrama who

etakes the capital, frees Gaja Bahu and forces Manabharana back to Rohana. Gaja Bahu reasserts his rule over 

Pihitirata then grants the province to Parakrama. (1140) Death of Gaja Bahu. A succession quarrel erupts 

between Parakrama and Manabharana over rule of Pihitirata; 58 battles are fought; Battle of Mihirana-Bibbila; 

Manabharana is defeated and soon dies: His son Parakrama Bahu retires with his mother to Mahinagakula in 

the dominions of his uncle, Sri Vallabha, who now rules the whole of Ruhuna on his surviving brother 

succeeding to Manabharana's principality. 

1140 Parakrama Bahu, son of Manabharana, is crowned king of Lanka at Pollonnaruwa, but his rule is not 

acceptable to all. He begins restoring the economy and religion of his war-torn realm. The properties of warruined 

families are restored; the religious establishment is purged and purified. Construction of alms houses, 

hospitals, the palace Vejayanta and religious buildings. Pollonnaruwa adorned. Construction of theater hall 

Sarassati Mandapa and recreation hall Rajavesi Bhujanga. Construction of Nandana park with bathing hall. 

Construction of other parks, roads and temples. He begins restoration of Anuradhapura, ruined by the Cholans. 

This work is interrupted by (1144) a rebellion in Rohana and a rebellion of the Keralans living in the central 

country. The Keralans are easily subdued. The Rohanans, led by Sugala, mother of deceased Manabharana, 

desire independence; 14 battles then Battle of Uruvela. Mandala and Parakrama's forces seize the Tooth-relic 

and Bowl-relic. This does not deter the rebels and it takes 52 battles to subdue the country; general 

Bhutadhikari placed as head of Rohana's administration. (1148) Rohana again revolts and after hard 

campaigning and many battles the country is completely subjugated. (1152) King Arimaddana of Ramana 

(Rama in Burma) decides to sever relationships with Ceylon; he treats ambassadors with disrespect and seizes 

a Sinhalese princess on the way to Kamboja. A great fleet and army, commanded by Kirti and Nacaragiri sets 

out for Burma; Ramanna is attacked and subdued: The supreme authority of the king of Lanka is declared. 

(1154) Moor geographer Edrisi visits Lanka. (1155) Rebellion in Mahatitha (Mantotta) which is quickly 

subdued. After agreement to send tribute and acknowledge Sinhalese supremacy, the Lanka forces withdraw. 

(1166) Pandyan king Parakrama, besieged by his rival Kulase khara and the Cholas, send for help to Lanka. 

The King sends an army under his general Lankapura, but in the meantime the Pandyan king has been slain 

and his capital Madura taken. The Sinhala army, however, lands on the opposite coast and carries on the war 

against the Cholas in the neighbourhood of Ramnad where they build a fortress styled Parakramapura. The 

result of this stage of the campaign is the defeat of Kulasekhara and the restoration and crowning of the 

Pandyan king's son, Vira Pandya, in his ancient capital. The Cholan prisoners are put to work restoring 

Anuradhapura. Now Parakrama Bahu returns to furthering the spiritual and material welfare of his subjects. 

The government bureaucracy is reorganized (eight departments of record, eight departments of transport, four 

departments of treasury, etc): Construction of colleges and religious edifices at Pollonnaruwa, shrines and 

building of tanks. The king is assisted by a council of 16 ministers of which there are four Buddhists, four 

Christians, four Moslems and four Jews. The subjugation of Chola and Pandu begins the bringing of much 

Sanskrit literature into Lanka by various Brahmins. Writing of the Winayartha Sanuchchaya and much other 

literature. He also builds for the priesthood at Polonnaruwa the Jetavanararna, including a round Tooth Relic 

temple, in the neighborhood of the royal palace. Farther to the north he constructs the Alahana Parivena 

(`Cremation College') with the Lankatilaka Vihara, as well as the Buddhasima Pasada. At the three branch 

cities or suburbs he erects the Isipatana, the Kusmara and the Veluvana Viharas. He also restores the shrines at 

Anuradhapura. 

1173 Vijaya Bahu II, nephew. Pardons many prisoners, including those imprisoned by his uncle, restoring their 

lands. A devout Buddhist and person of literary attainments. (1174) Vijaya Bahu II is murdered by his friend 

Mahinda. 

1174 Mahinda VI, a native of Kalinga. Five days later the sub-king under Vijaya Bahu II, Nissanka Malla, murders 

him and ascends as 

HOUSE of KALINGA 

1174 Kirti Nissangha (Nissanka Malla), Kalinga prince and sub-king to V. Bahu II. He claims to construct parks and 

gardens, temples and mansions, viharas and improvements to existing structures. It is certain that he builds the 

Ruwanweli Dagaba (the present Rankot Vehera) at Polonnaruwa, and a new Tooth Relic temple, the 

construction of which is said to have taken sixty hours. He also embellishes the cave temple of Dambulla. The 

Circular Relic House (Wata Da-ge) attributed to him is really Parakrama's Tooth Relic shrine, converted by him 

to other purposes. A devout Buddhist, he ends robbery by giving what they need. He is the first of the pure 

Kalinga dynasty. During his reign the Brahmanic legal system comes to regulate the Sinhalese caste system. 

1183 Vira Bahu, son, crowned at night, killed next morning by CIC Tavuru Senevirat as an incompetent. 

1183 Vikkarama Bahu, brother of Nissangha, rules three months when murdered by 

1183 Codaganga, nephew of Nissanka Malla, rules nine months; deposed and blinded by general Kirti Senevirat 

who places one of Parakrama Bahu's queens on the throne as 

HOUSE of VIJAYABAHU

1184 Lilavati. The country is peaceful and prosperous and she was able to devote her time to the development of 

literature, music, drama and art. She is deposed by her co-ministers. 


1187 Sahasa Malla - the "lion Hearted King," brother of Nissanka Malla. (1189) Deposed by army chief Ayasmanta 

who places 

1189 Kalyanavati, queen of Nissangha, on the throne in his stead and administers the state for her. The reign is 

peaceful with religious construction carried out: Viharas, colleges, etc. The caste system is tightened up. 

1195 Dhammasoka, son of Anikkanga, is three months old; Ayasmanta is regent. (1196) Anikanga governor of Maya 

Rata marches against Pollonnaruwa, defeats the royal forces, deposes and kills Dhammasoka and the regent 

and assumes the throne. 

1196 Anikanga rules 17 days; assassinated by general Camunakka who assumes the administration, placing 

Parakrama Bahu I's widow again on the throne 

HOUSE of VIJAYABAHU 

1196 Lilavati rules one year. She is deposed by Lokissara, who arrives in Lanka with an army enlisted abroad, and 

defeats the royal forces at the capital of Polonnaruwa. 

LOKISSARA 

1197 Lokissara and rules nine months when deposed by the Sinhalese CIC who places on the throne a third time 

HOUSE of VIJAYABAHU 

1197 Lilavati who rules with dignity and respect. (1198) King Parakrama of Pandu (of the Pandyan branch of the 

Sinhala royal family) invades, deposes her. The chief of her army assumes the rule as 

PANDYAN DYNASTY 

1198 Parakrama Pandu - wise and capable, administers justice strictly in accordance with laws of Manu. (1201) 

With an army enlisted in Kerala, Magha, a prince of Kalinga invades: Their ferocity, cruelty and barbarianism 

overwhelms the Sinhalese (20,000 warriors plunder, ravish, mutilate and slaughter people; holiest shrines are 

violated and overthrown; rare palm-leaf books are untied, their pages scattered to the winds); Parakrama Pandu 

is captured and blinded; Pollonnaruwa plundered then made the invaders' capital. The Sinhalese establish their 

capital at Dambadeniya. The Kalingan prince has himself crowned as 


1201 Kalinga Magha. He tyrannizes the countryside but is unable to penetrate Rohana district. (1215) One Magha 

who claims to be from Kalinga, invades and deposes the governor of King Parakrama Pandu with the help of 

his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga. He conquers Rajarata, moves the capital to the Jaffna peninsula 

(Jaffnapatnam) and rules as Kulingai Cakravarti, a tribute paying subordinate (of the Aryacakravarti dynasty of 

Jaffna) of the Chola Empire. He `remains a bigoted Hindu and persecutes the Buddhist faith', despoiling the 

temples and giving the lands of the Sinhala to his followers. During the previous anarchy the Tooth and Bowl 

Relies had been carried away and hidden in Kotmalo, and the priests now scatter, many going abroad to the 

Chola and Kandyan countries. (1218) The forces of Sinhalese prince Vijaya Bahu drive the invaders out of 

Mayarata into Pihiti Rata. K. Magha rules part of Ceylon to 1222. 

DAMBADENIYA 

1218 Vijaya Bahu III gradually gathers power into his hands, and succeeds in expelling the foreigners from the 

Mayarata country, becoming ruler there. He constructs and fortifies Jambudoni (Dambedeniya) in Kurunegala 

district, making it his capital. He offers asylum to those priests that fled the Kalingans. He has the Tooth and 

Bowl Relics conveyed from their hiding place in Kotmale to the seat of government, and thence to Beligala in 

Kegalla District, where he constructs a fortified temple on the hill Kotmale to hold them, lodged there for the 

sake of safety. He also has the Scriptures transcribed, and in addition builds at the capital the 

Vijayasundararama, so called after his own name, besides repairing many temples. A patron of learning, free 

schools are established in his district. Libraries built. He rules Mayarata until his death in1226. 

1222 Panditha Parakrama Bahu II, son, - a learned man, he is known as Panditha Parakrama Bahu. Builds a temple 

for the Tooth-relic. Sets out against the Kalingans who, being defeated, decide to evacuate with plunder but at 

Battle of Kalawewa, they are defeated and slaughtered. Now P. Parakrama B. rules all Lanka. Restores 

possessions to individuals and the priesthood. Attends to furtherance or religion (construction of viharas, 

repairs, etc.). The Tooth- and Bowl-relics are placed in a new vihara. Maha Vihara at his native city 

Sirivaddhanapura (Kandy). Construction of roads and bridges. A learned person, P. Parakrama B. gives much 

attention to literary pursuits; writes Kawsilumina and Wisudhi Marga Sanna. Other literati personages are 

Darmakirti and Myrupada a priest and author of Pujavalia and medical work Yogaarmawa. (1233) An Indian 

(Malay) army under prince Cjhandabhanu (Moon-Beam) a Javanese (Javaka) from Tambalinga, with a host 

armed with blow-pipes and poisoned arrows, invades from the south. P. Parakrama B. sends his nephew Vira 

Bahu against them: Though the invaders are using poison tipped arrows, Vira Bahu defeats them. By this time 

also many Chinese soldiers are serving in the Sinhalese army which is using many Chinese swords and musical

instruments. (1240/1242) Pandyan invasion; one of the kings of Lanka is slain and the other rendered tributary: 

The northern section of Ceylon is under foreign rule. P. Parakrama B. consults his ministers and his eldest son 

Vijaya Bahu is appointed successor and is given the entire administration of the country: He appoints cousin 

Vira Bahu PM and other brothers to important posts. (1246) Kulasekara Singai Aryan, son, ruler at 

Jaffnapatnam. Now Vijaya Bahu begins a tour of the country, doing good deeds, authorizing restorations, etc. 

While at Subhapabbata (Yapauwa) he receives (1247) an ultimatum from Malay chieftain Chandabhanu from 

Thailand, leading an invading Indian army demanding the Tooth - and Bowl-relics else be conquered. 

Sinhalese forces deliver (1255) a devastating defeat to the invaders: Chandabhanu heads north and takes 

Jaffna's throne away from Magha, bringing Pandyan intervention. Vijaya Bahu repairs to Anuradhapura and 

begins clearing the sacred city overgrown with jungle. Here the Vannian princes acknowledge their vassalage. 

Now he begins the reconquest of Pollannaruwa, then repairing other ruined edifices and tanks around the area. 

When finished, king Pandita Parakrama Bahu conveys the Tooth- and Bowl-relics to Pollonnaruwa. (1256) 

Kulotunga Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. 

1257 Vijaya Bahu IV, son. His capital is at Jambudoni (Dambadeniya). He appoints his cousin, Vira Bahu as PM, his 

brother Tilokamala as Commander of the Sinhala army, which protects the Southern portion of the country 

from foreign invasion, his brother Bhuvaneka Bahu I as Commander of the army which guards the Northern 

portion of the country, and his brothers Parakrama Bahu and Jaya Bahu to attend the work in his capital. He 

occupies himself in works of piety, and in completing the restoration of Polonnaruwa. (1258) Chandrabahu 

submits to Pandyan rule. (1259) V. Bahu is treacherously murdered by a servant, who has been bribed for the 

purpose by one of his Generals named Mitta. 

1259 General Mitta tries to seize Vijaya Bahu IV's brother Bhuvenaka Bahu who flees to refuge at Yapahuva. Soon 

Mitta is murdered in the Royal Palace at Dambadeniya by Aryan officer Thakuraka and his 700 Aryans in the 

pay of Vijaya Bahu IV who had determined his brother 

YAPAHUWA 

1259 Bhuvenaka Bahu I, brother of V. Bahu IV, to succeed him. A beneficent monarch who for a few years holds off 

attempted invasions of Lanka by the Kalingas, Rayars, Codagangas and others: (1262) Chandrabahu (of Jaffna) 

again falls upon Lanka with a mixed host of Pandyans, Cholas and Javanese, overruns a considerable part of 

the north of the Island and encamps before Yapahu, where he is defeated and killed by the Pandyans in support 

of the King. Their replacement is Aryacakravarti, the minister in charge of the invasion, as king of Jaffna. The 

Sinhalese Vannian princes (Kadalivata, Mapana, Tipa and Himiyanaka) prove to be disloyal and are deposed. 

B. Bahu moves the capital to Yapauwa (Subhapabbata).(1270) Sends an embassy to the Sultan of Egypt, 

proposing an alliance. He spread knowledge of the Pali scriptures throughout the land. Bhuvaneka Bahu I 

greatly extends and adorns Yapahuva so that it shines with exceeding beauty. He is responsible for the erection 

of the of the Temple of the Tooth and the Royal Palace. Dies shortly after and famine strikes. 

NOTE: Some sources claim there is an interregnum of about 20 years here, where Ceylon is ruled by 

the Pandyans, taking advantage of the famine. They do rule in the north, and despite the famine, Ceylon's line 

of kings continued in the south. 

1270 Chandra Bhanu, son of the first ruler of Yapa Patuna (Jaffnapatnam). He captures fort of Yapahuva but an 

invasion by Pandya Kulasekera ousts ( and kills?) him. 

POLLONNARUWA 

1270 Parakrama Bahu III, nephew of B. Bahu I, king of Pollonnaruwa. A Pandian army led by minister Arya 

Chakravatti invades, captures Yapauwa and carries off the Tooth-relic. An embassy from China seeks to secure 

the Tooth and Bowl relics: P. Bahu III goes to Pandu and being very conciliatory regains the relic, returning it 

to Pollonnaruwa. Nevertheless, a Tamil settlement is formed at Jaffnapatam under A. Chakrawarti who is 

trying to spread his rule over all of Ceylon. Suspecting his cousin Bhuvanaika Bahu, son of the king of that 

name, of conspiring to seize the throne, he sends his barber to blind him: the prince, however, fights and 

defeats the king, seizes the Tooth Relic and removes it to his own city of Kurunegala. 

KURUNAGALA 

1275 Bhuvenaka Bahu II, son of B. Bahu I. Capital at Kurunegala (Hatthiselapura). He is a staunch Buddhist, 

devoting himself to many works of charity. His nominal rule is over the mountainous region while powerful 

minister Alakeswara Mantri rules all below. He builds the new fortress of Jayawardhana Kotte that becomes a 

Sinhalese rallying point. He advances to Polonnaruwa, slays Parakrama in battle and brings the Tooth-Relics to 

Kurunegala. Kulasekera, the Pandya Emperor, comes himself to avenge the death of his nephew Parakrama 

Bahu III. He forces the Sinhalese King to action against an army outnumbering his. B.Bahu II dies fighting 

heroically. 

1277 Parakrama Bahu IV, son of B. Bahu I, is a scholarly and mighty monarch. Campaigning against the Pandya 

emperor Kulasekera, he invades and captures its capital. Kotte becomes the capital. (1279) Vikrama Singai 

Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1281) Kublai Khan demands one of Buddha's teeth from the king of Lanka.

Two large black teeth, some hair and a porphyry vessel are sent. (1284) Kublai Khan demands "the great ruby" 

in return for the "value of a city" and eventually Buddha's alms-bowl is sent. (1300) About this time Alla-uddin 

invades Chittore ostensibly to take Sinhalese princess Padmavati, wife of Ratan Sen, overlord of the Rajput 

Confederation and Rana (or Sovereign) of Chittore. Failing, Alla-ud-din opts for just a view of the beautiful 

princess, this is granted but in a breach of faith he seizes Ratan Sen and demands the princess for her release. 

But princess Padmavati through a ruse manages to engineer her husband's escape and throw Alla-ud-din's ranks 

into confusion: He raises the siege of Chittore. Construction of Tooth-relic Temple at Kurunegala and other 

religious edifices throughout the country. Assisted by the priest from Chola and PM Weeragsingha Pathiraja, 

king Parakrama Bahu IV translates the Pansiapanas Jataka (the 550 birth stories of Buddha) from Pali into 

Sinhalese. Writing of the Sidat Sangarawa, a Sinhalese grammar. Writing of the Datuwansa (Daladawansa), a 

history of the Tooth-relic. 

1301 Bhuvenaka Bahu III. (1302) Varotya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1303) Alla-ud-din again 

besieges Chittore The defense is vigorous; 11 out of the king's 12 sons are killed; the wives and daughters of 

Chittore perform Johur, including princess Padmavati. King Rana sees his son escape to safety and dies leading 

a suicide sortie against the besiegers who occupy a dead city: He wracks destruction upon the temples, 

monasteries and palace except the palace of Padmavati. 

1307 Jaya Bahu I, son of Chandra Banu of Jaffnapatnam. He retreats before the Indians to Anuradhapura where he 

meets P. Bahu IV. Son Bodamapananda takes Kurunagala. (1318) Arya Chakravarti forces him to retreat to 

Senkadagala (Kandy). Arya takes Yapahuva and kills Bodamapananda. (1325) Martanda Singai Aryan, son, 

ruler at Jaffnapatnam. 

1341 Bhuvenaka Bahu IV, son, a man of great wisdom and faith and of excellent virtues. He shifts the capital to 

Gampola with the support of the General Senalankadhikara, brother-in-law of B. Bahu IV. It is probable that 

the capital is shifted from Kurunegala to Gampola owing to civil strife among the Sinhala themselves. (1347) 

Ibn Batuta is blown ashore in northern Lanka which is in the hands of the Malabars. The Hindu chief of Jaffna 

has a fleet he uses to transport troops to battle the Moslems on the Indian coast. Allowed to land at Battala 

(Putlam), Ibn Batuta discovers Cinnamon wood; he begins a tour of Lanka. During this reign is produced the 

historical work Nikaya Sangaraha and the work Dahamgete. The chief works of his reign are the Lankatilaka 

and Gadaladeniya Viharas, not far from Kandy. 

GAMPOLA from DEDIGAMA 

1344 Parakrama Bahu V, brother, rules concurrent with B. Bahu IV as junior sovereign, ruling at Dedigama. It is 

during this time that Colombo, having always been a foreign settlement, is ruled by a Mohammecan pirate with 

an Abyssinian garrison. (1348) Kunapushana Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1350) About this time 

is founded city of Senkadagalapura. (1351) Death of B.Bahu IV, P. Bahu V is sole ruler. Dies 1359. 

GAMPOLA from GAMPOLA 

1357 Wickerama Bahu III, son of B. Bahu IV, a wise monarch, is joint king with P. Bahu V until his death. There is a 

struggle for power between Senalankadhikara and Alagakonnara (Alakesvara) of Rayigama giving the 

opportunity to Nissanka Alakesvara to establish himself as the de facto ruler of Gampola, reducing W. Bahu III 

to the position of a mere figurehead and also becoming the joint husband with his brothers of that king's sister. 

The Tamil Kingdom of Yapa Patuna under King Arya Chakravarti is growing in power and influence. Nissanka 

Alakeswara, later, defeats the Yapa Patuna ruler and forces him to swear allegiance to Gampola. He thus 

becomes the de facto ruler of a United Lanka. (1374) Composition of the historical work Attanagaluwansa by 

Sanga Raja (Abish) Durandara. (1371) Virotaya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. Also; death of 

Wickerama Bahu III; he is succeeded by Prince Alagakkonara of Peradeniya (Peradoni) who places on the 

throne 

1371 Bhuvenaka Bahu V, Nissanka Alakeswara’s son by the sister of Vikrama Bahu III, who reigns in Gampola. His 

great minister Alagakkonara, finding it expedient that the enemies of his country and religion should be kept at 

a distance, he builds the fortress of New Jayavardhanapura or Kotte, not far from Colombo. Bhuvenaka is a 

staunch Buddhist. (1380) Jayawira Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1405) He maltreats foreigners by 

plundering their vessels. His minister Alagakkonara hangs Arya Chakravarti's (of Jaffna) tax collectors: 

Chakravarti attacks by sea and land, but is defeated; Alagakkonara capturing his encampments at Colombo, 

Wattala, Negombo and Chilaw. Also, a mission from China, to revere the shrine of the Tooth, is insulted and 

waylaid, barely escaping Lanka returning to China. (1405) The Emperor sends an expedition of 62 ships under 

Ching-Ho (Zheng-He) on a trading tour to Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia, Siam and other places: 

Those not accepting submission are subdued by force. Then Ching-Ho returns to China (1407). (1407) Ching- 

Ho is sent on another mission, this time to Ceylon where Bhuvenaka Bahu V tries to trap him in hopes of a 

ransom but Ching-Ho avoids this and takes the capital instead, capturing the king, his family and retinue, 

which is all carried away to China (1408). 

1408 Vira Bahu II, brother-in-law, occupies the throne at Rayigama during B. Bahu's absence. Real power, however,

is in the hands of Alakesvara, son of Alagakkonara. (1410) Kunawira Singai Aryna, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. 

(1411, June) The Chinese government sets the Sinhalese at liberty but commands the appointment of a virtuous 

man to rule Lanka. All declare in favor of 

KOTTE 

1411 Parakrama Bahu VI (Prince Sepanana (Jayapala)), crowned at Rayigama. (1415) Moves the capital to Cotta 

(Kotte). He sends eldest adopted son Sapumal Cumara against northern Lanka occupied by a southern Indian 

king ruling from Jaffna: He seizes much of the area around Jaffna. A second expedition takes Jaffna, capturing 

king Aria Chacrawarti who is killed. Sapumal is given administration of Jaffna with which a lively trade 

begins. Later the petty chief Wira Rama near Jaffna causes trouble and he is done away with. (1436) Tribute 

sent to China (also 1445). (1440) Kanagasuriya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1459) Parakrama 

sends tribute to China this year and refuses to pay it any longer. He levies a tax on the whole country's produce. 

Construction of governmental, religious and public buildings and repairs. (1444) European traveler Nicola de 

Conti mentions Lanka's cinnamon. (1450) Jaffna is conquered by Sapumal of Kotte, King Kanagasuriya Singai 

Aryan flees to TamilNadu. Conquest is carried into southern India, Adriampet, occasioned by the seizure of a 

Lankan ship laden with cinnamon. (1462) Sojawna Sewa, tributary Raja of the Kandyan district, refuses to pay 

the annual tribute. Parakrama sends younger adopted son Ambulugala Cumara against him; Gampola is taken 

and the Raja deposed. Parakrama's favorite (for the king is a patron of literature) Tottagamuwa (Sri Rahuastha 

Wirayo) writes besides scientific works, the poem Kaviasekara (dedicated to princess-royal Ulakuda Dewi), 

the poem Selalihini Sandese, the poem Parawisandese, the Pali grammar Moggallayana Pahipanchika and the 

history Perakumbasiritha. Author Irrugalchula Pariwenadipati writes the poem Kowul Sandese. A priest of 

Wettewe writes the poem Guttille. (1462) Parakrama Bahu VI abdicates his throne in favor of his daughter's 

son, Vira Parakrama Bahu, then later dies. His last act is to divide the kingdom among his sons and nephew, 

piously enjoining them to live at peace with one another. Jaya Bahu, the son of his natural daughter Ulakuda, 

succeeds as 

1462 Vira Parakrama Bahu (Parakrama Bahu VII), grand-nephew. A few days after his accession, his uncle Sapumal 

Kumara hastens to Kotte from Jaffna and puts him to death. He is succeeded by Sapumal Kumaraya's brother, 

usually known as Ambulugala Raja from the name of his seat in Kegalla District. He soon dies and his aunt 

places his half-witted son on the throne who is unable to rule so she sends for Sapumal Kumaraya who ascends 

the throne as 

1462 Bhuvenaka Bahu VI. A staunch Buddhist, he distributes alms and is devoted to furthering the welfare of his 

people and religion. Siriwardene Patty Raja, a chief of Pasdun Korle, with one Cooroogama, raises a rebellion 

in the south which is crushed; the two are pardoned. (1467) King Kanagasuriya Singai Aryan returns with an 

army and re-captures the Jaffna Kingdom; Kotte's occupation forces are ousted as king Kanakagasuriya 

reestablishes its independence, ruling from Nallur Palace. Jaffna maintains very close commercial and political 

relationships with the Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the Kandyan and segments of 

the Kotte kingdom. This period sees the building of Hindu temples and a flourishing of literature, both in Tamil 

and Sanskrit. Poet Weedagama composes Budugunalankara, Lowedasangrahaya and Tisarasandese. 

1469 Pandita Parakrama Bahu VII, adopted son, who is attacked and slain by his uncle Ambulugala Raja who 

assumes rule as 

1469 Vira Parakrama Bahu VIII, rules at Kotte (Cotta). He is immediately faced with challengers. Pandita 

Parakrama Bahu (VIII), adopted son is a usurper, he takes into his service as generals Patty Rajah and 

Cooroogama. V. P. Bahu marches against him. Battle of Inkendagama; the two generals are killed and their 

forces defeated. Cotta (Kotte) is entered, Pandita P.B. VIII is killed. (1478) Singai Pararajasekaran, son, ruler 

of Jaffna. (1480) Vira Parakrama Bahu (IX), brother of B. Bahu VI. Devout Buddhist; spends money on the 

furtherance of religion. He is soon dispatched. Other challengers are Sena Sammatha Wickramabahu who 

establishes (1474) a dynasty at Kandy at Senkadagalapura and Dharma Parakrama Bahu (IX), son. He is called 

Emperor, ruling at Cotta. 

1489 Dharma Parakrama Bahu IX, son. During his reign there exists several “Kings” (Rajas) ruling various parts of 

the country. They all pay tribute to V. P. Bahu VIII at Kotte and called him the “Emperor” (Maha Rajah). 

Moors under Cadiraya land Chilaw seeking pearls and elephants land at Chilaw. D. Parakrama B. sends the 

Rajas of Udugampola and Madampe against them and the Moors are defeated. Soon the Raja of Ambulugala is 

forced to resume tribute by V.P. Bahu VIII and the brother of Dharma, Rajah Singha. Later the Raja of 

Ambulugala again tries to shake his allegiance: The Rajah of Udugampola is against him and captures the 

capital Ambulugala, the errant Rajah sues for peace. (1505, Nov) A Portuguese fleet, after some Moorish ships 

heading for the Red Sea, is blown to the coast of Ceylon in the neighborhood of Galle where there are Moorish 

ships claiming to be in the service of Dharma Parakrama Bahu.. They replenish their stores and sail for Kolon 

Tota (Colombo), anchoring there 15 Nov. The Emperor sends Chakrayuddha Raja with a message asking what 

the strangers want; Dom Laurenco states he's a merchant and seeks friendly trade. Chakrayuddha reports it to

e unwise to be hostile toward them as they have superior weapons. Fernao Cotrim, with a Sinhalese escort 

goes to Kotte. Fernao restates the Portuguese' desire for peaceful trade; the Emperor accepts with a yearly 

exchange of presents and the Portuguese promise to protect his coasts from all enemies. Payo de Souza now 

concludes a formal treaty; Ceylon will deliver 400 bahars (one bahar is approximately 176.25 kilo) of 

Cinnamon and the Portuguese protect Ceylon's coasts from external attack. The Portuguese succeed in 

obtaining permission to construct a factory at Colombo. After leaving a memorial and a few men, the 

Portuguese leave. (1508) V.P. Bahu VIII becomes ill; he makes his sons Dharma Parakrama Bahu IX and his 

brother Vijaya Bahu VII co-regents. (1509) Parakrama seizes the throne as senior king (to 1528+) but his 

brother is actual ruler. V.P. Bahu VIII dies 1518. 

NOTE: There are three kingdoms: Foremost is the Kingdom of Kotte . A separate dynasty rules in 

Kandy, having broken away from Kotte and the Kingdom of Jaffna in the North. 

PORTUGUESE PERIOD 

1509 Vijaya Bahu V, brother, bypassing the Rajah of Udugampola. (1511) Jayaweera Astana, cousin of Mayadunne, 

becomes king of Kandy. (1518) Portuguese viceroy of India Lopo Soares d'Albergaria and a 17-sail fleet 

arrives Colombo and asks permission to construct a fort. The Sinhalese are aroused at the presence of 700 

soldiers and the fact that the factory will be mounted with cannon. The excuse for this is Moorish hostility and 

to allay fears, d'Albergaria promises military assistance to Vijaya Bahu if he needs it and an income from 

Portuguese trade. The Moors are alarmed and convince Vijaya Bahu to obtain a treaty, as their experiences with 

the Portuguese has not been all that kindly. A treaty is secured; the Sinhalese provide the Portuguese annually 

with 300 loads of cinnamon, rubies and sapphires and six elephants on condition of payment and defense. 

Portuguese build fort Nossa Senhora das Virtudes. Soares sails away leaving Juan de Silveira in command at 

Colombo. (1519) Sankili Segarajasekaran I, son, ruler of Jaffna. (1520) Lopo deBrito arrives Colombo with 

400 soldiers along with masons and carpenters to complete the fortress by making cement from oyster shells. 

Aroused by the Moors that the Portuguese are building a fortress, the Sinhalese refuse to provision the 

Portuguese and harass them. DeBrito and men attack the town of Colombo but resistance is determined and the 

Portuguese are besieged in their fortress/factory. Five months later the siege is raised only by the arrival of 

captain Antonio de Lemos from Cochin. The Sinhalese are driven back and Colombo is set afire. Both sides, 

anxious to end hostilities, arrange a peace and friendly relations are re-established. (1521) With the king' s 

defeat, three competing states under his sons, Sitawaka (ruled by Mayadunne), Walallawiti, Pasdun, and 

Raigama Korales (under Pararajasinha) and Kotte (under Bhuvenaka Bahu VII, which includes the seaports) 

split off from what is left, Kandi (Uda Rata). During Vijaya's reign, three Christian priests, led by father 

Pascoal have been received by K. Jayaweira of Kandy. (1522) Kandy obtains Portuguese protection against 

Sitawaka. (1524) Vijaya Bahu V decides to appoint his son Dewa Raja Cumara, by his second wife, as 

successor. Vijaya's sons by his first wife - Bhuvenaka Bahu, Maha Rygan Bandara and Maaya Dunne – with 

assistance from Jaya Wiera, Raja of Kandy, revolt and march on Cotta. The palace is taken and looted as the 

king hides out upstairs. That night they kill the king and ready his son for coronation. 

1524 Bhuvenaka Bahu VII, eldest son. His minister is Illangakon. A Portuguese agent is stationed at Kotte. Two 

principalities are created for the king's brothers; the elder, Para Raja Sinha is given Rayigam Korale; 

SITAWAKA, from Kotte to the mountains of Uda Rata is given to Mayadunne (Maaya Dunne). Bhuvenaka 

Bahu VII, a kindhearted monarch, is entirely dependent upon the Portuguese to hold his throne against Maaya 

Dunne. During the reign is produced Saddarmalankara, apologues explanatory of Buddhistic principles. 

Meanwhile, this year (1524) Vasco da Gama returns to India as viceroy with instructions to dismantle the fort 

at Colombo. It is done with only Nuno Freyre de Andrade left as factor under the protection of Bhuvenaka. 

Swift Arab vessels cause Portuguese vessels to seek shelter with Bhuvenaka's court, causing hostilities to 

break out with his brothers. Bhuvenaka begs the Portuguese to rebuild their fort. (1528) Maaya Dunne, 

assisted by a Calicut fleet sent by the Zamorin under the Cochin Moor Captain Mir Paichi Marcar besieges 

Cotta but it is quickly raised from fear of approaching Portuguese; Portuguese commander Martin Affonso de 

Mello, his quarry gone, forces the ruler at Arippo to pay an annual sum for Portuguese protection. (1536. Oct) 

Maaya Dunne, aided by the pirate Ali Abraham Marca commanding a Calicut fleet and 4000 men, besiege 

Cotta. Portuguese under Afonso de Sousa raise it after three months and are rewarded. (1537) Maaya Dunne 

promises concessions in Lanka if the Zamorin of Calicut would help him again against Bhuvenaka Bahu, but 

the large fleet and force is intercepted and defeated (29 Feb) at Rameswaram by the Portuguese who force 

Maaya back to his fortress at Batugedeva. The Royal Forces and Portuguese take Sitawaka, forcing a truce out 

of Mayadunne. (1538) Death of the Raja of Rygama; Maaya Dunne enters Rygam Korle and seizes his 

brother's kingdom and treasure. (1539) Mayadunne invades Kotte and again the Zamorin is asked for 

assistance; Battle of Puttalam; the force is defeated by the Portuguese, Sitawaka razed and Maaya Dunne is 

forced to purchase peace and surrender Paichi Marcar (fleet commander) and 70 other Moorish allies. The 

alliance between Mayadunne and the Zamorin is ended. (March) Arrival of Miguel Ferreira; Maaya Dunne

withdraws into his territory. (1541) To secure the succession for his grandson Dharmapala Bahu (for he has no 

son, only a daughter married to Vidiye Bandar, son of the king of Madampe), he has him sent to Portugal with 

ambassador Sallappoo Arachy to have him acknowledged successor. (1542) This is done, the Portuguese call 

him Don Juan, and he is sent back, but accompanied by a party of Franciscans, headed by Frey Antonia do 

Padrao to preach Christianity in Ceylon. Soon Christian communities are established at Colombo, Panadure, 

Maggona, Beruwela, Galle and Weligama. Meanwhile, king Jayaweira has sent to Goa for troops to protect 

him from his people when he converts to Christianity: Maaya Dunne warns against this. (1543) To pacify his 

two sons, Bhuvenaka tells them to conquer for themselves the Kanda Uda Rata and Jaffna; there are rumors 

that Maaya Dunne is going to support his claim by force. Bhuvenaka begs the Governor at Goa for help. (12 

Aug) A Portuguese fleet under de Sousa leaves Goa but a storm scatters them, the governor finding shelter at 

Neduntivo, off of Jaffna. A deal is reached with Chaga Raja of Nallur, capital of Jaffna, and the Portuguese 

return to Goa. Meanwhile, 200 under Natonio Muniz Barreto are repulsed by Maaya Dunne and Jayaweira 

changes his mind and the Portuguese are reimbursed for the trouble. A peace is concluded between the 

brothers; Maaya Dunne surrenders to the king all the territory he had conquered paying a heavy war indemnity 

and swearing to never again take up arms against the king. The infant Dharmapala, Bhuvenaka's grandson, is 

acclaimed as successor to the throne at Lisbon. (1545) Bhuvenaka's two sons die of smallpox and fractions 

seeking rule begin appearing. (1546) Portuguese and Kotte forces invade Kandy. The King of Portugal sends 

instructions to the Viceroy: See Appendix I. (1547) Portuguese hold out conversion as their price for aid; Kotte, 

Sitawaka, Senkatagala and Nallur bid for assistance. (Dec) A small force under Antonio Moniz Barretto is sent, 

but Barretto must decide whom to support. He decides to support the king and sets out for Sitawaka. Maaya 

Dunne's forces quickly route the Portuguese, who, when in dire straits, are aided by Maaya who tells them the 

king knew what had happened. Barretto, in a huff, leaves Ceylon. (1549, Nov) Bhuvenaka Bahu sends to Goa 

for aid against Maaya Dunne who, by this time has gained control of most of Lanka; Cotta is besieged. (1550, 

Jan) A large Portuguese force arrives and the siege is raised; Maaya Dunne moves to Sitawaka. Battle between 

Mutwal and Mulleriawa tank; the allies (Portuguese and royalists) force Maaya Dunne's forces to retreat. Battle 

of Malvana; the allies take the fortress. Battle of Hanwella; the allies take the fortress. A fourth battle is again a 

defeat and Maaya Dunne flees to Batugedera; Sitawaka is ransacked. Soon Maaya Dunne sues for peace: (1) 

Maaya Dunne surrenders all lands seized from Bhuvenaka Bahu at Cotta, (2) helps prepare for an attack on 

king Jayaweira of Kandy. But Jayaweira is ready and when the allies near his capital he puts them to flight; 

they go to Cotta: Dom Jorge goes to Colombo and (Sept) leaves for Cochin: Maaya Dunne immediately begins 

invading the king's territory. (Oct) A storm brings the new Viceroy of India, Dom Affonso de Noronha, to 

Colombo where Bhuvenaka Bahu asks aid against Maaya Dunne. But the viceroy's price is too high - 

indignation - but it is eventually met. (1551) Karaliyadde Bandara becomes king at Kandy. With the monsoon 

setting in, preventing Portuguese aid reaching Cotta, Maaya Dunne invades Cotta's territory, but is forced to 

retire across the Kelany river by allied forces under Vidiye Bandar (the king's son-in-law) and Gaspar de 

Azavedo (captain of Colombo). On inspection of his army, the king is accidentally shot - confusion - and soon 

Vidiye Bandar's son 

1551 Dharmapala, grandson, is recognized as king, and during his minority his father, Vidiye Bandara is regent. 

Maaya Dunne who goes to Bollegala calling on Cotta to recognize him as ruler but Vidiye Bandar forces him 

to retire to Kanampella. (Oct) Portuguese viceroy de Noronha arrives Colombo with 3000 soldiers to replenish 

his treasury, he is cordially greeted but immediately takes over the capital and begins extorting information on 

location of treasures. Maaya Dunne begins gaining adherents. The Portuguese ransack the palace and 

Dharmapala is forced to agree to paying an enormous sum for the defeat of Maaya Dunne: The allies 

(Portuguese and Vidiye Bandar) force Maaya Dunne to flee to Deraniyagala and Maaya's palace is plundered; 

the city being torn up in search of treasures The price for Portuguese help in taking Maaya Dunne at 

Deraniyagala was agreed to be half the take, the other half going to Dharmapala. The Portuguese renege on the 

deal, taking all the treasure and return to Kotte where they terrorize the citizens; killing men for their bracelets 

and earrings and raping women. Vidiye escapes and the Perumal Sembahap is appointed in his place; he 

advises the king to adopt Christianity to end the mayhem. (1552) Portuguese place Karalliyadde Bandara, 

grandson of Senasammata Vikrama Bahu, on the throne of Kandy. (1552-4) The viceroy tries to invite Vidiye 

Bandar to India but V.B. refuses, knowing the Portuguese want to get him out of the way of their designs in 

Lanka. Now the viceroy asks the king to turn Christian, but he refuses as it would supply Maaya Dunne with a 

legitimate weapon against him, but he sends a cousin to Portugal. The viceroy arrests the Great Chamberlain, 

Tammita Sembahap Perumal, hoping to secure further "payment." After the Perumal gives the viceroy 

everything he has and a promiscuity note for more, the viceroy, having squeezed every bit of treasure he could 

from Ceylon, sails away, leaving secret instructions to kidnap Vidiye Bandara. Meanwhile, his wife gathers a 

force and frees Vidiye, now a bitter enemy of the Portuguese, now goes about destroying Christian churches 

and killing Christians. At first allied with Mayadunne (whose daughter he marries), he is attacked at his fortress

of Palenda in Kalutara District both by Rajasinha, son of Mayadunne, and by the Portuguese. Vidiye takes 

refuge in the hill country, then flees to Mundakondapola in Kurunegala District, where he repays his host by 

taking his life and usurping his principality. Approached by Rajasingha and the Portuguese, he flees to Jafnna, 

where he is murdered in a quarrel, and his treasures fall into the hands of the king of that place. Among these is 

a relic which the Portuguese are told is Buddha's tooth. 

NOTE: At this time a new spirit of Buddhism arises in Ceylon. Buddhism has been tolerant 

of both Hindus and Muslims and so it was in the spirit of this tolerance that Christianity was allowed. 

The actions of the Portuguese destroyed this idea, and Christianity is now seen as a curse. 

(1554, Nov) Dom Pedro Mascarenas sends Dom Duarte de Eca to Ceylon to repair the fort at Colombo. He 

also has secret instruction to arrest V. Bandara, which is done; he is thrown into a dungeon. Princess Samudra 

Devi flees to Rayigama. (1555) The princess pays to have a tunnel dug and manages Vidiye Bandar's escape. 

They move to the mountains of Pelenda and plan his revenge. He destroys the Christian settlements at 

Panadure, Kalutara, Magona, Beruwela, Galle and Weligama along with Franciscan churches. He puts every 

Portuguese he can find to the sword. Samudra Devi dies and Maaya Dunne gives V. Bandar his widowed 

daughter for wife but she is treated so badly, M. Dunne turns to the Portuguese and (Aug) enters into a treaty 

with them. The new governor of Colombo, Affonso Pereira de Larcerda, arrives and allies with Maaya Dunne 

against Vidiye Bandar who is forced to flee his capital to Seven Korles where he kills Rajah Edirimanna Suriya 

but is spurned by the inhabitants. Meanwhile (1556) all the people of the sea coast to south of Colombo 

embrace Christianity. Dharmapala is baptized as Dom Joao Periya Bandara and his queen as Dona Catherina; 

this encourages the Christians in hopes of converting the whole island: In Dharmapala's name they begin 

destroying 20 centuries of Buddhist social structure. Large numbers of Buddhist clergy and commoners flee the 

kingdom fearing persecution amidst rumors of forced conversions. The Tooth Relic is smuggled out of Kotte 

and taken to Delgamu Viharaya in Ratnapura. Portuguese claims to have burnt the relic further inflame the 

resentment of the populace. A Sitawakan invasion is repulsed by Captain-General Don Alfonso Pereira de 

Lacerda. (1556-8) The inhabitants of Seven Korles invite Maaya Dunne and the Portuguese to help them get 

rid of Vidiye Bandar: He flees to Jaffna and joins the king there to attack the Portuguese but in a strange 

misunderstanding is killed. This death ends the compact between Maaya Dunne and the Portuguese. With 

Dharmapala's conversion, M. Dunne announces himself as champion of the national faith and claims the 

throne. In rioting, the king is stoned and people are fired upon by Portuguese. (1559, May) Battle of 

Mapitigama; Raja Singha's (of Kandy) forces force the Portuguese under the new governor of Colombo Dom 

Jorge Baroche to retire after much slaughter on both sides. (1560) Raja Singha forces Dom Jorge's forces to 

retreat but they prevent Singha from crossing the borders of Cotta. (Aug) Arrival of Viceroy Don Consantino 

deBraganza at Jaffnapatam, forcing the crown prince of Jaffna to retire; the city is occupied and the crown 

prince allowed to return as a vassal of Portugal and paying a large fixed tribute but the citizens rise against the 

Portuguese and force them back to their boats. The Portuguese hold only Mannar Island. Also; Kandy lends 

aid to Jaffna against the Portuguese. Meanwhile, while in Jaffna, the Portuguese discover a tooth thought to be 

that of Buddha (actually an ape tooth worshiped by the Hindus in honor of Hanuman). (1561) The king of Pegu 

offers to pay a large sum for the tooth but the Portuguese archbishop destroys it. (Mar) Dom Jorge is relieved 

by Balthazar Guedes de Sousa. Also: Puviraja Pandaram Pararajasekaran, son, ruler of Jaffna. (1562) Kotte 

forces led by de Lacerda with a force from Colombo attack Sitawaka: Battle of Mulleriyawa; they are defeated 

by Mayadunne's son Tikiri Banda. Many are killed and the invading force routed. (1562-3) Raha Singha 

besieges Colombo and eventually retires. He besieges Cotta and after fierce fighting the Portuguese are 

reduced to cannibalism. R. Singha to retires on learning Portuguese reinforcements are on the way, he retires to 

Sitawaka, giving the besieged some relief. (1564) Pedro de Ataide Inferno becomes governor of Colombo with 

a large Portuguese force. (5 Oct) Raja Singha besieges Cotta. (1565, 12 Feb) R. Singha attempts to take Cotta 

by storm but the siege is raised as R. Singha must face the reinforcements arriving from Goa. (July) The 

viceroy has Dharmapala abandon Cotta and reside at Colombo to the great grief of the Sinhalese. Most of 

Cotta's territory is taken over by Sitawaka. Also: Kurunchi Nainar usurps the Jaffna throne. (1570) Periya 

Pillai Segarajasekaran ousts the usurper and retakes Jaffna's throne. 

1571 Raja Singha I, son of Maaya Dunne, who immediately puts to death any contestors, including general 

Wickramasingha Mudaliyar. (1574) Diogo de Melo arrives with sufficient force to begin ravaging Ceylon, 

taking wealth wherever they find it; the shrine at Kelaniya is destroyed; the port of Negumbo is plundered; the 

garrison at Nagalagama is driven out and the coast towns of Kalutara and Beruwala are devastated. Meanwhile, 

Raja Singha invades Kandy. (1575) One plundering party makes it as far south as Weligama. Another ravages 

the district of Chilaw and the revered temple of Munnessaram plundered. The Portuguese, heading back to 

Colombo, devastate Mapane and destroy the beautiful Vihare at Horana. Meanwhile, an attempt is made on 

Dharmapala's life and (1577, Oct) an investigation is launched; de Melo is removed from office and sent to 

Goa, dying on the way. (1578) Feeling his age, M. Dunne renounces the throne in favor of his son R. Singha I.

(1579) R. Singha besieges Colombo and (1581, Feb) the arrival of Mathias de Alboquerque forces him to 

withdraw. after which he learns of the death of M. Dunne. Meanwhile (1580, 12 Aug) Dharmapala, on 

Franciscan advice, sets forth his title to the throne and makes over all his claims to Dom Henrique (king of 

Portugal who has died in poverty). (1581) Raja Singha invades Kandy, annexing the kingdom, forcing 

Karaliyadde Bandara (also known as Jayavira III) to flee north to the Jaffna Kingdom with his daughter, 

Kusumasana Devi, and his nephew. Dona Catharina (name adopted by Kusumasana Devi) "rules" for a short 

while. The Portuguese also lay claim to Kandy, citing Dharmapala's donation of 1580 as a precedent. 

Wirasundara Mudiyanse is Raja Singha's viceroy and finds Sitawakan rule over Kandy difficult to enforce and 

soon rebels. The uprising is crushed. (1582) R. Singha takes Balane. After a few skirmishes and hints of revolt, 

Ceylon's situation calms and R. Singha strengthens his position. Also; Puviraja Pandaram Pararajasekaran, who 

assumes Jaffna's throne, is paying a tribute of ten elephants or an equivalent in cash to the Portuguese. (1583, 4 

Nov) Dharmapala ratifies the donation of 1580 in favor of King Philip of Spain (who had also assumed rule of 

Portugal 15 April, 1581): Philip II is proclaimed Dharmapala's heir. (1584) By this time Raja Singha has made 

himself master of the interior, driven into exile king Jayaweira of Kandy who holes up in the Portuguese fort at 

Mannar (becomes Christian with his family) and forces many Sinhalese noble families into refuge in Colombo. 

He now begins preparation for war against the Portuguese who through constant warfare have been forced into 

Colombo and Mannar. Construction of fort at Biyagama and begins march of Colombo when at the viceroy's 

insistence a peace is agreed to (the Portuguese aren't ready yet): Raja Singha is beside himself. (1587) Raja 

Singha declares war; his huge army heads for Colombo. First thing done is drain the lake so that Portuguese 

armed boats are useless. (4 Aug) The attack begins as a series of assaults three major assaults are turned back, 

R.S. is enraged but settles into a siege. (20 Aug) Another grand assault is turned back. (23 Aug) Colombo is 

reinforced from Goa. (4 Oct) Sinhalese ships engage Portuguese ships off Colombo; they are forced to retreat. 

(4 Dec) Another reinforcement reaches Colombo. There is news of a large army on the way. But pestilence and 

foul water are killing Colombo's people. (Dec) Pedro Affonso sails the coast to Galle, destroying Beruwela, 

Welitara and Welgama, killing many Sinhalese and cutting off the hands and ears of women and children for 

bracelets and earrings. (1588, 27 Jan) Another grand assault on Colombo is turned back. (Feb) Thome Sousa 

sails out on an expedition to ravage the southern coast; Kosgoda is destroyed, Galle next then Weligama 

Matara and the temple at Dondra Head, then Chilaw and finally the world-famous shrine at Dewundara which 

is desecrated (cows slaughtered in the building) and completely destroyed. This wanton destruction, 

accompanied by a rebellion raised by one Konappoo Bandar, a refugee in Goa, and news of coming Portuguese 

reinforcements, forces Raja Singha to raise the siege and withdraw into the interior. (18 Feb) Those 

reinforcements arrive. Meanwhile, another rebellion arises in Kandy and crushing it is more difficult. (1590) 

Kandyan resistance is coalescing around Konnappu Bandara, son of Wirasundara, who had fled to Portuguese 

lands following his father's murder by agents of Rajasinha. Konnappu seizes the Kandyan throne under the 

name Vimaladharmasuriya I. (1591) Portuguese forces invade Jaffna's territory on the pretense the king 

disfavors conversion of his subjects to Christianity: After a stubborn defense, the king is defeated and killed; 

Jaffna is plundered and the king's second son, Ethirimanna Cinkam (Singa Parajasekaran), is placed on the 

throne at Nallur, giving the Catholic missionaries freedom and monopoly in elephant export to the Portuguese, 

which Cinkam resists. (1592) An English privateer attacks a Portuguese ship off the southwestern port of 

Galle. This action is England's first known contact with Sri Lanka. (1593) Raja Singha marches against 

Konappoo Bandara (baptized at Goa as Don Juan), is defeated and while retreating, dies. Raja Surya, grandson 

of the late king, is raised but is soon assassinated. Meanwhile, the generals Raja Singha sent to the Uda Rata 

are unable to cope and the king himself takes the field. He is unsuccessful and disease breaks out in his camp; 

he withdraws, placing the Perumal Aritta Kivendu in charge. Konappoo (Nikapitiya) Bandara ascends the 

throne as 

1593 Wimala Dharma (Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy)(Konappu Bandara) son of Vijayasundara Bandara. Chief 

power, however, remains with the Perumal. W. Dharma struggles against the Portuguese (he is aided in this by 

Jaffna) and labors in the cause of learning and Buddhism, which had suffered at the hands of Hindu Raha 

Singha I; having built Hindu temples and destroyed Buddhist libraries. He has the sacred tooth moved from 

Sabaragamuwa to Kandy. The poem Dalada Katawa is written. (1594) The Perumal meets Mudaliyar Diogo de 

Silva advancing from Colombo, defeats and kills him. The Perumal, emboldened, seeks the hand of the sister 

of W. Dharma, earning the disfavor of the nobles. He moves with his army to Menikkadawara and opens 

correspondence with Pedro Homem Pereira, Capt. at Colombo stating he wants to reconquer Kotte for 

Dharmapala and take Sitawaka with Portuguese help. Granted. the Perumal takes the name Jayawira Bandara 

but he is deserted by his officers and must escape, making it to Colombo where he prostrates himself before 

Dharmapala. He takes Kaduwela; Pedro Lopes is sent from Goa with a force to conquer the interior of Ceylon. 

The garrisons of Rakgaha Watta and Malwana are driven back and at Gurubewila the Sitawakan army is 

defeated. Jayawira occupies Sitawaka, obtaining Raja Sinha's great treasure. Now Jayawira swoops down and

takes over almost all of Kotte. The Portuguese now see the possibility of establishing Ceylon as a second 

Portuguese nation: They decide to conquer Ceylon. (April) De Souza is appointed General Conquistador, with 

the Princess, Jayawira and his 9,000 Lascarins, advance from Colombo to Menikkadawara. They march to the 

Mahaweli Ganga; Wimala Dharma has slipped into the eastern forest. They occupy the abandoned palace at 

Kandy and place a guard - non of whom are Sinhalese - over the princess, angering the natives and W. 

Dharma's ranks swell. Negotiations begins to marry the Princess to Francisco de Silva Arcelaos but nothing 

comes of them. Through a ruse, Jayawira is fooled into entering the Portuguese camp to answer some made up 

charges, he is killed. The Portuguese begin slaughtering his adherents, but the Lascarins have disappeared. The 

Portuguese decide to retreat. (6 Oct) Battle of Danture the Portuguese forces are annihilated by W. Dharma 

who marries Donna Catherina on the battlefield. (24 Dec) Dom Hieroni mo de Azeveda is sent and he begins a 

brutal war of revenge, laced with atrocities and bloodshed. (1595, 1 Jan) Joined by Dharmapala, the army sets 

out for Sitawaka where they rebuild the palace for the king. Disease and hunger decimates the garrison. (17 

Nov) Domingo Correa raises the standard of revolt against Dharmapala and proclaims himself king. The 

garrisons at Menikkadawara and Ruwanella are ordered to concentrate of Sitawaka.(2 Dec) Orders are given to 

evacuate Sitawaka for Gurubewila. Decimated by guerrilla warfare, they find themselves blockaded in the city, 

starving. (16 Dec) They decide to retreat, Correa blocks roads and guerrilla warfare thins their ranks. Correa is 

wounded and his force withdraws. Iddagoda Rala takes over for Correa and the Portuguese are stopped at the 

temple of Horana where they are saved by the appearance of Samarakon Rala with Dom Diego and his 500 

Christian Tupasses. (17 Dec) The Portuguese, with the king, reach Colombo. (1596) Edirille Rala joins W. 

Dharma who gives him Kotte and Sitawaka and they take the field. Reinforcements from India enable the 

Portuguese to reoccupy Malwana and construct a fort at Uduwara. Edirille is defeated who is soon captured 

and (14 July) executed. De Azavedo and Thome de Souza manage to bring as much, if not all, of the wealth of 

Ceylon into their pockets, under Dharmapala's protest which is ignored. (1597, 27 May) Death of Dharmapala 

(Don Juan); by his will, he leaves his dominions to Philip II of Portugal but the Sinhalese only recognize and 

treat de Azavedo as king. The Portuguese claim sovereignty over all Ceylon (but the war goes on, with 

successes and defeats on both sides, also destruction, atrocities and bloodshed) which they divide into four 

provinces; Matara, Saparagamuwa, Four Korales and Seven Korales. The Sinhalese refuse to give up their laws 

for those of Portugal and manage to have an agreement reached whereby they keep their laws and customs yet 

obey those of Portugal. To protect themselves against the Kandyans, the Portuguese establish two camps at 

Menikkadawara and Sabaragamuwa, these with a large force of 20,000 are unable to be fully supported by the 

Portugal controlled trade. The governor of Colombo styles himself King of Malwane. Trade is prohibited to all 

other nations and even the Sinhalese. (25 Sept) Correa is defeated near Katuwana. Meanwhile, another force 

occupies Iddamalpane; the Portuguese try to intercept it and the whole of Four Korales rises in rebellion. 

Pinhao cannot advance beyond Attanagala and so resorts to cruelties: Babies spitted on pikes or smashed 

between millstones while their mothers are forced to watch before being killed, men thrown into the river to be 

eaten by crocodiles. Correa appears and defects to the Portuguese and hostilities resume. (1599, Jan) By this 

time a fort has been built at Menikkadawara to be HQ for operations against the Uda Rata; the Portuguese 

begin devastating the country and their advance to Uda Rata is made very difficult by the Sinhalese. (May) By 

this time the Portuguese have been forced to abandon Etgalatota. Reinforced, the Portuguese take Ganetenna, 

Sinhalese occupy Balane. The Portuguese prepare for the final conquest of Ceylon. W. Dharma offers to make 

Pinhao king of the low country if he would desert to him. At a meeting the Portuguese try to kill the king. The 

Sinhalese abandon Balane and the Portuguese take it, confident that now they have Ceylon in their grasp. An 

attempted coup, however, is found out and quashed. Preparations for the takeover of Ceylon are dashed and 

garrisons are sent back to their posts. (1602, April) A few Jesuits enter Ceylon to the consternation of the 

Franciscans. (31 May) Two ships under Dutch admiral Joris van Spillbergen arrive Batticaloa and capture four 

Portuguese ships. Admiral Spillbergen is feted; gains protection and commercial privileges for his countrymen 

and leaves. No sooner has he left than (28 Nov) a Dutch expedition under Seebald de Weert arrives Batticaloa 

and goes to Kandy where he is courteously received. He concludes a treaty with W. Dharma for an attack on 

Point de Galle then (1603, 14 Jan) leaves for Achin with a load of cinnamon and pepper. Meanwhile, war 

against the Portuguese continues, with many Sinhalese abandoning their oath to the Portuguese king. (Jan) De 

Azevido besieges Balana, is shown (1Feb) a secret way in and the Portuguese find the fort deserted. Five days 

later his Lascarins desert to the king. A hasty retreat is begun and by the time he reaches the foot of the 

mountain and Pinhao, a serious defeat has occurred. A message is received that hasty retreat is in order for in 

three days there won't be a Portuguese in Ceylon as the whole country is up in arms. In a panic due to 

evaporating Sinhalese support, Portuguese armies begin breaking up from desertion and mutineers. Samarakon 

Rala, powerful Sinhalese noble with the Portuguese, comes to their assistance. The retreat continues; they 

reach Ganetenna then Sitawaka, leaving a trail of bodies. When they reach Malwana, it has been sacked and 

burned by the Sinhalese and the Nestorian Christians there have all been killed. (15 Mar) Facing increasing

desertions, de Azevedo attempts to rally his men, but it is too late; all of the outposts intended to protect the 

communications of the triumphant army are now held by the Sinhalese. Only Galle, held by Samarakon, 

remains. Repairs to Colombo are begun. (25 April) De Weert arrives Batticola and (June) meets the king. De 

Weert, intoxicated, insults the king and is beheaded. The Sinhalese try to kill as many of the drunk Hollanders 

in town that they can. The Hollanders try to open negotiations to help wrest Colombo and Galle from the 

Portuguese, but they come to naut; (28 July) the fleet sails away. Little else occurs; Samarakon is placed in 

chains and sent to Goa. (1604, early) Death of W. Dharma. After renouncing Christianity and embracing 

Buddhism, W. Dharma constructed a two-tiered shrine close to his palace in order to sanctify his capital Kandy 

and accommodate the important Buddha's Tooth relic. 

1604 Queen mother Donna Catherina declares herself regent for her young son and civil war between princes Uva 

and Senerat (brother of Wimala Dharma) is prevented. But Senerat kills Uva and Queen Catherina is forced to 

grant him the sovereignty as 

1604 Senerat (Senerat I of Kandy), son. De Azevido suggests with the addition of 300 troops, he could take over the 

whole island. orders are given to strengthen the fortifications at Colombo and Galle, mainly from fear of the 

Dutch. (1606) A large fleet leaves Goa for the Southern Seas against the Dutch - it is severely defeated: The 

Viceroy himself (1607, June) dies of a broken heart. (1608) By this time Portuguese presence has degenerated 

into a robber's den: Temples are being destroyed, renegades are hailed as saviors, fortification at Colombo are 

so broken down that cattle wander in and out, there are no hospitals, unpaid soldiers are dying of hunger and 

privation. Not wanting to pollute their land burying Portuguese soldiers, the Sinhalese cut off their noses and 

send them back. (1609) Senerat, who has married the widowed Queen and crushed all opposition, assumes the 

crown, consolidating his position and concluding a 12 years' truce with the United Provinces. To offer a 

sanctuary to their soldiers, Galle (1610) replaces Colombo. (1611, Aug) De Azevido with 700 soldiers enters 

Kandy, which he finds deserted, and burns it. He returns to Colombo, leaving a garrison at Balane. (1612, 8 

Mar) Marcellus de Boschauwer arrives and is so successful that (11 May) a treaty is signed promising Dutch 

aid against Portuguese aggression. The Dutch are given permission to construct a fort at Kottiyar and given a 

monopoly in trade of cinnamon, gems and pearls. Boschouwer is made prince of Migonne (Negombo) and 

Anuradhapura. Alarmed, the Portuguese secretly send a force of 4,000 under Sinhalese commander Simon 

Correa that wipes out Dutch garrison at Kottiar. Battle of Seven Korles the emperor's force of 5,000 routes the 

Portuguese. The emperor now calls an assembly of all Ceylon's kings (Cotiarum, Palugam, Baticaloa, Ouve, 

Migonne, Vellane, Cotomale, Mewater, Four Korles, Podore, Ode, Yalagode, Harcipate, Odogo d'Askeri, 

Matara and the lesser provinces; Patania isn't represented) and it is decided to raise a 50,000 man force and 

attack Galle and Balane, then Colombo. Battle of Seven Korles; the Portuguese defeat the Sinhalese and wrest 

Migonne principality from Boschouwer. Death of prince Mahastanne, son of Donna Catherina by Wimala 

Dharma (by Senerat who desires his own son to succeed?). Era of poet Alagiawanna Mohottala, author of 

Kusajataka, Subasitha, Nitisara, Maha Hatana and Sewul Sandese. (1612-3) A Kandyan fleet under the prince 

of Migonne cruises against the Portuguese between Cape Comorin and Ceylon: They take many Portuguese 

ships and their cargoes; the men are killed, women and Negroes saved. (1613) The king of Patania (Patane) is 

tried for collusion with the Portuguese to overthrow the dynasty; he is beheaded. De Francisco de Meneses 

general. His preoccupation is to acquire wealth as the military situation goes from bad to worse: Soldiers must 

raid villages for food, they rob inhabitants and ravish women. Within all of this dissension, Senerat is unable to 

form a coalition. (20 July) Death of Queen Donna Catherina of grief after she had entrusted her children to the 

prince of Uva and Boschauwer. Later Astana Bandara, heir to the throne, dies. (1614) Boschouwer discovers a 

plot between the Portuguese and Gael Henerad, Dissave of Harasia-pattoo, to assassinate him, the prince of 

Uva and the royal children; Gael Henerad is beheaded and the citizens of Harasiapattoo rise in rebellion and 

assisted by the Portuguese defeat royal forces. Senerat refuses to negotiate a treaty with Portugal; who now 

marches 25,000 on Kandy. (6 Aug) Battle of Balane; 29,000 Kandyans defeat the Portuguese. (Nov) Manual 

Mascarenlias Homem general. He brings rigorous discipline to the army and a policy of endless war to wear 

down the Sinhalese. No male above 14 years old is to remain alive. He begins a twice-yearly campaign of 

incursions into native areas; no able bodied man is left alive, women and children that couldn't be easily taken 

are killed, cattle are driven down the mountain to feed the Portuguese in Colombo, no house is left unburnt and 

no tree is left standing. The Sinhalese resort to guerilla warfare. (1615, 7 Mar) A comet is seen that strikes 

terror into all. A disease breaks out that effects both man and beast. (14 April) A severe earthquake shakes 

down houses, destroys bridges and opens fissures in the ground. (May) Senerat asks the Dutch for the promised 

assistance against the Portuguese. Boschouwer is sent to Holland for reinforcements but the States General 

turns him down because of his conduct. He goes to Denmark and obtains a treaty with Christian IV on behalf 

of Senerat. Also this year, the first Tombo is enacted; it is a land registry compiled to provide a detailed 

statement of property ownership and tax obligations. Also: Arakesari assumes regency for infant CP Leuke 

Kumaran of Jaffna. (1616, Mar) Dom Nuno Alvarez Pereira is general. (5 Dec) Ascetic "Nikapitiya Bandara"

enters Metyagane, the ancient royal city of Dumbadeniya, as King. (13 Dec) By this time the whole district is 

up in arms and 2,000 troops arrive from Uda Rata to assist him. A Portuguese force heads out and at the (18 

Dec) Battle of Gandolaha they struggle then separate. Portuguese withdraw to Attanagalla on a rumor that all 

Portuguese are being put to death. Nikapitiya begins a royal progression through the country and before the 

Portuguese capital is proclaimed Emperor. He demands one of the king's two queens for his wife which, he is 

told, would be given attention as soon as he finishes with the Portuguese. His 2,000 Sinhalese soldiers are 

recalled and the Portuguese battle at Kal Eliya; Nikapitiya flees to Dambadeniya. Senerat determines to make 

peace, the garrison at Balane blows him off, is attacked and surrenders. (1617, Jan) Nikapitiya flees from the 

Portuguese at the Disawani of Sabaragamuwa. Meanwhile, Baretto revolts against Senerat, gains control of the 

entire eastern part of the island and overruns Matara and Sabaragamuwa. (April) Death of Ethirimana Cinkam. 

Cankili II (Sankili Kumaran II) usurps the Jaffna throne, killing the regent nominated by the late king. Unable 

to secure Portuguese acceptance of his kingship, Cankili II invites military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks and 

allows corsairs from Malabar to use a base in Neduntivu, hence posting a threat to Portuguese shipping routes 

through Palk Straight. (24 Aug) Portuguese conclude a treaty with Senerat: Portuguese acknowledge his 

sovereignty, he agrees to pay an annual tribute for suppression of any risings, restore the Portuguese captured 

at Balane and any Christian prisoners and to send hostages. The Portuguese abandon Sabaragamuwa and 

Matara still held by Baretto. (1618, Sept) Constantino de Sa y Noronha, general, faces a completely aimless 

army living an immoral life in the cities. He institutes discipline, visits outlying posts and sets up a network of 

spies to keep track of the Sinhalese. He defeats Baretto, breaking his power. De Oliviera is sent (1619, June) to 

oust Prince Chankili from Jaffna: A naval expedition is repulsed by the Malabari corsairs and another 

expedition by Phillippe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army is able to inflict defeat on Cankili II. 

Cankili, along with every surviving member of the royal family are captured and taken to Goa, where he is 

hanged to death. The remaining captives are encouraged to become monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as 

most obliged, it avoids further claimants to the Jaffna throne; Jaffna comes under Portuguese rule. Migapulle 

Arachchi still resists; Luiz Teixeira is sent who, on the way, hacks men in half with axes, rips breasts off 

women and those women carrying infants have their wombs slit open and their infants stuffed within: "Peace" 

is brought to the north. Mayadunna in the south is defeated and forced to retreat eastward. (1620, May) 

Boschouwer's ship arrives Batticaloa, followed by a Danish fleet of five under Gule Gedde (widow of 

Boshouwer who died on the way). Senerat gives his consent but it is too late; (2 July) Mayadunna is forced to 

take refuge on the fleet and Baretto is slain. Gedde takes all and returns to Denmark. Later, Da Sa is replaced 

by the Viceroy's son Jorge de Alboquerque and rampant corruption reigns. The army mutinys and a plot arises 

to put the general to death. A conspiracy among supporters of Mayadunna (in India) that brings death to some 

prominent Sinhalese. (1622) Portuguese construct a fort at Trincomalee. (1623) Da Sa is returned to office of 

General and order returns: He is instructed to reduce the Sinhalese Kingdom once and for all. Meanwhile, 

Prince Maha Asthana is 16 years old; Senerat grants domains to his three sons: Kumara Sinha receives Uwa; 

Wijaya Pala receives Matale and Maha Asthana receives Uda Rata by which he becomes Aga Raja or Chief 

King as Raja Sinha. (1624) It is decided to build a fort on the headland of Konesar Malai, one of the most holy 

places of Hindu worship; its temples are razed. Senerat protests but the Portuguese state they need the extra 

defense against increasing appearances of European enemies. Sinhalese are sweet-talked into accepting the 

Portuguese position. (1625) Da Sa drives a great number of Moors (Arab) traders from Portuguese holdings, 

they find asylum within Sinhalese territory and many settle around Batticaloa. He now begins strengthening 

Menikkadawara and sets up a small fort on the island of Puliyan Tivu.(1627) Violating their truce, the 

Portuguese fortify Batticaloa. Alarmed at this (for the Portuguese have also established forts at Jaffna, Mannar, 

Negombo, Colombo, Kalutara, Galle and Weligama). Senerat manages to rouse all Ceylonese people, even 

those in Colombo, against the Portuguese. War is declared; a small Portuguese army burns the town of Badulla 

(1628) Da Sa readies every Portuguese defense he can muster; he takes the pass of Balane and heads for 

Kandy, destroying everything on his way. Battle of Jaffnapatam; Sinhalese force under Attapatu Mudaliyar is 

defeated, but seeing the country's hostility around him, De Sa retreats to Malwana, the seat of Portuguese 

government (1629) Da Sa is ordered to bring all Ceylon to subjection once and for all. (March) He heads out 

into the field, but the Sinhalese remain hidden as he razes villages and kills anything living he finds. Sapped by 

sickness and the weather, he begins to withdraw, now suffering intense guerrilla activity by the Sinhalese. 

Battle of Ambatenna he suffers a heavy loss. Kumara Sinha heads a raiding party, ravaging Portuguese 

territory. Da Sa can do nothing until, pushed by the Viceroy and against better judgement, sends 700 

Portuguese and 13,000 Lascarins into the field. At Badulla they spend two days sacking the place then find out 

they are being encircled by the Sinhalese. The Lascarins defect and it turns into a rout and are trapped on the 

Plain of Wellawaya where they are slowly picked off all through the night. Finally all are killed, including da 

Sa. (26 days later) Now the Sinhalese army, led by prince Raja Singh, 17 years old, recaptures the forts on the 

Mahareliganga and besieges Colombo. It is soon reduced to cannibalism. Maha Asthana retires, captures

Menikkadawara and the rest of the Sinhalese army returns to Kaduwela. (1631) The siege of Colombo is raised 

due to reinforcements from Goa, but the Portuguese have given up hope of taking over Ceylon; a treaty is 

entered into; Portugal agrees to keep the peace for two tusked elephants a year. (21 Oct) Aged Dom Jorge de 

Almeida succeeds da Sa. He opens negotiations with Senerat to release his Portuguese prisoners, but the king's 

position has hardened. (1632, Jan) Reinforced from Goa, 1,000 Portuguese, 1,000 Lascarins and 1,200 Kaffirs 

and Canarese take the field. At Malwana the people submit but one of their members is given over to the 

Kaffirs who butcher and eat him in front of his wife and children. Kaduwala is occupied. (1633, 15 April) A 

treaty is signed: Portuguese agree to recognize the Queen's three sons as heirs to the whole of the Sinhalese 

kingdom; the king is to pay an elephant a year to allow a Franciscan to reside at the capital, set free all 

Portuguese prisoners and hand over the fort of Batticaloa. Senerat balks at the perception of vassalage the 

tribute of an elephant presents. (1634) Diogo de Melo de Castro general, the treaty is approved. (1635) 

Portuguese army mutinies, elects 12 senators to handle its affairs and occupies the approaches to Colombo 

until it is allowed to elect its own officers. (1636) Death of Senerat. His eldest son Comara (Kumara) Singha 

Hastanne administers Uva; Vijaya Pala administers Matale and Raha Singha, Kandy. But Kumara dies too, and 

Raha Singha forces his brother Vijaya Pala to exile at Colombo and accedes as 

1636 Raja Singha II (of Kandy). Distrusting the Portuguese, (1637, 9 Sept) R. Singha sends a Brahmin with a letter 

to the Dutch governor at Palliacatta requesting aid against the Portuguese. (9 Nov) Two envoys appear 

Senkadagala with promise of assistance if the Dutch can have a monopoly of the Cinnamon trade. Alarmed, de 

Melo tries to alienate Wijaya Pala by discrediting the Dutch. (1638) A dispute over impoliteness of gifts 

between R. Singha and the Portuguese governor of Colombo (the "King of Malwana"); R. Singha infuriates the 

governor and Captain-General Diego de Melo is sent against the governor to punish him for his insolence. He 

is allowed to take Kandy which he plunders and fires, but finds R. Singha has trapped him: (28 March) Seeing 

the difficulty he would have in expelling the Portuguese; R. Singha (23 May) signs a treaty with the Dutch; he 

would pay them for their aid and grant trade monopolies; the emperor will be in possession of fortified places 

taken from the Portuguese. This alliance, however, is deeply unpopular with the inhabitants of Kandy. 

Meanwhile, (2 April) three Dutch vessels under Wilhelm Jacobsz Coster arrive and find much has changed 

with "Portuguese" Sinhala. Incensed at R. Singha's demands for fair treatment, de Melo sends 900 Portuguese, 

5,000 Lascarins and a number of Tapasses, Canarese and Kaffirs on an invasion. Unopposed, they enter the 

capital, fire it and retire, halting at Gannoruwa.(28 March) Battle of Gannoruwa: It is a resounding victory for 

the Sinhalese who annihilate the Portuguese, immortalized by an unknown poet in Parangi Hatane, the Story 

of the Feringhees. (10 May) Adm. Adam van Westerwold joins Coster at Batticaloa with the rest of the 

promised fleet. (14 May) R. Singha arrives with 15,000 men - Wijaya Pala and the rest of the army is at 

Colombo. (18 May) The allies attack Colombo and after four hours it surrenders. (23 May) Treaty is signed: 

See Appendix II. (4 June) Westerwold, with two Sinhalese ambassadors, sails to Batavia. (29 Oct) They return 

with the treaty's confirmation. The Dutch, however, look forward to expelling the Portuguese, thinking who, 

then, will expel them? Meanwhile, Dom Antonio Mascarenhas general; all available Portuguese forces are 

diverted to Ceylon; they reoccupy Menikkadawara. Conflict erupts between R. Singha and his brother Vijaya 

and (Sept) the latter with his 8,000 men are defeated. Singha takes Vijaya prisoner, being kept under 

surveillance at Senkadagala. (1639) Antonio Caen arrives with another fleet but instead of attacking Colombo, 

(18 May) takes Batticaloa then Trincomalee; it proves to be a long bloody process wresting the forts from the 

Portuguese as a joint campaign begins to make inroads into Portuguese lowland territories. (Dec) Another fleet 

under Director-General Philip Lucaszoon with 1,500 soldiers. They land Negombo and are attacked by 

Portuguese who are eventually driven off. R. Singha arrives and (1640, 6 Feb) Negombo is besieged, taken by 

assault three days later. The Dutch begin rebuilding but the King wants it razed as per his option by the treaty. 

But Lucaszoon is stubborn and R. Singha realizes the Dutch are just replacing the Portuguese. (13 Feb) He 

withdraws, refusing to see the Director-General again. The Dir-Gen falls ill, refuses treatment by Sinhalese 

physicians and sails away. Coster patches things up and a joint land-sea assault on Galle is planned. (March) 

Dutch fleet under Com. William Jacob Doster bombards Fort of Santa Cruz de Galle until the walls are 

sufficiently broken down for (13 March) an assault takes the fort. Prisoners are taken away to Batavia. Plunder 

is divided equally between King and Dutch, who now occupy the port. Coster is appointed Governor at Galle. 

The Dutch hold back presenting their bill, hoping to squeeze more from the King, straining relations. (17 July) 

Coster presents himself at court at Senkadagala but there is no thaw. Coster presents a Memorandum stating 

requirements that must be met by the treaty in addition to a mint, villages for maintenance of the soldiers, etc. 

R. Singha begs his country's poverty makes it difficult to meet Dutch demands - give him time. Coster is killed 

at Nilgada for insulting the chief. He is succeeded by Jan Thyssen. (8 Sept) Portuguese learn that some Dutch 

garrisons aren't doing so well, buoying their spirits. (Oct) Dom Philip general. (9 Nov) Portuguese take 

Negombo and defeat a Sinhalese army; the entire coast from Colombo to Galle declare for the Portuguese who 

blockade Galle. Wijaya Pala revolts, is defeated and joins the Portuguese offering to drive the Dutch out of

Ceylon. Nothing comes of this and he soon dies in Colombo. (1641, Oct) Ambassadors return from Batavia 

and embroil observation of the treaty's provisions in double talk. (1642, Jan-Feb) Dutch abandon idea of taking 

Colombo, give up on Negombo and return to Galle. (June) News of the treaty of 12 June, 1641, establishing 

peace between Holland and Portugal, arrives in Ceylon where there is no peace because of arguments over the 

territorial limits of Galle. (1643, 11 May) Portuguese defeat a Dutch force at Akuressa. (1644) Francis Carron 

lands near Galle but feels an assault is too risky so sails to (7 Jan) Negombo where he defeats a Portuguese 

force sent against him. Negombo is taken but an attack on Colombo is felt to be too risky. (June) Reinforced, 

the Portuguese try to take Negombo but are defeated. (1645, 10 Jan) A peace is declared that leaves each side 

in possession of such territory as is de facto in its power. Against the protests of R. Singha, the Dutch are 

establishing themselves at Seven Korales and equipping the garrison at Pannara. (13 May) A Dutch force under 

Adrian van der Stel leaves Negombo for Pannara is intercepted by the Sinhalese and soundly defeated; der Stel 

is decapitated. Pannara is surrounded and the garrison surrenders. For six months R. Singha refuses to talk to 

the Dutch yet both they and the Portuguese are jockeying for his ear. (1646) A temporary peace falls between 

Dutch and Portuguese during which the Dutch abuse their treaty obligations; R. Singha is beginning to doubt 

the sincerity and intentions of the Dutch and that perhaps the Portuguese can be used against them. Also this 

year, the cultivation of Indigo is attempted in Seven Korles but flops. Also a new Tombo is enacted (see 1617). 

(1647, July) R. Singha allows both at his court, playing one off against the other. (1649) Wounded by R. 

Singh's scorched earth policy, the Kandyan-dutch alliance is resurrected: (July) R. Singh sends ambassadors to 

the Dutch and a new agreement is signed, though on slightly different terms; but tensions remain. Meanwhile, 

Maatsuycker at Galle writes Batavia saying the only way to deal with the King is by force, angering the King 

who accuses the Dutch of double-dealing. The Dutch, however, have decided that non of the territory that 

produces cinnamon will be returned to him. (1652, Oct) Two Dutch announce war has been declared; the 

Portuguese aren't prepared, as Kandyan-Dutch forces begin an increasingly brutal war against the Portuguese 

strongholds along the coast. (1653, 10 May) Aged Francisco de Melo de Castro general arrives Colombo is to 

restore order in Ceylon. His forces take Kalutara. (15 Aug) R. Singha appeals to Captain Major Van Kittenstein 

that he is honoring his part of the treaty of 1638, why aren't his forces? (2 Sept) Van Kittenstein replies that the 

Dutch have no intention of honoring the treaty. (1654, Aug) Dutch and Portuguese forces face each other 

across the Bentota River. (16 Dec) Portuguese withdraw to Kalutara. Meanwhile, R. Singha is running the 

Portuguese out of the Four and Seven Korales until Figueira arrives. (1655, Mar) Dutch appear before 

Kalutara. At Battle of Kotikapola, R. Singha is defeated, the Dutch leave Kalutara. Guerrilla warfare continues. 

(15 Aug) Antonio de Sousa Coutinho general brings funds to pay his soldiers (18 months overdue). (15 Sept) 

Dutch reinforcements under Geraard Hulft land north of Colombo but weather drives them off to Beruwala 

where the go (29 Sept) to Kalutara. Other Dutch forces land Panadura and Kalu Ganga. (8 Oct) Figueira arrives 

Colombo and takes the field. (14 Oct) Kalutara falls to the Dutch. (16 Oct) Battle on Moratuwa to Panadura 

plain; the Portuguese are slaughtered almost to a man. Figueira and his remaining men make it to Colombo 

where he prepares for a siege that is soon begun by the Dutch. Bombardment begins. (25 Oct) R. Singha sends 

1,200 of his men to join the Dutch. (11 Dec) Before an assault begins, Hulft asks Coutinho to surrender. 

Refused. (12 Dec) The assault begins; Portuguese successfully keep Dutch ships from menacing the city, but 

they maintain a blockade, and on land it comes to a stand-still. Raja Singha, not trusting the Dutch at all, insists 

that the city should be ceded to him the moment it fell. The Dutch continue bombardment. Soon disease and 

hunger is taking its toll in the city and the Dutch refuse to allow non-combatants to leave. (1656, 10 Mar) 

Coutinho asks help from the King who tells him to surrender. R. Singha also appoints Hulft Director General 

over all his dominions. (March-April) Colombo suffers dysentery and is reduced to cannibalism. (5 April) 

Hulft has an audience with R. Singha then returns to Colombo where he is shot through the heart. Van der 

Meyden succeeds. (7 May) An assault begins and, with heavy losses on both sides, (11 May) surrenders and 

(12 May) the Terms of Capitulation are signed. The King is angered as the Dutch completely shut out the 

Sinhalese from their dealings with Colombo. He informs his people to not correspond with the Dutch, 

withdraws his support from the Dutch and his forces begin harassing Dutch outlying locations. (1657) R. 

Singha attempts to take Colombo from the Dutch but fails; he cuts off supplies to the fortress and renews 

friendship with the Portuguese remaining on Ceylon. (1658, Jan) Dutch fleet arrives Tuticorin and reduces the 

Portuguese settlements on the Fishery Coast. (22 Feb) Fort of Manar surrenders and the Dutch march on Jaffna 

which (20 March) is attacked and (22 June) surrenders. (23 June) the Dutch celebrate the end of Portuguese 

presence in Ceylon. 

DUTCH PERIOD 

A conspiracy is discovered against the Dutch in Jaffna; 14 conspirators are sentenced to death: Three are stretched 

out on wooden crosses on the ground, stabbed in neck and breast then disemboweled, their hearts removed and 

stuffed in their mouths then their heads cut off and exposed in the market place. A Jesuit is beheaded and 

eleven other hanged and left to rot. (20 Nov) A Special Day of Thanksgiving is declared, and anyone who

doesn't observe it will be fined 100 rix-dollars. 

The DEIC succeeds to a country suffering from long mis-management by the Portuguese: It is badly 

neglected and run to weed; from Negombo to the Walawe Ganga the country is largely waste and unpopulated, 

the rich tracts of rice fields are laying abandoned, with their dams and water channels destroyed, and the great 

reservoirs breached and useless. Thick tropical forest covers many a once happy village and the southern coastroad 

is so infested with wild elephants as to be dangerous to the traveler. The Company goes to work repairing, 

restoring and reviving old businesses and establishing new ones. Church attendance is compulsory, though 

there isn't any insistence the Sinhales change faiths. Inter-racial marriage is discouraged. Dutch policy is to 

keep the King in good humor at all costs, their attitude toward him deferential to the point of servility. 

Repeated embassies are sent to him with presents - usually unusual animals - and he keeps the embassies as he 

is collecting a "zoo" of human racial types - Portuguese, Dutch, English and others. (1658, Nov) R. Singha, 

very angry at the Dutch, writes to Van Goens his appreciation of his services but that he is no longer King of 

the Kanda Uda Rata, the Country above the Mountains, but of the Sinhale, the Country of the Sinhalese which 

includes the low country formerly belonging to Kotte. Meanwhile, directors of the BEIC have been advised 

setting up a factory at Kalpitiya so as to secure a share of Ceylon's trade. (1659) Robert Knox and his father are 

blown ashore at Kottiar; they are thrown into captivity. Soon, Knox's father dies. Meanwhile, R. Singha is 

harassing those Sinhalese he suspects that have colluded with the Dutch. (May) Dutch garrison the Portuguese 

church at Kalpitiya, controlling the Putalam trade. The Dutch, however, are nervous because British and 

Danish ships have been seen at Kottiar since about 1640. (1660) By this time R. Singha faces discontented 

nobles and a populace who have always been opposed to the alliance with the Dutch. The internal situation has 

became so unstable that for a while R. Singha is forced to abandon the palace and allow rebels to seize control 

of Sengkadagala, and even suspends the annual Perahara. (1661, June) Treaty regulating marriage of Charles II 

with the Portuguese Infanta: If either of the contracting parties succeeds in obtaining possession of the Island, 

Colombo is to be given to Portugal and Galle the English while the cinnamon trade is to be divided between 

the two. Also this year the BEIC sends an embassy to R. Singha seeking permission to build a factory for the 

cinnamon trade. (1663) The cinnamon of Negombo is said to be the "very best in the universe" though the 

Kandyans are attempting to destroy Dutch and Portuguese profits from its trade, greatly straining their budgets 

to maintain a protective army. In addition, tension produces trade conflicts with the Moors, engendering 

differential tariffs, etc. Meanwhile, fearing British intrusion, a force is sent to Kottiar but must return due to 

sickness. Fortification of Point Pedro begins. (1664) Dutch and British ambassadors see R. Singha at Nilambe, 

seeking to have their prisoners released; he only releases (21 Dec) the British prisoners. Meanwhile, 

exasperated with R. Singha's harassment, the Kandyans, led by noble Ambanwela Rala, (21 Dec) revolt; they 

almost take over Nilambe where R. Singha resides: He flees to the stronghold of Gaulada (the English plunder 

the now vacant houses) and the rebels declare the young prince Emperor but he, 12 years old, flees with the 

King's sister, to his father. The rebels advocate the death of R. Singha and the royal family. Anarchy 

(considered by the Dutch a "gift from heaven.") reigns for about a month until R. Singha who has thrown 

himself into the arms of the Dutch, resumes control by threatening death to remaining rebels. The Dutch send a 

force into Sabaragamuwa (fortifying the Portuguese church there), occupy the Three and Four Korales and 

build a fort at Ruwanella: A severe blow to Kandy as they lose the ports of Kalpitiya, Kottiyar, Batticaloa and 

Trincomalee. Also, by this time Dutch trade in arecanut finally becomes lucrative. This year too, silk 

cultivation is tried at Jaffnaptam but fails. (1665, Sept) Du Pon builds a fort at Trincomalee on rumors the 

British are going to seize the place. The DEIC proposes Chilaw, still held by Singha, should be taken and 

fortified. Meanwhile, internal troubles in the BEIC give the Dutch joy: Winter usurps control of the Company. 

(1666) Van der Laan conducts a pearl fishing but so many people become sick the event fails. (July) 96 

elephants are captured in one kraal. Meanwhile, rice cultivation has been restored to where it is producing 

bumper crops but since rice is imported from India, its price remains low so its cultivation is turned over 

largely to the native Sinhalese. (1667) R. Singha sends envoys to the BEIC at Madras but they are seized by 

the Dutch. Also; Francois Carron (conquered Negombo in 1643) sends a letter to Singha stating he is Director 

of the FEIC and the Company would like to establish a settlement in Ceylon. (1668) Dutch occupy Arandora, a 

large Sinhalese force is soon facing them. (Oct) Sinhalese drive the Dutch out of the remote districts of the 

Sabaragamuwa Disawani. (1670) By this time the DEIC's holdings in southern India (administered from 

Ceylon) are in religious and economic chaos; the Company decides to resort to force. Meanwhile, R. Singha 

insists Kottiar is a free port and the English can trade there. The Dutch try to ease his increasing dislike of them 

by giving him certain shipping rights at Colombo and Galle. (Oct) Sinhalese take Arandora, taking the garrison 

as prisoners. The Dutch threaten reprisals and close the ports of Batticaloa, Kottiar and Kalpitiya. (1671, 21 

Feb) Henricus van Hysterbelt visits Singha as ambassador at Hanguranketa. Singha promises to return the 

prisoners and complains about the closed ports. Hysterbelt states they were closed for his protection. Hysterbelt 

remains at the court but since the King's council is bitterly hostile to the Dutch and advocates war with the

Company. A Dane at the Court remarks the Company always uses fine words to the face, but calumny at the 

back, of people, enraging Hysterbelt. He is finally allowed to go back to (29 Oct) Colombo. (1672, March) A 

French squadron under Adm. de la Haye, and with Francois Carron, arrives Trincomalee. By this time it has 

become evident that Dutch attempts to secure absolute monopoly of political and economic control over 

Ceylon is failing due to expenditures far above income gained. Nevertheless the Dutch resist and the French 

fleet, under Adm Del la Haye, Viceroy of Madagasco, seize Trincomalee, seizing an island at the entrance to 

the inner harbor; R. Singha aids and supplies the fleet, gives them the entire bay and the admiral occupies 

Kottiar. The French are given free permission to build a fort. But the French are just as insolent as the Dutch 

who meanwhile seize the French fort, driving the French out of Trincomalee: (9 July) De la Haye sails away, 

leaving a garrison at Kottiar and sending an ambassador, Count de Lanarolle, a Huguenot, to the King. He 

eventually enters the King's service. (1673, 30 Oct) Tennekon, one of the King's generals, deserts to Colombo 

with his family. (Nov) People of Wanni appoint a successor to chief Don Philip without reference to Jaffna and 

the situation becomes tense; a military expedition is sent. (1675) A new Tombo (see 1617) is enacted. About 

this time German physician Paulus Hermann of Halle forms the herbarium laying the foundation for European 

Botany. Also Grimm, a Swede, is studying native medicine and drugs. (April) Van Goens is succeeded by his 

son Rykloff van Goens Junior. (Aug) A Sinhalese army besieges Dutch fort at Bibilegama; it finally 

surrenders. Rumors at Colombo say the Sinhalese are threatening Ruwanella. Unrest pushes the Dutch to 

remove their garrisons from the Seven Korales, Batticaloa, Aripo and other southern points. For the next few 

years there is much political and diplomatic jockeying and appearance of a "savior," while the King wants to 

make himself as disagreeable as possible to the Dutch. (1679) Dutch Governor Van Goens delivers a present to 

the emperor but this does not placate Sinhalese hatred; many of the Dutch in the gift-bearing group are killed 

and others forced to flee to safety. Robert Knox escapes from captivity. (Nov) Van Goens is succeeded by 

Laurens van Pyl, Commandeur of Jafnapatnam. Van Goens tenure has been one of prosperity and profit for the 

Company; a financial success. But the Dutch realize as long as they hold Colombo, there will never be peace; 

they make plans about what to do when the King dies. (1680) Gov Laurens van Pyl, keepin the same 

relationship with the King suggested by Goens, sends an elaborate gift to the emperor, but to no avail. R. 

Singha, leading 30,000 attacks Malwana fort but a general, Thennekon, goes over to the Dutch and the siege is 

raised. (1682) Pyl passes legislation to stamp out heathenism and encourage Christianity. (1684) The Kandyans 

manage to drive the Dutch out of some of the Korales and the salt Lewayas in the south. Pyl adopts a 

conciliatory tone, admitting the Company has done wrong retaining Colombo, the whole island belongs to the 

King and the Dutch are only there to aid him in its defense. He calls himself the King's "faithful and humble 

Governor," and Colombo as Singh's "imperial and invincible castle." Soon Singh's High Priest visits Pyl. There 

are hopes of a speedy resolution to the problem of prisoners. (May) The Adigar, Aswala Raya arrives with a 

long train of released prisoners. Meanwhile, Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, High Commisioner for the Indies 

arrives Nagapatnam. (Aug) Pyl, acting on Rheede's suggestions, offers to restore territory taken since 1665, but 

no one present has any authority to deal with that. (1685) The Company's Chief Physician draws attention to 

the alarming presence of a leprosy type disease, especially among the children of the Dutch by Sinhalese wives 

(see 1703). (1687) Pyl declares that all tanks (reservoirs) belong to the public. Raja Singha realizes his end is 

near and presents his son and heir Prince Mahastana who has been well hidden since his birth. (6 Dec) Death 

of Raja Sihgha II. 

1687 Wimala Dharma Suriya II (Mahastana; Vimaladharmasuriya II of Kandy), son. A great demonstration of joy 

takes place; slaves in chains are released, all criminals condemned to death or to be lashed are pardoned. (23 

Dec) A memorial celebration takes place in Colombo. Taking his father's advice, he labors to live (ie; "coexist") 

with the Dutch. (1688, 10 July) Maha Mohottiar arrives Colombo with a long line of Dutch with their 

wives and children whom the King has set at liberty. The Dutch plans for what to do when the death of R. 

Singha occurs are set aside as they think they can work their way with this inexperience King. But they are 

surprised when Suriya (accepting Pyl's statement that all Ceylon belongs to the King) grants the historic port of 

Weligama to Navaratna. The Dutch Council quickly redefines what was meant by the Dutch being servants of 

the King really meant they are here only to render service to the King. Suriya decides not to rule as an autocrat 

but be guided by ministers, including Maha Nayaka who understands the DEIC. His position is the ports of 

Ceylon must be thrown open (free trade) and the DEIC must surrender all territory taken since 1665. Free trade 

is anathema to the Dutch, they want a new treaty and discuss the occupied territory. They want to reserve to 

themselves exclusive and unhampered trade with the Sinhalese Kingdom as well as the right to collect 

cinnamon within the King's dominions subject to their paying a yearly subsidy. Occupied territory should be 

held by them as security for their alleged claim against the King or transferred to them directly with claims 

extinguished. Mahastana grants only the collection of cinnamon. The Dutch begin paying the annual subsidy. 

The Dutch quietly evacuate the mountain Korales as well as the Three Korales, all of which are taken over by 

the King. He works to restore the National religion (Buddhism) to its past splendor, even assisted in this by the

Dutch trying to stamp out Roman Catholicism. The spread of Buddhism, especially close to Colombo, bothers 

the Dutch. (1690) No cinnamon is collected this year. Joseph Vaz, an Indian and native of Salsete and a Roman 

Catholic from the Congregacao of the Oratory of St. Felippe Neri of Goa, enters Jaffna and organizes a Roman 

Catholic campaign. A church is built at Bogambra. (1691) Profitable year in the pearl fisheries swells the 

Company's coffers. (1692) Dutch receive permission to establish a place of Christian worship at Kelaniya. The 

King again demands all the Comapny's territories except the coast forts be returned to him, stating they will 

assert their rights by force if necessary. (Feb) Pyl is replaced by Thomas van Rhee. Later there is trouble with 

the cinnamon peelers but the King assuages them with better benefits. (1694-95) Drought brings hardship to all 

except the elephant trade bringing profits to the King. Feeding them becomes a problem, drying up other 

pursuits (coconut oil, etc). Evils of the Portuguese system remain, especially egregious is the tax on land 

without any trees; unable to pay, it is carried forward to where payment becomes impossible: Owners abandon 

it and flee the country. (1695) It is reported that the price of arable land in Jaffna (obtained by very hard work) 

has increased five-fold since the expulsion of the Portuguese. The Company forbids the wearing of red cloth (a 

staple of Sinhalese dress) to prevent theft of the dye. (1696) Rioting erupts over unfair administration of the 

Company is several matters; red dye, rice cultivation and prices, etc. The Dutch mollify Changarapillai's son, 

chief of the highest caste. Through Sinhalese persistence, Kalpitia and Kottiar become open ports to Indian 

traders. Batticaloa and Tricomalee become petty outposts. European vessels are not allowed in Company ports 

except for food and water. A vessel is given the King to fetch priests from Arrakan: Two embassies are sent and 

(1697) five ambassadors return with two high priests and 34 ordinary priests. Under their tutelage, Ceylon 

settles into a peaceful state. Van Rhee is succeeded by Gerrit de Heere. (1699) All Roman Catholic churches 

and conventicles are ordered closed. (1701) A trade war breaks out as the Kandyans close their borders with 

Dutch territories in order to stimulate trade through the ports of Puttalam and Kottiyar. (1703) Cornilis 

Johannes Simonsz governor. He has an Asylum built at Hendala for those with leprosy. (1704) The Seventy Six 

Rules and Orders that prevail in Jaffna are collected together and declared operative. (1705) The Dutch agree 

to buy all the arecanuts produced in the emperor's domains at the highest price they can be sold for in India. 

(1706) An embassy is sent to Madura to fetch a bride for the King's son. (1707, May) Mahastana goes to the 

shrine at Samanala Kanda and (4 June) dies. 

1708 Siri Vira-Parakrama Narendra Singha (of Kandy), son, 17 years old. He lives at peace with the Dutch and 

works to further literature and religion. The Dutch, however, return to the old ways: Ports are closed to Indian 

trade and a garrison is placed at Paumben to prevent European vessels from using that passage. Hendrik 

Becker has succeeded at Colombo and is ready to bring reforms to Ceylon. But the illness that plagued the 

Portuguese is effecting the Dutch: Smuggling and corruption are commonplace. A plot to kill the king is 

discovered; the plotters are put to death. The Dutch government sends instructions to bribe Sinhalese subjects 

of the emperor to drive tusked elephants across the Kandyan frontiers into the Dutch East India Company’s 

hunting grounds. This year Kandyan borders are reopened; Puttalam and Kottiyar are closed. The king's 

favorite priest is Saranakara, poet, preacher, controversialist and teacher author of Sarattha Sangaha, translator 

of the Maha Bodhivansa and the medical work Bhesajja Manjusa; for his king he compiles the Rajaratnacara, 

a history of Ceylon and the medical work Warayogasare. (4 June) The Thesawalamai or Customary Law of the 

Country, three year work of collecting Tamil law, is adopted as an authoritative statement. (1711, 6 June) 

Governor Becker issues a proclamation declaring "The clear instructions which we have constantly issued to 

dispel the darkness that surrounds the people of this country are to our immeasurable sorrow and great 

displeasure daily disobeyed and insulted, we find it expedient to awaken that attention which our blessed 

religion requires." Anyone found at a place of heathen worship or decorating heathen images or taking part in 

Hindu ceremonies is liable to be summarily arrested and punished corporally as well as by rigorous 

imprisonment. No one pays attention to this, or the one following that forbids Christians from marrying 

Buddhists. (1714) De Bevere arrives as ambassador; he is a thoroughly disagreeable person who is eventually 

arrested and sent back. (1715) There is trouble with two of the Wannias involving smuggling that is solved by 

erection of a fort at Mullativo. The King formally demands free trade at Puttalam, the Company refuses: The 

Moors of Kilakarai land north of Kudiramalai. The Company places military guards along the northern coast 

and has sloop patrol the area. (1716) I. A. Rumpf becomes Governor at Colombo, bringing a greater regard 

for humanity, justice and ability to the Dutch administration. (1720) Rumpf issues a proclamation urging the 

people to take up cultivation of coffee. (1721) Rumpf announces in this year has the highest revenue collected 

by the Company. Death of the empress; Rumpf sends an embassy (Cornelius Takel) to Kandy offering 

condolences of the DEIC, himself and his council, using the occasion to reduce the state of enmity with which 

the Sinhalese consider the Dutch. (1722) A pearl fishery is held (first in almost a century) and for the next four 

years. (1723) Death of governor Rumpf. Slaves revolt at Colombo and murder some Europeans. Chalias revolt 

preventing a cinnamon harvest this year. (1726, Sept) Stephanus Vuyst Governor; he attempts to make himself 

an independent prince, resorting to atrocious cruelties and other means (torture, extortion, etc) to rid himself of

opposition. For this he is imprisoned and sent to Batavia and punished. His successor Versluys, attempts to do 

the same: He raises the price of rice so high that famine strikes. A great flood sweeps over Jaffna, followed by 

famine (aggravated by Versluys' high price of rice) and disease. Governor Versluys fires on ships coming with 

his successor, Diederik van Domberg, Commandeur of Galle. Versluys is recalled and sent to Batavia. 

Domberg finds the castle of Colombo closed to him. (Dec) Jacob Christian Pielat commissioner. He is busy 

with reforms, especially the court system. Also this year, Narendra Singha tries to appoint a Nayakkar (house 

of his wife) to a prominent position causes a rebellion that is only crushed with Dutch assistance. (1731) Great 

fire at Hanguranketa, with great loss of treasure. (1734, Jan) Ambassadors of the King visit Colombo and Pielat 

urges the ports of Kadawatu be opened. They reply that cannot be done until there's free trade at Puttalam. 

dissatisfaction with the Company is spreading; unrest in Siyane Korale require troops. Pielat is succeeded by 

van Domberg. (1736) Revolt of the Chalias (peelers) of Bellitota, Kosgoda and Madampe against Dutch 

misrule, (war is "declared") they are joined by other peelers and people protesting unfair taxation that is taking 

their lands; people of Matara, Galle, Siyanekorle, Gangaboda Pattu, Kandeboda Pattu, Hapitigain, Alutkuru, 

Salpity, Rygam, Pasdun and Hewegam Korels. Some Dutch-held territory is seized. Death of Domberg. The 

Council at Colombo seeks military assistance from Batavia. (July) Arrival of Governor Baron van Imhof who 

takes matters firmly in hand and pacifies the situation. Good government returns to Dutch Ceylon and 

Kandyans are again at peace. He boosts prosperity by broadening the trade base, from only cinnamon to now 

include pepper, cardamoms and coffee. Also: Van Imhof oversees the establishment of Ceylon's first printing 

press. (1739) 100,000 pounds of coffee are exported this year. Overshadowed by the output from Java and the 

West Indies, the price begins to plummet. (13 May) Death of the King. 

1739 Sri Vijaya Raja Singha (of Kandy, House of Nayak), brother-in-law and therefore a Nayak, beginning the 

Nayakkar Dynasty. Devotes most of his attention to the furtherance of religion. He procures a bride from the 

royal family (Nayak) of Madura; she quickly adopts his religion. Hearing that Buddhism in its purest form is 

practiced in Ayudhya, Siam, he sends an embassy there to obtain priests and books. (1740) Van Imhoff is 

succeeded by William Bruinink. Van Imhoff was a rare Dutch administrator; he had great breadth of view and 

liberality of mind; he fully realized the value of the island, and also realized the selfishness and ignorance has 

brought the Company into extreme danger. He advocated harmonious cooperation with the Court, something 

Batavia is not willing to do. By this time the Catholic missionaries of Jaffna, having obtained some success, are 

seen by the Ministers as working to destroy the religion of the country, and money is employed to secure socalled 

converts among Sinhalese lower classes. The King issues orders for the expulsion of the priests and 

destruction of their places of worship, but these orders are not strictly enforced. The main anxiety is to restore 

Buddhism. (1741) The Company sends an embassy to Pegu to secure some priests for the Sinhalese, but their 

ship is wrecked off Pegu coast. Kandyans invade Dutch territory and seize Siyane Korale. In cooperation with 

the coast Moormen, an extensive smuggling system is organized. Also this year; war begins in Java (to 1758) 

and coffee prices again fall. (1742) The Colombo Tombo is begun. (1745) Kandyans invade Dutch territory 

and ask for a ship to convey an embassy to Pegu. The Dutch refuse and the Sinhalese seize seven more villages 

in the Siyane Korale. A new request for a ship is made and Governor van Golnesse grants it. Also; the number 

of ranchu for the Colombo Disavani is fixed at 105. (1746) The embassy leaves for Siam, reaching (1747) 

Batavia then heading for Siam. Also (1746) the Company has a pearl fishery (and for the next four years) that 

interests the Court. (1747) A smuggling quarrel is patched up and the destroyed factory at Kilakarai is restored. 

(11 Aug) Death of King Raja Slingha. 

1748 Kirti Siri Raja Singha (of Kandy, House of Nayak), 16 years old brother-in-law, who works toward the 

advancement of literature and religion. The Ministers handle the administration until he is of age. The priest 

Tibbotuwawa is ordered to make a comparison of the Mahawansa as it exists in Ceylon with that procured 

from Siam and continue it to 1758. Copies are made of the Digha Nikaya and San-yutta Nikaya. (1749) A 

rebellion arises that is directed at his father Narenappa, a Nayak. (1750) Twenty one of the King's vessels 

appear off Chilaw and dived for oysters (pearls); Company vessels hover nearby because the Dutch are not 

prepared to admit the right of the King any domain over the sea or to any oysers. No pearls are found. (Aug) 

With Dutch assistance, an embassy is sent from Trincomalee to king Dhammika of Siam requesting learned 

priests to further the advancement of Buddhism in Lanka. Ten are sent, under leadership of High-Priest Upali, 

along with books of Dhamma and the Vinaya. In recognition for this service, the emperor sends a likeness of 

the Tooth-relic to Siam. Learned Sinhalese priest Saranankara (or Welliwitta), translator of the Milindapprasne 

is raised to office of Sangha Raja (Arbish). Meanwhile, the Dutch are completing more adequate fortifications 

and pushing their posts farther into the interior; also increasing their demands on the emperor for their 

protection costs. Also; drought this year badly damages most of the pepper plantations. Also; Roman Catholics 

of Nagombo present a memorial written in Tamil, protest against their children being compelled to learn at the 

school's tenets to which they object, and further complain that they are forced by heavy fines to send their 

children to such schools. (1751) Raja Singha comes of age and assumes the throne. (1753) The embassy sent to

Siam returns: In the 2299th after the death of Buddha, in the presence of the King, Kobbyakaduwe Unanse, 

Saranankara and four others are solemnly admitted into the Upasampadawa. "And thus after many years this 

solemnity of the Great Ordination, is established once more amid the rejoicings of the populace, the triumphant 

noise of drums, chanks, and the five kinds of music, and the roar of cannon." (1754) Last revision of the Jaffna 

Tombo (done every 15 years). About this time Plague breaks out playing havoc with much of the population. 

(1755) Another chapter of priests leaves Siam for Ceylon. (May) A cyclone ruins several plantations; coupled 

with the Plague, inland revenue is seriously affected and restlessness arises. (1756) The Court makes a formal 

demand for a share in the elephant trade. The Dutch give evasive replies after which the Court asks for opening 

Puttalam. (1757) Jan Schreuder succeeds as Governor and refuses both requests. Also; to save coffee 

production, Schreuder buys up all that is available. Also; growing of cardamom is abandoned due to the 

depredations of white ants. Also: At Negombo the Council orders some Catholic chapels pulled down; a crowd 

of women try to prevent it being done so some Lascarins are brought in to do the razing. Also: Schreuder 

begins a policy of reclaiming Company lands that have long been possessed by villagers but for which no 

documentary title can be produced. This begins to anger the people. (1758) The Thever attacks the factory at 

Kilakarai, seizing the Company's vessels on his coast. (1759) Completion of the Colombo Tombo: An 

immediate revision is ordered. (Mar) The dispute at Kilakarai is settled and what was seized is returned. 

(1760) A severe rebellion arises over Company exactions in the matter of land allotments and rents owed and 

how they are paid. Soon schools, rest-houses and even the Laandrad House at Galle are burned. The King 

expostulates with the Company and tensions ease. Meanwhile, there is a plot to kill Raja Singha and replace 

him with a prince who had been ordained in Siam. Narenappa Nayaker wields his power and quashes the 

plotters. Despite these tensions, however, the Nayakkar dynasty is establishing support by their patronage of 

Buddhism and Kandyan culture. Also this year; passage of an ordinance stating if a Christian woman lives with 

a pagan man, both are liable to be flogged until blood appears, are to be branded, confined in chains to hard 

labor for life, have all their property confiscated and their children taken away to be slaves. Also; basis of 

education at Colombo Seminary is widened so that suitable youths can be trained to be chief headmen and 

schoolmasters. Their preparation for the ministry is discouraged. (1761) Exasperated by Dutch activities 

(destruction of plantations and butchering the opposition) the emperor opens warfare anew by falling upon 

Dutch garrisons and forts at Matara (which is annexed), Katuwana, Hanwella (which is annexed), Tangalle, 

Marakade and Urubokke, completely destroying them, catching the Dutch, whose soldiers have becomes used 

to the lazy life and are unprepared. Reinforcements come from Coromandel and Malabar, India, but they aren't 

ready to face the guerrilla tactics of the Sinhalesez: Soon half of them are dead and the rest demoralized. (8 

Dec) A letter arrives Colombo from the King trying to begin a dialog. (1762) After the Treaty of Paris, the 

Dutch pour troops into Ceylon. They retake Matara and Hanwella. (March) Subhert Jan Baron van Eck 

governor; with the reputation as a gallant soldier, he frowns on the use of diplomacy. (May) Singha seeks help 

from George Pigot, Governor of Fort St George Madras for assistance (the British also want Ceylon's 

cinnamon, pepper, betel nut (puwak) and to expel the Dutch). The British send John Pybus: The King offers a 

harbor and a share in the cinnamon trade, but there's no help to expel the Dutch. Also; the Galle Tombo is 

nearly complete. Also; legality of Roman Catholic baptisms and marriages is recognized. (1763) The Madras 

government sends Mr Pybus to the emperor to assure him of English friendship and to offer English support in 

a war with the Dutch. An alliance is promised but nothing comes of it because the British are only after 

permission to establish a settlement in Ceylon and ascertain what concessions can possibly be forced out of the 

King. Meanwhile, with dissension among the Kandyan chiefs, the Dutch decide to take the offensive, they 

seize Puttalam and Chilaw then head inland on a two-pronged invasion. The weather and Sinhalese guerrilla 

tactics take their toll, and the army soon returns to Colombo. (1764) By this time Kandy in on the brink of 

starvation due to Dutch actions. The Dutch, however, want to make up for the disaster of 1762; (2 Dec) Don 

Simon Disanayaka sets out. (1765, 13 Jan) Van Eck leaves from Colombo as a second army leaves from 

Pattalam: Company army is made up of Europeans, Sepoys and Malays. (12 Feb) Sinhalese are driven back 

and Weuda taken. Van Eck is visited by the Adigar and some of the King's courtiers. Galagedera Pass is taken 

and (16 Feb) the King's pleasure garden at Katugastota. Messages are sent to try to keep the Dutch out of the 

King's palace. Eck considers the war won and demands the King pay a war indemnity of 200,000 pagodas, an 

annual tribute of elephants and lay down his crown to be crowned again as the Company's vassal. Valuables are 

hidden and Singha withdraws to Hanguranketa; the Dutch cross the river and van Eck enters the palace, setting 

it up as his HQ. Religious books and sacred things are destroyed. The palace is sacked, then the palace at 

Kundasala is sacked and (24 Feb) 900 men are sent to Hanguranketa but the King has gone to Badulla. The 900 

are faced with Guerrilla fighting Sinhalese who reduce them to a fleeing rabble. Van Eck realizes his gross 

mistake, he sends messages agreeing to the King's terms while his army wastes the countryside. With sickness 

making its appearance, (4 March) van Eck starts for Colombo, leaving a garrison of 1,800 under de Feber. (28 

March) Death of van Eck. De Feber withdraws to Wisinawaya, leaving a garrison under Rein. (11 April) By

this time the Sinhalese have come as far as the boundary at Sitawaka, having wreaked vengeance on everyone 

and everything belonging to the Company. (Aug) Imam Willem Falck governor: He (10 Aug) begins 

negotiations but makes a show of force along some of the borders. (Dec) An ambassador arrives from the King. 

Falck has all stores of salt found and destroyed; the Three, Four and Seven Korales are ravaged; garrison at 

Tricomalee enters Bitenne and a force under Maj. Duflo enters Matale where people are starving to death. One 

of the King's palaces there are burned down along with years' worth of saltpeter collection. Negotiations begin. 

(1766, 14 Feb) The Treaty of Batticaloa is agreed upon that is favorable to the Dutch: See Appendix III. The 

King signs at Hanguranketa. Duflo withdraws from Matale. Soon the Sinhalese feel this treaty so harsh that 

they immediately begin searching for foreign assistance in expelling their foes. (1767, 24 Jan) Falck enters into 

an agreement with Thamotharam Pillai, the Thever's guardian and regent by which the Pamben passage is sold 

to the Company. Falk begins organizing the Company's holdings and restoring order in the country. This year 

de Coste finally completes his work bringing the sea-flooded tract of Mutu raja wela, about 6,000 acres, into 

rice production. A few years later is fails.(1768) Sinhalese chieftain Dissanayake Mudaliyar produces 

Makaraddaja; he has also translated the Tamil tale Wallimatakatawa into Sinhalese. (1769) The sale of 

firearms and ammunition is placed under severe restrictions. (1770) Production of Kaw-minim-aldama and 

several poems by an inhabitant of Katuwana in Matara. (1771) A canal is opened between Kotte and Moratuwa 

Lake by way of Nedimale. (1772) By this time the powerful Nawab of the Carnatic, with British support, has 

reduced the Thever and is claiming a share in the Pearl Fishery. The King sends an embassy to Tanjore in this 

regard. (1775) A request is sent from the Court for a share of the Fishery: Refused. (1776) Another request, 

with added request for restoration of a portion of the coast: Refused. (1777) The Company takes over the 

Wanni area of Jaffna. (1778, Feb) American colonies enter an alliance with France. They are joined by Spain 

and enmity erupts between England and the Dutch; a struggle that quickly spreads to India and Ceylon, as the 

Dutch ally with the French. (1780) Britain declares war against the Dutch republic. (1781, Nov) English 

capture Nagapatnam. (1782, 2 Jan) Kirti Siri Raja Singha dies from falling off a horse. 

1782 Siri Rajadi Raja Singha (of Kandy), brother. (1782, 4 Jan) English Admiral Huges captures Trincomalee: A Mr. 

Boyd is sent to Kandy to assure the emperor of English intentions and to enlist aid against the Dutch: An 

alliance is not secured but the Sinhalese supply the British squadron with provisions. Admiral Huges goes to 

Madras for refitting and supplies for Trincomalee. French admiral Suffrein (27 Aug) attacks the fort, it (31 

Aug) capitulates. The garrison is allowed to return to Madras. (2 Sept) Admiral Huges returns but the French 

have taken over Trincomalee. (1784) The Company regains Trincomalee (peace terms). (1785, 5 Feb) Death of 

Falck. He is succeeded (7 Feb) by Willem Jacob van der Graaff, Commandeur of Galle. (Mar) Abayasinha of 

Galle is appointed Maha Mudaliyar. The Court insists the humiliating ceremonies abolished in 1766 restored 

and wants the western coast restored; the latter is refused. Also; and abortive treaty is entered into with the 

agent of the Nawab in regards to the Pearl Fishery, but it is repudiated by the Nawab. Mutual friends intervene 

and (1788, 7 July) a new treaty is concluded: Company cedes to the Nawab half the Tutucorin fishery and the 

right to 36 boats in the Ceylon fishery. Meanwhile (1788, 15 April) a treaty between Dutch and British in 

which the latter will assist the settlements belonging to the United Provinces in case of hostilities with France. 

(1789) Lord Cornwallis assures der Graff he'll carry out the treaty's promise: Rice from British settlements 

eases a Ceylonese shortage. (1790) Lord Cornwallis appeals to der Graaff for assistance against Tippu Sultan 

who has attacked the Travancore Raja. (1791) Governor Van de Graaft, aware of Sinhalese preparations for 

war, prohibits their supply of salt as per treaty of 1766, but Batavia intervenes and recommends conciliatory 

measures. But an alliance with the French against the Dutch is concluded. (June) Col. de Meuron advances into 

the Disawani, expecting to be joined by Pilima Talauwa but isn't. He pushes on to Kendangomuwa but finds 

himself cut off and starving. He retreats to Sitawaka. (1792) With hostilities about to begin, a hardening of 

relations between the governor and emperor occurs over the not-sending of an embassy to the court at Kandy. 

(1793) The Company, by refusing to send an embassy to the King, is limited to peeling cinnamon in its own 

territory. (End) Rumor reaches Ceylon that France has declared war (1 Feb) on Holland and England: Van der 

Graaff begins making thing ready. (1794, 10 Jan) Van der Graaff is succeeded by his father-in-law Joan 

Gerrard van Angelbeek. (Aug) Dutch seize a British ship with a cargo of piece goods (cotton) claiming a 

monopoly in the trade under a series of treaties since 1690, and by prescriptive right. Lord Hobart at Madras 

refuses to recognize their claim. He finally manages Angelbeek to (1795, June) refer the matter to Europe. 

(Dec) French enter the Netherlands and the government flees to England. (1795, 7 Feb) Van Angelbeek is 

requested to admit his Britannic Majesty's men and ships within the settlements in his charge, and to treat them 

as allies coming to protect the Settlements from the French. Hobart immediately claims possession of the 

Settlements assuring they will be restored as soon as the Netherlands are free of France. (27 July) The Council 

replies that nothing was said about handing over the Settlements; but they will give all assistance to British 

vessels and receive garrisons at Colombo and Trincomalee as long as Madras will defray the expenses. (2 Aug) 

Col. Stuart complains only Angelbeek signed the terms, not any of the council; he attacks the fort and (26 Aug)

Trincomalee is taken; (31 Aug) Fort Ostenberg is taken and British troops head for Batticaloa. The Court, 

pleased with all of this, is keeping the British forces well supplied. (18 Sept) Battacola and (28 Sept) Jaffna are 

taken. (29 Sept) Robert Andrews of the BEIC sees the King, asking for a place where the BEIC could build a 

fort and a factory. He offers a draft treaty that would extend military aid in return for control of the seacoast 

and a monopoly of the cinnamon trade. The Ministers, while agreeing to give preference to the British, reserve 

for themselves the right to sell to any other nation. (12 Oct) Preliminaries of a treaty are signed. (Nov) Lord 

Hobart states the question of the entire exclusion of the Dutch can only be solved in Europe, causing much 

bitterness in the Sinhalese. (1796, Jan) Col. Stuart's army collects at Rameswaram and (10 Jan) starts for 

Negombo, soon taking it. (12 Feb) Kandyan ambassador Migastenne Disawa signs the treaty in Madras: It 

provides for the site of a factory, preferential trade, restoration to the King all territory occupied by force, with 

some salt pans and limited right of foreign trade, as well as protection for the religion of Buddhism. The 

Council prepares Colombo for a siege. Meanwhile, (9 Feb) Col. Stewart begins the siege of Colombo. He 

receives news that the King's forces are approaching from the east. (13 Feb) Van Angelbeek opens secret 

negotiations. (14 Feb) Maj. Agnew is taken to meet the Council. (16 Feb) Colombo is turned over to the 

English, ending Dutch power in Ceylon: The terms cast no obligation on the British to restore Lanka to the 

Dutch at the peace, though the Dutch believed it would. The emperor, who had rendered assistance to the 

English, now finds that nothing has changed; the British maintain the political and territorial relations as they 

were under the Dutch: Ceylon's maritime provinces come under the Madras government; commissioner 

Andrews takes over; new tax measures are enacted: (1) The supersession of the natives of the country by 

foreign Madrasis, who are followed by swarms of Tamils in the hope of farming the revenues; (2) the 

subjection of each coconut tree as from September 1, 1796, to a yearly tax of one silver fanam, an impost 

sometimes in excess of the value of the produce; (3) abolition of the ancient service-tenure of land, which is 

replaced by a tax of one-tenth of the paddy crop; and. (4) the `union of powers of renter and magistrate.' It is 

reported that the `Revenue can only be collected at the point of the bayonet.' These impositions weighs heavily 

due to varying land fertilities; the whole country erupts in violent revolt. The Madrasis is abolished, as is the 

obnoxious tax, service-tenure and the authority of the native chiefs are restored, and lastly the institution of a 

mild and upright administration is recommended. (1796, 26 July) Death of Siri Rajadi Raja Singha without 

issue: First Adigar Pilimi Talawa nominates 18 year old Konnasami (son of the sister of the Queen Dowager) in 

hopes the chiefs will disagree and invite him to the throne. But this backfires. (1797) By this time London has 

decided to retain Ceylon as a British possession. (1798) Ceylon's maritime provinces are transferred to the 

British Crown: The BEIC is compelled to share in the administration of the island and the Company is 

guaranteed a monopoly of trade, especially the moderately profitable--but no longer robust--cinnamon trade. 

The governor of the island is responsible for law and order, but financial and commercial matters are under the 

control of the director of the BEIC.(12 Oct) Frederick North is appointed administrator under control of the 

Governor in Council of the Madras Presidency. Konnasami ascends the throne as 

BRITISH PERIOD 

1798 (26 July) Sri Wickreme Raja Singha (Sri Vickrama Rajasinha)(of Kandy). Muttusami, brother-in-law of Sri 

Rajadhi Rajasinha also claims the throne of Kandy, but P. Talauve arrests him and his sisters. Now P. Talawa 

begins intriguing with governor North for Singha's removal and his own accession by trying to manipulate the 

king into an act of aggression which would give the British an excuse to seize the kingdom. (1799, Feb) P. 

Talawa and North meet at Avisawella. (Dec) They meet again; the Adigar directly requests the Governor to 

assist him in taking away the king's life and placing himself on the throne, in return for which he would make 

the English masters of the country. Rejected. (1800, Jan) Acting Secretary to the British Government Boyd 

meets with P. Talawa. The Adigar is informed that the Governor desires the continuance of the minister's 

power, and will secure it to him provided that the king places himself and his country under British protection 

and admits a garrison into the capital. The safety of the king's person and the continuance of his dignity are 

stipulated and the question of an embassy broached. (1 Feb) In an interview between Boyd and the Adigar, the 

latter renounces all attempts on the king's life. It is decided to send an embassy directly to Kandy: (12 Mar) 

Gen Macdowal and 1,164 leave Colombo for Kandy; he is stopped at Ruwanwella. S. W. R. Singha is unaware 

of P. Talawa's intrigues and turns down British treaty overtures, article III of which provides for British 

protection of the emperor and his succession and his payment for this protection. The Kandyan court proposes 

its own treaty; article VI is unacceptable to the British as it allows the emperor 12 ships and freedom of trade 

with them. Negotiations continue. (1801) Peace of Amiens; control of British settlement transferred from BEIC 

to Secretary of State for the Colonies in England; Ceylon becomes a Crown Colony (effected 1 Jan, 1802). All 

Dutch holdings in the country are transferred to the British. British agents are put in charge of lucrative pearl 

fisheries, cotton plantations, salt, and tobacco monopolies. (1802) North introduces the Jenner vaccination 

against smallpox. (Feb) an embassy from Kandy under the Second Adigar Migastenne is received at Colombo, 

and demands the cession of three small islands as well as the right to ten ships. This is ignored and the adigar

decides to involve the king and British in hostilities. (April) Thirty or forty British subjects, Moors from 

Puttalam, are forcibly detained, ill-treated, and robbed at the instigation of the Adigar, whose agent sells the 

stolen areca nuts. The British demand reparations from Kandy - refused - (but all messages are sent through 

Talawa and the king knows nothing of his adigar's designs on his throne). The British prepare to march on 

Kandy, beginning the First Kandyan War. (1803, 31 Jan) British under Major-General Macdowal leave 

Colombo (4 Feb) Second division under Colonel Barbut leaves Trincomalee. (20 Feb) The two divisions meet 

at the Mahaweliganga three miles from Kandy and (21 Feb) march into the deserted capital and install 

1803 (8 Mar) Muttusami, brother of one of the queens dowager, who is not respected by the Kandyans. Upon his 

coronation, he enters a treaty with the British: The Seven Korales, the forts of Girihagama and Galagedara in 

Tumpane, and the road to Trincomalee are to be ceded to the British; the new king is to enter into no relations 

with foreign powers save with the consent of the Lanka Government; he is to pay for British troops, if required 

for his support, and also provide a pension for the prince lately on the throne; a British minister is to reside at 

the Court, when so required; finally, the frontier duties are to be abolished and free trade established between 

the interior and the Maritime Provinces. The Kandyans begin guerrilla warfare. (13-15 Mar) A disastrous 

expedition under Colonel Baillie is made to Hanguranketty to capture S. W. R. Singha. (28 Mar) P. Talawa 

concludes an agreement with general Macdowal wherein if S. W. R. Singha is captured, P. Talawa will be 

invested with supreme authority at Kandy as Ootoon Komarayen and other provisions: Muttusami is pensioned 

off at Jaffnapatam; Fort Macdowal and district, the road to Trincomalee and province of Seven Korles ceded to 

the British; immediate cessation of hostilites. (1 April) Macdowal, his men greatly reduced by disease, leaves 

Kandy for Colombo, leaving a garrison behind under Barbut. The garrison is killed by the adigar. Retreating 

British are defeated on the Mahaveli River. Now Pilimi Talawa begins playing off the British and Kandyans 

against each other to gain more power for himself. (1 April) Gen Macdowal leaves Kandy for Colombo (5 

May) Governor North agrees to terms of the treaty. (21 May) Death of Barbut (who had prevented the adigar 

from kidnapping the Governor) who is succeeded by Major Davie. The Adigar asks Macdowal to come to 

Kandy, which (23 May) he does, but the adigar isn't there. He soon becomes sick with fever and (11 June) 

leaves. The garrison is blockaded and most of the Malays desert. (23 June) Kandyan forces seize British posts 

at Giriagamme and Galgedera. (24 June) Kandyan forces attack the British garrison at Kandy and force them to 

surrender. They agree to abandon Kandy and take Muttusami with them. (26 June) While preparing to cross the 

Mahaweliganga at Watapologa ferry, P. Talawa manages to have the British give up Muttusami whom he has 

killed. Having been abandoned by their Malays and Sepoys, the British force is slaughtered. (July, end) 

Kandyans threaten the frontiers. (Aug) The Kandyans pour out of the mountains into British settlements 

attempting to bring low-country Sinhalese to join them in expelling the British. (21 Aug) They take Hanwella, 

near Colombo but are driven back to Sitawaka. (Sept, early) Singha attacks the fort Hanwella defended by 

invalids; he (6 Sept) is routed, fleeing back to his own territory. The British begin a war of devastation and 

retaliation. (1804, Feb) Macdowall is relieved by General Wemyss. It is decided to carry out a concerted attack 

from all sides with the object of causing the greatest devastation and injury to the enemy's country; the troops 

to meet in Kandy Sept 28 and 29. Instructions are unclear. (20 Sept) Captain Johnston with 834 leaves 

Batticaloa and (6 Oct) reaches Kandy. Soon, without promised reinforcements, he is forced to retreat, arrives 

Trincomalee (20 Oct), there he learns the plan against Kandy has been abandoned. British-Kandy warfare 

continues with savage barbarities on both sides. (1805, Feb) Kandyans exercise an extensive invasion of 

British settlements but they are driven back after British reinforcements arrive. The king goes to Four Korles 

where he brings one Molligoda into his government. (1805, 19 July) Sir Thomas Maitland assumes British 

government in Ceylon. Though enmity exists, there are no military operations from either side during his 

administration: End of First Kandyan War. (1806) Catholics are relieved of the disabilities imposed upon 

them by the Dutch. (1808) Death of Migastenna, second adigar and dissave of Seven Korles. Eheylapola is 

appointed second adigar. The king divides the district between chiefs Eheylapola and Molligoda but the people 

revolt at the double taxation this entails. P. Talawa suppresses the revolt; the district's administration is 

transferred to him and his nephew Eheylapola. (1809-10) Enmity grows between the king and P. Talawa; soon 

P. Talawa's acts are too much, he is tried and thrown in prison. Soon retired where he plots the king's 

assassination. But the plan runs awry and P. Talawa and his henchmen are apprehended; Talawa is executed 

(along with six petty chiefs and his nephew) and Ethelepoda becomes first adagir but he is not trusted too much 

by the king. (1811, 19 Mar) Major-General Wilson assumes the government of Ceylon. This year a Charter of 

Justice is enacted in which trial by jury is extended to all British subjects. The Provincial Courts also are 

abolished and the Landraads revived (abolished next year). (1812, 11 Mar) Sir Robert Brownrigg assumes the 

government. This year he establishes the first Botanic Garden. (1813) Soon Eheylapola's true colors come to 

light from his actions in his district (Sabaragamuwa) and he is recalled to Kandy for an investigation; but he 

defies the king and begins treasonable correspondence with Governor Brownrigg: His wife and family are 

imprisoned. Molligoda is appointed Eheylapola's successor. (1814) Complaints as to Ehelepola's rule reach the

king, already suspicious of his minister; Ehelepola is summoned to Kandy, but well knowing his master's 

temper refuses to obey and rebels. Molligoda, succeeding to his offices, crushes the revolt. Eheylapola is 

routed; he flees to Kalutara (May) thence to Colombo and safety. Malligoda goes to Kandy. Suspected of 

treason, Eheylapola's brother, wife and sister are executed; his wife is forced to take part in the brutal execution 

of her children then she, her sister-in-law are drowned in Bogambarawera tank. This brutal and barbaric 

execution angers the people against the king and Robert Brownrigg sees this as an opportunity to annex the 

Kandyan kingdom to the British Crown. His preparations are assisted by Eheylapola. (Nov) The king punishes 

ten cloth merchants who have come to him complaining of being plundered by a band of Kandyans for being 

British spies. (1815) British insist on the abolition of mutilation, torture and other inhumane practices. Sir 

Robert Brownrigg considers this an act of aggression and (Jan) his army of eight divisions enters Kandyan 

territory: Two divisions marching from each of the fortresses of Colombo, Galle and Trincomalee, and one 

each from Batticaloa and Negombo; war being declared 10 Jan. (Second Kandyan War), one of its chief aims 

is to deliver the Kandyans from their oppressors and subversion of the Malabar dominion. (10 Jan) Kandyans 

pursue Ehelepola's men across the Sitawaka River into British territory, where they burn a house. Malligoda 

and other chiefs support the British advance but do not renounce the Kandyan government. (14 Feb) The 

British army enters Kandy. (16 Feb) A detachment accompanied by Eheylapola is sent to Doombera districts 

and (18 Feb) the king is captured and deposed; thus ends Ceylon's Suluwansa period (Ends Second Kandyan 

War). Measures are put in motion to permanently settle the government of the now British territory of Kandy. 

(2 Mar) A convention is held in the audience hall of the palace at Kandy between Governor-General Brownrigg 

(on behalf of King George III) and the adigars, dissaves and other chiefs of the Kandyan people. A treaty (the 

Kandyan Convention) is agreed to: (1) The king's unusual punishments and tortures flaunted justice, (2) he is 

deposed and no member of his family, however remote, may not claim the throne, all claim to the Kandyan 

throne is abolished and extinguished, (3) Any pretenders become enemies to the government of the Kandyan 

provinces. (4) The dominion of the Kandyan provinces is vested in the Soverign of the British Empire 

exercised through the Lt Gov of Ceylon who retains appointive authority over Kandyan chiefs and subordinate 

headmen. (5) Buddhism is inviolable, its rights, ministers and places of worship are to be maintained and 

protected. (6) Every species of torture and mutilation are prohibited and abolished. (7) Death sentence can only 

be carried out after written warrant of British Gov or Lt-Gov in whose presence all capital trials must be held. 

(8) Administration of civil and criminal justice is to be exercised according to established forms. (9) Etc: This 

agreement allows for the protection of Buddhism and the preservation of local systems of government under 

the authority of the British Governor in Colombo and supervised by British agents in Sabaragamuwa, the Three 

Korales, and Uva. 

1816 (24 Jan) The deposed king, Sri Wickreme Raja Singha, his family, dependents and adherents are transferred to 

Madras then to the fort of Vellore (dies 30 Jan, 1832). Meanwhile, by the treaty of 1815 local lords such as 

Ehelepola and Molligoda are acutely aware that they were ultimately answerable to the British, and are in 

practice junior to British military officers who now have free access to their domains. 

1817 (Sept) A strange priest appears in Wellassa who is ordered to be arrested, there is resistance, the priest is (16 

Sept) murdered. (Oct) The resistance becomes an insurrection against British rule (for it makes no distinctions 

as to caste or privileged class; the English differ from Kandyans in race, religion, language, customs, habits 

and mode of thinking), beginning in Wellassa province, it spreads quickly to Uva and Walpane (Third 

Kandyan War). Keppitipola, Dissave of Uva, is sent to quash the uprising, but defects and joins the rebels 

instead. (July) By this time every major Kandyan lord except Molligoda has joined the rebellion; several, 

including Ehelepola, have already been captured. Molligoda however ensures the road to Kandy remains open. 

(16 Oct) The rebels force Lieut Newman to retreat. (20-26 Oct) Revolt rises in Matale province and doubts as 

to Eheylapola's loyalty is entertained by the governor though both arrive at Kandy. It is decided to relieve 

Millawa, dissave of Wellasa. (30 Oct) Keppetipola is captured. (1 Nov) Madugalle Adikaram is captured. Now 

a body of troops under major Macdonald begins a destruction campaign in Wellasa province, but this merely 

inflames the Sinhalese even further. (26 Nov) Adikaram and Keppetipola are beheaded. 

1818 (Feb) By now all Kandyan country is in arms against the British except lower Sabaragamuwa, the Three and 

Four Korles, Udunuwara and Yatinuwara. (12 Feb) Martial Law is established. (3 March) Eheylapola is 

arrested by the British and imprisoned at Colombo (until 1825, dies Mauritius April 1829). (April) British 

reinforcements from Bengal and Madras arrive. (May-July) The rebellion continues, neither side gaining an 

advantage. (Aug) Rebellion leaders Wilbawa and Keppitapola are joined by Madugalla, chief of Doombera 

who persuades Wilbawa to become king. (Sept) The people begin to realize that they have nothing to gain from 

continued resistance except famine, and hostilities abate. (3 Sept) The king appoints Madugalla second adigar 

and Dissavve of Matale. Soon, however, Madugalla finds out that the king is not of royal blood line, but 

merely an unfrocked priest; Madugalla has both Wilbawa and Keppitapola seized and imprisoned. Wilbawa, 

soon freed renounces his kingly titles. (30 Oct) Capture of Keppitapola and Pilimi Talawa (son of Pilimi

Talawa). (1 Nov) Capture of Madugalla and the revolt comes to an end (he and Kappitapola executed 25 Nov) 

(End of Third Kandyan War). (21 Nov) Governor Brownrigg issues a proclamation that brings the Kandyan 

provinces under closer control. British agents usurp the powers and privileges of the chiefs and become the 

arbitrators of provincial authority, although the British are to show respect to higher class Sinhalese officers, 

and adigars, dissaves and other chiefs are to be compensated for their services. Finally, the British reduce the 

institutional privileges accorded Buddhism, in effect placing the religion on an equal footing with other 

religions. In other matters the government reserves the right to reform abuses, notably, Brownrigg makes it 

possible for slaves who want to free themselves to purchase their freedom. With this final British consolidation 

over Kandy, the country falls under the control of a single power. (1819, 12 Feb) Martial Law ceases in the 

Kandyan provinces. 

1820 Kandyans demonstrate dissatisfaction toward the British government. 

1821 The road from Columbo to Kandy is opened. Also a connection to Kurunagala. Peradeniya Botanical garden 

developed. Barnes passes a regulation giving the government power to purchase from their masters all female 

slave children born after 24 April. 

1823 (and 1824) Kandyans stage uprisings against the British. 

1824 (18 Jan) Sir Edward Barnes governor; he continues his predecessors policy of opening communications. He is 

responsible for consolidating British military control over the Kandyan provinces through a program of 

vigorous road construction. He also begins experimenting with a variety of commercial crops, such as coffee. 

1825 The Colombo - Kandy road is completed. A connection to Ambepussa is made. Road construction continues 

throughout the country. 

1829 The British Colonial Office sends a Royal Commission of Eastern Inquiry--the Colebrooke-Cameron 

Commission--to assess the administration of the island. 

1830 About this time Barnes introduces coffee cultivation in the interior. By this time the British have almost 

finished consolidating their position in Sri Lanka and are beginning to take more of an interest in securing the 

island's political stability and economic profitability. Ideas of Utilitarianism promote the idea of democracy and 

individual liberty. This philosophy sponsors the idea of the trusteeship, i.e., that new territories will be 

considered trusts and will receive all the benefits of British liberalism. 

1831 Construction of Kandy - Matale road. (1832) It is extended to Dambulla. 

1832 Construction of Royal College. 

1833 Issuance of the Colebrooke-Cameron report: The proposed reforms opposed mercantilism, state monopolies, 

discriminatory administrative regulations, and, in general, any interference in the economy. It aims to end the 

protested administrative division of the country along ethnic and cultural lines into lowcountry Sinhalese, 

Kandyan Sinhalese, and Tamil areas. (31 Aug) Charter of Justice: A new Supreme Court is erected, and shortly 

afterwards District Courts are brought into being. (28 Sept) Order of the King in Council, proclaimed: 

Compulsory labor is abolished; the old Council of Government is dissolved, and Executive and Legislative 

Councils established in its place; the separate administration of the interior is done away with and the Kandyan 

districts amalgamated with the old British settlements on the coast, each of the new provinces being under a 

Government Agent. The cinnamon monopoly, which had long ceased to be profitable owing to the competition 

of Java and China, is also discontinued. The Civil Service is opened to the Sinhalese. 

1834 The union of the Kandyan with the Maritime Provinces, the substitution of smaller divisions under 

Ratemahatmayas for the old provinces under Disawas, and the abolition of forced service and of compulsory 

attendance at festivals are not acceptable to the chiefs, and results in a plot against the Government led by the 

younger Molligoda. (1835) The conspirators are tried before the Supreme Court but are acquitted. Molligoda is 

dismissed and his place taken by Mahawalatenne, the last of the old line of Adigars. 

1837 Sugar and cocoa planting are tried but aren't very successful. Rubber as a crop is introduced. 

1840 To prevent abuse of coffee planting land use, an ordinance is passed that makes it virtually impossible for a 

Kandyan peasant to prove that his land is not truly crown land and thus subject to expropriation and resale to 

coffee interests. 

1841 Opening of the Ceylon Bank to finance the rapid expansion of coffee plantations. 

1844 Slavery is abolished. 

1846 World-wide depression puts strains on Ceylon's economy, temporarily checking the rapid development of the 

plantation system. Falling coffee prices cause financial disruption, aggravating the friction that had been 

developing between the static traditional feudal economy and modernized commercial agriculture. In order to 

make up for lost revenue, the government imposes a series of new taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, 

carriages, and bullock carts. All of these taxes affect Sinhalese farmers. 

1848 Passage of a land tax and road ordinance that reintroduces a form of rajakariya by requiring six days' free 

labor on roads or the payment of a cash equivalent. Also passed is the alienation of temple lands for coffee 

plantations. A rebellion erupts over this that is so severely repressed the House of Commons in London

commissions an investigation to look into the matter. The governor and his chief secretary are subsequently 

dismissed, and all new taxes, except the road ordinance, are repealed. The government adopts a new policy 

toward Buddhism after the rebellion, recognizing the importance of Buddhist monks as leaders of Kandyan 

public opinion. 

1867 First railroad construction in Ceylon. Also this year, introduction of tea cultivation in central Ceylon and 

settlement of many Tamils in the region. 

1869 A devastating leaf disease--hemleia vastratrix strikes the coffee plantations and spreads quickly throughout the 

plantation district, destroying the coffee industry within fifteen years. Planters desperately search for a 

substitute crop, a promising one being chinchona (quinine). After an initial appearance of success, however, the 

market price soon falls and never fully recovers. Cinnamon is revived at this time, but only to become an 

important minor crop. Tea cultivation begins to gain interest. 

1880 (16 May) Henry Steele Olcott, with Madam Blavatsky, founders of the Theosophical Society, arrive Colombo. 

Their reputation precedes them as they receive a wild welcome. (25 May) Kneeling at the Wijanada Monastery, 

they recite in broken Pali the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts of Theravada Buddhism, thus becoming the 

first European-Americans to publicly and formally become lay Buddhists. During this visit he founds seven lay 

branches and one monastic branch of the Buddhist Theosophical Society (BTS). He is explicit about modeling 

his Asian work after Christian examples: “As the Christians have their Society for the diffusion of Christian 

knowledge, so this should be a society for the diffusion of Buddhist knowledge.” Olcott also founds, again on 

Christian models, Buddhist secondary schools and Sunday schools affiliated with the BTS, (July) Olcott and 

Blavatsky leave Ceylon as folk heroes. 

1881(April) Olcott leaves USA for Ceylon and spends eight months criss-crossing the country, "shocked" at 

Sinhalese ignorance of Buddhism, coming to the conclusion that Ceylon’s Buddhists knew little, if anything, 

about “real” Buddhism. Like his hated missionaries and his beloved Orientalists, Olcott assumes the right to 

define what Buddhism really is. Unlike them, however, he assumes the duty to stir the Sinhalese masses from 

their ignorance, to instill in them his own creole representation of their Buddhist faith. His Buddhist 

Theosophical Society of Ceylon establishes three institutions of higher learning: Ananda College, Mahinda 

College, and Dharmaraja College. Olcott's society founds these and some 200 lower schools to impart 

Buddhist education with a strong nationalist bias. (24 July) Publication of his The Buddhist Catechism. 

1882 (18 July) Olcott's third tour to Ceylon. He finds the Catholic Church is making inroads in his Buddhist society. 

He finds he has the ability to "heal," becoming again quite popular and reviving his Buddhist ideas. (1883, end) 

Olcott and his healing has become so popular that he is overwhelmed; Theosophical Masters (adepts with 

whom Blavatsky is supposed to have communicated telepathically) hand down an order to stop the healings, 

Olcott happily complies. 

1883 (25 Mar) Buddhist-Catholic riot in Kotahena, a Catholic stronghold in Colombo. It lasts three hours, with one 

killed and many wounded. Sinhalese monks and laypeople cable Olcott urging him to come to Ceylon. 

1884 (27 Jan) Olcott organizes a Buddhist Defense Committee, which elects him an honorary member and charges 

him to travel to London as its representative, “to ask for such redress and enter into such engagements as may 

appear to him judicious.” (May) Olcott arrives in London. Though officials are wary of augmenting his already 

significant influence, he is able to meet with Lord Derby’s assistant undersecretary, R. H. Meade. Shortly 

thereafter he sends a memo to Lord Derby, demanding: (1) that Catholics accused of instigating the riot be 

brought to trial; (2) that Buddhists be guaranteed the right to exercise their religion freely; (3) that Wesak - the 

full moon day on which the Sinhalese commemorate the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death - be 

declared a public holiday; (4) that all restrictions against the use of tom-toms and other musical instruments in 

religious processions be removed; (5) that Buddhist registrars be appointed; and (6) that the question of 

Buddhist temporalities (the supposedly negligent control of Buddhist properties by monks) be resolved. Olcott 

encloses with his memo some accompanying documents that testify to the “discontent and despair” that has in 

his view gripped the island’s Buddhists following the Kotahena riots. He hints that, if ignored, their 

dissatisfaction might result in a rebellion. (Fall) Colonial officials agree to pursue “more of a hands off policy” 

regarding the use of tom-toms and other musical instruments in religious processions. 

1885 (28 April) Wesak becomes an official holiday in British Ceylon. Also era (± five years) of Buddhist-inspired 

temperance movement initiated to fight drunkenness. 

1900 By this time tea production on the island had risen enormously. It shows a real promise of success. A decline in 

the demand for Chinese tea in Britain opens up possibilities for Indian tea, especially the fine variety 

indigenous to Assam. Climatic conditions for the cultivation of tea are excellent in Sri Lanka, especially in the 

hill country. The year-round labor required for tea lures many Tamils, who are Hindus, to settle on the island. 

1905 Founding of Ceylon Social Reform Society to combat other temptations associated with Westernization. 

1910 The colonial government permits a modest experiment allowing a small electorate of Sri Lankans to send one 

of their members to the Legislative Council.

1915 WW I; rubber production exceeds tea production. Also: Communal rioting breaks out between Sinhalese and 

Muslims on the west coast. The British panic, misconstruing the disturbances as part of an anti-government 

conspiracy; they blame the majority ethnic group and indiscriminately arrest many Sinhalese, including D.S. 

Senanayake who actually uses his influence to try to curb the riots. The British put down the unrest with 

excessive zeal and brutality, which shocks British and Sri Lankan observers alike. This is a turning point in the 

nationalist movement as activists begin mobilizing for coordinated action against the British. 

1919 The major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations unite to form the Ceylon National Congress. One of its 

first actions is to submit a proposal for a new constitution that would increase local control over the Executive 

Council and the budget. British Governor William Manning actively encourages the concept of "communal 

representation" 

1920 The demands of 1919 are not met but a new constitution is promulgated. Colombo is made the town seat. 

1924 Constitutional reforms recognize Tamil distinctiveness as a group and their cultural differences from the 

Sinhalese. Two members of the Indian Tamil community are nominated to the Legislative Council. Although 

the nationalists' demand for representation in the Executive Council is not granted, the Legislative Council is 

expanded to include a majority of elected Sri Lankan unofficial members, bringing the island closer to 

representative government. Yet the franchise remains restrictive and includes only about 4 percent of the 

island's population. 

1927 A royal commission under the Earl of Donoughmore visits Sri Lanka to ascertain why representative 

government as chartered by the 1924 constitution has not succeeded. It finds the 1924 constitution "an 

unqualified failure." 

1930 The world depression brings severe losses to the rubber industry that never quite revives. 

1931 Promulgation of the Donoughmore Constitution. It is a unique document that provided Sri Lankans with 

training for self-government. See Appendix IV. Also: Founding of the leftist Labor Party by A.E. Goonasimha. 

1935 Founding of the Trotskyist Ceylon Equal Society Party (Lanka Sama Samaja Party--LSSP). 

1936 Elected to the state council, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) members N.M. Perera and Philip 

Gunawardena demand the replacement of English as the official language by Sinhala and Tamil. (Nov) A 

motion that 'in the Municipal and Police Courts of the Island the proceedings should be in the vernacular' and 

that 'entries in police stations should be recorded in the language in which they are originally stated' are passed 

by the State Council and referred to the Legal Secretary. 

1937 Founding of the Great Council of the Sinhalese (Sinhala Maha Sabha), by S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike. It seeks 

once again to restore Buddhism to its former glory. Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demands a 50-50 

representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. 

1938 Founding of the Burgher Political Association. 

1939 Founding of the Ceylon Indian Congress. 

1942 Founding of the Bolshevik-Leninist Party by unification of two Indian groups (the Bolshevik Leninist Party of 

the United Provinces and Bihar and the Bolshevik Mazdoor Party of India), with the Lanka Sama Samaja 

Party. (Feb) With fall of Singapore, Sri Lanka becomes a central base for British operations in Southeast Asia, 

and the port at Trincomalee recaptures its historically strategic importance. 

1943 Founding of the Communist Party of Sri Lanka (CPSL) and is a continuation of the United Socialist Party 

(USP). The USP had been formed out of the pro-Soviet Union wing of the Lanka Sama Samaja Party. The USP 

is proscribed by colonial authorities. 

1944 Founding of the All Ceylon Tamil Congress. (July) Lord Soulbury is appointed head of a commission charged 

with the task of examining a new constitutional draft that the Sri Lankan ministers had proposed. The 

commission makes recommendations that lead to a new constitution (the Soulbury Reforms): The Soulbury 

Constitution of independent Sri Lanka, combines a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature. 

Members of the first House of Representatives are directly elected by popular vote. Members of the Senate, or 

upper house, are elected partly by members of the House and partly by the governor general, who is primarily a 

figurehead. The British monarch appoints the governor general on the advice of the most powerful person in 

the Sri Lankan government--the prime minister. As the end of the war approaches, the constitution is amended 

to incorporate a provision giving Sri Lanka dominion status. J.R. Jayawardene moves in the State Council that 

Sinhala should replace English as the official language. 

1947 Ceylon Independence Act formalizes the transfer of power. Senanayake is the founder and leader of the United 

National Party (UNP), a partnership of many disparate groups formed during the Donoughmore period, 

including the Ceylon National Congress, the Sinhala Maha Sabha, and the Muslim League. (14 Oct) Creation 

of the Office of Prime Minister. 

1948 (4 Feb) The new constitution goes into effect, making Sri Lanka a dominion (independent). 

1953 (12 Aug) A hartel (uprising) against the withdrawal of the rice ration. 

1956 Royal Navy presence at Tricomalee ends. Election of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike as PM; Ceylon begins moving

towards better relations with the communist bloc. He introduces the controversial Sinhala Only Act, 

recognising Sinhala as the sole official language of the government, gravely concerning the Tamil people and 

leading to ethnic riots. 

1958 Bandaranaike's Sinhala Only Act is partially reversed. An agreement agreement (Bandaranaike- 

Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the Federal Party, to resolve the looming ethnic 

conflict sputters. (1959) Bandaranaike is assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk. 

1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike, widow of Bandaranaike, PM, faces (1962) an attempted coup d'etat. In her second 

term her government institutes socialist economic polices, further strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and 

later China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. (Late 1960s) Documents relating to a separate Tamil 

state of 'Tamil Eelam' begin to circulate. Separatist supporters carry out hit-and-run operations against progovernment 

Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka Police and civil administrators. 

1971 A Marxist insurrection is quickly suppressed. 

1972 Amendment to the Constitution, Ceylon becomes the Republic of Sri Lanka, repudiating the dominion status. 

Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by 

both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abets a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during the 1970s. Also; 

Prabhakaran, together with Chetti Thanabalasingam, a well known criminal from Kalviyankadu, Jaffna form 

the Tamil New Tigers (TNT). 

1975 Assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah by the TNT. 

1976 Formation of the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) with the Vaddukkodei (Vattukottai) resolution leads to 

a hardening of attitudes. The resolution calls for the creation of a secular, socialist state of Tamil Eelam, based 

on the right of self-determination. The TULF clandestinely supports the actions of young militants called "our 

boys." Also; the TNT changes its name to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam or the LTTE. 

1977 J.R. Jayawardene, elected PM this year, introduces a new constitution, together with a powerful executive 

presidency modeled after France, and a free market economy. It makes Sri Lanka the first South Asian country 

to liberalise its economy. TULF becomes the leading opposition party, with around one sixth of the total 

electoral vote winning on a party platform of secession from Sri Lanka. After the election, the Government 

launches unprecedented state violence against the opposition, targeting supporters of the Sri Lanka Freedom 

Party, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, the Communist Party of Sri Lanka, and the People's Democratic Party. In 

particular, some 9,000 families of supporters of LSSP leader NM Perera in Yatiyantota are driven from there 

homes, many of which are destroyed. (12 Aug) Fierce riots break out that the government can only (20 Aug) 

suppress by using the military. The government makes one concession to the Tamil population; it lifts the 

policy of standardization for university admission that had driven many Tamil youths into militancy. It is 

considered too little too late. Violent attacks continue: Assassination of Tamil Member of Parliament, M. 

Canagaratnam. 

1983 LTTE orders civilians to boycott the local government elections that even TULF contests. (23 July) Tamil 

Tiger rebels kill 13 Sinhalese soldiers at a checkpoint outside Thirunelveli, prompting a backlash by the 

Sinhalese. (24 July) Island-wide anti-Tamil riots break out in which at least 400 people die. The Indian army 

gives military support and training to the Tigers. (25 July) 37 Tamil prisoners at the Welikada high security 

prison, most of them detained under the Prevention of rebels Act, are killed by Sinhalese prisoners using knives 

and clubs. (28 July) A second riot occurs at the prison, 15 are killed. (29 July) A civilian riot is broken up by 

the police who shoot 15 rioters. (Aug) Indian government, through its intelligence agency Research and 

Analysis Wing (RAW), begins providimg arms, training and monetary support to six Sri Lankan Tamil militant 

groups including LTTE, Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO), People's Liberation Organisation of 

Tamil Eelam (PLOTE), Eelam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS) Eelam People's Revolutionary 

Liberation Front (EPRLF) and Tamil Eelam Liberation Army (TELA) (to May, 1987). 

1984 (30 Nov) Kent and Dollar Farm massacres: The LTTE kills 33 Sinhalese, injuring a few more at Dollar farm, 

and kills 29 Sinhalese at Kent Farm. Among the civilian casualties are men, women and children. The LTTE 

operatives use submachine guns, automatic rifles and hand grenades to kill civilians. Survivors also report that 

LTTE cadres killed children by bashing their heads against walls. 

1985 Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents begin peace talks at Thimphu; four rounds held (to 2006) without 

achieving any agreement. Meanwhile, (14 May) the Anuradhapura massacre: The LTTE hijacks a bus and 

enters Anuradhapura. As the LTTE cadres enter the main bus station, they open fire indiscriminately with 

automatic weapons killing and wounding many civilians who are waiting for buses. LTTE cadres then drive to 

the Buddhist Sri Maha Bodhi shrine and gun down nuns, monks and civilians as they prayed inside the 

Buddhist shrine. Before they withdraw, the LTTE strike force enters the national park of Wilpattu and kill 18 

Sinhalese in the forest reserve. The LTTE cadres have massacred 146 Sinhalese men, women and children. (15 

May) In the Kumudini boat massacre, at least 23 minority Sri Lankan Tamil men, women and children on a 

ferry boat named Kumudini sailing from the island of Delft to the island of Nainathievu are alleged to have

een killed by Sri Lankan Navy personnel. 

1986 (3 May) Tigers bomb Airlanka plane at Colombo airport, killing 16 people. 

1987 (21 April) Tigers explode car bomb at Colombo central bus stand, killing 113: The conflict explodes with 

ferocity, as both the government forces and the LTTE fighters engage in a series of bloody operations. (May- 

June) Sri Lankan military launches an offensive, called "Operation Liberation" or Vadamarachchi Operation, 

to regain control of the territory in the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. (5 June) Indian Air Force airdrops food 

parcels to Jaffna while it was under siege by Sri Lankan forces. The siege is successful and LTTE leaders 

barely escape advancing troops. (July) An LTTE suicide attack kills 40 soldiers. (24 July) Tiger leader 

Velupillai Prabhakaran arrives India to sigh peace agreement with the Sri Lanka government. (29 July) Indo- 

Sri Lankan Agreement on the Re-establishment of Peace and Normality in Sri Lanka: Devolution of power to 

the provinces, a merger - subject to later referendum - of the Northern and the Eastern provinces into a single 

province, and official status for the Tamil language (this was enacted as the 13th Amendment to the 

Constitution of Sri Lanka). India agrees to establish order in the North and East through a force dubbed the 

Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups including the 

LTTE, although initially reluctant, agree to surrender their arms to the IPKF, which initially oversees a ceasefire 

and a modest disarmament of the militant groups. This decentralization of the hitherto unitary state gives 

the Tamils scope to develop their identity. (30 July) Indian troops arrive Jaffna to enforce peace pact. (5 Aug) 

The Tigers begin to surrender weapons to Indian army, but later change course and fight against the Indians - 

their former benefactors. Despite the cutoff of official Indian government aid to the rebels, the government of 

southern Tamil Nadu state and rightist Hindu factions of the Indian army continue helping the rebels. 

1988 Elections to the provincial councils in the north and east under the supervision of an Indian Peace Keeping 

Force (IPKF) which suffers serious losses following attacks by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). 

1989 (April) Ranasinghe Premadasa government orders the Sri Lankan Army to clandestinely hand over arms 

consignments to the LTTE to fight the IPKF and its proxy Tamil National Army (TNA). (Dec) Parliamentary 

elections in India bring V.P. Singh as PM. He orders the withdrawal of the IPKF from Ceylon which begins 

immediately. 

1990 (13 Mar) Indian troops (IPKF) leave Sri Lanka. Their last ship leaves 24 March. With India's withdrawal from 

Ceylon, the LTTE establishes many government-like functions in the areas under its control. A tentative 

ceasefire holds as the LTTE occupies itself with destroying rival Tamil groups while the government cracks 

down on the JVP uprising. Soon, as both major combatants establish their power bases, they turn on each other 

and the ceasefire breaks down. The government launches an offensive to try to retake Jaffna. (11 June) The 

LTTE massacres 600 Policemen in the Eastern Province after they had surrendered on promises of safe 

conduct. The government places an embargo on food and medicine entering the Jaffna peninsula and the air 

force relentlessly bombs LTTE targets in the area. The LTTE responds by attacking Sinhalese and Muslim 

villages and massacring civilians. One of the largest civilian massacres of the war occurs when the LTTE 

massacres 166 Muslim civilians at Palliyagodella. The government trained and armed Home Guard Muslim 

units then takes revenge on Tamil villages. There is also significant massacres of Tamil civilians attributed to 

government forces, especially in the Eastern Province. (Oct) The LTTE expels all the Muslims residing in 

Northern province: A total of 72,000 Muslims are forced to leave their homes taking nothing but the clothes on 

their backs. 

1991 (2 March) Deputy defense minister Ranjan Wijerafne is killed by Tiger car bomb in Colombo. (21 May) 

Assassination of PM Rajiv Gandhi; India becomes an observer of the civil war. (July) The army's Elephant 

Pass base, which controls access to the Jaffna Peninsula, is surrounded by 5,000 LTTE cardres, beginning a 

month long siege in which 2,000 die. (Aug) 10,000 government troops relieve the base. 

1992 (Feb) another series of government offensives fails to capture Jaffna. (8 Aug) Lt. General Denzil 

Kobbekaduwa together with Major General Vijaya Wimalaratne and Rear Admiral Mohan Jayamaha, die at 

Araly (Aeraella) point Jaffna due to a land mine blast, which badly affects military morale. 

1993 (1 May) Tiger suicide bomber kills President Premadasa in Colombo. (11 Nov) Large force of Tigers overrun 

Pooneryn army camp, killing or capturing some 600 servicemen. Army puts rebel death toll at 500. 

1994 During the Presidential election campaign, an LTTE bomb attack is carried out during a rally held at 

Thotalanga, Grandpass, eliminates the entire top brass of UNP leadership, including its presidential candidate 

Gamini Dissanayake. President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga (People's Alliance) with Srimavo 

Bandaranaike as Prime Minister; President Kumaratunga takes new initiative in the search for a political 

solution to the conflict in the north-east: easing of the economic boycott, reconstruction program for the north 

and direct talks with the LTTE. (16 Aug) People's Alliance government comes to power promising an end to 

bloody war. (13 Oct) Peace talks begin in Jaffna. (24 Nov) Opposition presidential candidate Gamini 

Dissanayake and 51 others killed by Tiger suicide bomber. 

1995 (8 Jan) Tigers (LTTE) and government agree to a truce. (19 April) Tigers break truce, blow up two navy boats,

killing 12 sailors in northeastern port of Trincomalee. (28-29 April) Tigers use anti-aircraft missiles for first 

time, downing two air force transport planes, killing 90 people. (4 June) Tigers blow up ship chartered by 

International Committee of the Red Cross. (28 July) Tigers lose 400 guerrillas, including child fighters, in raid 

on northeastern Weli Oya army camp, in which only two soldiers die. (Aug) Air Force jets bomb St. Peter's 

church at Navali (Naavaella), killing at least 65 refugees and wounding 150 others. (17 Oct) Army troops start 

first phase of offensive to take full control of Jaffna peninsula. In the ensuing months, the military often 

retaliates against civilians with shelling and bombing. (20 Oct) Guerrillas blow up two oil depots in Colombo. 

(11 Nov) Two rebel suicide bombers kill 15 people in Colombo in unsuccessful attack on Army HQ. 

Governement troops finally take control of Jaffna, (5 Dec) raising the national flag over Jaffna fort. 

1996 (31 Jan) Tiger suicide bomber blows up Central Bank, killing almost 100 people. (14 Feb) Tiger arms ship 

sunk off northeastern coast. (5 Mar) Sri Lankan army raises flags over Jaffna town, marking end of seven-week 

campaign to capture the Tamil rebel stronghold. (18 July) Battle of Mullaitivu; large force of Tigers overrun 

northeastern army camp amid reports that they have killed or captured almost the entire garrison of more than 

1,000 troops. (Aug) Government launches another offensive, (29 Sept) Kilinochchi is taken. 

1997 (Jan) Heavy fighting around Paranthan and Elephant pass complex takes the lives of 223 Army personnel. (13 

May) Government troops fail to open a supply line through LTTE-controlled Vanni. As violence continues in 

the North, LTTE suicide and time bombs are exploded numerous times in populated city areas and public 

transport in the south of the country, killing hundreds of civilians. (Oct) LTTE bombs the Sri Lankan World 

Trade Center. 

1998 An Indian court finds the LTTE and its leader Velupillai Prabhakaran responsible for the assassination of PM 

Gandhi. (Jan) LTTE detonates a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple of the Tooth, one of the holiest 

Buddhist shrines in the world. In response to this bombing, the Sri Lankan government outlaws the LTTE and 

with some success presses other governments around the world to do the same, significantly interfering with 

their fund-raising activities. (27 Sept) Battle of Kilinochchi: The LTTE launches Operation Unceasing Waves 

II and after heavy fighting captures Kilinochchi. 

1999 (March) In Operation Rana Gosa, the government tries invading the Vanni from the south. The army makes 

some gains, taking control of Oddusuddan (Oththan-thuduva) and Madhu, but can not dislodge the LTTE from 

the region. (Sept) LTTE massacres 50 Sinhalese civilians at Gonagala. (2 Nov) LTTE returns to the offensive 

with Operation Unceasing Waves III, regaining nearly all of Vanni. LTTE launches 17 successful attacks in the 

region which culminates in the overrunning of the Paranthan (Puranthaenna) Chemicals Factory base and the 

Kurrakkan Kaddukulam (kurakkan-kaela vaeva) base. The rebels also advance north towards Elephant Pass 

and Jaffna. The LTTE is successful in cutting all land and sea supply lines of the Sri Lankan armed forces to 

the south, west and north of the town of Kilinochchi. (Dec) LTTE attempts to assassinate President Chandrika 

Kumaratunga in a suicide attack at a pre-election rally. She loses her right-eye, among other injuries, but (21 

Dec) is re-elected with over 51% of the vote. She continues to pursue her goal of finding a political solution to 

preserve the territorial and executive integrity of the country using military means. 

2000 (Feb) Norway is asked to mediate both sides of the conflict. (22 April) The Elephant Pass military complex, 

which had separated the Jaffna peninsula from the Vanni mainland for 17 years, completely falls to the hands 

of the LTTE leaving 1,008 soldiers dead. The army is able to stave off LTTE efforts to oust them from Jaffna. 

(June) By this time many organizations are holding peace camps, conferences, trainings and peace meditations, 

and many other efforts to bridge the two sides at all levels. (Dec) LTTE calls for a unilateral cease fire. 

2001 (24 April) The cease fire is ended as LTTE launches another offensive against the government. They secure a 

vast area controlled by the military and advance northwards, threatening the Elephant Pass military complex. 

(July) LTTE carries out a devastating suicide attack on Bandaranaike International Airport, destroying eight of 

the air force's planes and four Sri Lankan Airlines planes, dampening the economy and causing tourism, a vital 

foreign exchange earner for the government, to plummet. (Sept) After the attacks on New York City's World 

Trade Center, the LTTE begins to declare their willingness to explore measures for a peaceful settlement to the 

conflict. One reason for this action could be fear of international pressure and the direct US support of the Sri 

Lankan Government as part of the War on Terror. (5 Dec) Election brings a pro-peace position to the 

government; a negotiated settlement is to be searched for. (19 Dec) The LTTE announces a 30 day ceasefire 

with the Sri Lankan government and pledges to halt all attacks against government forces. The new 

government welcomes the move, and reciprocates it 2 days later (21 Dec), announcing a month long ceasefire 

and agreeing to lift a long standing economic embargo on rebel-held territory. 

2002 (22 Feb) A Memorandum of Understanding is signed by both sides. They also sign a permanent ceasefire 

agreement (CFA). Norway is named mediator, and it is decided that they, together with the other Nordic 

countries, monitor the ceasefire through a committee of experts named the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission. 

(Aug) The government lifts the ban on the LTTE, paving the way for direct negotiations. (16-18 Sept) First 

peace talks at Sattahip Naval Base, Phuket, Thailand. Here, and at the subsequent talks, both sides agree to the

principle of a federal solution and the Tigers drop their long-standing demand for separate state. This is a key 

compromise from the LTTE, which has always insisted on an independent Tamil state and it also represents a 

compromise from the government, which has seldom agreed to more than minimal devolution. Both sides also 

exchange prisoners of war for first time. (13 Oct-3 Nov) Second round of peace talks at Rose Garden hotel, 

Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. (2-5 Dec) Third round at Radisson SAS Plaza Hotel, Oslo, Norway. 

2003 (6-9 Jan) Fourth round at Rose Garden hotel, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. (7-8 Feb) Fifth round at Norwegian 

Embassy, Berlin, Germany. (18-21 Mar) Sixth round at Hakorn Prince Hotel, Kanagawa, Japan. (21 April) 

Talks break down as the Tamil Tigers announce they are suspending any further talks due to their "displeasure" 

at the handling of some "critical issues". Among the reasons they give are their exclusion from reconstruction 

talks in Washington DC on 14 April and a more general insinuation that they are not receiving the full 

economic rewards of peace. The LTTE, however, maintains it is committed to a settlement to the two-decade 

conflict, but states that progress has to be made on the ground before the settlement proceeds. (31 Oct) The 

LTTE issues its own peace proposal, calling for an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA) which would be 

fully controlled by the LTTE and would have broad powers in the North and East (see Tamil Tiger Text). 

2004 (March) There is a major fracture between the northern and eastern wings of the LTTE; fighting goes on but 

the cease fire holds. (26 Dec) A tsunami raised by an undersea earthquake west of Indonesia sweeps Sri Lankan 

shores killing 35,000. Aid pours in from donor countries, but disagreements arise instantly over how it should 

be distributed to the Tamil regions under LTTE control. 

2005 (24 June) The government and LTTE agree on the Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure (P- 

TOMS), but it receives sharp criticism from the JVP, who leaves the government in protest. The legality of P- 

TOMS is also challenged in the courts. President Kumaratunga eventually has to scrap P-TOMS, which leads 

to widespread criticism that sufficient aid is not reaching the North and East of the country. However, 

immediately following the tsunami there is a marked decrease in violence in the North. (12 Aug) LTTE sniper 

assassinates Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, a Tamil who was highly respected by foreign diplomats 

and who had been sharply critical of the LTTE. This act marginalizes the LTTE from the international 

community, and is the instant when the LTTE loses much of its sympathy in the eyes of foreign nations. (Dec) 

Just after national elections, there is increased guerrilla activity to the northeast, including Claymore mine 

attacks which kill 150 government troops, clashes between the Sea Tigers and the Sri Lanka navy, and the 

killing of sympathizers on both sides including Taraki Sivaram, a pro-LTTE journalist, and Joseph 

Pararajasingham, a pro-LTTE MP allegedly by the government of Sri Lanka. 

2006 (Jan) The focus of the civil war turns to civilian targets, with commuter bus and train bombings carried out in 

most parts of the country, including a series of attacks against commuters in and around Colombo. (2 Jan) 

Massacre of five Tamil students. To salvage an agreement between the parties, Norwegian special envoy Erik 

Solheim and the LTTE theoretician Anton Balasingham arrive in the island. (7 Feb) They agree to hold new 

talks in Geneva, Switzerland on 22 and 23 February. During the weeks after the talks, there is a significant 

decrease in violence. (April) LTTE resumes attacks against the military. LTTE calls for a postponement of the 

talks until 24 - 25 April. Later, a civilian vessel is agreed to carry truce monitors on 16 April, the Tamil Tigers 

cancel the meeting, claiming not to have agreed to a naval escort. According to the SLMM, the Tamil rebels 

had previously agreed to the escort. (20 April) LTTE officially pulls out of peace talks indefinitely. (23 April) 

Six Sinhalese rice farmers are massacred in their fields by suspected LTTE cadres. (13 May) 13 Tamil civilians 

are killed in the islet of Kayts. Later, a female suicide bomber blows herself up at Sri Lankan Army HQ in 

Colombo trying to kill the Army's commander. For the first time since the 2001 ceasefire, the Sri Lanka Air 

Force carries out aerial assaults on rebel positions in the north-eastern part of the island nation in retaliation for 

the attack. (19 May) The European Union proscribes the LTTE as a terrorist organization: Its assets in the 27 

member nations are frozen. Violence continues and talks are scheduled in Oslo, Norway, 8-9 June but they fall 

through. (8 June) Massacre of a family of four Tamils from the village of Venkalai: The victims are tortured 

and the mother is gang raped before her murder. The Sri Lankan government and the LTTE accuse each other 

of perpetrating the killings. (15 June) 60 people are killed as a result of claymore attack on a bus in 

Kebithigollewa. This prompts more air strikes by the Air Force. (26 June) Assassination of Sri Lanka's third 

highest-ranking army officer and Deputy Chief of Staff General Parami Kulatunga by an LTTE suicide 

bomber. (21 July) The LTTE closes the sluice gates of the Mavil Aru reservoir, cutting the water supply to 

15,000 villages in government controlled areas. (26 July) The Air Force attacks LTTE positions and ground 

troops began an operation to open the gate (done 8 Aug). After heavy fighting, government troops (15 Aug) 

gain control of the Mamil Aru reservoir. Meanwhile, LTTE attacks the Navy base at Trincomalee and (2 Aug) 

the town of Muttur, displacing thousands of residents. (5 Aug) Muttur is retaken, and over 150 LTTE fighters 

are killed. (4/5 Aug) Massacre of 17 workers of the French charity Action Against Hunger. (11 Aug) LTTE 

launches massive attacks on Sri Lanka Army defence lines in the Jaffna peninsula. Sri Lanka Air Force carries 

out an air strike against a facility in the rebel held Mullaitivu area, killing a number of Tamil girls: There is

dispute about they were innocent, or LTTE trainees. There is an attempt on the life of the Pakistani High 

Commissoner: India is accused as Pakistan is supplying the Sri Lankan military. (28 Aug) Assault against 

Sampur and the adjoining Kaddaiparichchan and Thoppur areas: (4 Sept) Sampur is taken and the Army begins 

to set up a military base there. (Oct) LTTE kills 130 soldiers at Muhamalai. (Few days later) A suspected LTTE 

suicide bomber strickes a naval convoy in Habaraba, killing about 100 sailors who are returning home on 

leave. (Two days later) 15 LTTE Sea Tigers launch an attack against the Dakshina naval base in the southern 

port city of Galle. Both sides agree to attend peace talks in Geneva 28-29 Oct. They break down over opening 

the highway between Jaffna and government controlled areas in the south. (7 Nov) The Vaharai Bombing; there 

are conflicting cliams over who killed 45 Tamil civilians. (Dec) Government plans to drive LTTE out of the 

eastern province in order to "free the civilians." (8 Dec) Government begins operations in the Batticoloa 

district against Vakarai, principle LTTE eastern stronghold. After a week the rains and great number of 

civilians bring a halt. 

2007 (Jan) suspected LTTE cadres carry out two bus bombings in the south of the country, killing 21 civilians. (2 

Jan) LTTE and others accuse the government of murdering 15 civilians in the Padahuthurai bombing. (Mid 

Jan) The assault on Vakari resumes and (19 Jan) it is taken. (Feb) Troops mostly operating in small groups of 

Special Forces and Commando units begin a new operation to clear the last remaining LTTE cadres from the 

Eastern Province. (28 Mar) They capture the key LTTE base in Kokkadicholai. (1 April) The Sri Lankan 

military accuses the LTTE of killing six Sinhalese tsunami aid workers in the Eastern district of Batticaloa. (2 

April) Suspected LTTE cadres set off a bomb aboard a civilian bus in Ampara which kills 17 people, including 

3 children. (12 April) Special Forces and Commandos capture strategic A5 highway, bringing the entire 

highway under government control for the first time in 15 years. (11 July) After three months, the army 

captures Thoppigala Peak, ending the LTTE's military capability in the Eastern Province. (Sept) Fighting in the 

north intensifies. (2 Nov) S. P. Thamilselvan, head of the LTTE political wing, is killed during a government 

air raid. (26 Nov) The leader of the LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran, is seriously injured during air strikes carried 

out by the Sri Lanka Air Force on a bunker complex in Jayanthinagar. (Dec) By this time the Army has taken 

LTTE defenses at Uyilankulama, Parappakandal and Thampanai. 

2008 (2 Jan) Sri Lankan government abandons the cease fire agreement. (5 Jan) Colonel Charles, Head of LTTE 

Military Intelligence, is killed in a claymore mine ambush by a Sri Lanka Army Long Range Reconnaissance 

Patrol. The government attempts to open a third front along the Muhamalai Forward Defence Line: (23 April) 

There is a setback, then the Army advances rapidly; capturing (9 May) Adampan, (30 June) Mannar "Rice 

Bowl" (most fertile paddy fields), (16 July) Vidattaltivu and (20 July) Iluppaikkadavai. (21 July) LTTE 

announces that it will be declaring a unilateral ceasefire from 28 July to 4 August, to coincide with the 15th 

summit of the heads of state of SAARC to be held in Colombo. Ignored by the government. (2 Aug) Capture of 

Vellanculam completes the government's recapture of Mannar District. (2 Sept) Mallavi taken. (9 Sept) LTTE 

attacks Vavuniya air base; both sides claim victory. (30 July) Army enters Kilinochchi district, last stronghold 

of the LTTE. (6 Oct) LTTE kills Major General Janaka Perera along with 26 other victims in a suicide blast. 

(17 Oct) SLA troops cut off the Mannar-Poonaryn A32 highway north of Nachchikuda, the main remaining Sea 

Tiger stronghold on the northwestern coast of the island. (29 Oct) Nachchikuda taken. Then Army Task Force 1 

continues their advance towards Pooneryn, capturing Kiranchchi, Palavi, Veravil, Valaipadu and Devil's Point. 

(15 Nov) Pooneryn is entered. Meanwhile, new Task Foce 3 enters the area of Mankulam with the objective of 

engaging the LTTE cadres in a new battlefront towards the east of the Jaffna–Kandy A9 highway. (17 Nov) 

Mankuam and surrounding area taken. (23 Nov) Attack on Kilinochchi begins. 

2009 As Sri Lankan forces are bringing LTTE toward its end, both civilian casualties and brutality increase. (1 Jan) 

Paranthan taken. (2 Jan) Kilinochchi taken. The Tigers abandon their positions on the Jaffna peninsula and 

make their last stand in the jungles of Mullaitivu. (14 Jan) The entire Jaffna peninsula is taken. (25 Jan) 

Mullaitivu taken. (5 Feb) Chalai, the last Sea Tiger base, is taken. (19 Feb) Human Rights Watch issues a 

report accusing the Sri Lankan army of "slaughtering" civilians during indiscriminate artillery attacks 

(including repeated shelling of hospitals) and calling on the Sri Lankan government to end its policy of 

"detaining displaced persons" in military-controlled internment camps. Human Rights Watch also urges the 

Tamil Tigers to permit trapped civilians to leave the war zone and to "stop shooting at those who try to flee". 

(20 Feb) Two LTTE planes on a suicide mission attack the capital Colombo, killing two and wounding 45, but 

both planes are shot down before they can damage the intended targets, Army HQ and the main Air Force base. 

(March, late) Pressure is placed on Mahinda Rajapaksa to find a political solution to the conflict but there are 

calls that a solution of the humanitarian crisis should come first. (5 April) Battle of Aanandapuram in which 

most if not all of LTTE's battle commanders are killed; the LTTE is pushed into a small littoral strip of territory 

located between the Paranthan-Mullaitivu A35 highway, Nanthikadal and Chalai lagoons on one side and the 

Indian ocean on the other where they build a defensive bund, trapping 20,000 civilians. This is destroyed. (21 

April) Assault launched with aim of taking LTTE leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran. At the same time, a mass

Tamil exodus from the 'no-fire zone' was underway. (22 April) Two senior LTTE leaders surrender. When 

asked why they had surrendered, both men stress that rebels are shooting at the civilians and preventing them 

from escaping from the 'no-fire zone' to safety in government-controlled areas. They also alleged that the LTTE 

is still abducting and conscripting children as young as 14 years old, and will fire at anyone who tries to resist. 

(16 May) Army captures the last section of coastline held by the Tigers, declaring victory over the LTTE. (17 

May) LTTE admits defeat. The Sri Lanka Armed Forces re-establishes control of the entire country under the 

Sri Lankan Government. The Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka, drops its demand 

for a separate state, in favor of a federal solution. There are "mop up" campaigns of several small groups of 

LTTE cadres through August. 

APPENDIX I; King of Portugal's Letter to his Viceroy in India (1546): 

He bewails the idol worship prevailing the Portuguese controlled parts of India. Then; "We charge you to 

discover all the idols by means of diligent officers, to reduce them to fragments and utterly to consume them, in 

whatsoever place they may be found, proclaiming rigorous penalties against such persons as shall dare to engrave, 

cast, sculpture, limn, paint or bring to light any figure in metal, bronze, wood, clay or any other substance, or shall 

introduce them from foreign parts; and against those who shall celebrate in public or in private any festivities which 

have any Gentile taint, or shall abet them, or shall conceal the Brahmins, the pestilential enemies of the name of 

Christ." He emphasizes the necessity for severe punishment, then; "And because the Gentiles submit themselves to 

the yoke of the Gospel not alone through their conviction of the purity of the faith and for that they are sustained by 

the hope of Eternal Life, they should also be encouraged by temporal favors, such as greatly mollify the hearts of 

those who receive them; and therefore you should earnestly set yourself to see that the new Christians from this time 

forward do obtain and enjoy all exemptions and freedom from tribute, and moreover that they hold the privileges 

and offices of honor which up till now the Gentiles have been wont to possess." 

APPENDIX II; Treaty between Raja Singha II and the Dutch (23 May, 1638): 

It is between Raja Singha "Emperor and King of Ceylon and Candia," and Westerwold, acting on behalf of 

"Their Illustrious High Mightiness the States General of the United Netherlands and his Princely Excellency 

Frederick Hendrick, Prince of Orange," by which the King accepts the Hollanders as his "friends, allies and 

protectors" against the "great and intolerable deceit and impertinence of, and annoyance created by, the Portuguese." 

It is agreed that the booty found in all forts captured by the allied powers should be equally divided between the two 

High Contracting Parties, and that, should the King so desire [this phrase "should the King so desire" is left out of 

the Dutch copy], the positions should be occupied by garrisons with sufficient artillery for their protection against 

the Portuguese. The King for his part undertakes to strengthen the fortifications where required, to pay the salaries 

of the garrisons employed in holding them, and to allot the Hollanders suitable places for the storage of their 

merchandise. He agrees not to begin hostilities without previously consulting them, to render them assistance by 

counsel and deed, and to repay in kind all expenses incurred by them in his behalf. Tho Hollanders are to be allowed 

unrestricted freedom of trade, with a monopoly of the commerce in cinnamon, pepper, wax and ivory. The trade in 

elephants is, however, reserved to the King, though a most-favored-nation clause is inserted by which he undertakes 

to supply the Hollanders each year with as many of the animals as he sold to others. 

The treaty further guarantees the extra-territoriality of the Hollanders, and while it secures for their 

merchants untrammeled access to the country, makes it incumbent on the Sinhalese to provide the necessary 

transport for all good purchased by them. Provision is made for the extradition of criminals; communication for the 

purposes of trade or otherwise between the Portuguese and Sinhalese is forbidden, and the Portuguese declared the 

eternal enemies of both parties. Catholic priests in particular, "who alone are the cause of commotion. dissension 

and disturbance, and are the destruction of kingdoms and countries wherever they happen to be," are not allowed to 

enter the country. Finally, all prize ships captured on the high seas are to be the property of the Hollanders. 

APPENDIX III; Treaty of Batticaloa between Kirti Siri Raja Singh and the Dutch (14 Feb, 1766): 

The Company is acknowledged as sovereign over the districts it had possessed previous to the 

commencement of the war. The King cedes to it the whole seaboard which had remained to him, for the distance of a 

gowwa inland, the Company undertaking to pay him yearly the revenue which was collected therefrom. He is 

acknowledged paramount over the rest of the island, and all other territory occupied by the Company during the war 

is to be restored to him. The right to take as much salt as they liked from the Lewayas, Puttalam and Chilaw, is 

reserved for his subjects, while the Company obtains the privilege of peeling cinnamon from the whole of the Low 

Countries belonging to the King, namely Sabaragamuwa, and the Three, Four and Seven Korales as far as Balane. 

The cinnamon found east of Balane is to be peeled by the King's subjects and sold at a fixed rate exclusively to the 

Company, which obtains in addition the monopoly in the trade in ivory, pepper, cardamons, coffee, arecanuts and 

wax.

There is to be unrestricted trade between the subjects of the two contracting parties, with the right of entry 

into each others' territory for the purpose, the Company undertaking to procure for the King such articles as he 

requires from foreign countries. In return he agrees to supply the Company at Battiacola and Tricomalee with all the 

timber they need, and to surrender all the Hollanders who are kept as prisoners by him, together with the cannon 

captured at Hanwella. Runaway slaves are to be restored and criminals extradited. 

The Company pledges itself to protect the King's dominions from all external aggression, and to make no 

agreement with any foreign power which might be prejudicial to him; while the King promises not to enter any 

treaty with any European power or Indian Prince, and to deliver up all Europeans coming within his territory. The 

Company's ambassadors are no longer required to go through the humiliating ritual for an audience with the King. 

The King states he signed this treaty only by his love of peace: He protests the loss of his sea-coast, and the 

refusal to return his guns and deserted subjects. He declares that further representations will be made to Batavia. 

The Company finally achieves its long-cherished policy: The King is cut off from all foreign intercourse. 

His kingdom is now dependent on everything that cannot be produced locally, on the humor of the Company's 

officials, and the trade of his subjects has to be regulated by its demands. The Dutch have earned the Court's hatred 

and they must stand the expense of maintaining an armed force. 

APPENDIX IV; Donoughmore Consititution of 1931: 

The document reserves the highest level of responsibility for the British governor, whose assent is 

necessary for all legislation. The legislative branch of the government--the State Council-- functions in both an 

executive and legislative capacity. Seven committees perform executive duties. Each committee consists of 

designated members of the State Council and is chaired by an elected Sri Lankan, who is addressed as minister. 

Three British officers of ministerial rank, along with the seven Sri Lankan ministers, form a board of ministers. The 

British ministers collectively handle responsibility for defense, external affairs, finance, and judicial matters. 

This Constitution ushers in a period of experimentation in participatory democracy but contemporary 

political scientists criticized it for not having provided an atmosphere conducive to the growth of a healthy party 

system. The system of executive committees does not lead to the development of national political parties. Instead, a 

number of splinter political groups evolve around influential personalities who usually follow a vision too limited or 

an agenda too communally partisan to have an impact on national politics. 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Geiger, Wilhelm; The Mahavamsa, Great Chronicle of Ceylon; Oxford University Press, London, 1912 

Hocart, H.W.; A Short History of Ceylon; MacMillan, London, 1926 

Obeyesekere, Donald; Outlines of Ceylon History; The Times of London, Colombo, 1911 

Pieris, P.E.; Ceylon and the Hollanders, 1658-1796; American Ceylon Mission Press, Tellippalai, 1918 

Pieris, P.E.; Ceylon and the Portuguese, 1505-1658; American Ceylon Mission Press, Tellippalai, 1920 

Various internet sources including, but not limited to: 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna_kingdom.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandyan_Wars.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kandy.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom _of_Kotte.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sitawaka.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sri_Lankan_monarchsWiki.html 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri-Lankan_Civil_War.html 

www.Virtual Library-Sri Lanka

HISTORY of CEYLON - Sleepinbuff.com

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