HISTORY of CEYLON - Sleepinbuff.com
HISTORY of CEYLON - Sleepinbuff.com
HISTORY of CEYLON - Sleepinbuff.com
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<strong>HISTORY</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>CEYLON</strong><br />
-King Ravana <strong>of</strong> Ceylon abducts Sita, Queen <strong>of</strong> King Rama <strong>of</strong> Northern India. King Rama heads South, builds a<br />
bridge to Ceylon and battles Ravana, killing him. The bridge touches the isle <strong>of</strong> Rameswaram. When returning<br />
to India he builds a shrine to Siva there.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA at TAMBAPANNI<br />
543 Wijeya, son <strong>of</strong> Singhebabu, king <strong>of</strong> Gujerat, banishes his son Wijeya the sub-king for wickedness: Wijeya lands<br />
Supparaka (Surat) where he is forced back to sea: Prince Vijaya and seven hundred <strong>of</strong> his followers land in in<br />
the region called Thambapanni near Puttalam. He establishes a monarchy and names the new race <strong>of</strong> people<br />
Sinhala (Lion Race) after his grandfather who was perhaps a man nicknamed as “lion”. Tambapanni, his<br />
capital, is where he allies with native prince Kuweni, then slaughters all nobility and establishes authority over<br />
Sirivattha and Lankapura. Wijeya sends an embassy to king Pandawa <strong>of</strong> Madura requesting his daughter in<br />
marriage: Kuweni, broken-hearted, leaves and is killed near Lanka-pura. On the new queen's arrival (her name<br />
is Wijeya too) she is installed with much pomp and ceremony. Wijeya's rule <strong>com</strong>mences the Mahawansa Period<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ceylon's history. Wijeya <strong>com</strong>mences a reign <strong>of</strong> justice in which he consolidates his newly acquired power.<br />
The capital is at Tammana (Tammana Nuwara). (505) Wijeya invites his brother Summitta to succeed him then<br />
dies.<br />
505 Upatissa, PM, takes over as regent.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA at VIJITAPURA<br />
504 Panduwasa, the son <strong>of</strong> Summitta, arrives (his father Summitta couldn't accept Lanka's sovereignty because he<br />
has succeeded his father Singhebabu <strong>of</strong> Gujerat) in Lanka at Gonagamaka-tittha. He takes over from Upatissa<br />
who turns the government over to him. He abstains from solemnizing his inauguration until he provides<br />
himself with a royal consort. He gains the daughter <strong>of</strong> king Pandu - a cousin <strong>of</strong> Buddha and who reigns beyond<br />
the Ganges - named Bhuddakacchana as queen. Later in his reign, her six brothers are allowed to enter the<br />
kingdom and set up six principalities throughout Lanka to accelerate colonization and spread agriculture:<br />
Prince Rama establishes a place called Ramagona; others are Uruwela, Anuradha (named after those two<br />
princes); Prince Wijita establishes Vijitigama, Dighayo establishes Dhigayo and Rhona establishes Rohana.<br />
Sometimes later these six provinces are resolved into three great geographical divisions: North <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Mahaweliganga is Pihitti-Ratta, or Raja-Ratta (it contains the capital Vijitapura); South <strong>of</strong> this is Rohana<br />
surrounded by the sea, North by the Mahaweliganga, West by the Kaluganga; Maya-Ratta surrounded by the<br />
Deduru Oya, South by the Kaluganga, West by the sea and on the East by the mountains. Early in Panduwasa's<br />
reign, his brother-in-law Andura constructs a reservoir, the "Abeya-wewa" <strong>of</strong> 133,000 cubic feet. The<br />
Brahmins predict Abaya, eldest <strong>of</strong> Panduwasa's ten sons, will be dethroned and to prevent this daughter<br />
Ummada-citta must be sacrificed. Abaya has her imprisoned instead and then marries her to a nephew <strong>of</strong> the<br />
king.<br />
474 Abaya, son. A son <strong>of</strong> Pandukabhayo is born to his sister Ummada-citta. Abaya continues conquest <strong>of</strong> the island<br />
to introduce and extend agriculture. (460) Ummada-citta entrusts the education <strong>of</strong> Pandukabhayo (now 16<br />
years old) to the Brahmin Pandula, who makes his son Canda a fellow student. To continue their education,<br />
Pandula sends them to fight out their destiny. Pandukabhayo carries <strong>of</strong>f Princess Pali, daughter <strong>of</strong> his uncle<br />
Girikandasiva. Battle <strong>of</strong> Kalahanggara; Pandukabhayo defeats Girikandasiva (who is captured). Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Lohitavahakhanda, defeat and slaying <strong>of</strong> Pali's five brothers by Canda. Pandukabhayo now takes position on<br />
Dola mountain near the Mahaweliganga. (456) Pandukabhayo's uncles begin fortifications near<br />
Dhammarakkha mountain (= Dumbara?) and attack Pandukabhayo who counterattacks and drives them across<br />
the river. He occupies their fortifications. The uncles repent to Abaya who orders Pandukabhayo to rule beyond<br />
the river and not advance beyond the opposite bank. (454) Abaya sends an embassy to Pandukabhayo without<br />
his brothers' knowledge. They depose him and set up one <strong>of</strong> their members<br />
454 Tissa, brother, as king. (444) After having allied with the Yakkinni leader and widow Cetiya, Pandukabhayo<br />
marches to Arittha. Here he prepares for war. (437) His uncles (except Abaya and Girikanda) attack<br />
Pandukabhayo at Labugama but Pandukabhayo defeats and slays his uncles. He proceeds to the capital which<br />
is turned over to him.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA at ANURADHAPURA<br />
437 Pandukabhayyo, nephew. He appoints Canda as Purohita, his uncle Abaya as Nagaraguttika (major <strong>of</strong> the city),<br />
his friend, Canda (son <strong>of</strong> his Brahmin teacher), to the <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> Adigar (Minister) and to his father-in-law<br />
Girikandasiva he restores the territory Girikandaka. He founds Anuradhapura, establishing it as the capital.<br />
Since his success was partly due to the power <strong>of</strong> the Lanka aborigines, the Yakkas, he establishes Kalavela and<br />
the chief Citta in Eastern quarter <strong>of</strong> the city and lower side <strong>of</strong> the Abaya tank. (425) The boundaries <strong>of</strong> all the<br />
villages in Lanka are demarcated for better administration under the Village Community system <strong>of</strong> government<br />
The island is divided into fields and gardens. Pandukabhayo pays attention to the adornment and civil
government <strong>of</strong> the new capital; forms four suburbs; improves the Abaya tank (built by king Panduwasa) and<br />
orders construction <strong>of</strong> two more, the Jaya-wewa and Gamini-wewa.<br />
367 Mutasiwa, son. Not having the rough energy <strong>of</strong> his father, his reign is peaceful and given to aesthetic pursuits.<br />
He has a royal palace constructed called Mahamega. During his and his father's reigns, the pearl oyster and<br />
gemming industries became highly developed.<br />
307 Dewanampiyatissa, son. He sends an embassy (nephew Mahaaritha; Brahman <strong>of</strong> the Hali mountain; Malla the<br />
Minister <strong>of</strong> State and Tissa, the accountant) to Dhammasoka, king <strong>of</strong> Dambadiwa (Magadha). After five<br />
months at Pataliputra, the embassy returns with the message that Dhammasoka, having adopted Buddhism,<br />
hopes king Dewanampiyatissa would too. Later, Mahinda, son <strong>of</strong> Dhammasoka (Emperor Asoka), is sent to<br />
Lanka to convert the land to Buddhism. Soon Sanghamitta, Dhammasoka's daughter and high priestess, is sent,<br />
so that women could be ordained into the priesthood, along with a Bo-tree branch. A nunnery, the Upasika<br />
Vihara, is established and afterward the Hatthalhaka Vihara is established, having more seclusion and <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
more solitude. Mahinda sends his nephew Sumana to bring relics <strong>of</strong> Buddha to Lanka. From king Sakka <strong>of</strong> a<br />
country in the Himalayas (Nepal?) he brings Buddha's dish and collar bone. They are placed in the temple<br />
Pamojawatthu. Many temples and colleges are built during this reign. Anula (the Queen) attempts to get rid <strong>of</strong><br />
Mahanaga, the king's brother, but the plot backfires and the king's son dies. Mahanaga, fearing reprisals flees<br />
and sets up a Buddhist kingdom in Rohana. Construction <strong>of</strong> Tissa-wema and Tarraccha-wema. The former to<br />
provide for the paddy fields around Anuradhapura.<br />
NOTE: The island at this time is divided into three kingdoms: The most northerly, Pihiti Rata (or Raja<br />
Rata, Country <strong>of</strong> the Kings) contains the royal capital Anuradhapura. Its southern border is the rivers Maha<br />
Weli Ganga (Great Sandy River) and Deduru Oya. Second is the kingdom <strong>of</strong> Ruhuna, the flat country as far as<br />
the Kalu Ganga. Third kingdom <strong>of</strong> Maya Rata <strong>com</strong>prises the central mountainous district and western low<br />
country between the Kalu Ganga and Deduru Oya.<br />
267 Uttiya, brother, continues the work <strong>of</strong> his brother. (258) Death <strong>of</strong> Uttiya's son Mahinda who had renounced his<br />
father's throne for the priesthood. Also, death <strong>of</strong> Sanghamitta, Mahinda's sister at the convent at Hathalhaka -<br />
she had established her religion in a foreign land.<br />
257 Mahasiva, brother. Peaceful reign. Constructs the Vihara Naga-rangana. (250) About this time arrival <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Great Mahinda Thero and introduction <strong>of</strong> Bhuddhism to Sri Lanka. (249) About this time arrival <strong>of</strong> Theri<br />
Sanghamitta with a branch <strong>of</strong> the original Sri Maha Bodhi in India.<br />
247 Suratissa, brother. He continues his predecessor's policy <strong>of</strong> advancing the religious and social development <strong>of</strong><br />
the people and building without <strong>com</strong>mitting oppression. He brings into his pay the Indian youths Sena and<br />
Gottika, mercenaries with their army and navy, to handle Ceylon's defenses.<br />
SENA and GOTTIKA<br />
237 Sena and Gottika, two Tamil chiefs, horse dealers, usurp the throne, murdering Suratissa. They administer<br />
<strong>com</strong>petently in a joint-reign.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA<br />
215 The adherents <strong>of</strong> Asela, brother <strong>of</strong> Suratissa, dethrone and slay Sena and Gottika. Asela rules.<br />
ELARA<br />
205 A Tamil invader, Ellala (Elara), from Sollee (Tanjore) lands at the mouth <strong>of</strong> the Mahaweliganga and at Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Anuradhapura, defeats and slays Asela. Though not a Buddhist he is soon acclaimed by all Lanka. He is a just<br />
and impartial ruler. There are two subdivisions <strong>of</strong> the island administered by sub-kings: Rohana by Kavan<br />
Tissa and Maya Rata by Kelani Tissa. Ellala has the tank Paliwewa (Vavunik-kulam) constructed.<br />
KINGS OF ROHANA (RUHUNA): A kingdom located in the south <strong>of</strong> Ceylon, the capital is Magama, near between<br />
modern Ambalantota and Tissamaharama in the Southern Province. The kingdom's boundaries are the<br />
Mahaveli River to the North, and the Kalu Ganga River to the North West.<br />
275 About this time Mahanaga, brother <strong>of</strong> Dewanampiyatissa, establishes a capital at Magama. Devoted to religion.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> Mahanaga and Uddhakandhara Viharas. Construction <strong>of</strong> Tissawewa.<br />
___ Yatalakatissa, son. Extends rule to Bintenne on the northeast and beyond Saffragam on the northwest. Capital<br />
fixed at Kelaniya. He builds the Kelaniya Dagaba.<br />
___ Gotabhaya, son. Reigns at Magama leaving the Kshatriya Kelani Tissa at Kelaniya (while he reigns there the sea<br />
inundates much <strong>of</strong> the coast near Kelaniya).<br />
205 Kakawanatissa (Kavan Tissa), son, marries Viharadewi, daughter <strong>of</strong> Kelani Tissa. Builds many edifices<br />
including Tissamaha Vihara. Construction <strong>of</strong> the tank Digha-vapi (Kandiya-kattu). Goods arrive from the East<br />
on Arabian trading ships. His main desire is to avoid aggressive military operations against Ellala. (170) About<br />
this time Duttu Gamunu asks his father Kakawanatissa to allow him to expel foreign rule from Lanka (i.e.;<br />
Ellala). His father states that within the banks <strong>of</strong> the river is sufficient area to rule. Duttu Gamunu ridicules him<br />
and is forced to flee to Kotta. Meanwhile, Kakawanatissa has the warriors swear that they'll not take part in any
contest for the succession between Duttu Gamunu and his brother Sadda Tissa. (C165) Death <strong>of</strong><br />
Kakawanatissa. Prince Tissa hurriedly takes care <strong>of</strong> the funeral then hurries back to Digawapi in case his<br />
brother Duttu attacks.<br />
165 About this time Duttu, son, moves to Mahagama where he assumes sovereignty: He demands custody <strong>of</strong> their<br />
mother and the state elephant from Tissa; he is refused. Battle <strong>of</strong> Chulanganiyapitthi; Duttu is defeated; he is<br />
pursued to Mahagama. (C164) In another battle, he defeats Tissa, who manages to escape but Duttu gains his<br />
mother and Kandula, the state elephant. Soon the brothers are reconciled. Tissa be<strong>com</strong>es superintendent <strong>of</strong><br />
agriculture works in Batticaloa district. Duttu is pushing agricultural work in preparation for a great campaign<br />
against Ellala. A road is built through the Malaya country. (162) Duttu Gamunu marches; a four month battle<br />
with Indian chieftain Titthamba at Amba ferry enables him to cross the Mahaweliganga. Siege <strong>of</strong> Wijitapura<br />
lasts about five months and finally falls. Its <strong>com</strong>mander Digajanthu escapes to Anurandhapura and informs<br />
Ellala that Duttu is a force to be reckoned with; he persuades the king to summon the assistance <strong>of</strong> his nephew<br />
Bhalluka with an army from India. (161) After capturing many forts (Girilaka, Casaw Totta, Mahawetta and<br />
Mahela), Duttu Gamunu fortifies at the foot <strong>of</strong> Kasa Mt. Ellala attacks and is forced back into Anuradhapura:<br />
In personal <strong>com</strong>bat, Duttu slays Allala and his elephant. Meanwhile, Ellala's nephew Bhalluka arrives<br />
Mahatitha and begins marching to Anuradhapura. But Duttu is ready and on the Northern side <strong>of</strong> the Great<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA<br />
Cemetery, he soundly defeats Bhalluka, slaying him. Now Duttu turns to furthering the cause <strong>of</strong> religion in the<br />
country. Construction <strong>of</strong> Mirisvettiya Vihara begun. Later construction <strong>of</strong> Lowa Maha Paya (the Brazen<br />
Palace) begun, the labor for these paid with money demonstrating that by this time Ceylon has adapted a<br />
money economy. Silver is used on the Lowa Maha Paya. Next is constructed the Ruwanwelisaye <strong>of</strong> which a<br />
massive foundation is built <strong>of</strong> which some <strong>of</strong> its <strong>com</strong>ponents are silver, brass, cement and oil paint. Duttu<br />
establishes 18 hospitals and appoints a doctor, astronomer and priest for every 16 villages in the country.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> the tanks Pavatkulam and Yoda-kandiya. (137) Death <strong>of</strong> Duttu Gamunu. His son Sali has<br />
married the maiden Asokamala <strong>of</strong> the scavenger class and is therefore disqualified from rule.<br />
137 Saddha Tissa, brother, ascends the throne. He finishes <strong>of</strong>f the Ruwanwelisaye according to his brother’s wishes,<br />
finishing <strong>of</strong>f the top with a pinnacle <strong>of</strong> glass (lightening rod?). Reconstruction <strong>of</strong> the Brazen Palace after it<br />
burned down. Construction <strong>of</strong> many viharas (including Mulgerigal Vihara) and agricultural works (including<br />
Digawewa Tank).<br />
119 Thullathanaka (or Thulna), second son. He rules 40 days. His eldest brother marches from Digawapi, kills him.<br />
119 Lajjatissa, brother, shows utmost contempt for the priesthood for their disrespect for seniority in raising his<br />
brother to the throne before him. (116) Lajjatissa relaxes his rigorous treatment <strong>of</strong> the priests and turns to<br />
ornamenting and extending existing edifices.<br />
109 Kalunna (or Khallatanaga), brother, to the throne. He embellishes the Brazen Palace. (104) The minister<br />
Maharattaka murders Kalunna.<br />
104 Wattagaminiabaya (or Walagambahu I), brother, ascends the throne and puts Maharattaka to death. He adopts<br />
his brother Kalunna's son Mahachula as his son and raises his mother Anula to Queen-consort. Five months<br />
later a Brahmin youth from Rohana revolts and an army <strong>of</strong> 7,000 Indians led by seven chieftains lands at<br />
Mahatitha demanding Walagambahu's surrender. He manages to have the Rohana rebels attack the Indians (he<br />
recognized the "rights" <strong>of</strong> the Brahmin). The Indians defeat the Brahmin and his forces and march on<br />
Anuradhapura. Walagambahu flees to Tanasiva. During his rule he raised the Abhayagiri Dagoba, a mighty<br />
structure eight acres in extent, 400 feet high. The Indian (Pandyan) chieftain<br />
THE FIVE DRAVIDIANS<br />
103 Pulahattha, a Tamil chief, assumes rule with the chieftain Bahiya his minister. (100) Pulahattha is murdered by<br />
100 Bahiya who assumes rule with the chieftain Panayamara his PM. Bahiya is murdered by<br />
98 Panayamara who assumes rule with Pilayamara his PM. (91) Panayamara is murdered by<br />
91 Pilayamara who assumes rule with Dathiya his PM. Seven months later Pilayamara is murdered by<br />
90 Dathiya. (88) Walagambahu and Tanasiva quarrel and the chief is killed. Walagambahu claims himself to be the<br />
Raja and sets out to rid Lanka <strong>of</strong> the seven infidels who have plundered Anuradhapura. (two had crossed the<br />
ocean, one taking Queen Somadewi and the other Buddha's reflection dish). He attacks Dathiya, slaying him;<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYA<br />
88 Walagambahu I reascends the throne. He demolishes the Tittharama (a residence to people <strong>of</strong> foreign religion)<br />
and begins construction <strong>of</strong> a vihara with 12 pirivenas (schools) and a dagoba. (80) About this time is begun<br />
embellishments to the stone caves <strong>of</strong> Dewa-raja-Vihara and the Maha Vihara. Walagambahu has 500 priests at<br />
Alu Vihara <strong>com</strong>mit to writing the Banapotha (Buddhist scripture), the Pitakattaya (exhortations <strong>of</strong> Buddha)<br />
and the Atthakatha (Commentaries). Construction <strong>of</strong> the tank Nuwarawewa near Anuradhapura. During his<br />
reign, there is a dissension in the priesthood; the Abhayagiri fraternity separates itself from the Vihara, calling<br />
itself the Dharmaruchi Sect.
76 Maha Chula (or Mahadailitissa), adopted son and nephew (son <strong>of</strong> Khallantanaga), assumes the throne. His first<br />
year he works incognito reaping a paddy crop and donates it to a priest. (75) Maha Chula begins working in a<br />
sugar factory. (72) He donates his earnings from the sugar factory to the priesthood at Anuradhapura. He now<br />
begins bestowing lavish gifts on the priesthood. All during his reign his cousin Naga (Coranaga) and his band<br />
<strong>of</strong> robbers roam the countryside. (62) Death <strong>of</strong> Maha Chula; his successor is<br />
62 Chora Naga, cousin, son <strong>of</strong> Walagambahu I. He gives the priests who refused him asylum during his marauding<br />
days a hard time <strong>of</strong> it; razing their abodes to the ground. During his reign famine visits Lanka. He is murdered<br />
by poisoned food given to him by his consort Anula.<br />
50 Kudatissa, son <strong>of</strong> Maha Chula, seizes the throne and makes himself king and takes Anula as his Queen. Anula<br />
soon develops a passion for Siva, the senior gate porter at the King’s Palace, and poisons the king.<br />
47 Queen Anula. She associates her lover, Siva, senior gate porter, in the rule as her consort. (46) Tired <strong>of</strong> Siva,<br />
Anula poisons him and replaces him with Vatuka, an Indian carpenter. (45) Tired <strong>of</strong> Vatuka she poisons him,<br />
replacing him with Dharubatissa, a palace fire wood carrier. During his stretch a reservoir is built in Mahamega<br />
garden. (44) Dharubatissa, poisoned, is replaced by the Adigar, a Brahmin named Neeliya who is (43)<br />
poisoned. (41) Queen Anula is burned alive by<br />
41 Kalakannie Tissa (Makalan Tissa), second son <strong>of</strong> Maha Chula, who succeeds. Construction <strong>of</strong> a great<br />
Uposathasala on Mihintale. Construction <strong>of</strong> the great canal Vannakanna and the tanks Amadugga and<br />
Bhayoluppa. Improvement <strong>of</strong> the capital's defenses; a wall "seven cubits high" around Anuradhapura. He has a<br />
new palace built considering the old one polluted by the burning <strong>of</strong> Anula.<br />
19 BCE Bathikabeya (Bhattika Raja), son, succeeds. He puts into effect all <strong>of</strong> his fancies regardless <strong>of</strong> cost [one<br />
being the use <strong>of</strong> hydraulic machinery to create a water festival in the Abaya tank].<br />
9 CE Mahadithaka Mahanaga (Maha Dalia Mana or Dathika), brother. He is devoted to religion and a slave to the<br />
priesthood, making <strong>of</strong>ferings and building religious edifices. His reign is peaceful and prosperous.<br />
21 Addagamunu (or Amanda Gamunu) son <strong>of</strong> Dathika. A pious ruler, he prohibits the killing <strong>of</strong> any animal<br />
whatsoever prohibits the <strong>com</strong>mission <strong>of</strong> sin and enjoins his people to do the work <strong>of</strong> charity. To substitute for<br />
meat, he has a great number <strong>of</strong> fruit trees and creepers planted throughout the country. Founder <strong>of</strong> Ridi Vihara<br />
in Kurunegala District. During his reign King Meghavahana <strong>of</strong> Kashmir visits (induces Addagamunu to ban<br />
killing <strong>of</strong> animals). (30) Mahadithaka is murdered by<br />
30 Kanijanu Tissa (Kinihiridaila), brother, who succeeds. He decides a controversy which had suspended the<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> religious ceremonies in the Uposatha hall <strong>of</strong> Mihintale. He has 60 priests engaged in a<br />
conspiracy against him imprisoned.<br />
33 Culabhaya, son <strong>of</strong> Amanda Gamini Abaya, succeeds. Builds a vihara on the banks <strong>of</strong> the river south <strong>of</strong> the<br />
capital. (34) Dies and succeeded by<br />
34 Sivali, sister. Deposed after 4 months by<br />
34 Illa Naga (Elluna), nephew. He visits Tissa tank and punishes his Lambakanna men who deserted him thereby<br />
placing inferior caste members as overseers during their punishment. Infuriated at this indignity the men,<br />
supported by the people, rise (35) and imprison Illa Naga. Soon he escapes and flees to India. (38) He returns<br />
to Ceylon with an army, lands Sakarasobba, repairs the Naga Maha Vihara (dagaba at Tissamaharama) and the<br />
Tissa and Dura tanks then sets out after the Lambakannas. After a series <strong>of</strong> near defeats, he manages to<br />
over<strong>com</strong>e them and enter his capital, Anuradhapura.<br />
44 Chandamukha Siva (Sanda Muhuna), son. Construction <strong>of</strong> a tank dedicated to Isurumunni Vihara. His wife<br />
Damiladewi dedicates the pr<strong>of</strong>its from Manikara village to the same vihara. Four ambassadors are sent to<br />
Emperor Claudius at Rome. (52) Chandamukha Siva murdered.<br />
52 Yasalaka Tissa, younger brother. A jovial and undignified ruler, he carries out farcical games at court, one <strong>of</strong><br />
which backfires (60) resulting in his death and usurpation <strong>of</strong> the throne by the hall porter<br />
60 Subha, ruling as Suba Raja. He carries out construction <strong>of</strong> various viharas. Jealous, he searches out everyone<br />
named Vasabha whom his predecessor had predicted would be the name <strong>of</strong> a future ruler. One Vasabha,<br />
nephew <strong>of</strong> the CIC <strong>of</strong> north <strong>of</strong> Lanka escapes into the hills then crosses the Rohana and begins building up a<br />
powerful and organized force. (66) Vasabha attacks Subha; in the course <strong>of</strong> battle his uncle is killed, but so is<br />
Subha.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> LAMBAKANNA I<br />
66 Vasabha, a member <strong>of</strong> the Lambakanna clan, raises his uncle's wife Metha to Queen-consort (she saved his life<br />
during Subha's search). He undertakes construction <strong>of</strong> religious edifices, the construction <strong>of</strong> tanks (eleven) and<br />
irrigation canals so that cultivation can be extended. The Elahera channel takes water to Kawdulu-vewa. A<br />
tunnel is constructed to supply Anuradhapura with water as the city's population density makes the old supply<br />
unfit. The city's rampart is raised from seven to 18 cubits.<br />
110 Wankaanasika (Waknais), son, whose wife Mahamatta is daughter <strong>of</strong> Subha Raja. (111-12) The Chola Karikkal<br />
from Tanjore lands in northwest and ravages Lanka <strong>com</strong>ing in sight <strong>of</strong> Anuradhapura. He withdraw taking
much plunder and 12,000 prisoners to work on an irrigation project <strong>of</strong> the Kaveri river in south India.<br />
113 Gajabahu I, son. After construction <strong>of</strong> a dagoba and tank and carrying out other rites, he heads an army<br />
<strong>com</strong>manded by Nela-Yadhaya, crosses Adam's Bridge and attacks the Tamils He devastates the countryside and<br />
threatens to raze Tanjore unless the 12,000 Sinhalese are returned and double that number are returned to<br />
Lanka as hostage. This is done, in addition Buddha's reflection dish taken from Walagambahu I is regained in<br />
addition to the tooth relic. He restores to their ancient possessions all those who were carried away and places<br />
the Indians in the Cooroo Rata (Alut Cooroo Corle). He introduces the Pattini cult to Ceylon. Toward the end<br />
<strong>of</strong> his reign construction <strong>of</strong> the Rama Vihara and Maha Asana Hall at Anu-radhapura.<br />
125 Mahallaka Naga (Mahalumaana), father-in-law. He spends his reign erecting sacred edifices.<br />
131 Bhatika Tissa (Batiya Tissa II), son. Kind-hearted and has pr<strong>of</strong>ound respect for the priesthood. Peaceful and<br />
prosperous reign. His successor is his brother.<br />
155 Kanittha Tissa, brother, spends a good deal <strong>of</strong> his revenues erecting pirivenas (schools) and many other religious<br />
edifices.<br />
183 Chulanaga, son. Murdered by his youngest brother<br />
185 Kudanaga, brother. The great famine "Ekanalika" strikes. (186) Sirinaga, the king's brother-in-law and minister<br />
at head <strong>of</strong> the military, raises a rebellion and assumes the throne:<br />
186 Siri Naga (Kuda Sirina), brother-in-law, has a gilt chatta fixed on the Ruwanweli dagoba <strong>of</strong> king Amanda.<br />
Rebuilds the Brazen Palace (five stories). Adds four entrances to the Bodhi Tree. Releases persons <strong>of</strong> good<br />
families in the Island from royal revenues.<br />
205 Tissa (Vahoraka Tissa, or Waira Tissa), son. Humanizes the administration <strong>of</strong> justice by abolishing torture.<br />
Religious construction. Spends large amounts to maintain the priests who read the recorded lives <strong>of</strong> great men<br />
to the people on stated occasions. The Brahmin Wytulya attempts to establish his own brand <strong>of</strong> Buddhism (a<br />
Mahayana or northern form) but this is suppressed (C225) Tissa's brother Abhaya is forced to flee to the<br />
mainland because <strong>of</strong> his affection (which is returned) for Tissa's queen. (227) The queen's father Subha Dewa<br />
informs Abhaya that the time for revolution is right; Abhaya returns, Tissa flees into Malaya country but soon<br />
loses his queen to, and is murdered by<br />
227 Abhaya Naga, brother. Spends much on robes for priests.<br />
235 Sirinaga II, son <strong>of</strong> Waira Tissa. Religious construction.<br />
237 Wijaya II (Vijay Kumara), son. He gives the three Lambakannas (Lemeni; 'having ears with long lobes')<br />
Sangatissa, Sanghabadi and Gothakabhaya, <strong>of</strong> a branch <strong>of</strong> the royal family <strong>of</strong> Bintenne, high <strong>of</strong>fices. They<br />
(238) murder the king and by <strong>com</strong>mon consent<br />
238 Sangha Tissa, a Lambakanna, usurps the throne. To win the hearts <strong>of</strong> his people, he adorns the Ruwanweli<br />
dagoba. (242) Sanghatissa is murdered (poisoned) by the residents <strong>of</strong> island <strong>of</strong> Paenina, tired <strong>of</strong> his visits to the<br />
ladies <strong>of</strong> their palace.<br />
242 Sanghabodi (Sirisanghabodi I), CIC <strong>of</strong> Sanghatissa, also a Lambakanna,is installed on minister Abhaya's<br />
re<strong>com</strong>mendation. A great famine strikes, thinning Lanka's population. He takes the vows <strong>of</strong> the order Atta Sil<br />
which includes prohibition <strong>of</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> animal life. This leads to anarchy as criminals are not killed or<br />
punished but released and admonished to reform. (244) State treasurer, the Lambakanna Gothakabhaya<br />
marches on the capital; Sanghabodi flees to the forest and the throne is seized by Gothakabhaya as<br />
244 Gothabhaya (Meghavannabhaya or Goluamba). He adheres to the letter the Dharma, prohibits the taking <strong>of</strong> life,<br />
an act that throws the country into anarchy as capital punishment cannot be carried out. Feeling unsafe with<br />
Sanghabodi alive, he issues a reward for his head, which is soon procured. Gothabhaya turns to pleasing the<br />
priests as they have great influence over the masses (religious adornment, construction and donations). (248)<br />
The Wytulian heresy again appears as some Abhayagiri monks adopt it; a secession occurs at the Dakunugiri<br />
Vihara as the Sagaliya sect, but it is suppressed. The priest Sanghamitta from Chola is given as tutor to<br />
Gothabahaya's two sons Mahasena and Jetthatissa. A rebellion breaks out and Gothabhaya, not wanting to be a<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> bloodshed, abdicates and flees from Anuradhapura and is beheaded at Attanagalla.<br />
257 Jetthatissa, son. He earns the epithet "the cruel" by executing 60 ministers for not showing proper respect at his<br />
father's funeral by impaling them. The Wytulian heresy breaks out anew, bringing fierce repression. Fearing<br />
retribution for such ferocity Sanghamitta flees but maintains correspondence with Mahasena. Jetthatissa<br />
devotes attention to agricultural development (i.e.; constructs six tanks). Construction <strong>of</strong> Mulginigala Vihara in<br />
Hambantota District, and restores Mutiyangana Vihara at Badulla. Raises the Brazen Palace to seven stories.<br />
(269) Death <strong>of</strong> Jetthatissa. Succeeded by his brother<br />
269 Mahasena, brother. He recalls his tutor Sanghamitta and 60 other expelled priests: Mahasena is determined to<br />
establish the Wytulian sect paramount over Lanka. The Maha Vihara fraternity leaves and sets up in the<br />
orthodox province <strong>of</strong> Rohana. (278) Realizing the people are against him; Mahasena, who values his crown<br />
more than Wytulianism, orders the execution <strong>of</strong> Sanghamitta and Sona (another minister) and reestablishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the old religion. The minister Megavannabhaya (who had begun a revolt from the Adam's Peak area) is
made adigar. Destroyed temples are rebuilt and the priests in Rohana recalled. But now the king shows<br />
preference for the Thera Tissa <strong>of</strong> the Dakkhina fraternity: The Maha Vihara again desert in protest <strong>of</strong> the king's<br />
arbitrariness. Minister Just holds a trial - against the king's wishes - and has the Thera Tissa expelled and<br />
disrobed. Construction <strong>of</strong> the Jetawanarama dagoba, numerous schools (pirivenas). Attention given to paddy<br />
cultivation extension. Construction <strong>of</strong> 16 tanks (Julluva Khanu, Mahamani, Kokavata, Maraka, Paraka,<br />
Kumbalaka, Vahata, Rattamalakandaka, Tissava, Velangawitthi, Maha-gallaka, Ciravapi, Mahadaragalla,<br />
Kalapasanavapi and Minneriya). A great canal is built connecting the Minneriya Kanthalai (= Gantalawa) and<br />
Kowdelly tanks. Construction <strong>of</strong> (modern=) Naccaduwa tank 3 1/2 miles below the tank <strong>of</strong> Walagambahu I.<br />
(296) Death <strong>of</strong> Mahasena –<br />
End <strong>of</strong> the Mahawansa Period<br />
296 Sirimeghawanna (= Kitsiri Maiwan), son - Begining the Suluwansa Period. He continues his father's<br />
restorations. Complete restoration <strong>of</strong> the Brazen Palace. He builds a three story Aramaya at Buddha Gaya for<br />
the monks. A festival in honor <strong>of</strong> Mahinda is held. (305) Gautama Buddha's right eye-tooth is brought from<br />
Danthapura (to escape capture by king <strong>of</strong> the city Sawat Nuwara from Guwaseenam Raja, king <strong>of</strong> Kalinga) by<br />
the Raja's daughter Ranewalenam Kumari and husband Dantanam Kumara. The village Kirawella is set aside<br />
for the princess and her consort and the royal rank <strong>of</strong> their descendants is recognized. The King ordains there<br />
should be a physician for every ten villages. He also <strong>com</strong>poses the Sararthasangraha, a work on medicine.<br />
Fourth Century: Roman ships arrive Ceylonese ports carrying on trade. Roman coins in this period form the bulk <strong>of</strong><br />
currency. The chief port is in the north-west at Mahatittha or Mantota.<br />
324 Jetthatissa, brother, is an artist, renowned for his skill in painting and carving. He teaches art.<br />
333 Buddhadasa (= Bujas Raja), son, a renowned surgeon, able to perform the operations <strong>of</strong> Caphalatomy and<br />
Laparatomy. Composes a text on medicine - Saratthasangha in Sanskrit with Sinhalese <strong>com</strong>mentary. Appoints<br />
a physician for every group <strong>of</strong> 10 villages. Veterinarians appointed. Asylums set up for the lame and blind.<br />
Preachers appointed, one per 16 villages, to inculcate morality and thereby eradicate crime. Every 16 villages<br />
also has an astrologer. Construction <strong>of</strong> the Mayura or Monara Pirivera (Peacock College). The priest Maha<br />
Dhammakathu translates the sutras <strong>of</strong> the Pitakattaya from the Magadhan language <strong>of</strong> Pali into Sinhalese.<br />
During the King's reign, <strong>com</strong>position <strong>of</strong> the semi-religious works Mulasika and Kudusika. (362) Death <strong>of</strong><br />
Buddhadasa; leaves 80 sons.<br />
362 Upatissa, son. Construction <strong>of</strong> homes for the crippled, pregnant women, the blind and those with incurable<br />
diseases. He feeds the squirrels in his parks. To alleviate dry seasons, he has seven tanks (the Rajuppalla,<br />
Gijjhakula, Pokkharapasava, Valahassa, Ambutthi, Gon-digama and the Kandaraji) built. Upatissa is a religious<br />
man to the point <strong>of</strong> zealousness: Construction or religious edifices, adornment <strong>of</strong> existing ones and<br />
contributions. He leads a simple life, eating the same fare as the priests living on alms. He observes the eight<br />
precepts twice a month; Ata Sil: (1) Not to kill, (2) Not to Steal, (3) Not to <strong>com</strong>mit adultery, (4) Not to lie, (5)<br />
Not to indulge in strong drink, (6) Not to eat by day, (7) Not to attend any parties <strong>of</strong> pleasure, (8) Not to dress<br />
the hair with flowers or anoint the body with perfumes. He refuses to allow capital punishment. (404)<br />
Upatissa's wife, having grown tired <strong>of</strong> him, induces his brother to murder him, cast aside his yellow robes,<br />
seize the throne and take her for consort. The deed is done and<br />
404 Mahanama, brother, ascends the throne. Undertakes religious construction to placate the people for his crime,<br />
plus maintenance <strong>of</strong> stores in the alms-houses as did his predecessor, construction <strong>of</strong> hospitals. During his<br />
reign the celebrated Buddhist from India, Buddhaghosa, visits Lanka. He translates the Atthakatha (Sinhala<br />
<strong>com</strong>mentaries on the Buddhist scriptures) into Pali and <strong>com</strong>poses the philosophical work Visuddhimagga..<br />
(405) An embassy is sent to China via India bearing a Jade Stone image <strong>of</strong> Buddha (arrives 415). (413) Arrival<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chinese traveler Fa Hian for a two-year stay. Later in the reign embassies are sent to the Emperor <strong>of</strong> China<br />
and Emperor Julian at Rome. (426) Death <strong>of</strong> Mahanama.<br />
426 Sothisena, son by a Tamil mother, who is immediately poisoned by his sister Sangha whose husband<br />
426 Jantu (Laimini Tissa II) accedes. (427) Death <strong>of</strong> Jantu without issue. The Chief Minister decides to appoint a<br />
noted Tamil marauder on the throne and in strict confinement both to end his depredations and so that he, the<br />
minister, can control the administration. He places on the throne the marauder<br />
427 Mitta Sena, a noted plunderer. Bowing to the clamoring people, the PM allows the king greater liberty; Mitta<br />
Sena is devoted to acts <strong>of</strong> piety. (428) An army <strong>of</strong> Indians (Tamils) <strong>com</strong>manded by one Pandu invades Lanka,<br />
defeats and kills Mitta Sena and gains control <strong>of</strong> Anuradhapura and the country on its side <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Mahaweliganga.<br />
The SIX DRAVIDIANS<br />
428 Pandu orders a search for a rumored youth <strong>of</strong> royal blood who may challenge his rule. But the youth,<br />
Dathusena, has gone to Rohana where he is proclaimed king.<br />
433 Parinda, son, doesn't last long on the throne.<br />
433 Khudda Parinda, brother <strong>of</strong> Pandu, who oppresses the people. He is fighting a constant war with Dathusena.
449 Tiritara succeeds, battles Dathusena and is killed in 2 months.<br />
449 Dathiya succeeds, battles Dathusena. (452) Dathiya is killed in battle with Dathusena after a three-year war.<br />
452 Pithiya succeeds and seven months later is killed in battle by Dathusena; this extinguishes the Indian dynasty.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> MORIYA<br />
452 Dathusena succeeds to the throne. He is <strong>of</strong> the royal Moriyan race, son <strong>of</strong> Sanga, daughter <strong>of</strong> Mahanama. He<br />
expels the Tamils and reunites Lanka in one sovereignty, reestablishing peace, happiness and Buddhist<br />
ascendancy. He confiscates the lands <strong>of</strong> those who joined the invaders; those that chose to fight are honored.<br />
Much agricultural work is carried out, including 17 tanks and the damming <strong>of</strong> the Mahaweliganga<br />
(Mahawaluka). The huge tank Kala-wewa is constructed with a 54 mile long canal supplying village tanks and<br />
Anuradhapura with water. Construction and repair <strong>of</strong> religious edifices. It is possible that the Mahawansa is<br />
<strong>com</strong>posed during this reign by Dathusena's uncle Mahanama. Construcion <strong>of</strong> hospitals. The king, however, is<br />
plagued with family problems; his son Kassapa <strong>of</strong> a low-born woman conspires with Migara, the brutish<br />
husband <strong>of</strong> the king's daughter (and son <strong>of</strong> the king's sister) who is CIC. The king punishes his sister for<br />
allowing Migara to treat his daughter so roughly. Eventually (470) Dathusena is killed by being plastered up in<br />
a wall by<br />
470 Kassapa, son. Tries to kill his step-brother Mogallana (by Dathusena's high ranking wife) but fails; Mogallana<br />
goes to India with one Silakala. Realizing he has estranged himself from the people's sympathy by his acts,<br />
Kassapa constructs a largely inaccessible palace 11 1/2 miles northeast <strong>of</strong> Dambulla called Sihagiri, moving<br />
the capital there. Migara constructs a pirivena (school) and a house for the Abhiseka Jina. Migara is spurned by<br />
Kassapa in further attempts at religious ceremony and joins Mogallana against him. Despite his devotion to<br />
perfection <strong>of</strong> religious observation and succor <strong>of</strong> the people's intellectual shortages, Mogallana easily raises an<br />
army and joined by Migara attacks and defeats Kassapa who <strong>com</strong>mits (488) suicide.<br />
488 Mogallana, brother, takes out revenge on those who held <strong>of</strong>fices under Kassapa (death or mutilation). Soon he<br />
mellows and returns to he religious orientation <strong>of</strong> the king's duties. He converts the fortress Sihagiri into a<br />
vihara, moving the capital back to Anuradhapura, and bestows it on his grand-uncle Mahanama. Establishes a<br />
navy to protect the coast from foreign invasion. Silakala returns, bringing a lock <strong>of</strong> Buddha's hair. For this<br />
priceless relic Silakala is given the king's sister and a dowry. (500) About this time a Persian Christian<br />
(Nestorian) colony is set up, probably in the chief port <strong>of</strong> Mahatittha or Mantota which at this time is in the<br />
hands <strong>of</strong> an independent prince.<br />
506 Kumara Dass (Kumaradatusena), son. Sends an embassy to China Passionately devoted to literature, he<br />
convenes an assembly <strong>of</strong> learned priests and revises the sacred Buddhist writings, purging them <strong>of</strong> all<br />
alterations and additions. Visit <strong>of</strong> the Indian poet Pandita Kaalidaas who (515) is killed by a jealous courtesian.<br />
The courtesian is executed by Kumara Dass who then <strong>com</strong>mits suicide at Pandita's funeral.<br />
515 Kirti Sena, son, who sends an embassy to China. He is very religious. After nine months murdered by<br />
515 Maidi Siwu (or Siwaka), uncle, who performs pious acts to atone for the murder <strong>of</strong> his nephew but 25 days later<br />
his is killed by<br />
515 Upatissa III (= Laimini Upatissa), son-in-law <strong>of</strong> Kumara Dass, an old man with failing eyesight. He appoints<br />
Mogallena's brother-in-law Silakala CIC, giving him his daughter and a dowry. Silakala is greedy, however,<br />
and, raising an army in Rohana, tries to seize the throne but is repulsed eight times by Upatissa's son Kassapa.<br />
(517) Silakala tries a ninth time, forcing Kassapa and Upatissa to flee but he surrounds them; Kassapa <strong>com</strong>mits<br />
suicide and Upatissa dies <strong>of</strong> grief. Silakala attains the throne as<br />
517 Ambasamanera Silaka, a Lambakkana, son-in-law <strong>of</strong> Dhatusena and brother-in-law <strong>of</strong> Mogallana, who proves<br />
to be a wise and humane ruler. Increases hospital services. He entrusts the island's administration to his three<br />
sons; Mogallana over the Eastern part; Dathapabhuti over the Southern part (Rohana and Malaya regions,<br />
including naval patrol <strong>of</strong> the seacoasts there); Upatissa remains at court. (529) A Sinhalese merchant visits<br />
Benares and returns with the sacred book Dhammadhatu (unknown to the king to be <strong>of</strong> the Wytulian heresy)<br />
and is honored by the king. Death <strong>of</strong> A. Silaka; the throne is seized by<br />
530 Dathapabhuti, son, who has his brother Upatissa murdered to be<strong>com</strong>e king. Mahanaga, a descendant <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Moriya race is appointed Minister <strong>of</strong> War. Dathapabhuti slaying <strong>of</strong> his younger brother Upatissa has angered<br />
Mogallana who marches against him. Dathapabhuti suggests single <strong>com</strong>bat as the citizens <strong>of</strong> Lanka have no<br />
involvement in their quarrel. Mogallana defeats Dathapabhuti, ruling only six months, who <strong>com</strong>mits suicide.<br />
530 Mogallana II (= Dalamagolan), brother. An ac<strong>com</strong>plished poet and learned Buddhist. Furthers children's<br />
education and agriculture (constructs three tanks; Pattapasana, Dhanavapi and Garitara). Mahanaga begins<br />
engineering a rebellion in the Rohana district.<br />
550 Kirti Sirimegha, son, after the queen (Mogallana's wife) had all possible claimants poisoned. His sentimentality<br />
and socialist ideas begin squandering the state revenues. 19 days into his reign, the old man Mahanago slays<br />
him and ascends the throne as<br />
550 Mahanaga (Senewi), Minister <strong>of</strong> War under Dathapabhuti and <strong>of</strong> Moriya stock. He raises his cousin Aggabodhi
to sub-king. Repairs and adorns religious edifices and grants large tracts <strong>of</strong> land to the Jetawana and Maha<br />
Viharas.<br />
553 Aggabodhi I (Akbo), cousin. He works to restore order and tranquility to Lanka, disturbed by the rapid<br />
succession <strong>of</strong> power changes. Gives Rohana to his brother as king <strong>of</strong> that district; his uncle's son sent as Raja<br />
<strong>of</strong> Malaya country giving him his daughter: He soon wins over the hearts <strong>of</strong> the people. Poets (12) flourish<br />
during his reign; Dehemi, Temal, Bebiri, Bisodala, Anurut, Dalagot, Puravadu, Dalasala, Kumara, Kitsiri,<br />
Kasubkota and Epa. About this time author Gurulugomi writes Pradeepikawa and Amawatura. Many schools<br />
and religious works constructed. During this reign the Wytulian heresy arises, largely due to the book<br />
Dghammadhatu but is put down by high-priest Jotipala: The King gives him a monastery. The King restores<br />
Mahasena's channel to Minneri (no doubt the Elahera channel).<br />
587 Aggabodhi II (Kuda Akbo), nephew and son-in-law, Raja <strong>of</strong> Malaya. Continues his predecessors policies.<br />
Constructs 14 tanks including Ganga-tata, Valahassa and Giritata. Sculpture flourishes during this time. The<br />
king <strong>of</strong> Kalinga, with his wife and chief minister arrives to be<strong>com</strong>e a recluse at Vettavasa Vihara (his queen<br />
enters Ratana Convent).<br />
597 Sanghatissa, brother and sword bearer, who shows promise <strong>of</strong> being a <strong>com</strong>petent ruler But through treachery,<br />
Mogallana, CIC under Aggabodhi II after two months <strong>of</strong> rule, dethrones him through machinations by a<br />
treacherous general; the king and his son flee into Rohana disguised as priests.<br />
597 Mogallana assumes the throne and rewards the treacherous general as Malaya Raja and his son as sword bearer.<br />
The boy prince left behind has his hands and feet cut <strong>of</strong>f. Rewards are <strong>of</strong>fered and Sanghatissa and his minister<br />
are captured and executed. Mogallana nest tries to win the good-will <strong>of</strong> the priesthood with gifts and good<br />
works. Soon it is discovered the Malaya Raja is guilty <strong>of</strong> intrigue against the king, his hands and feet are cut<br />
<strong>of</strong>f: His son, the sword bearer, flees to Rohana with his son and is joined by Jetthatissa, son <strong>of</strong> king<br />
Sanghatissa. They quickly raise an army (603) and Mogallana marches against them. Battle <strong>of</strong> Sihagiri;<br />
Mogallana is defeated and killed; the Lambakanna sword bearer ascends the throne as<br />
603 Silameghavama. Extends his rule over Lanka; capital at Anuradhapura. He defeats Sirinaga, uncle <strong>of</strong> Jetthatissa,<br />
who came from India with an army to gain the sovereignty. A famine strikes and king Silameghavama devotes<br />
himself unsparingly to the alleviation <strong>of</strong> suffering <strong>of</strong> the poor. (607) The Brahman Kew-mo-lo with 30 vessels<br />
goes to meet the arriving embassy from China Chang Tsuen. The remainder <strong>of</strong> the reign is spent attempting to<br />
reform the priests <strong>of</strong> the Abhayagiriya fraternity and in so doing out rages the Maha Vihara fraternity.<br />
612 Aggabodhi III (= Sirisanghabodi II), son. He appoints brother Mana governor <strong>of</strong> Rohana. Soon Jetthatissa from<br />
the east attacks (a part <strong>of</strong> his army under general Dathasiva is repulsed from the western province by Mana)<br />
defeats and routs the king who flees to India.<br />
613 Jetthatissa, son <strong>of</strong> Sanghatissa, occupies himself with winning over the priesthood with gifts and works. After<br />
five months <strong>of</strong> rule, Aggabodhi III returns with an Indian army and defeats Jetthatissa who <strong>com</strong>mits suicide.<br />
624 Aggabodhi rules at Anuradhapura and restores tranquility. (624) Execution <strong>of</strong> the king’s brother Mana for<br />
misconduct in respect <strong>of</strong> the queen. Another brother, Kassapa replaces him as sub-king. Angered, Dathasiva,<br />
Jetthatissa's general, raises in rebellion: Battle <strong>of</strong> Tintini; he defeats the royal forces (Aggabodhi flees to India)<br />
and ascends as<br />
624 Dathopatissa I. Instead <strong>of</strong> paying his respects to the priesthood, he sets about despoiling their temples <strong>of</strong> their<br />
great wealth. Soon he repents his crimes and begins to make good his crimes. He sends an embassy to China.<br />
(628) Aggabodhi III returns from India and deposes him. Aggabodhi pillages the temples further. Soon<br />
Dathopatissa returns and defeats Aggabodhi who soon dies. Now Dathopatissa's sub-king<br />
636 Kassapa defeats Dathopatissa (who goes to India) and assumes the government. He begins, through works and<br />
construction and reconstruction, to make his predecessor's deeds against the temples good. (636) King<br />
Dathopatissa returns from India but is defeated and slain. Kassapa now rules as<br />
636 Kassapa II and continues his religious benefactions. He patronizes learned priest Maha Dhammakathi. He raises<br />
a great number <strong>of</strong> temples, schools and hospitals in the Rohana district. As his children are all young, one<br />
Mana from Rohana is appointed regent: He determines the Indians to be the source <strong>of</strong> disturbances in the<br />
country and so deprives them <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong>fices and power. They raise a rebellion (645) while Mana is away in<br />
Rohana. Soon Mana, with his father Dappula (brother and successor <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi and chief <strong>of</strong> Rohana)<br />
reduces the Indians to subjection. Dappula is crowned king <strong>of</strong> Lanka as<br />
645 Dappula I, son-in-law <strong>of</strong> Silameghavama. Tranquility prevails for a short time until the Tamils, led by<br />
Dathopatissa's nephew Hatthadatha, returning from exile in India, rise in rebellion and depose Dappula who<br />
flees with Mana to the eastern and southern Rohana. Hatthadatha is crowned at Anuradhapura as<br />
645 Dathopatissa II, nephew <strong>of</strong> Dathopatissa I. (648) Mana, having raised an army, marches against Dathopatissa.<br />
Battle <strong>of</strong> Tipucullasa; Mana is defeated and killed. Soon aged Dappula II dies (he was Mana's father). (650)<br />
About this time Manavamma, son <strong>of</strong> Kassapa I and husband <strong>of</strong> Sangha, daughter <strong>of</strong> a Malaya district chief and<br />
assisted by Indian king Narasingha, invades, <strong>com</strong>pelling Dathopatissa to retreat; but soon Manavamma's army
largely deserts and he is forced to retreat to India and the court <strong>of</strong> Narasingha. Dathopatissa turns to placating<br />
the priesthood (endowments, gifts, construction, <strong>of</strong>fices, etc.). Having built a temple for the Dhammaruchi<br />
fraternity makes him unpopular with the Theriya Bretheren. (<br />
654 Aggabodhi IV, brother. Not ambitious <strong>of</strong> keeping all power in his hands alone, he bestows <strong>of</strong>fices according to<br />
ability. Pays special attention to the Maha Vihara fraternity (Theriya bretheren). He is a man <strong>of</strong> culture and<br />
advocates the furtherance <strong>of</strong> Buddhism. Schools and colleges built. (670) Death <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi at Polonnaruwa.<br />
Tamil <strong>of</strong>ficer Potthakuttha siezes power, imprisoning any opposition and sets up a chief <strong>of</strong> royal blood<br />
670 Datta (Walpiti Wasidata, or Dantanama) as king. (672) Death <strong>of</strong> Datta. Pottha-kuttha places the youth<br />
672 Hattha-datha II (Hununaru Riandalu) on the throne. Six months later Manavamma, with a powerful Indian army,<br />
invades, defeats and kills Hatthadatha II. Potthakuttha is a suicide.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> LAMBAKANNA II<br />
672 Manavamma (Mahalepa), son <strong>of</strong> Kassapa I, seizes the throne with Pallava assistance, firmly embedding Tamil<br />
influence in the island's culture. The dynasty he establishes is heavily indebted to Pallava patronage. Pallava<br />
influence extended to architecture and sculpture, both <strong>of</strong> which bear noticeable Hindu motifs. He undertakes a<br />
wise rule, giving special attention to education, building several pirivenas (colleges); Uturalamula, Vadumula,<br />
Kapugam, Dematahal, Alagiri, Satveliya and Uturu. Construction <strong>of</strong> terraced houses and repair <strong>of</strong> religious<br />
edifices.<br />
707 Aggabodhi V, son, a wise and pious ruler. Construction and repair <strong>of</strong> religious edifices. Restores Gondigama<br />
tank.<br />
713 Khattiya Kassapa (Kasubu) III, brother, proves to be an ideal monarch: Constructs three pirivenas, one being the<br />
Helaham school.<br />
720 Midel (Mahinda I), brother. Sentimental and altruistic, he attaches special sanctity to friendship, not assuming<br />
the crown or clothes <strong>of</strong> his <strong>of</strong>fice because <strong>of</strong> the death earlier <strong>of</strong> his friend Nila. He assumes the title Adipada<br />
(governor). Aggabodhi, son <strong>of</strong> his brother Kassapa, is raised to sub-king and given the eastern district. His own<br />
son, also Aggabodhi, is given Rohana district. (723) Death <strong>of</strong> Midel; his son in the Rohana district is raised to<br />
the throne but he calls Aggabodhi the sub-king to the throne who succeeds as<br />
723 Silamegha (Aggabodhi VI), son <strong>of</strong> Kassapa III, appoints Midel's son Aggabodhi sub-king who assumes the<br />
country's administration: He soon regains order throughout Lanka. But his administration is rigorous and soon,<br />
those suffering under it raise Silamegha's jealousy and the sub-king flees to Rohana where he raises an army<br />
and begins a civil war. Battle <strong>of</strong> Kadalinivata; the sub-king is defeated and goes to Malaya district. Soon the<br />
two are reconciled, the king giving his daughter Sangha in marriage. (742) An embassy is sent to China. (745)<br />
King Djayapida <strong>of</strong> Kashmir sends to Ceylon for engineers to build a lake in his country. (746, 750 and 762) An<br />
embassy is sent to China.<br />
763 Aggabodhi VII, son <strong>of</strong> Midel. He devotes his reign to the furtherance <strong>of</strong> religion (repairs, gifts, etc.). (769)<br />
Mahinda, son <strong>of</strong> Silamegha goes to Anuradhapura (death <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi) from Mahatittha (= Mantotta). He<br />
hears <strong>of</strong> restlessness, puts that down, imprisons the queen (widow <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi) for conspiring against him<br />
and at Anuradhapura is crowned as<br />
769 Mahinda II, son <strong>of</strong> Silamegha. He is challenged by his cousin Dappula who seizes Kalawewa (Kalawapi) and<br />
advances. Battle <strong>of</strong> Sanghagama; Dappula is defeated but Mahinda cannot pursue because the northern chiefs<br />
have taken the capital which, after a prolonged struggle, he retakes. Now for a few years tranquility descends<br />
but Dappula uses the time to rebuild his strength: He besieges Anuradhapura but is surprised by a sudden sortie<br />
by Mahinda that soundly defeats and routes Dappula's forces. Dappula goes into Rohana country. Now<br />
Mahinda turns to reduce the peoples in the northern portion <strong>of</strong> the country to subjection. He marries a captive<br />
queen who is his uncle's wife. Later, Dappula again, this time with his two brothers advances on Anuradhapura.<br />
Mahinda leaves a garrison in the city and at Battle <strong>of</strong> Kovilara defeats and routes Dappula whose two brothers<br />
are killed. Mahinda now advances into Rohana and brings Dappula to seeking a treaty: A tribute is determined<br />
and Rohana's western boundary is Kaluganga. Mahinda now turns to taking care <strong>of</strong> the welfare <strong>of</strong> his subjects<br />
and carries out religious construction.<br />
789 Dappula III (Udaya I), son who was sub-king, establishes his capital at Pollonnaruwa. The northeastern chiefs<br />
revolt. He sends his son and CIC against them but his son joins the rebels. Battle <strong>of</strong> Duratissa; Dappula defeats<br />
the rebels, slaying the leaders including his son. Mahinda, son <strong>of</strong> Rohana chief Datasiva, seeks aid against his<br />
father: It is granted along with Dappula's daughter Deva. Construction <strong>of</strong> two hospitals and many shrines.<br />
Dappula realizes the importance <strong>of</strong> preserving records <strong>of</strong> all legal proceedings which are ordered to be<br />
deposited in the palace.<br />
794 Mahinda III (Dhammika Silamegha), son. He is religious. Restores dilapidated religious edifices and<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> a water course.<br />
798 Aggabodhi VIII, brother. Also religious. Reveres his mother. Feast <strong>of</strong> the Tooth-relic and Feast <strong>of</strong> the Golden<br />
Buddha (made during his grandfather Mahinda II's reign). Construction <strong>of</strong> two colleges.
809 Dappula IV, brother. His two nephews, sons <strong>of</strong> his sister, wife <strong>of</strong> Mahinda chief <strong>of</strong> Rohana, banished, seek aid<br />
from Dappula. It is granted but the nephew's flee in the face <strong>of</strong> battle leaving their loaned army at Mahinda's<br />
mercy. Soon however, Mahinda dies quelling a revolt in Rohana. To his nephew Kittaggabodhi, Dappula gives<br />
his daughter Deva and sends him out to obtain rule <strong>of</strong> his father's realm. This Kittaggabodhi does. Dappula<br />
devotes the rest <strong>of</strong> his reign to furthering religion (repairs, etc.).<br />
825 Aggabodhi IX, son. Challenged by cousin Mahinda (son <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi VIII) from India. Defeated and slain:<br />
827 Sena I (Silamegha II), brother. His nephew Mahinda, son <strong>of</strong> Aggabodhi IX, crosses over to India to raise an<br />
army against him; Sena orders him killed. Now he sets about winning the goodwill <strong>of</strong> the people and the<br />
priesthood. His brother Mahinda is made sub-king. (846) A large Indian army under the king <strong>of</strong> Pandu invades<br />
and seizes the northern provinces then Anuradhapura; king Sena flees with his treasure. at Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Mahapellagama, Sena's brothers Mahinda and Kassapa die. After plundering, the king <strong>of</strong> Pandu <strong>of</strong>fers the<br />
return <strong>of</strong> Northern Ceylon for a payment, Sena agrees, the Indians withdraw, Sena reenters Anuradhapura and<br />
raises the remaining brother Udaya to sub-king. Death <strong>of</strong> Kittagabodhi, chieftain <strong>of</strong> Rohana and is succeeded<br />
by his sister (who has had his eldest son killed). Kittagabodhi's remaining children go to Sena; Kassapa is<br />
given an army and he dethrones his aunt and assumes the rule, with brothers Sena and Udaya, <strong>of</strong> Rohana.<br />
Later, Udaya dies and the king's nephew Sena (son <strong>of</strong> Kassapa) is raised to sub-king; he is married to Sangha,<br />
daughter <strong>of</strong> Kittaggabodhi. Later part <strong>of</strong> the reign is spent embellishing the capital, construction <strong>of</strong> tanks,<br />
schools and monasteries.<br />
847 Sena II, nephew. Raises his wife Sengha to queen-consort and brother Mahinda to sub-king and to maintain his<br />
loyalty has his son Kassapa married to Mahinda's daughter Sangha. (851) Visit <strong>of</strong> Arabian topographer<br />
Soleyman to Lanka. (866) A large force under general Tuttha is sent against Pandu; Madhura is taken; the<br />
Pandu forces are ousted. A great celebration is held then Sena II begins looking to upgrading his island's<br />
defenses. (880) Death <strong>of</strong> Mahinda. His brother Udaya is raised to sub-king. Construction <strong>of</strong> tanks, a hospital,<br />
religious edifices, a student residence at the Uttaralha pirivena, etc. Pestilence at times during this reign. Also<br />
during his reign he suppresses various heretical sects, which had appeared in Lanka in his predecessor's time,<br />
and places guards round the coast to prevent the entry <strong>of</strong> their adherents. Dies in his 35th year.<br />
882 Udaya I, brother. He appoints Sena II's son Kassapa sub-king. Kittaggaboni, son <strong>of</strong> Udaya's brother Mahinda,<br />
raises a rebellion in the Rohana area; Mahinda (sub-king's son) with CIC Vajiragga, crush the rebellion and<br />
Mahinda is given Rohana. King Udaya furthers agriculture (construction <strong>of</strong> tanks) and constructs the temple<br />
Tumbarup Vihara.<br />
893 Kassapa IV, son <strong>of</strong> Sena II, is challenged by Mahinda, chief <strong>of</strong> Rohana. Mahinda routes the royal forces but<br />
Kassapa IV, by appealing to Mahinda's father the sub-king Kassapa; manages to retain the throne. CIC Ilanga<br />
Sena is an important person in Lanka; constructs religious edifices, hospitals, dispensaries, etc.<br />
910 Kassapa V, son (mother is Tissa, sister <strong>of</strong> Mahinda <strong>of</strong> Rohana). Son Dapula is made sub-king. A great<br />
administrator and man <strong>of</strong> learning. He is author <strong>of</strong> Dampiya Getapada. Construction <strong>of</strong> colleges. Purges the<br />
Buddhist religion by enforcing the rules <strong>of</strong> discipline (Dhamma Kamma). Restoration and embellishment <strong>of</strong><br />
religious edifices. Construction <strong>of</strong> a hospital. Force under son Sakka Senapati sent to aid the king <strong>of</strong> Pandu<br />
against the king <strong>of</strong> Chola but the Panduans abandon the Sinhalese force on the battlefield and it is withdrawn,<br />
wracked by pestilence. (911) The Arab Ibn Wahab visits Lanka.<br />
920 Dapula IV, son. Raises his brother to sub-king. Rules seven months, dies and is succeeded by the sub-king as<br />
920 Dapula V (or Kuda Dapula), brother. Raises one Udaya to sub-king. Offers asylum to the king <strong>of</strong> Pandu fleeing<br />
the Cholans who have overrun Pandu. Dapula is unable to send aid because a civil war disrupts Lanka; the king<br />
<strong>of</strong> Pandu leaves and seeks aid from the king <strong>of</strong> Kerala. After the civil war is ended and order restored, Dapula<br />
devotes himself to the furtherance <strong>of</strong> religion. The Mohammedan saint Imaum Abu Abd Allah visits and<br />
ascends Adam's Peak.<br />
922 Udaya II, nephew <strong>of</strong> Sena II. Reigns during a great Church-State controversy (certain political refugees had<br />
been captured and beheaded at Tapovana (forest <strong>of</strong> ascetics)).<br />
925 Sena III, brother. Devotes himself to furthering the spiritual and material welfare <strong>of</strong> his subjects.<br />
934 Udaya III, was sub-king, is a drunkard and sluggard. Taking advantage <strong>of</strong> this, the king <strong>of</strong> Chola demands the<br />
return <strong>of</strong> the crown and apparel left behind by the king <strong>of</strong> Pandu under Dapula V's reign. Udaya refuses; the<br />
Cholans invade and take over all until checked by the Rohanans who force the Cholans to withdraw. Now CIC<br />
Viduragga crosses to India, destroying 'the borders <strong>of</strong> the dominion <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> Chola' forcing the Cholan<br />
king to give up all plunder taken from Lanka.<br />
942 Sena IV, was sub-king, son <strong>of</strong> Kassapa V. A learned man, a peaceful and prosperous reign. Expounds the<br />
Suttanta - Buddha's sermons - in the Brazen Palace.<br />
945 Mahinda IV, brother, was sub-king. Taken as wife a princess <strong>of</strong> the Kalinga Cakkavatti race <strong>of</strong> India. (954) King<br />
Vallabha <strong>of</strong> Chola sends an invasion force but the Sinhalese under Sena cut them to pieces; the Cholans sue for<br />
peace out <strong>of</strong> fear <strong>of</strong> counter invasion. Now Mahinda devotes himself to good works. He decrees temple lands
shall never contribute to the royal exchequer (i.e.; they are tax-free). Construction <strong>of</strong> alms halls, hospitals and<br />
prison upgradings; construction <strong>of</strong> convents, temples, etc., including colleges and baths. The returning<br />
Dravidian force that defeated the Cholans, begins taking over the country, starting in the north.<br />
961 Sena V, son (by a queen from Kalinga),12 years old . Appoints brother Udaya sub-king and retains general Sena<br />
as CIC. The king is hot-headed and intolerant <strong>of</strong> anyone not showing him servile obedience; bringing about the<br />
(963) execution <strong>of</strong> the CIC's brother. The CIC, enraged, assembles the Tamils living in the country and hands it<br />
over to them. He heads for the capital; Sena flees to Rohana. The CIC allows the queen-mother to assume<br />
administration at Anuradhapura but places influential Indians as Lanka's administrators. The CIC resides at<br />
Pollonnaruwa, where he fends <strong>of</strong>f an attack by royal forces. With Indians ravaging (i.e.; having free rein over<br />
the country) Sena <strong>com</strong>es to terms with the CIC (marries his daughter) and regains his capital where he<br />
be<strong>com</strong>es addicted to strong drink.<br />
971 Mahinda V, brother. It is difficult for him to govern as the city is full <strong>of</strong> foreigners introduced by his late<br />
brother's general; so he allows the affairs <strong>of</strong> state and tax collection to drift. (983) Revenue is withheld and he<br />
is unable to pay his Malabar mercenaries who revolt, besieging the palace, demanding their wages. The king<br />
escapes to Rohana, leaving the country in the hands <strong>of</strong> the Malabars, Sinhala and Canarese. He constructs a<br />
stronghold at Sidupabbata, living there with king Sena's queen and daughter. Soon he moves to Kappagullaka<br />
and rules Rohana while the rest <strong>of</strong> the country falls to the Malabars (Keralas), Sinhalese and Carnatics<br />
(Kannatas). (1007) Learning <strong>of</strong> the disreputed political state <strong>of</strong> Lanka, Cholan king Rajaraja I sends over an<br />
army which conquers and plunders a large portion <strong>of</strong> the island; they capture the queen and the royal jewels.<br />
CHOLA DYNASTY at ANURADHAPURA<br />
1007 Rajaraja I: Most <strong>of</strong> the island is under Cholan rule. (1017) They capture Mahinda V, send him to Chola and<br />
assume rule <strong>of</strong> Lanka. Polonnaruwa is renamed Jananatha pura. During Chola rule, many Hindu shrines are<br />
erected in the city. Hearing <strong>of</strong> the royalty <strong>of</strong> Mahinda's son Kassapa in Rohana, a Cholan army <strong>of</strong> 95,000<br />
overruns Rohana searching for him: The two noblemen Kitti (native <strong>of</strong> Makkhakudrusa) and Buddha (<strong>of</strong><br />
Maragalla), supported by their villages' inhabitants, establish a stronghold at Palutupana and after six months<br />
warfare drive out the invaders, forcing them to retire to Pollonnaruwa. (1019) Death <strong>of</strong> Mahinda V in captivity<br />
in India. The people <strong>of</strong> Rohana raise the boy prince Kassapa as<br />
1019 Vikkrama Bahu (Kassapa VI), son <strong>of</strong> Mahinda, who sets out to rid Lanka <strong>of</strong> foreign domination: Begins<br />
raising money and a large army. (1031) With an army <strong>of</strong> 100,000, Vikkrama Bahu is ready to go but dies <strong>of</strong> an<br />
illness. Anarchy supervenes, Sinhala adventurers and dispossessed Indian princes from the Pandyan country,<br />
and even one Jagatipala from Kanauj assert their authority over portions <strong>of</strong> the island. The nobleman Kirti<br />
(Kirthi) assumes the government but is challenged by the chief<br />
1031 Mahalana Kirti who kills him after seven days <strong>of</strong> rule. Mahalana Kirti has himself crowned at Rohana. (1034)<br />
The Cholans defeat the king who <strong>com</strong>mits suicide. The Cholans again seize the crown and other royal treasure.<br />
Soon, the prince <strong>of</strong> royal blood<br />
1034 Vikkrama Pandu, a Sinhala prince, arrives from India and establishes at Kalutara (Kalatittha); Rohana accepts<br />
him. (1035) Vikkrama Pandu's rule is successfully challenged by<br />
1035 Jagatipala, a native <strong>of</strong> Ayoddhya. (1039) Jagatipala is killed in battle with the Cholans who carry <strong>of</strong>f his queen<br />
and substance to Chola.<br />
1039 Loka (Lokeswara), <strong>of</strong> Rohana, defeats a Cholan army sent against him and is named king; establishes capital at<br />
Kataragama. His rule is challenged by a prince named Kirti and during their struggles (1045) Loka dies. The<br />
government is seized by keeper <strong>of</strong> the hair-relic,<br />
1045 Kassapa VII, a chief. The Cholans invade Rohana and head for Kataragama but are routed by Kassapa who<br />
pursues them across the border. Then at Kataragama, he is defeated and slain by a rebel force under prince<br />
Kirti, 17 years old, proclaimed as<br />
1045 Vijaya Bahu I, grandson <strong>of</strong> Vikrama Bahu and a member <strong>of</strong> the Sinhala Royal Family: Reorganizes Rohana's<br />
administration and prepares to rid Lanka <strong>of</strong> Cholans. The king <strong>of</strong> Chola orders his general at Pollonnaruwa to<br />
take over Rohana, capture the king and annex the area. The Cholans invade and head for Kataragama, plunder<br />
the city (for Vijaya Bahu has taken refuge in the hills) and return to Pollonnaruwa. Vijaya Bahu sends for<br />
assistance from the king <strong>of</strong> Ramanna (between Arakan and Siam [Burma]) but being peace loving, she sends<br />
only goods that could be used by Vijaya Bahu who, without reinforcement, lies low. Meanwhile, resistance to<br />
Cholan rule is growing in the rest <strong>of</strong> Lanka: Assistance is requested from the king <strong>of</strong> Chola: Reinforcements<br />
are sent and a great slaughter <strong>of</strong> the inhabitants takes place. The Cholans now prepare to march against Vijaya<br />
Bahu who sends a fifth column as deserters to the Cholan army. At Battle <strong>of</strong> Pulutupana (Pollutthapabbata) the<br />
Cholans are defeated and pursued to Tambavitthi where the Cholan general is captured. Pollonnaruwa is taken.<br />
Now the Cholan king sends another army to retrieve this disaster: Battle near Anuradhapura; the Sinhalese are<br />
defeated: Vijaya Bahu abandons Pollonnaruwa, goes to Villikabana and reorganizes. Battle <strong>of</strong> Vatagiri, after a<br />
three month siege, Vijaya Bahu defeats and routes the Cholans. Now rebellion against Vijaya Bahu is raised by
Kassapa's (guardian <strong>of</strong> the hair-relic) brother supported by Guttahalaka district. Battle <strong>of</strong> Khadirangani; the<br />
rebels are defeated. Battle <strong>of</strong> Kubula-galla, they are again defeated. Now he returns against the Cholans: One<br />
division takes fortress after fortress up to Mantotta, including Anuradhapura. The other division reaches<br />
Pollonnaruwa at which the Cholans are massing. After a six week siege (1060) Pollonnaruwa falls. Vijaya<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYABAHU at POLLONARUWA<br />
Bahu now works at settling his chaotic nation. A minor rebellion under Adimalaya is put down. (1062) Vijaya<br />
Bahu has himself crowned king <strong>of</strong> Lanka at Anuradhapura as Siri Sanghabo. At Anuradhapura, Vijaya Bahu<br />
appoints his brother Jaya Bahu governor <strong>of</strong> Rohana. Equitable taxation is decreed. Proper courts <strong>of</strong> justice are<br />
established. (1064) three ministers, having fled the country, return and raise a rebellion in Rohana, Malaya and<br />
western Lanka. It is quickly crushed. Fortification <strong>of</strong> Pollonnaruwa which be<strong>com</strong>es the capital <strong>of</strong><br />
administration. Hindu Devale’s are respected and Tamil soldiers are maintained in the service <strong>of</strong> the king.<br />
Since the Cholan occupation has all but destroyed Buddhism in Lanka, Vijaya Bahu sends to Ramanna (part <strong>of</strong><br />
Burma) for priests to reestablish the religion. Construction <strong>of</strong> religious edifices and embellishments to others.<br />
Vijaya Bahu translates the Dhamma Sangani. (1075) Embassies arrive at Pollonnaruwa; one from Kanpata (in<br />
the Deccan) and from Chola. An embassy is sent to Chola; the Chola king is angered at the lack <strong>of</strong> respect the<br />
embassy shows him and has him mutilated. War is declared preparations for war are made but before Chola<br />
could be reached a mutiny breaks out in Vijaya Bahu's army by the Velakkara mercenaries who are unwilling to<br />
fight their Tamil kinsmen. They burn the royal palace; the King flees to Wakirigala, but returns and crushes the<br />
insurrection, the ringleaders being burnt at the funeral pyre <strong>of</strong> the royal generals whom they murdered. The<br />
expedition against Chola must be abandoned. The Velakkara learn a lesson and be<strong>com</strong>e guardians <strong>of</strong> the Tooth<br />
Relic temple. Construction <strong>of</strong> numerous tanks. One <strong>of</strong> Vijaya's last acts is the construction <strong>of</strong> resting-places<br />
on the roads to Adam's Peak, and the grant <strong>of</strong> the village <strong>of</strong> Gilimale in Ratnapura District for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
supplying food to pilgrims.<br />
1095 Jaya Bahu, brother, governor <strong>of</strong> Rohana which position is now filled by his son Vikkrama Bahu. Jaya is<br />
crowned at Pollonnaruwa by Vijaya Bahu's sister Mitta (<strong>of</strong> the Pandyan faction). She, in violation <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
custom, has her eldest son Manabharana appointed sub-king. He leads an army against Vikkrama Bahu (<strong>of</strong> the<br />
Kalinga faction) who defeats them in six battles and reaching his father's capital: Manabharana and his brothers<br />
have brought the Rohana and Maya areas under their control. Jaya Bahu and Queen Mitta reside with Kirti<br />
Sirimegha at Maha nagakula in Giruwapattu district. (1096) Battle <strong>of</strong> Bodhi-sena-pabbata; Vikkrama Bahu<br />
routes Manabharana's army. Next, an Indian army under Viradeva <strong>of</strong> Palandipa invades and forces Vikkrama<br />
Bahu to Pollonnaruwa; Battle <strong>of</strong> Antaravitthika; Vikkrama Bahu defeats the invaders and be<strong>com</strong>es ruler as<br />
1096 Vikkrama Bahu I, son <strong>of</strong> Vijaya Bahu, ruling Pihitirata while his cousins (Manabharana et al) administer other<br />
districts. An Indian invasion led by an experienced chieftan, Viradeva <strong>of</strong> Palandipa, arrives and receives a<br />
crushing defeat at Polonnaruwa. Eventually the administration <strong>of</strong> Manabharana and his brothers be<strong>com</strong>e so<br />
odious that they lose support <strong>of</strong> their peoples. V. Bahu’s three cousins, Manabharana, Kirti Sri Megha and Siri<br />
Vallabha make preparations to wrest the administration <strong>of</strong> Pihiti Rata from him. He advances with his army<br />
into Maya Rata and routes their conjoint armies. Deaths <strong>of</strong> Jaya Bahu, Mitta and Manabharana. Parakrama<br />
Bahu is son <strong>of</strong> Manabharama; brother Kirti Sirimegha rules Mayarata while brother Siri Vallabha administers<br />
Rohana.<br />
NOTE: With the accession <strong>of</strong> V. Bahu I, the country is divided into four parts: The `King's Country,'<br />
with its capital at Polonnaruwa is held by V. Bahu I; he seizes the lands dedicated to Buddha and oppresses the<br />
priests, who remove the Tooth and Bowl Relies to Ituhuna. The `Southern Country' is ruled by Manabharana,<br />
while Ruhuna is divided between the other two brothers, Siri Vallabha having Dolosdahas-rata, roughly the<br />
Southern Province, and Kitti Sirimegha Atadahas-rata or the modern Uva and most <strong>of</strong> the Eastern Province.<br />
1117 Gaja Bahu, son. His uncles Kirti Sirimegha and Siri Vallabha (brothers <strong>of</strong> Manabharana) attept to wrest his<br />
domain <strong>of</strong> Pihitirata from him, but Gaja Bahu defeats Siri Vallabha and general Gokanna defeats Kirti<br />
Sirimegha. Soon the brothers begin grooming Parakrama Bahu (son <strong>of</strong> Manabharana) for the succession. Later,<br />
Parakrama Bahu makes his way to Pollonnaruwa, greeted by Gaja Bahu; there Parakrama Bahu ascertains the<br />
military readiness <strong>of</strong> Pihitirata. To ally suspicion, sister Bhaddarati is married to Gaja Bahu. He then begins<br />
gaining the confidence <strong>of</strong> the people and reconnoitering the city for military advantages and disadvantages. He<br />
returns to Punkhagama; there Kirti Sirimegha dies Parakrama Bahu assumes rule <strong>of</strong> Mayarata He informs<br />
Pihitirata and Rohana he intends to unite all <strong>of</strong> Lanka: He begins war preparations; construction <strong>of</strong> waterworks,<br />
causeways and tanks; grain stored up, new areas brought under cultivation, army training. To assure<br />
enough money for the campaign he reorganizes the tax system and exports gems. (1138) Parakrama Bahu<br />
attacks, successfully defeating Gaja Bahu's forces: Gaja Bahu turns to bribery but this fails and finally<br />
Pollonnaurawa is stormed, taken and plundered; Gaja Bahu is captured. Manabharana (son <strong>of</strong> Siri Vallabha) <strong>of</strong><br />
Rohana, at request <strong>of</strong> the Pihitirata chiefs, enters and defeats Parakrama's forces for their excesses in the<br />
capital. Manabharana decides to do in Gaja Bahu and assume rule. But Gaja Bahu appeals to Parakrama who
etakes the capital, frees Gaja Bahu and forces Manabharana back to Rohana. Gaja Bahu reasserts his rule over<br />
Pihitirata then grants the province to Parakrama. (1140) Death <strong>of</strong> Gaja Bahu. A succession quarrel erupts<br />
between Parakrama and Manabharana over rule <strong>of</strong> Pihitirata; 58 battles are fought; Battle <strong>of</strong> Mihirana-Bibbila;<br />
Manabharana is defeated and soon dies: His son Parakrama Bahu retires with his mother to Mahinagakula in<br />
the dominions <strong>of</strong> his uncle, Sri Vallabha, who now rules the whole <strong>of</strong> Ruhuna on his surviving brother<br />
succeeding to Manabharana's principality.<br />
1140 Parakrama Bahu, son <strong>of</strong> Manabharana, is crowned king <strong>of</strong> Lanka at Pollonnaruwa, but his rule is not<br />
acceptable to all. He begins restoring the economy and religion <strong>of</strong> his war-torn realm. The properties <strong>of</strong> warruined<br />
families are restored; the religious establishment is purged and purified. Construction <strong>of</strong> alms houses,<br />
hospitals, the palace Vejayanta and religious buildings. Pollonnaruwa adorned. Construction <strong>of</strong> theater hall<br />
Sarassati Mandapa and recreation hall Rajavesi Bhujanga. Construction <strong>of</strong> Nandana park with bathing hall.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> other parks, roads and temples. He begins restoration <strong>of</strong> Anuradhapura, ruined by the Cholans.<br />
This work is interrupted by (1144) a rebellion in Rohana and a rebellion <strong>of</strong> the Keralans living in the central<br />
country. The Keralans are easily subdued. The Rohanans, led by Sugala, mother <strong>of</strong> deceased Manabharana,<br />
desire independence; 14 battles then Battle <strong>of</strong> Uruvela. Mandala and Parakrama's forces seize the Tooth-relic<br />
and Bowl-relic. This does not deter the rebels and it takes 52 battles to subdue the country; general<br />
Bhutadhikari placed as head <strong>of</strong> Rohana's administration. (1148) Rohana again revolts and after hard<br />
campaigning and many battles the country is <strong>com</strong>pletely subjugated. (1152) King Arimaddana <strong>of</strong> Ramana<br />
(Rama in Burma) decides to sever relationships with Ceylon; he treats ambassadors with disrespect and seizes<br />
a Sinhalese princess on the way to Kamboja. A great fleet and army, <strong>com</strong>manded by Kirti and Nacaragiri sets<br />
out for Burma; Ramanna is attacked and subdued: The supreme authority <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> Lanka is declared.<br />
(1154) Moor geographer Edrisi visits Lanka. (1155) Rebellion in Mahatitha (Mantotta) which is quickly<br />
subdued. After agreement to send tribute and acknowledge Sinhalese supremacy, the Lanka forces withdraw.<br />
(1166) Pandyan king Parakrama, besieged by his rival Kulase khara and the Cholas, send for help to Lanka.<br />
The King sends an army under his general Lankapura, but in the meantime the Pandyan king has been slain<br />
and his capital Madura taken. The Sinhala army, however, lands on the opposite coast and carries on the war<br />
against the Cholas in the neighbourhood <strong>of</strong> Ramnad where they build a fortress styled Parakramapura. The<br />
result <strong>of</strong> this stage <strong>of</strong> the campaign is the defeat <strong>of</strong> Kulasekhara and the restoration and crowning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Pandyan king's son, Vira Pandya, in his ancient capital. The Cholan prisoners are put to work restoring<br />
Anuradhapura. Now Parakrama Bahu returns to furthering the spiritual and material welfare <strong>of</strong> his subjects.<br />
The government bureaucracy is reorganized (eight departments <strong>of</strong> record, eight departments <strong>of</strong> transport, four<br />
departments <strong>of</strong> treasury, etc): Construction <strong>of</strong> colleges and religious edifices at Pollonnaruwa, shrines and<br />
building <strong>of</strong> tanks. The king is assisted by a council <strong>of</strong> 16 ministers <strong>of</strong> which there are four Buddhists, four<br />
Christians, four Moslems and four Jews. The subjugation <strong>of</strong> Chola and Pandu begins the bringing <strong>of</strong> much<br />
Sanskrit literature into Lanka by various Brahmins. Writing <strong>of</strong> the Winayartha Sanuchchaya and much other<br />
literature. He also builds for the priesthood at Polonnaruwa the Jetavanararna, including a round Tooth Relic<br />
temple, in the neighborhood <strong>of</strong> the royal palace. Farther to the north he constructs the Alahana Parivena<br />
(`Cremation College') with the Lankatilaka Vihara, as well as the Buddhasima Pasada. At the three branch<br />
cities or suburbs he erects the Isipatana, the Kusmara and the Veluvana Viharas. He also restores the shrines at<br />
Anuradhapura.<br />
1173 Vijaya Bahu II, nephew. Pardons many prisoners, including those imprisoned by his uncle, restoring their<br />
lands. A devout Buddhist and person <strong>of</strong> literary attainments. (1174) Vijaya Bahu II is murdered by his friend<br />
Mahinda.<br />
1174 Mahinda VI, a native <strong>of</strong> Kalinga. Five days later the sub-king under Vijaya Bahu II, Nissanka Malla, murders<br />
him and ascends as<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> KALINGA<br />
1174 Kirti Nissangha (Nissanka Malla), Kalinga prince and sub-king to V. Bahu II. He claims to construct parks and<br />
gardens, temples and mansions, viharas and improvements to existing structures. It is certain that he builds the<br />
Ruwanweli Dagaba (the present Rankot Vehera) at Polonnaruwa, and a new Tooth Relic temple, the<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> which is said to have taken sixty hours. He also embellishes the cave temple <strong>of</strong> Dambulla. The<br />
Circular Relic House (Wata Da-ge) attributed to him is really Parakrama's Tooth Relic shrine, converted by him<br />
to other purposes. A devout Buddhist, he ends robbery by giving what they need. He is the first <strong>of</strong> the pure<br />
Kalinga dynasty. During his reign the Brahmanic legal system <strong>com</strong>es to regulate the Sinhalese caste system.<br />
1183 Vira Bahu, son, crowned at night, killed next morning by CIC Tavuru Senevirat as an in<strong>com</strong>petent.<br />
1183 Vikkarama Bahu, brother <strong>of</strong> Nissangha, rules three months when murdered by<br />
1183 Codaganga, nephew <strong>of</strong> Nissanka Malla, rules nine months; deposed and blinded by general Kirti Senevirat<br />
who places one <strong>of</strong> Parakrama Bahu's queens on the throne as<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYABAHU
1184 Lilavati. The country is peaceful and prosperous and she was able to devote her time to the development <strong>of</strong><br />
literature, music, drama and art. She is deposed by her co-ministers.<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> KALINGA<br />
1187 Sahasa Malla - the "lion Hearted King," brother <strong>of</strong> Nissanka Malla. (1189) Deposed by army chief Ayasmanta<br />
who places<br />
1189 Kalyanavati, queen <strong>of</strong> Nissangha, on the throne in his stead and administers the state for her. The reign is<br />
peaceful with religious construction carried out: Viharas, colleges, etc. The caste system is tightened up.<br />
1195 Dhammasoka, son <strong>of</strong> Anikkanga, is three months old; Ayasmanta is regent. (1196) Anikanga governor <strong>of</strong> Maya<br />
Rata marches against Pollonnaruwa, defeats the royal forces, deposes and kills Dhammasoka and the regent<br />
and assumes the throne.<br />
1196 Anikanga rules 17 days; assassinated by general Camunakka who assumes the administration, placing<br />
Parakrama Bahu I's widow again on the throne<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYABAHU<br />
1196 Lilavati rules one year. She is deposed by Lokissara, who arrives in Lanka with an army enlisted abroad, and<br />
defeats the royal forces at the capital <strong>of</strong> Polonnaruwa.<br />
LOKISSARA<br />
1197 Lokissara and rules nine months when deposed by the Sinhalese CIC who places on the throne a third time<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> VIJAYABAHU<br />
1197 Lilavati who rules with dignity and respect. (1198) King Parakrama <strong>of</strong> Pandu (<strong>of</strong> the Pandyan branch <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sinhala royal family) invades, deposes her. The chief <strong>of</strong> her army assumes the rule as<br />
PANDYAN DYNASTY<br />
1198 Parakrama Pandu - wise and capable, administers justice strictly in accordance with laws <strong>of</strong> Manu. (1201)<br />
With an army enlisted in Kerala, Magha, a prince <strong>of</strong> Kalinga invades: Their ferocity, cruelty and barbarianism<br />
overwhelms the Sinhalese (20,000 warriors plunder, ravish, mutilate and slaughter people; holiest shrines are<br />
violated and overthrown; rare palm-leaf books are untied, their pages scattered to the winds); Parakrama Pandu<br />
is captured and blinded; Pollonnaruwa plundered then made the invaders' capital. The Sinhalese establish their<br />
capital at Dambadeniya. The Kalingan prince has himself crowned as<br />
HOUSE <strong>of</strong> KALINGA<br />
1201 Kalinga Magha. He tyrannizes the countryside but is unable to penetrate Rohana district. (1215) One Magha<br />
who claims to be from Kalinga, invades and deposes the governor <strong>of</strong> King Parakrama Pandu with the help <strong>of</strong><br />
his soldiers and mercenaries from the Kalinga. He conquers Rajarata, moves the capital to the Jaffna peninsula<br />
(Jaffnapatnam) and rules as Kulingai Cakravarti, a tribute paying subordinate (<strong>of</strong> the Aryacakravarti dynasty <strong>of</strong><br />
Jaffna) <strong>of</strong> the Chola Empire. He `remains a bigoted Hindu and persecutes the Buddhist faith', despoiling the<br />
temples and giving the lands <strong>of</strong> the Sinhala to his followers. During the previous anarchy the Tooth and Bowl<br />
Relies had been carried away and hidden in Kotmalo, and the priests now scatter, many going abroad to the<br />
Chola and Kandyan countries. (1218) The forces <strong>of</strong> Sinhalese prince Vijaya Bahu drive the invaders out <strong>of</strong><br />
Mayarata into Pihiti Rata. K. Magha rules part <strong>of</strong> Ceylon to 1222.<br />
DAMBADENIYA<br />
1218 Vijaya Bahu III gradually gathers power into his hands, and succeeds in expelling the foreigners from the<br />
Mayarata country, be<strong>com</strong>ing ruler there. He constructs and fortifies Jambudoni (Dambedeniya) in Kurunegala<br />
district, making it his capital. He <strong>of</strong>fers asylum to those priests that fled the Kalingans. He has the Tooth and<br />
Bowl Relics conveyed from their hiding place in Kotmale to the seat <strong>of</strong> government, and thence to Beligala in<br />
Kegalla District, where he constructs a fortified temple on the hill Kotmale to hold them, lodged there for the<br />
sake <strong>of</strong> safety. He also has the Scriptures transcribed, and in addition builds at the capital the<br />
Vijayasundararama, so called after his own name, besides repairing many temples. A patron <strong>of</strong> learning, free<br />
schools are established in his district. Libraries built. He rules Mayarata until his death in1226.<br />
1222 Panditha Parakrama Bahu II, son, - a learned man, he is known as Panditha Parakrama Bahu. Builds a temple<br />
for the Tooth-relic. Sets out against the Kalingans who, being defeated, decide to evacuate with plunder but at<br />
Battle <strong>of</strong> Kalawewa, they are defeated and slaughtered. Now P. Parakrama B. rules all Lanka. Restores<br />
possessions to individuals and the priesthood. Attends to furtherance or religion (construction <strong>of</strong> viharas,<br />
repairs, etc.). The Tooth- and Bowl-relics are placed in a new vihara. Maha Vihara at his native city<br />
Sirivaddhanapura (Kandy). Construction <strong>of</strong> roads and bridges. A learned person, P. Parakrama B. gives much<br />
attention to literary pursuits; writes Kawsilumina and Wisudhi Marga Sanna. Other literati personages are<br />
Darmakirti and Myrupada a priest and author <strong>of</strong> Pujavalia and medical work Yogaarmawa. (1233) An Indian<br />
(Malay) army under prince Cjhandabhanu (Moon-Beam) a Javanese (Javaka) from Tambalinga, with a host<br />
armed with blow-pipes and poisoned arrows, invades from the south. P. Parakrama B. sends his nephew Vira<br />
Bahu against them: Though the invaders are using poison tipped arrows, Vira Bahu defeats them. By this time<br />
also many Chinese soldiers are serving in the Sinhalese army which is using many Chinese swords and musical
instruments. (1240/1242) Pandyan invasion; one <strong>of</strong> the kings <strong>of</strong> Lanka is slain and the other rendered tributary:<br />
The northern section <strong>of</strong> Ceylon is under foreign rule. P. Parakrama B. consults his ministers and his eldest son<br />
Vijaya Bahu is appointed successor and is given the entire administration <strong>of</strong> the country: He appoints cousin<br />
Vira Bahu PM and other brothers to important posts. (1246) Kulasekara Singai Aryan, son, ruler at<br />
Jaffnapatnam. Now Vijaya Bahu begins a tour <strong>of</strong> the country, doing good deeds, authorizing restorations, etc.<br />
While at Subhapabbata (Yapauwa) he receives (1247) an ultimatum from Malay chieftain Chandabhanu from<br />
Thailand, leading an invading Indian army demanding the Tooth - and Bowl-relics else be conquered.<br />
Sinhalese forces deliver (1255) a devastating defeat to the invaders: Chandabhanu heads north and takes<br />
Jaffna's throne away from Magha, bringing Pandyan intervention. Vijaya Bahu repairs to Anuradhapura and<br />
begins clearing the sacred city overgrown with jungle. Here the Vannian princes acknowledge their vassalage.<br />
Now he begins the reconquest <strong>of</strong> Pollannaruwa, then repairing other ruined edifices and tanks around the area.<br />
When finished, king Pandita Parakrama Bahu conveys the Tooth- and Bowl-relics to Pollonnaruwa. (1256)<br />
Kulotunga Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam.<br />
1257 Vijaya Bahu IV, son. His capital is at Jambudoni (Dambadeniya). He appoints his cousin, Vira Bahu as PM, his<br />
brother Tilokamala as Commander <strong>of</strong> the Sinhala army, which protects the Southern portion <strong>of</strong> the country<br />
from foreign invasion, his brother Bhuvaneka Bahu I as Commander <strong>of</strong> the army which guards the Northern<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> the country, and his brothers Parakrama Bahu and Jaya Bahu to attend the work in his capital. He<br />
occupies himself in works <strong>of</strong> piety, and in <strong>com</strong>pleting the restoration <strong>of</strong> Polonnaruwa. (1258) Chandrabahu<br />
submits to Pandyan rule. (1259) V. Bahu is treacherously murdered by a servant, who has been bribed for the<br />
purpose by one <strong>of</strong> his Generals named Mitta.<br />
1259 General Mitta tries to seize Vijaya Bahu IV's brother Bhuvenaka Bahu who flees to refuge at Yapahuva. Soon<br />
Mitta is murdered in the Royal Palace at Dambadeniya by Aryan <strong>of</strong>ficer Thakuraka and his 700 Aryans in the<br />
pay <strong>of</strong> Vijaya Bahu IV who had determined his brother<br />
YAPAHUWA<br />
1259 Bhuvenaka Bahu I, brother <strong>of</strong> V. Bahu IV, to succeed him. A beneficent monarch who for a few years holds <strong>of</strong>f<br />
attempted invasions <strong>of</strong> Lanka by the Kalingas, Rayars, Codagangas and others: (1262) Chandrabahu (<strong>of</strong> Jaffna)<br />
again falls upon Lanka with a mixed host <strong>of</strong> Pandyans, Cholas and Javanese, overruns a considerable part <strong>of</strong><br />
the north <strong>of</strong> the Island and encamps before Yapahu, where he is defeated and killed by the Pandyans in support<br />
<strong>of</strong> the King. Their replacement is Aryacakravarti, the minister in charge <strong>of</strong> the invasion, as king <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. The<br />
Sinhalese Vannian princes (Kadalivata, Mapana, Tipa and Himiyanaka) prove to be disloyal and are deposed.<br />
B. Bahu moves the capital to Yapauwa (Subhapabbata).(1270) Sends an embassy to the Sultan <strong>of</strong> Egypt,<br />
proposing an alliance. He spread knowledge <strong>of</strong> the Pali scriptures throughout the land. Bhuvaneka Bahu I<br />
greatly extends and adorns Yapahuva so that it shines with exceeding beauty. He is responsible for the erection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong> the Temple <strong>of</strong> the Tooth and the Royal Palace. Dies shortly after and famine strikes.<br />
NOTE: Some sources claim there is an interregnum <strong>of</strong> about 20 years here, where Ceylon is ruled by<br />
the Pandyans, taking advantage <strong>of</strong> the famine. They do rule in the north, and despite the famine, Ceylon's line<br />
<strong>of</strong> kings continued in the south.<br />
1270 Chandra Bhanu, son <strong>of</strong> the first ruler <strong>of</strong> Yapa Patuna (Jaffnapatnam). He captures fort <strong>of</strong> Yapahuva but an<br />
invasion by Pandya Kulasekera ousts ( and kills?) him.<br />
POLLONNARUWA<br />
1270 Parakrama Bahu III, nephew <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu I, king <strong>of</strong> Pollonnaruwa. A Pandian army led by minister Arya<br />
Chakravatti invades, captures Yapauwa and carries <strong>of</strong>f the Tooth-relic. An embassy from China seeks to secure<br />
the Tooth and Bowl relics: P. Bahu III goes to Pandu and being very conciliatory regains the relic, returning it<br />
to Pollonnaruwa. Nevertheless, a Tamil settlement is formed at Jaffnapatam under A. Chakrawarti who is<br />
trying to spread his rule over all <strong>of</strong> Ceylon. Suspecting his cousin Bhuvanaika Bahu, son <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> that<br />
name, <strong>of</strong> conspiring to seize the throne, he sends his barber to blind him: the prince, however, fights and<br />
defeats the king, seizes the Tooth Relic and removes it to his own city <strong>of</strong> Kurunegala.<br />
KURUNAGALA<br />
1275 Bhuvenaka Bahu II, son <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu I. Capital at Kurunegala (Hatthiselapura). He is a staunch Buddhist,<br />
devoting himself to many works <strong>of</strong> charity. His nominal rule is over the mountainous region while powerful<br />
minister Alakeswara Mantri rules all below. He builds the new fortress <strong>of</strong> Jayawardhana Kotte that be<strong>com</strong>es a<br />
Sinhalese rallying point. He advances to Polonnaruwa, slays Parakrama in battle and brings the Tooth-Relics to<br />
Kurunegala. Kulasekera, the Pandya Emperor, <strong>com</strong>es himself to avenge the death <strong>of</strong> his nephew Parakrama<br />
Bahu III. He forces the Sinhalese King to action against an army outnumbering his. B.Bahu II dies fighting<br />
heroically.<br />
1277 Parakrama Bahu IV, son <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu I, is a scholarly and mighty monarch. Campaigning against the Pandya<br />
emperor Kulasekera, he invades and captures its capital. Kotte be<strong>com</strong>es the capital. (1279) Vikrama Singai<br />
Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1281) Kublai Khan demands one <strong>of</strong> Buddha's teeth from the king <strong>of</strong> Lanka.
Two large black teeth, some hair and a porphyry vessel are sent. (1284) Kublai Khan demands "the great ruby"<br />
in return for the "value <strong>of</strong> a city" and eventually Buddha's alms-bowl is sent. (1300) About this time Alla-uddin<br />
invades Chittore ostensibly to take Sinhalese princess Padmavati, wife <strong>of</strong> Ratan Sen, overlord <strong>of</strong> the Rajput<br />
Confederation and Rana (or Sovereign) <strong>of</strong> Chittore. Failing, Alla-ud-din opts for just a view <strong>of</strong> the beautiful<br />
princess, this is granted but in a breach <strong>of</strong> faith he seizes Ratan Sen and demands the princess for her release.<br />
But princess Padmavati through a ruse manages to engineer her husband's escape and throw Alla-ud-din's ranks<br />
into confusion: He raises the siege <strong>of</strong> Chittore. Construction <strong>of</strong> Tooth-relic Temple at Kurunegala and other<br />
religious edifices throughout the country. Assisted by the priest from Chola and PM Weeragsingha Pathiraja,<br />
king Parakrama Bahu IV translates the Pansiapanas Jataka (the 550 birth stories <strong>of</strong> Buddha) from Pali into<br />
Sinhalese. Writing <strong>of</strong> the Sidat Sangarawa, a Sinhalese grammar. Writing <strong>of</strong> the Datuwansa (Daladawansa), a<br />
history <strong>of</strong> the Tooth-relic.<br />
1301 Bhuvenaka Bahu III. (1302) Varotya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1303) Alla-ud-din again<br />
besieges Chittore The defense is vigorous; 11 out <strong>of</strong> the king's 12 sons are killed; the wives and daughters <strong>of</strong><br />
Chittore perform Johur, including princess Padmavati. King Rana sees his son escape to safety and dies leading<br />
a suicide sortie against the besiegers who occupy a dead city: He wracks destruction upon the temples,<br />
monasteries and palace except the palace <strong>of</strong> Padmavati.<br />
1307 Jaya Bahu I, son <strong>of</strong> Chandra Banu <strong>of</strong> Jaffnapatnam. He retreats before the Indians to Anuradhapura where he<br />
meets P. Bahu IV. Son Bodamapananda takes Kurunagala. (1318) Arya Chakravarti forces him to retreat to<br />
Senkadagala (Kandy). Arya takes Yapahuva and kills Bodamapananda. (1325) Martanda Singai Aryan, son,<br />
ruler at Jaffnapatnam.<br />
1341 Bhuvenaka Bahu IV, son, a man <strong>of</strong> great wisdom and faith and <strong>of</strong> excellent virtues. He shifts the capital to<br />
Gampola with the support <strong>of</strong> the General Senalankadhikara, brother-in-law <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu IV. It is probable that<br />
the capital is shifted from Kurunegala to Gampola owing to civil strife among the Sinhala themselves. (1347)<br />
Ibn Batuta is blown ashore in northern Lanka which is in the hands <strong>of</strong> the Malabars. The Hindu chief <strong>of</strong> Jaffna<br />
has a fleet he uses to transport troops to battle the Moslems on the Indian coast. Allowed to land at Battala<br />
(Putlam), Ibn Batuta discovers Cinnamon wood; he begins a tour <strong>of</strong> Lanka. During this reign is produced the<br />
historical work Nikaya Sangaraha and the work Dahamgete. The chief works <strong>of</strong> his reign are the Lankatilaka<br />
and Gadaladeniya Viharas, not far from Kandy.<br />
GAMPOLA from DEDIGAMA<br />
1344 Parakrama Bahu V, brother, rules concurrent with B. Bahu IV as junior sovereign, ruling at Dedigama. It is<br />
during this time that Colombo, having always been a foreign settlement, is ruled by a Mohammecan pirate with<br />
an Abyssinian garrison. (1348) Kunapushana Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1350) About this time<br />
is founded city <strong>of</strong> Senkadagalapura. (1351) Death <strong>of</strong> B.Bahu IV, P. Bahu V is sole ruler. Dies 1359.<br />
GAMPOLA from GAMPOLA<br />
1357 Wickerama Bahu III, son <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu IV, a wise monarch, is joint king with P. Bahu V until his death. There is a<br />
struggle for power between Senalankadhikara and Alagakonnara (Alakesvara) <strong>of</strong> Rayigama giving the<br />
opportunity to Nissanka Alakesvara to establish himself as the de facto ruler <strong>of</strong> Gampola, reducing W. Bahu III<br />
to the position <strong>of</strong> a mere figurehead and also be<strong>com</strong>ing the joint husband with his brothers <strong>of</strong> that king's sister.<br />
The Tamil Kingdom <strong>of</strong> Yapa Patuna under King Arya Chakravarti is growing in power and influence. Nissanka<br />
Alakeswara, later, defeats the Yapa Patuna ruler and forces him to swear allegiance to Gampola. He thus<br />
be<strong>com</strong>es the de facto ruler <strong>of</strong> a United Lanka. (1374) Composition <strong>of</strong> the historical work Attanagaluwansa by<br />
Sanga Raja (Abish) Durandara. (1371) Virotaya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. Also; death <strong>of</strong><br />
Wickerama Bahu III; he is succeeded by Prince Alagakkonara <strong>of</strong> Peradeniya (Peradoni) who places on the<br />
throne<br />
1371 Bhuvenaka Bahu V, Nissanka Alakeswara’s son by the sister <strong>of</strong> Vikrama Bahu III, who reigns in Gampola. His<br />
great minister Alagakkonara, finding it expedient that the enemies <strong>of</strong> his country and religion should be kept at<br />
a distance, he builds the fortress <strong>of</strong> New Jayavardhanapura or Kotte, not far from Colombo. Bhuvenaka is a<br />
staunch Buddhist. (1380) Jayawira Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1405) He maltreats foreigners by<br />
plundering their vessels. His minister Alagakkonara hangs Arya Chakravarti's (<strong>of</strong> Jaffna) tax collectors:<br />
Chakravarti attacks by sea and land, but is defeated; Alagakkonara capturing his encampments at Colombo,<br />
Wattala, Negombo and Chilaw. Also, a mission from China, to revere the shrine <strong>of</strong> the Tooth, is insulted and<br />
waylaid, barely escaping Lanka returning to China. (1405) The Emperor sends an expedition <strong>of</strong> 62 ships under<br />
Ching-Ho (Zheng-He) on a trading tour to Cochin-China, Sumatra, Java, Cambodia, Siam and other places:<br />
Those not accepting submission are subdued by force. Then Ching-Ho returns to China (1407). (1407) Ching-<br />
Ho is sent on another mission, this time to Ceylon where Bhuvenaka Bahu V tries to trap him in hopes <strong>of</strong> a<br />
ransom but Ching-Ho avoids this and takes the capital instead, capturing the king, his family and retinue,<br />
which is all carried away to China (1408).<br />
1408 Vira Bahu II, brother-in-law, occupies the throne at Rayigama during B. Bahu's absence. Real power, however,
is in the hands <strong>of</strong> Alakesvara, son <strong>of</strong> Alagakkonara. (1410) Kunawira Singai Aryna, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam.<br />
(1411, June) The Chinese government sets the Sinhalese at liberty but <strong>com</strong>mands the appointment <strong>of</strong> a virtuous<br />
man to rule Lanka. All declare in favor <strong>of</strong><br />
KOTTE<br />
1411 Parakrama Bahu VI (Prince Sepanana (Jayapala)), crowned at Rayigama. (1415) Moves the capital to Cotta<br />
(Kotte). He sends eldest adopted son Sapumal Cumara against northern Lanka occupied by a southern Indian<br />
king ruling from Jaffna: He seizes much <strong>of</strong> the area around Jaffna. A second expedition takes Jaffna, capturing<br />
king Aria Chacrawarti who is killed. Sapumal is given administration <strong>of</strong> Jaffna with which a lively trade<br />
begins. Later the petty chief Wira Rama near Jaffna causes trouble and he is done away with. (1436) Tribute<br />
sent to China (also 1445). (1440) Kanagasuriya Singai Aryan, son, ruler at Jaffnapatnam. (1459) Parakrama<br />
sends tribute to China this year and refuses to pay it any longer. He levies a tax on the whole country's produce.<br />
Construction <strong>of</strong> governmental, religious and public buildings and repairs. (1444) European traveler Nicola de<br />
Conti mentions Lanka's cinnamon. (1450) Jaffna is conquered by Sapumal <strong>of</strong> Kotte, King Kanagasuriya Singai<br />
Aryan flees to TamilNadu. Conquest is carried into southern India, Adriampet, occasioned by the seizure <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Lankan ship laden with cinnamon. (1462) Sojawna Sewa, tributary Raja <strong>of</strong> the Kandyan district, refuses to pay<br />
the annual tribute. Parakrama sends younger adopted son Ambulugala Cumara against him; Gampola is taken<br />
and the Raja deposed. Parakrama's favorite (for the king is a patron <strong>of</strong> literature) Tottagamuwa (Sri Rahuastha<br />
Wirayo) writes besides scientific works, the poem Kaviasekara (dedicated to princess-royal Ulakuda Dewi),<br />
the poem Selalihini Sandese, the poem Parawisandese, the Pali grammar Moggallayana Pahipanchika and the<br />
history Perakumbasiritha. Author Irrugalchula Pariwenadipati writes the poem Kowul Sandese. A priest <strong>of</strong><br />
Wettewe writes the poem Guttille. (1462) Parakrama Bahu VI abdicates his throne in favor <strong>of</strong> his daughter's<br />
son, Vira Parakrama Bahu, then later dies. His last act is to divide the kingdom among his sons and nephew,<br />
piously enjoining them to live at peace with one another. Jaya Bahu, the son <strong>of</strong> his natural daughter Ulakuda,<br />
succeeds as<br />
1462 Vira Parakrama Bahu (Parakrama Bahu VII), grand-nephew. A few days after his accession, his uncle Sapumal<br />
Kumara hastens to Kotte from Jaffna and puts him to death. He is succeeded by Sapumal Kumaraya's brother,<br />
usually known as Ambulugala Raja from the name <strong>of</strong> his seat in Kegalla District. He soon dies and his aunt<br />
places his half-witted son on the throne who is unable to rule so she sends for Sapumal Kumaraya who ascends<br />
the throne as<br />
1462 Bhuvenaka Bahu VI. A staunch Buddhist, he distributes alms and is devoted to furthering the welfare <strong>of</strong> his<br />
people and religion. Siriwardene Patty Raja, a chief <strong>of</strong> Pasdun Korle, with one Cooroogama, raises a rebellion<br />
in the south which is crushed; the two are pardoned. (1467) King Kanagasuriya Singai Aryan returns with an<br />
army and re-captures the Jaffna Kingdom; Kotte's occupation forces are ousted as king Kanakagasuriya<br />
reestablishes its independence, ruling from Nallur Palace. Jaffna maintains very close <strong>com</strong>mercial and political<br />
relationships with the Thanjavur Nayakar kingdom in southern India as well as the Kandyan and segments <strong>of</strong><br />
the Kotte kingdom. This period sees the building <strong>of</strong> Hindu temples and a flourishing <strong>of</strong> literature, both in Tamil<br />
and Sanskrit. Poet Weedagama <strong>com</strong>poses Budugunalankara, Lowedasangrahaya and Tisarasandese.<br />
1469 Pandita Parakrama Bahu VII, adopted son, who is attacked and slain by his uncle Ambulugala Raja who<br />
assumes rule as<br />
1469 Vira Parakrama Bahu VIII, rules at Kotte (Cotta). He is immediately faced with challengers. Pandita<br />
Parakrama Bahu (VIII), adopted son is a usurper, he takes into his service as generals Patty Rajah and<br />
Cooroogama. V. P. Bahu marches against him. Battle <strong>of</strong> Inkendagama; the two generals are killed and their<br />
forces defeated. Cotta (Kotte) is entered, Pandita P.B. VIII is killed. (1478) Singai Pararajasekaran, son, ruler<br />
<strong>of</strong> Jaffna. (1480) Vira Parakrama Bahu (IX), brother <strong>of</strong> B. Bahu VI. Devout Buddhist; spends money on the<br />
furtherance <strong>of</strong> religion. He is soon dispatched. Other challengers are Sena Sammatha Wickramabahu who<br />
establishes (1474) a dynasty at Kandy at Senkadagalapura and Dharma Parakrama Bahu (IX), son. He is called<br />
Emperor, ruling at Cotta.<br />
1489 Dharma Parakrama Bahu IX, son. During his reign there exists several “Kings” (Rajas) ruling various parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the country. They all pay tribute to V. P. Bahu VIII at Kotte and called him the “Emperor” (Maha Rajah).<br />
Moors under Cadiraya land Chilaw seeking pearls and elephants land at Chilaw. D. Parakrama B. sends the<br />
Rajas <strong>of</strong> Udugampola and Madampe against them and the Moors are defeated. Soon the Raja <strong>of</strong> Ambulugala is<br />
forced to resume tribute by V.P. Bahu VIII and the brother <strong>of</strong> Dharma, Rajah Singha. Later the Raja <strong>of</strong><br />
Ambulugala again tries to shake his allegiance: The Rajah <strong>of</strong> Udugampola is against him and captures the<br />
capital Ambulugala, the errant Rajah sues for peace. (1505, Nov) A Portuguese fleet, after some Moorish ships<br />
heading for the Red Sea, is blown to the coast <strong>of</strong> Ceylon in the neighborhood <strong>of</strong> Galle where there are Moorish<br />
ships claiming to be in the service <strong>of</strong> Dharma Parakrama Bahu.. They replenish their stores and sail for Kolon<br />
Tota (Colombo), anchoring there 15 Nov. The Emperor sends Chakrayuddha Raja with a message asking what<br />
the strangers want; Dom Laurenco states he's a merchant and seeks friendly trade. Chakrayuddha reports it to
e unwise to be hostile toward them as they have superior weapons. Fernao Cotrim, with a Sinhalese escort<br />
goes to Kotte. Fernao restates the Portuguese' desire for peaceful trade; the Emperor accepts with a yearly<br />
exchange <strong>of</strong> presents and the Portuguese promise to protect his coasts from all enemies. Payo de Souza now<br />
concludes a formal treaty; Ceylon will deliver 400 bahars (one bahar is approximately 176.25 kilo) <strong>of</strong><br />
Cinnamon and the Portuguese protect Ceylon's coasts from external attack. The Portuguese succeed in<br />
obtaining permission to construct a factory at Colombo. After leaving a memorial and a few men, the<br />
Portuguese leave. (1508) V.P. Bahu VIII be<strong>com</strong>es ill; he makes his sons Dharma Parakrama Bahu IX and his<br />
brother Vijaya Bahu VII co-regents. (1509) Parakrama seizes the throne as senior king (to 1528+) but his<br />
brother is actual ruler. V.P. Bahu VIII dies 1518.<br />
NOTE: There are three kingdoms: Foremost is the Kingdom <strong>of</strong> Kotte . A separate dynasty rules in<br />
Kandy, having broken away from Kotte and the Kingdom <strong>of</strong> Jaffna in the North.<br />
PORTUGUESE PERIOD<br />
1509 Vijaya Bahu V, brother, bypassing the Rajah <strong>of</strong> Udugampola. (1511) Jayaweera Astana, cousin <strong>of</strong> Mayadunne,<br />
be<strong>com</strong>es king <strong>of</strong> Kandy. (1518) Portuguese viceroy <strong>of</strong> India Lopo Soares d'Albergaria and a 17-sail fleet<br />
arrives Colombo and asks permission to construct a fort. The Sinhalese are aroused at the presence <strong>of</strong> 700<br />
soldiers and the fact that the factory will be mounted with cannon. The excuse for this is Moorish hostility and<br />
to allay fears, d'Albergaria promises military assistance to Vijaya Bahu if he needs it and an in<strong>com</strong>e from<br />
Portuguese trade. The Moors are alarmed and convince Vijaya Bahu to obtain a treaty, as their experiences with<br />
the Portuguese has not been all that kindly. A treaty is secured; the Sinhalese provide the Portuguese annually<br />
with 300 loads <strong>of</strong> cinnamon, rubies and sapphires and six elephants on condition <strong>of</strong> payment and defense.<br />
Portuguese build fort Nossa Senhora das Virtudes. Soares sails away leaving Juan de Silveira in <strong>com</strong>mand at<br />
Colombo. (1519) Sankili Segarajasekaran I, son, ruler <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. (1520) Lopo deBrito arrives Colombo with<br />
400 soldiers along with masons and carpenters to <strong>com</strong>plete the fortress by making cement from oyster shells.<br />
Aroused by the Moors that the Portuguese are building a fortress, the Sinhalese refuse to provision the<br />
Portuguese and harass them. DeBrito and men attack the town <strong>of</strong> Colombo but resistance is determined and the<br />
Portuguese are besieged in their fortress/factory. Five months later the siege is raised only by the arrival <strong>of</strong><br />
captain Antonio de Lemos from Cochin. The Sinhalese are driven back and Colombo is set afire. Both sides,<br />
anxious to end hostilities, arrange a peace and friendly relations are re-established. (1521) With the king' s<br />
defeat, three <strong>com</strong>peting states under his sons, Sitawaka (ruled by Mayadunne), Walallawiti, Pasdun, and<br />
Raigama Korales (under Pararajasinha) and Kotte (under Bhuvenaka Bahu VII, which includes the seaports)<br />
split <strong>of</strong>f from what is left, Kandi (Uda Rata). During Vijaya's reign, three Christian priests, led by father<br />
Pascoal have been received by K. Jayaweira <strong>of</strong> Kandy. (1522) Kandy obtains Portuguese protection against<br />
Sitawaka. (1524) Vijaya Bahu V decides to appoint his son Dewa Raja Cumara, by his second wife, as<br />
successor. Vijaya's sons by his first wife - Bhuvenaka Bahu, Maha Rygan Bandara and Maaya Dunne – with<br />
assistance from Jaya Wiera, Raja <strong>of</strong> Kandy, revolt and march on Cotta. The palace is taken and looted as the<br />
king hides out upstairs. That night they kill the king and ready his son for coronation.<br />
1524 Bhuvenaka Bahu VII, eldest son. His minister is Illangakon. A Portuguese agent is stationed at Kotte. Two<br />
principalities are created for the king's brothers; the elder, Para Raja Sinha is given Rayigam Korale;<br />
SITAWAKA, from Kotte to the mountains <strong>of</strong> Uda Rata is given to Mayadunne (Maaya Dunne). Bhuvenaka<br />
Bahu VII, a kindhearted monarch, is entirely dependent upon the Portuguese to hold his throne against Maaya<br />
Dunne. During the reign is produced Saddarmalankara, apologues explanatory <strong>of</strong> Buddhistic principles.<br />
Meanwhile, this year (1524) Vasco da Gama returns to India as viceroy with instructions to dismantle the fort<br />
at Colombo. It is done with only Nuno Freyre de Andrade left as factor under the protection <strong>of</strong> Bhuvenaka.<br />
Swift Arab vessels cause Portuguese vessels to seek shelter with Bhuvenaka's court, causing hostilities to<br />
break out with his brothers. Bhuvenaka begs the Portuguese to rebuild their fort. (1528) Maaya Dunne,<br />
assisted by a Calicut fleet sent by the Zamorin under the Cochin Moor Captain Mir Paichi Marcar besieges<br />
Cotta but it is quickly raised from fear <strong>of</strong> approaching Portuguese; Portuguese <strong>com</strong>mander Martin Affonso de<br />
Mello, his quarry gone, forces the ruler at Arippo to pay an annual sum for Portuguese protection. (1536. Oct)<br />
Maaya Dunne, aided by the pirate Ali Abraham Marca <strong>com</strong>manding a Calicut fleet and 4000 men, besiege<br />
Cotta. Portuguese under Afonso de Sousa raise it after three months and are rewarded. (1537) Maaya Dunne<br />
promises concessions in Lanka if the Zamorin <strong>of</strong> Calicut would help him again against Bhuvenaka Bahu, but<br />
the large fleet and force is intercepted and defeated (29 Feb) at Rameswaram by the Portuguese who force<br />
Maaya back to his fortress at Batugedeva. The Royal Forces and Portuguese take Sitawaka, forcing a truce out<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mayadunne. (1538) Death <strong>of</strong> the Raja <strong>of</strong> Rygama; Maaya Dunne enters Rygam Korle and seizes his<br />
brother's kingdom and treasure. (1539) Mayadunne invades Kotte and again the Zamorin is asked for<br />
assistance; Battle <strong>of</strong> Puttalam; the force is defeated by the Portuguese, Sitawaka razed and Maaya Dunne is<br />
forced to purchase peace and surrender Paichi Marcar (fleet <strong>com</strong>mander) and 70 other Moorish allies. The<br />
alliance between Mayadunne and the Zamorin is ended. (March) Arrival <strong>of</strong> Miguel Ferreira; Maaya Dunne
withdraws into his territory. (1541) To secure the succession for his grandson Dharmapala Bahu (for he has no<br />
son, only a daughter married to Vidiye Bandar, son <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> Madampe), he has him sent to Portugal with<br />
ambassador Sallappoo Arachy to have him acknowledged successor. (1542) This is done, the Portuguese call<br />
him Don Juan, and he is sent back, but ac<strong>com</strong>panied by a party <strong>of</strong> Franciscans, headed by Frey Antonia do<br />
Padrao to preach Christianity in Ceylon. Soon Christian <strong>com</strong>munities are established at Colombo, Panadure,<br />
Maggona, Beruwela, Galle and Weligama. Meanwhile, king Jayaweira has sent to Goa for troops to protect<br />
him from his people when he converts to Christianity: Maaya Dunne warns against this. (1543) To pacify his<br />
two sons, Bhuvenaka tells them to conquer for themselves the Kanda Uda Rata and Jaffna; there are rumors<br />
that Maaya Dunne is going to support his claim by force. Bhuvenaka begs the Governor at Goa for help. (12<br />
Aug) A Portuguese fleet under de Sousa leaves Goa but a storm scatters them, the governor finding shelter at<br />
Neduntivo, <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. A deal is reached with Chaga Raja <strong>of</strong> Nallur, capital <strong>of</strong> Jaffna, and the Portuguese<br />
return to Goa. Meanwhile, 200 under Natonio Muniz Barreto are repulsed by Maaya Dunne and Jayaweira<br />
changes his mind and the Portuguese are reimbursed for the trouble. A peace is concluded between the<br />
brothers; Maaya Dunne surrenders to the king all the territory he had conquered paying a heavy war indemnity<br />
and swearing to never again take up arms against the king. The infant Dharmapala, Bhuvenaka's grandson, is<br />
acclaimed as successor to the throne at Lisbon. (1545) Bhuvenaka's two sons die <strong>of</strong> smallpox and fractions<br />
seeking rule begin appearing. (1546) Portuguese and Kotte forces invade Kandy. The King <strong>of</strong> Portugal sends<br />
instructions to the Viceroy: See Appendix I. (1547) Portuguese hold out conversion as their price for aid; Kotte,<br />
Sitawaka, Senkatagala and Nallur bid for assistance. (Dec) A small force under Antonio Moniz Barretto is sent,<br />
but Barretto must decide whom to support. He decides to support the king and sets out for Sitawaka. Maaya<br />
Dunne's forces quickly route the Portuguese, who, when in dire straits, are aided by Maaya who tells them the<br />
king knew what had happened. Barretto, in a huff, leaves Ceylon. (1549, Nov) Bhuvenaka Bahu sends to Goa<br />
for aid against Maaya Dunne who, by this time has gained control <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> Lanka; Cotta is besieged. (1550,<br />
Jan) A large Portuguese force arrives and the siege is raised; Maaya Dunne moves to Sitawaka. Battle between<br />
Mutwal and Mulleriawa tank; the allies (Portuguese and royalists) force Maaya Dunne's forces to retreat. Battle<br />
<strong>of</strong> Malvana; the allies take the fortress. Battle <strong>of</strong> Hanwella; the allies take the fortress. A fourth battle is again a<br />
defeat and Maaya Dunne flees to Batugedera; Sitawaka is ransacked. Soon Maaya Dunne sues for peace: (1)<br />
Maaya Dunne surrenders all lands seized from Bhuvenaka Bahu at Cotta, (2) helps prepare for an attack on<br />
king Jayaweira <strong>of</strong> Kandy. But Jayaweira is ready and when the allies near his capital he puts them to flight;<br />
they go to Cotta: Dom Jorge goes to Colombo and (Sept) leaves for Cochin: Maaya Dunne immediately begins<br />
invading the king's territory. (Oct) A storm brings the new Viceroy <strong>of</strong> India, Dom Affonso de Noronha, to<br />
Colombo where Bhuvenaka Bahu asks aid against Maaya Dunne. But the viceroy's price is too high -<br />
indignation - but it is eventually met. (1551) Karaliyadde Bandara be<strong>com</strong>es king at Kandy. With the monsoon<br />
setting in, preventing Portuguese aid reaching Cotta, Maaya Dunne invades Cotta's territory, but is forced to<br />
retire across the Kelany river by allied forces under Vidiye Bandar (the king's son-in-law) and Gaspar de<br />
Azavedo (captain <strong>of</strong> Colombo). On inspection <strong>of</strong> his army, the king is accidentally shot - confusion - and soon<br />
Vidiye Bandar's son<br />
1551 Dharmapala, grandson, is recognized as king, and during his minority his father, Vidiye Bandara is regent.<br />
Maaya Dunne who goes to Bollegala calling on Cotta to recognize him as ruler but Vidiye Bandar forces him<br />
to retire to Kanampella. (Oct) Portuguese viceroy de Noronha arrives Colombo with 3000 soldiers to replenish<br />
his treasury, he is cordially greeted but immediately takes over the capital and begins extorting information on<br />
location <strong>of</strong> treasures. Maaya Dunne begins gaining adherents. The Portuguese ransack the palace and<br />
Dharmapala is forced to agree to paying an enormous sum for the defeat <strong>of</strong> Maaya Dunne: The allies<br />
(Portuguese and Vidiye Bandar) force Maaya Dunne to flee to Deraniyagala and Maaya's palace is plundered;<br />
the city being torn up in search <strong>of</strong> treasures The price for Portuguese help in taking Maaya Dunne at<br />
Deraniyagala was agreed to be half the take, the other half going to Dharmapala. The Portuguese renege on the<br />
deal, taking all the treasure and return to Kotte where they terrorize the citizens; killing men for their bracelets<br />
and earrings and raping women. Vidiye escapes and the Perumal Sembahap is appointed in his place; he<br />
advises the king to adopt Christianity to end the mayhem. (1552) Portuguese place Karalliyadde Bandara,<br />
grandson <strong>of</strong> Senasammata Vikrama Bahu, on the throne <strong>of</strong> Kandy. (1552-4) The viceroy tries to invite Vidiye<br />
Bandar to India but V.B. refuses, knowing the Portuguese want to get him out <strong>of</strong> the way <strong>of</strong> their designs in<br />
Lanka. Now the viceroy asks the king to turn Christian, but he refuses as it would supply Maaya Dunne with a<br />
legitimate weapon against him, but he sends a cousin to Portugal. The viceroy arrests the Great Chamberlain,<br />
Tammita Sembahap Perumal, hoping to secure further "payment." After the Perumal gives the viceroy<br />
everything he has and a promiscuity note for more, the viceroy, having squeezed every bit <strong>of</strong> treasure he could<br />
from Ceylon, sails away, leaving secret instructions to kidnap Vidiye Bandara. Meanwhile, his wife gathers a<br />
force and frees Vidiye, now a bitter enemy <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese, now goes about destroying Christian churches<br />
and killing Christians. At first allied with Mayadunne (whose daughter he marries), he is attacked at his fortress
<strong>of</strong> Palenda in Kalutara District both by Rajasinha, son <strong>of</strong> Mayadunne, and by the Portuguese. Vidiye takes<br />
refuge in the hill country, then flees to Mundakondapola in Kurunegala District, where he repays his host by<br />
taking his life and usurping his principality. Approached by Rajasingha and the Portuguese, he flees to Jafnna,<br />
where he is murdered in a quarrel, and his treasures fall into the hands <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> that place. Among these is<br />
a relic which the Portuguese are told is Buddha's tooth.<br />
NOTE: At this time a new spirit <strong>of</strong> Buddhism arises in Ceylon. Buddhism has been tolerant<br />
<strong>of</strong> both Hindus and Muslims and so it was in the spirit <strong>of</strong> this tolerance that Christianity was allowed.<br />
The actions <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese destroyed this idea, and Christianity is now seen as a curse.<br />
(1554, Nov) Dom Pedro Mascarenas sends Dom Duarte de Eca to Ceylon to repair the fort at Colombo. He<br />
also has secret instruction to arrest V. Bandara, which is done; he is thrown into a dungeon. Princess Samudra<br />
Devi flees to Rayigama. (1555) The princess pays to have a tunnel dug and manages Vidiye Bandar's escape.<br />
They move to the mountains <strong>of</strong> Pelenda and plan his revenge. He destroys the Christian settlements at<br />
Panadure, Kalutara, Magona, Beruwela, Galle and Weligama along with Franciscan churches. He puts every<br />
Portuguese he can find to the sword. Samudra Devi dies and Maaya Dunne gives V. Bandar his widowed<br />
daughter for wife but she is treated so badly, M. Dunne turns to the Portuguese and (Aug) enters into a treaty<br />
with them. The new governor <strong>of</strong> Colombo, Affonso Pereira de Larcerda, arrives and allies with Maaya Dunne<br />
against Vidiye Bandar who is forced to flee his capital to Seven Korles where he kills Rajah Edirimanna Suriya<br />
but is spurned by the inhabitants. Meanwhile (1556) all the people <strong>of</strong> the sea coast to south <strong>of</strong> Colombo<br />
embrace Christianity. Dharmapala is baptized as Dom Joao Periya Bandara and his queen as Dona Catherina;<br />
this encourages the Christians in hopes <strong>of</strong> converting the whole island: In Dharmapala's name they begin<br />
destroying 20 centuries <strong>of</strong> Buddhist social structure. Large numbers <strong>of</strong> Buddhist clergy and <strong>com</strong>moners flee the<br />
kingdom fearing persecution amidst rumors <strong>of</strong> forced conversions. The Tooth Relic is smuggled out <strong>of</strong> Kotte<br />
and taken to Delgamu Viharaya in Ratnapura. Portuguese claims to have burnt the relic further inflame the<br />
resentment <strong>of</strong> the populace. A Sitawakan invasion is repulsed by Captain-General Don Alfonso Pereira de<br />
Lacerda. (1556-8) The inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Seven Korles invite Maaya Dunne and the Portuguese to help them get<br />
rid <strong>of</strong> Vidiye Bandar: He flees to Jaffna and joins the king there to attack the Portuguese but in a strange<br />
misunderstanding is killed. This death ends the <strong>com</strong>pact between Maaya Dunne and the Portuguese. With<br />
Dharmapala's conversion, M. Dunne announces himself as champion <strong>of</strong> the national faith and claims the<br />
throne. In rioting, the king is stoned and people are fired upon by Portuguese. (1559, May) Battle <strong>of</strong><br />
Mapitigama; Raja Singha's (<strong>of</strong> Kandy) forces force the Portuguese under the new governor <strong>of</strong> Colombo Dom<br />
Jorge Baroche to retire after much slaughter on both sides. (1560) Raja Singha forces Dom Jorge's forces to<br />
retreat but they prevent Singha from crossing the borders <strong>of</strong> Cotta. (Aug) Arrival <strong>of</strong> Viceroy Don Consantino<br />
deBraganza at Jaffnapatam, forcing the crown prince <strong>of</strong> Jaffna to retire; the city is occupied and the crown<br />
prince allowed to return as a vassal <strong>of</strong> Portugal and paying a large fixed tribute but the citizens rise against the<br />
Portuguese and force them back to their boats. The Portuguese hold only Mannar Island. Also; Kandy lends<br />
aid to Jaffna against the Portuguese. Meanwhile, while in Jaffna, the Portuguese discover a tooth thought to be<br />
that <strong>of</strong> Buddha (actually an ape tooth worshiped by the Hindus in honor <strong>of</strong> Hanuman). (1561) The king <strong>of</strong> Pegu<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers to pay a large sum for the tooth but the Portuguese archbishop destroys it. (Mar) Dom Jorge is relieved<br />
by Balthazar Guedes de Sousa. Also: Puviraja Pandaram Pararajasekaran, son, ruler <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. (1562) Kotte<br />
forces led by de Lacerda with a force from Colombo attack Sitawaka: Battle <strong>of</strong> Mulleriyawa; they are defeated<br />
by Mayadunne's son Tikiri Banda. Many are killed and the invading force routed. (1562-3) Raha Singha<br />
besieges Colombo and eventually retires. He besieges Cotta and after fierce fighting the Portuguese are<br />
reduced to cannibalism. R. Singha to retires on learning Portuguese reinforcements are on the way, he retires to<br />
Sitawaka, giving the besieged some relief. (1564) Pedro de Ataide Inferno be<strong>com</strong>es governor <strong>of</strong> Colombo with<br />
a large Portuguese force. (5 Oct) Raja Singha besieges Cotta. (1565, 12 Feb) R. Singha attempts to take Cotta<br />
by storm but the siege is raised as R. Singha must face the reinforcements arriving from Goa. (July) The<br />
viceroy has Dharmapala abandon Cotta and reside at Colombo to the great grief <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese. Most <strong>of</strong><br />
Cotta's territory is taken over by Sitawaka. Also: Kurunchi Nainar usurps the Jaffna throne. (1570) Periya<br />
Pillai Segarajasekaran ousts the usurper and retakes Jaffna's throne.<br />
1571 Raja Singha I, son <strong>of</strong> Maaya Dunne, who immediately puts to death any contestors, including general<br />
Wickramasingha Mudaliyar. (1574) Diogo de Melo arrives with sufficient force to begin ravaging Ceylon,<br />
taking wealth wherever they find it; the shrine at Kelaniya is destroyed; the port <strong>of</strong> Negumbo is plundered; the<br />
garrison at Nagalagama is driven out and the coast towns <strong>of</strong> Kalutara and Beruwala are devastated. Meanwhile,<br />
Raja Singha invades Kandy. (1575) One plundering party makes it as far south as Weligama. Another ravages<br />
the district <strong>of</strong> Chilaw and the revered temple <strong>of</strong> Munnessaram plundered. The Portuguese, heading back to<br />
Colombo, devastate Mapane and destroy the beautiful Vihare at Horana. Meanwhile, an attempt is made on<br />
Dharmapala's life and (1577, Oct) an investigation is launched; de Melo is removed from <strong>of</strong>fice and sent to<br />
Goa, dying on the way. (1578) Feeling his age, M. Dunne renounces the throne in favor <strong>of</strong> his son R. Singha I.
(1579) R. Singha besieges Colombo and (1581, Feb) the arrival <strong>of</strong> Mathias de Alboquerque forces him to<br />
withdraw. after which he learns <strong>of</strong> the death <strong>of</strong> M. Dunne. Meanwhile (1580, 12 Aug) Dharmapala, on<br />
Franciscan advice, sets forth his title to the throne and makes over all his claims to Dom Henrique (king <strong>of</strong><br />
Portugal who has died in poverty). (1581) Raja Singha invades Kandy, annexing the kingdom, forcing<br />
Karaliyadde Bandara (also known as Jayavira III) to flee north to the Jaffna Kingdom with his daughter,<br />
Kusumasana Devi, and his nephew. Dona Catharina (name adopted by Kusumasana Devi) "rules" for a short<br />
while. The Portuguese also lay claim to Kandy, citing Dharmapala's donation <strong>of</strong> 1580 as a precedent.<br />
Wirasundara Mudiyanse is Raja Singha's viceroy and finds Sitawakan rule over Kandy difficult to enforce and<br />
soon rebels. The uprising is crushed. (1582) R. Singha takes Balane. After a few skirmishes and hints <strong>of</strong> revolt,<br />
Ceylon's situation calms and R. Singha strengthens his position. Also; Puviraja Pandaram Pararajasekaran, who<br />
assumes Jaffna's throne, is paying a tribute <strong>of</strong> ten elephants or an equivalent in cash to the Portuguese. (1583, 4<br />
Nov) Dharmapala ratifies the donation <strong>of</strong> 1580 in favor <strong>of</strong> King Philip <strong>of</strong> Spain (who had also assumed rule <strong>of</strong><br />
Portugal 15 April, 1581): Philip II is proclaimed Dharmapala's heir. (1584) By this time Raja Singha has made<br />
himself master <strong>of</strong> the interior, driven into exile king Jayaweira <strong>of</strong> Kandy who holes up in the Portuguese fort at<br />
Mannar (be<strong>com</strong>es Christian with his family) and forces many Sinhalese noble families into refuge in Colombo.<br />
He now begins preparation for war against the Portuguese who through constant warfare have been forced into<br />
Colombo and Mannar. Construction <strong>of</strong> fort at Biyagama and begins march <strong>of</strong> Colombo when at the viceroy's<br />
insistence a peace is agreed to (the Portuguese aren't ready yet): Raja Singha is beside himself. (1587) Raja<br />
Singha declares war; his huge army heads for Colombo. First thing done is drain the lake so that Portuguese<br />
armed boats are useless. (4 Aug) The attack begins as a series <strong>of</strong> assaults three major assaults are turned back,<br />
R.S. is enraged but settles into a siege. (20 Aug) Another grand assault is turned back. (23 Aug) Colombo is<br />
reinforced from Goa. (4 Oct) Sinhalese ships engage Portuguese ships <strong>of</strong>f Colombo; they are forced to retreat.<br />
(4 Dec) Another reinforcement reaches Colombo. There is news <strong>of</strong> a large army on the way. But pestilence and<br />
foul water are killing Colombo's people. (Dec) Pedro Affonso sails the coast to Galle, destroying Beruwela,<br />
Welitara and Welgama, killing many Sinhalese and cutting <strong>of</strong>f the hands and ears <strong>of</strong> women and children for<br />
bracelets and earrings. (1588, 27 Jan) Another grand assault on Colombo is turned back. (Feb) Thome Sousa<br />
sails out on an expedition to ravage the southern coast; Kosgoda is destroyed, Galle next then Weligama<br />
Matara and the temple at Dondra Head, then Chilaw and finally the world-famous shrine at Dewundara which<br />
is desecrated (cows slaughtered in the building) and <strong>com</strong>pletely destroyed. This wanton destruction,<br />
ac<strong>com</strong>panied by a rebellion raised by one Konappoo Bandar, a refugee in Goa, and news <strong>of</strong> <strong>com</strong>ing Portuguese<br />
reinforcements, forces Raja Singha to raise the siege and withdraw into the interior. (18 Feb) Those<br />
reinforcements arrive. Meanwhile, another rebellion arises in Kandy and crushing it is more difficult. (1590)<br />
Kandyan resistance is coalescing around Konnappu Bandara, son <strong>of</strong> Wirasundara, who had fled to Portuguese<br />
lands following his father's murder by agents <strong>of</strong> Rajasinha. Konnappu seizes the Kandyan throne under the<br />
name Vimaladharmasuriya I. (1591) Portuguese forces invade Jaffna's territory on the pretense the king<br />
disfavors conversion <strong>of</strong> his subjects to Christianity: After a stubborn defense, the king is defeated and killed;<br />
Jaffna is plundered and the king's second son, Ethirimanna Cinkam (Singa Parajasekaran), is placed on the<br />
throne at Nallur, giving the Catholic missionaries freedom and monopoly in elephant export to the Portuguese,<br />
which Cinkam resists. (1592) An English privateer attacks a Portuguese ship <strong>of</strong>f the southwestern port <strong>of</strong><br />
Galle. This action is England's first known contact with Sri Lanka. (1593) Raja Singha marches against<br />
Konappoo Bandara (baptized at Goa as Don Juan), is defeated and while retreating, dies. Raja Surya, grandson<br />
<strong>of</strong> the late king, is raised but is soon assassinated. Meanwhile, the generals Raja Singha sent to the Uda Rata<br />
are unable to cope and the king himself takes the field. He is unsuccessful and disease breaks out in his camp;<br />
he withdraws, placing the Perumal Aritta Kivendu in charge. Konappoo (Nikapitiya) Bandara ascends the<br />
throne as<br />
1593 Wimala Dharma (Vimaladharmasuriya I <strong>of</strong> Kandy)(Konappu Bandara) son <strong>of</strong> Vijayasundara Bandara. Chief<br />
power, however, remains with the Perumal. W. Dharma struggles against the Portuguese (he is aided in this by<br />
Jaffna) and labors in the cause <strong>of</strong> learning and Buddhism, which had suffered at the hands <strong>of</strong> Hindu Raha<br />
Singha I; having built Hindu temples and destroyed Buddhist libraries. He has the sacred tooth moved from<br />
Sabaragamuwa to Kandy. The poem Dalada Katawa is written. (1594) The Perumal meets Mudaliyar Diogo de<br />
Silva advancing from Colombo, defeats and kills him. The Perumal, emboldened, seeks the hand <strong>of</strong> the sister<br />
<strong>of</strong> W. Dharma, earning the disfavor <strong>of</strong> the nobles. He moves with his army to Menikkadawara and opens<br />
correspondence with Pedro Homem Pereira, Capt. at Colombo stating he wants to reconquer Kotte for<br />
Dharmapala and take Sitawaka with Portuguese help. Granted. the Perumal takes the name Jayawira Bandara<br />
but he is deserted by his <strong>of</strong>ficers and must escape, making it to Colombo where he prostrates himself before<br />
Dharmapala. He takes Kaduwela; Pedro Lopes is sent from Goa with a force to conquer the interior <strong>of</strong> Ceylon.<br />
The garrisons <strong>of</strong> Rakgaha Watta and Malwana are driven back and at Gurubewila the Sitawakan army is<br />
defeated. Jayawira occupies Sitawaka, obtaining Raja Sinha's great treasure. Now Jayawira swoops down and
takes over almost all <strong>of</strong> Kotte. The Portuguese now see the possibility <strong>of</strong> establishing Ceylon as a second<br />
Portuguese nation: They decide to conquer Ceylon. (April) De Souza is appointed General Conquistador, with<br />
the Princess, Jayawira and his 9,000 Lascarins, advance from Colombo to Menikkadawara. They march to the<br />
Mahaweli Ganga; Wimala Dharma has slipped into the eastern forest. They occupy the abandoned palace at<br />
Kandy and place a guard - non <strong>of</strong> whom are Sinhalese - over the princess, angering the natives and W.<br />
Dharma's ranks swell. Negotiations begins to marry the Princess to Francisco de Silva Arcelaos but nothing<br />
<strong>com</strong>es <strong>of</strong> them. Through a ruse, Jayawira is fooled into entering the Portuguese camp to answer some made up<br />
charges, he is killed. The Portuguese begin slaughtering his adherents, but the Lascarins have disappeared. The<br />
Portuguese decide to retreat. (6 Oct) Battle <strong>of</strong> Danture the Portuguese forces are annihilated by W. Dharma<br />
who marries Donna Catherina on the battlefield. (24 Dec) Dom Hieroni mo de Azeveda is sent and he begins a<br />
brutal war <strong>of</strong> revenge, laced with atrocities and bloodshed. (1595, 1 Jan) Joined by Dharmapala, the army sets<br />
out for Sitawaka where they rebuild the palace for the king. Disease and hunger decimates the garrison. (17<br />
Nov) Domingo Correa raises the standard <strong>of</strong> revolt against Dharmapala and proclaims himself king. The<br />
garrisons at Menikkadawara and Ruwanella are ordered to concentrate <strong>of</strong> Sitawaka.(2 Dec) Orders are given to<br />
evacuate Sitawaka for Gurubewila. Decimated by guerrilla warfare, they find themselves blockaded in the city,<br />
starving. (16 Dec) They decide to retreat, Correa blocks roads and guerrilla warfare thins their ranks. Correa is<br />
wounded and his force withdraws. Iddagoda Rala takes over for Correa and the Portuguese are stopped at the<br />
temple <strong>of</strong> Horana where they are saved by the appearance <strong>of</strong> Samarakon Rala with Dom Diego and his 500<br />
Christian Tupasses. (17 Dec) The Portuguese, with the king, reach Colombo. (1596) Edirille Rala joins W.<br />
Dharma who gives him Kotte and Sitawaka and they take the field. Reinforcements from India enable the<br />
Portuguese to reoccupy Malwana and construct a fort at Uduwara. Edirille is defeated who is soon captured<br />
and (14 July) executed. De Azavedo and Thome de Souza manage to bring as much, if not all, <strong>of</strong> the wealth <strong>of</strong><br />
Ceylon into their pockets, under Dharmapala's protest which is ignored. (1597, 27 May) Death <strong>of</strong> Dharmapala<br />
(Don Juan); by his will, he leaves his dominions to Philip II <strong>of</strong> Portugal but the Sinhalese only recognize and<br />
treat de Azavedo as king. The Portuguese claim sovereignty over all Ceylon (but the war goes on, with<br />
successes and defeats on both sides, also destruction, atrocities and bloodshed) which they divide into four<br />
provinces; Matara, Saparagamuwa, Four Korales and Seven Korales. The Sinhalese refuse to give up their laws<br />
for those <strong>of</strong> Portugal and manage to have an agreement reached whereby they keep their laws and customs yet<br />
obey those <strong>of</strong> Portugal. To protect themselves against the Kandyans, the Portuguese establish two camps at<br />
Menikkadawara and Sabaragamuwa, these with a large force <strong>of</strong> 20,000 are unable to be fully supported by the<br />
Portugal controlled trade. The governor <strong>of</strong> Colombo styles himself King <strong>of</strong> Malwane. Trade is prohibited to all<br />
other nations and even the Sinhalese. (25 Sept) Correa is defeated near Katuwana. Meanwhile, another force<br />
occupies Iddamalpane; the Portuguese try to intercept it and the whole <strong>of</strong> Four Korales rises in rebellion.<br />
Pinhao cannot advance beyond Attanagala and so resorts to cruelties: Babies spitted on pikes or smashed<br />
between millstones while their mothers are forced to watch before being killed, men thrown into the river to be<br />
eaten by crocodiles. Correa appears and defects to the Portuguese and hostilities resume. (1599, Jan) By this<br />
time a fort has been built at Menikkadawara to be HQ for operations against the Uda Rata; the Portuguese<br />
begin devastating the country and their advance to Uda Rata is made very difficult by the Sinhalese. (May) By<br />
this time the Portuguese have been forced to abandon Etgalatota. Reinforced, the Portuguese take Ganetenna,<br />
Sinhalese occupy Balane. The Portuguese prepare for the final conquest <strong>of</strong> Ceylon. W. Dharma <strong>of</strong>fers to make<br />
Pinhao king <strong>of</strong> the low country if he would desert to him. At a meeting the Portuguese try to kill the king. The<br />
Sinhalese abandon Balane and the Portuguese take it, confident that now they have Ceylon in their grasp. An<br />
attempted coup, however, is found out and quashed. Preparations for the takeover <strong>of</strong> Ceylon are dashed and<br />
garrisons are sent back to their posts. (1602, April) A few Jesuits enter Ceylon to the consternation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Franciscans. (31 May) Two ships under Dutch admiral Joris van Spillbergen arrive Batticaloa and capture four<br />
Portuguese ships. Admiral Spillbergen is feted; gains protection and <strong>com</strong>mercial privileges for his countrymen<br />
and leaves. No sooner has he left than (28 Nov) a Dutch expedition under Seebald de Weert arrives Batticaloa<br />
and goes to Kandy where he is courteously received. He concludes a treaty with W. Dharma for an attack on<br />
Point de Galle then (1603, 14 Jan) leaves for Achin with a load <strong>of</strong> cinnamon and pepper. Meanwhile, war<br />
against the Portuguese continues, with many Sinhalese abandoning their oath to the Portuguese king. (Jan) De<br />
Azevido besieges Balana, is shown (1Feb) a secret way in and the Portuguese find the fort deserted. Five days<br />
later his Lascarins desert to the king. A hasty retreat is begun and by the time he reaches the foot <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mountain and Pinhao, a serious defeat has occurred. A message is received that hasty retreat is in order for in<br />
three days there won't be a Portuguese in Ceylon as the whole country is up in arms. In a panic due to<br />
evaporating Sinhalese support, Portuguese armies begin breaking up from desertion and mutineers. Samarakon<br />
Rala, powerful Sinhalese noble with the Portuguese, <strong>com</strong>es to their assistance. The retreat continues; they<br />
reach Ganetenna then Sitawaka, leaving a trail <strong>of</strong> bodies. When they reach Malwana, it has been sacked and<br />
burned by the Sinhalese and the Nestorian Christians there have all been killed. (15 Mar) Facing increasing
desertions, de Azevedo attempts to rally his men, but it is too late; all <strong>of</strong> the outposts intended to protect the<br />
<strong>com</strong>munications <strong>of</strong> the triumphant army are now held by the Sinhalese. Only Galle, held by Samarakon,<br />
remains. Repairs to Colombo are begun. (25 April) De Weert arrives Batticola and (June) meets the king. De<br />
Weert, intoxicated, insults the king and is beheaded. The Sinhalese try to kill as many <strong>of</strong> the drunk Hollanders<br />
in town that they can. The Hollanders try to open negotiations to help wrest Colombo and Galle from the<br />
Portuguese, but they <strong>com</strong>e to naut; (28 July) the fleet sails away. Little else occurs; Samarakon is placed in<br />
chains and sent to Goa. (1604, early) Death <strong>of</strong> W. Dharma. After renouncing Christianity and embracing<br />
Buddhism, W. Dharma constructed a two-tiered shrine close to his palace in order to sanctify his capital Kandy<br />
and ac<strong>com</strong>modate the important Buddha's Tooth relic.<br />
1604 Queen mother Donna Catherina declares herself regent for her young son and civil war between princes Uva<br />
and Senerat (brother <strong>of</strong> Wimala Dharma) is prevented. But Senerat kills Uva and Queen Catherina is forced to<br />
grant him the sovereignty as<br />
1604 Senerat (Senerat I <strong>of</strong> Kandy), son. De Azevido suggests with the addition <strong>of</strong> 300 troops, he could take over the<br />
whole island. orders are given to strengthen the fortifications at Colombo and Galle, mainly from fear <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Dutch. (1606) A large fleet leaves Goa for the Southern Seas against the Dutch - it is severely defeated: The<br />
Viceroy himself (1607, June) dies <strong>of</strong> a broken heart. (1608) By this time Portuguese presence has degenerated<br />
into a robber's den: Temples are being destroyed, renegades are hailed as saviors, fortification at Colombo are<br />
so broken down that cattle wander in and out, there are no hospitals, unpaid soldiers are dying <strong>of</strong> hunger and<br />
privation. Not wanting to pollute their land burying Portuguese soldiers, the Sinhalese cut <strong>of</strong>f their noses and<br />
send them back. (1609) Senerat, who has married the widowed Queen and crushed all opposition, assumes the<br />
crown, consolidating his position and concluding a 12 years' truce with the United Provinces. To <strong>of</strong>fer a<br />
sanctuary to their soldiers, Galle (1610) replaces Colombo. (1611, Aug) De Azevido with 700 soldiers enters<br />
Kandy, which he finds deserted, and burns it. He returns to Colombo, leaving a garrison at Balane. (1612, 8<br />
Mar) Marcellus de Boschauwer arrives and is so successful that (11 May) a treaty is signed promising Dutch<br />
aid against Portuguese aggression. The Dutch are given permission to construct a fort at Kottiyar and given a<br />
monopoly in trade <strong>of</strong> cinnamon, gems and pearls. Boschouwer is made prince <strong>of</strong> Migonne (Negombo) and<br />
Anuradhapura. Alarmed, the Portuguese secretly send a force <strong>of</strong> 4,000 under Sinhalese <strong>com</strong>mander Simon<br />
Correa that wipes out Dutch garrison at Kottiar. Battle <strong>of</strong> Seven Korles the emperor's force <strong>of</strong> 5,000 routes the<br />
Portuguese. The emperor now calls an assembly <strong>of</strong> all Ceylon's kings (Cotiarum, Palugam, Baticaloa, Ouve,<br />
Migonne, Vellane, Cotomale, Mewater, Four Korles, Podore, Ode, Yalagode, Harcipate, Odogo d'Askeri,<br />
Matara and the lesser provinces; Patania isn't represented) and it is decided to raise a 50,000 man force and<br />
attack Galle and Balane, then Colombo. Battle <strong>of</strong> Seven Korles; the Portuguese defeat the Sinhalese and wrest<br />
Migonne principality from Boschouwer. Death <strong>of</strong> prince Mahastanne, son <strong>of</strong> Donna Catherina by Wimala<br />
Dharma (by Senerat who desires his own son to succeed?). Era <strong>of</strong> poet Alagiawanna Mohottala, author <strong>of</strong><br />
Kusajataka, Subasitha, Nitisara, Maha Hatana and Sewul Sandese. (1612-3) A Kandyan fleet under the prince<br />
<strong>of</strong> Migonne cruises against the Portuguese between Cape Comorin and Ceylon: They take many Portuguese<br />
ships and their cargoes; the men are killed, women and Negroes saved. (1613) The king <strong>of</strong> Patania (Patane) is<br />
tried for collusion with the Portuguese to overthrow the dynasty; he is beheaded. De Francisco de Meneses<br />
general. His preoccupation is to acquire wealth as the military situation goes from bad to worse: Soldiers must<br />
raid villages for food, they rob inhabitants and ravish women. Within all <strong>of</strong> this dissension, Senerat is unable to<br />
form a coalition. (20 July) Death <strong>of</strong> Queen Donna Catherina <strong>of</strong> grief after she had entrusted her children to the<br />
prince <strong>of</strong> Uva and Boschauwer. Later Astana Bandara, heir to the throne, dies. (1614) Boschouwer discovers a<br />
plot between the Portuguese and Gael Henerad, Dissave <strong>of</strong> Harasia-pattoo, to assassinate him, the prince <strong>of</strong><br />
Uva and the royal children; Gael Henerad is beheaded and the citizens <strong>of</strong> Harasiapattoo rise in rebellion and<br />
assisted by the Portuguese defeat royal forces. Senerat refuses to negotiate a treaty with Portugal; who now<br />
marches 25,000 on Kandy. (6 Aug) Battle <strong>of</strong> Balane; 29,000 Kandyans defeat the Portuguese. (Nov) Manual<br />
Mascarenlias Homem general. He brings rigorous discipline to the army and a policy <strong>of</strong> endless war to wear<br />
down the Sinhalese. No male above 14 years old is to remain alive. He begins a twice-yearly campaign <strong>of</strong><br />
incursions into native areas; no able bodied man is left alive, women and children that couldn't be easily taken<br />
are killed, cattle are driven down the mountain to feed the Portuguese in Colombo, no house is left unburnt and<br />
no tree is left standing. The Sinhalese resort to guerilla warfare. (1615, 7 Mar) A <strong>com</strong>et is seen that strikes<br />
terror into all. A disease breaks out that effects both man and beast. (14 April) A severe earthquake shakes<br />
down houses, destroys bridges and opens fissures in the ground. (May) Senerat asks the Dutch for the promised<br />
assistance against the Portuguese. Boschouwer is sent to Holland for reinforcements but the States General<br />
turns him down because <strong>of</strong> his conduct. He goes to Denmark and obtains a treaty with Christian IV on behalf<br />
<strong>of</strong> Senerat. Also this year, the first Tombo is enacted; it is a land registry <strong>com</strong>piled to provide a detailed<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> property ownership and tax obligations. Also: Arakesari assumes regency for infant CP Leuke<br />
Kumaran <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. (1616, Mar) Dom Nuno Alvarez Pereira is general. (5 Dec) Ascetic "Nikapitiya Bandara"
enters Metyagane, the ancient royal city <strong>of</strong> Dumbadeniya, as King. (13 Dec) By this time the whole district is<br />
up in arms and 2,000 troops arrive from Uda Rata to assist him. A Portuguese force heads out and at the (18<br />
Dec) Battle <strong>of</strong> Gandolaha they struggle then separate. Portuguese withdraw to Attanagalla on a rumor that all<br />
Portuguese are being put to death. Nikapitiya begins a royal progression through the country and before the<br />
Portuguese capital is proclaimed Emperor. He demands one <strong>of</strong> the king's two queens for his wife which, he is<br />
told, would be given attention as soon as he finishes with the Portuguese. His 2,000 Sinhalese soldiers are<br />
recalled and the Portuguese battle at Kal Eliya; Nikapitiya flees to Dambadeniya. Senerat determines to make<br />
peace, the garrison at Balane blows him <strong>of</strong>f, is attacked and surrenders. (1617, Jan) Nikapitiya flees from the<br />
Portuguese at the Disawani <strong>of</strong> Sabaragamuwa. Meanwhile, Baretto revolts against Senerat, gains control <strong>of</strong> the<br />
entire eastern part <strong>of</strong> the island and overruns Matara and Sabaragamuwa. (April) Death <strong>of</strong> Ethirimana Cinkam.<br />
Cankili II (Sankili Kumaran II) usurps the Jaffna throne, killing the regent nominated by the late king. Unable<br />
to secure Portuguese acceptance <strong>of</strong> his kingship, Cankili II invites military aid from the Thanjavur Nayaks and<br />
allows corsairs from Malabar to use a base in Neduntivu, hence posting a threat to Portuguese shipping routes<br />
through Palk Straight. (24 Aug) Portuguese conclude a treaty with Senerat: Portuguese acknowledge his<br />
sovereignty, he agrees to pay an annual tribute for suppression <strong>of</strong> any risings, restore the Portuguese captured<br />
at Balane and any Christian prisoners and to send hostages. The Portuguese abandon Sabaragamuwa and<br />
Matara still held by Baretto. (1618, Sept) Constantino de Sa y Noronha, general, faces a <strong>com</strong>pletely aimless<br />
army living an immoral life in the cities. He institutes discipline, visits outlying posts and sets up a network <strong>of</strong><br />
spies to keep track <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese. He defeats Baretto, breaking his power. De Oliviera is sent (1619, June) to<br />
oust Prince Chankili from Jaffna: A naval expedition is repulsed by the Malabari corsairs and another<br />
expedition by Phillippe de Oliveira and his 5,000 strong land army is able to inflict defeat on Cankili II.<br />
Cankili, along with every surviving member <strong>of</strong> the royal family are captured and taken to Goa, where he is<br />
hanged to death. The remaining captives are encouraged to be<strong>com</strong>e monks or nuns in the holy orders, and as<br />
most obliged, it avoids further claimants to the Jaffna throne; Jaffna <strong>com</strong>es under Portuguese rule. Migapulle<br />
Arachchi still resists; Luiz Teixeira is sent who, on the way, hacks men in half with axes, rips breasts <strong>of</strong>f<br />
women and those women carrying infants have their wombs slit open and their infants stuffed within: "Peace"<br />
is brought to the north. Mayadunna in the south is defeated and forced to retreat eastward. (1620, May)<br />
Boschouwer's ship arrives Batticaloa, followed by a Danish fleet <strong>of</strong> five under Gule Gedde (widow <strong>of</strong><br />
Boshouwer who died on the way). Senerat gives his consent but it is too late; (2 July) Mayadunna is forced to<br />
take refuge on the fleet and Baretto is slain. Gedde takes all and returns to Denmark. Later, Da Sa is replaced<br />
by the Viceroy's son Jorge de Alboquerque and rampant corruption reigns. The army mutinys and a plot arises<br />
to put the general to death. A conspiracy among supporters <strong>of</strong> Mayadunna (in India) that brings death to some<br />
prominent Sinhalese. (1622) Portuguese construct a fort at Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. (1623) Da Sa is returned to <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong><br />
General and order returns: He is instructed to reduce the Sinhalese Kingdom once and for all. Meanwhile,<br />
Prince Maha Asthana is 16 years old; Senerat grants domains to his three sons: Kumara Sinha receives Uwa;<br />
Wijaya Pala receives Matale and Maha Asthana receives Uda Rata by which he be<strong>com</strong>es Aga Raja or Chief<br />
King as Raja Sinha. (1624) It is decided to build a fort on the headland <strong>of</strong> Konesar Malai, one <strong>of</strong> the most holy<br />
places <strong>of</strong> Hindu worship; its temples are razed. Senerat protests but the Portuguese state they need the extra<br />
defense against increasing appearances <strong>of</strong> European enemies. Sinhalese are sweet-talked into accepting the<br />
Portuguese position. (1625) Da Sa drives a great number <strong>of</strong> Moors (Arab) traders from Portuguese holdings,<br />
they find asylum within Sinhalese territory and many settle around Batticaloa. He now begins strengthening<br />
Menikkadawara and sets up a small fort on the island <strong>of</strong> Puliyan Tivu.(1627) Violating their truce, the<br />
Portuguese fortify Batticaloa. Alarmed at this (for the Portuguese have also established forts at Jaffna, Mannar,<br />
Negombo, Colombo, Kalutara, Galle and Weligama). Senerat manages to rouse all Ceylonese people, even<br />
those in Colombo, against the Portuguese. War is declared; a small Portuguese army burns the town <strong>of</strong> Badulla<br />
(1628) Da Sa readies every Portuguese defense he can muster; he takes the pass <strong>of</strong> Balane and heads for<br />
Kandy, destroying everything on his way. Battle <strong>of</strong> Jaffnapatam; Sinhalese force under Attapatu Mudaliyar is<br />
defeated, but seeing the country's hostility around him, De Sa retreats to Malwana, the seat <strong>of</strong> Portuguese<br />
government (1629) Da Sa is ordered to bring all Ceylon to subjection once and for all. (March) He heads out<br />
into the field, but the Sinhalese remain hidden as he razes villages and kills anything living he finds. Sapped by<br />
sickness and the weather, he begins to withdraw, now suffering intense guerrilla activity by the Sinhalese.<br />
Battle <strong>of</strong> Ambatenna he suffers a heavy loss. Kumara Sinha heads a raiding party, ravaging Portuguese<br />
territory. Da Sa can do nothing until, pushed by the Viceroy and against better judgement, sends 700<br />
Portuguese and 13,000 Lascarins into the field. At Badulla they spend two days sacking the place then find out<br />
they are being encircled by the Sinhalese. The Lascarins defect and it turns into a rout and are trapped on the<br />
Plain <strong>of</strong> Wellawaya where they are slowly picked <strong>of</strong>f all through the night. Finally all are killed, including da<br />
Sa. (26 days later) Now the Sinhalese army, led by prince Raja Singh, 17 years old, recaptures the forts on the<br />
Mahareliganga and besieges Colombo. It is soon reduced to cannibalism. Maha Asthana retires, captures
Menikkadawara and the rest <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese army returns to Kaduwela. (1631) The siege <strong>of</strong> Colombo is raised<br />
due to reinforcements from Goa, but the Portuguese have given up hope <strong>of</strong> taking over Ceylon; a treaty is<br />
entered into; Portugal agrees to keep the peace for two tusked elephants a year. (21 Oct) Aged Dom Jorge de<br />
Almeida succeeds da Sa. He opens negotiations with Senerat to release his Portuguese prisoners, but the king's<br />
position has hardened. (1632, Jan) Reinforced from Goa, 1,000 Portuguese, 1,000 Lascarins and 1,200 Kaffirs<br />
and Canarese take the field. At Malwana the people submit but one <strong>of</strong> their members is given over to the<br />
Kaffirs who butcher and eat him in front <strong>of</strong> his wife and children. Kaduwala is occupied. (1633, 15 April) A<br />
treaty is signed: Portuguese agree to recognize the Queen's three sons as heirs to the whole <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese<br />
kingdom; the king is to pay an elephant a year to allow a Franciscan to reside at the capital, set free all<br />
Portuguese prisoners and hand over the fort <strong>of</strong> Batticaloa. Senerat balks at the perception <strong>of</strong> vassalage the<br />
tribute <strong>of</strong> an elephant presents. (1634) Diogo de Melo de Castro general, the treaty is approved. (1635)<br />
Portuguese army mutinies, elects 12 senators to handle its affairs and occupies the approaches to Colombo<br />
until it is allowed to elect its own <strong>of</strong>ficers. (1636) Death <strong>of</strong> Senerat. His eldest son Comara (Kumara) Singha<br />
Hastanne administers Uva; Vijaya Pala administers Matale and Raha Singha, Kandy. But Kumara dies too, and<br />
Raha Singha forces his brother Vijaya Pala to exile at Colombo and accedes as<br />
1636 Raja Singha II (<strong>of</strong> Kandy). Distrusting the Portuguese, (1637, 9 Sept) R. Singha sends a Brahmin with a letter<br />
to the Dutch governor at Palliacatta requesting aid against the Portuguese. (9 Nov) Two envoys appear<br />
Senkadagala with promise <strong>of</strong> assistance if the Dutch can have a monopoly <strong>of</strong> the Cinnamon trade. Alarmed, de<br />
Melo tries to alienate Wijaya Pala by discrediting the Dutch. (1638) A dispute over impoliteness <strong>of</strong> gifts<br />
between R. Singha and the Portuguese governor <strong>of</strong> Colombo (the "King <strong>of</strong> Malwana"); R. Singha infuriates the<br />
governor and Captain-General Diego de Melo is sent against the governor to punish him for his insolence. He<br />
is allowed to take Kandy which he plunders and fires, but finds R. Singha has trapped him: (28 March) Seeing<br />
the difficulty he would have in expelling the Portuguese; R. Singha (23 May) signs a treaty with the Dutch; he<br />
would pay them for their aid and grant trade monopolies; the emperor will be in possession <strong>of</strong> fortified places<br />
taken from the Portuguese. This alliance, however, is deeply unpopular with the inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Kandy.<br />
Meanwhile, (2 April) three Dutch vessels under Wilhelm Jacobsz Coster arrive and find much has changed<br />
with "Portuguese" Sinhala. Incensed at R. Singha's demands for fair treatment, de Melo sends 900 Portuguese,<br />
5,000 Lascarins and a number <strong>of</strong> Tapasses, Canarese and Kaffirs on an invasion. Unopposed, they enter the<br />
capital, fire it and retire, halting at Gannoruwa.(28 March) Battle <strong>of</strong> Gannoruwa: It is a resounding victory for<br />
the Sinhalese who annihilate the Portuguese, immortalized by an unknown poet in Parangi Hatane, the Story<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Feringhees. (10 May) Adm. Adam van Westerwold joins Coster at Batticaloa with the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
promised fleet. (14 May) R. Singha arrives with 15,000 men - Wijaya Pala and the rest <strong>of</strong> the army is at<br />
Colombo. (18 May) The allies attack Colombo and after four hours it surrenders. (23 May) Treaty is signed:<br />
See Appendix II. (4 June) Westerwold, with two Sinhalese ambassadors, sails to Batavia. (29 Oct) They return<br />
with the treaty's confirmation. The Dutch, however, look forward to expelling the Portuguese, thinking who,<br />
then, will expel them? Meanwhile, Dom Antonio Mascarenhas general; all available Portuguese forces are<br />
diverted to Ceylon; they reoccupy Menikkadawara. Conflict erupts between R. Singha and his brother Vijaya<br />
and (Sept) the latter with his 8,000 men are defeated. Singha takes Vijaya prisoner, being kept under<br />
surveillance at Senkadagala. (1639) Antonio Caen arrives with another fleet but instead <strong>of</strong> attacking Colombo,<br />
(18 May) takes Batticaloa then Trin<strong>com</strong>alee; it proves to be a long bloody process wresting the forts from the<br />
Portuguese as a joint campaign begins to make inroads into Portuguese lowland territories. (Dec) Another fleet<br />
under Director-General Philip Lucaszoon with 1,500 soldiers. They land Negombo and are attacked by<br />
Portuguese who are eventually driven <strong>of</strong>f. R. Singha arrives and (1640, 6 Feb) Negombo is besieged, taken by<br />
assault three days later. The Dutch begin rebuilding but the King wants it razed as per his option by the treaty.<br />
But Lucaszoon is stubborn and R. Singha realizes the Dutch are just replacing the Portuguese. (13 Feb) He<br />
withdraws, refusing to see the Director-General again. The Dir-Gen falls ill, refuses treatment by Sinhalese<br />
physicians and sails away. Coster patches things up and a joint land-sea assault on Galle is planned. (March)<br />
Dutch fleet under Com. William Jacob Doster bombards Fort <strong>of</strong> Santa Cruz de Galle until the walls are<br />
sufficiently broken down for (13 March) an assault takes the fort. Prisoners are taken away to Batavia. Plunder<br />
is divided equally between King and Dutch, who now occupy the port. Coster is appointed Governor at Galle.<br />
The Dutch hold back presenting their bill, hoping to squeeze more from the King, straining relations. (17 July)<br />
Coster presents himself at court at Senkadagala but there is no thaw. Coster presents a Memorandum stating<br />
requirements that must be met by the treaty in addition to a mint, villages for maintenance <strong>of</strong> the soldiers, etc.<br />
R. Singha begs his country's poverty makes it difficult to meet Dutch demands - give him time. Coster is killed<br />
at Nilgada for insulting the chief. He is succeeded by Jan Thyssen. (8 Sept) Portuguese learn that some Dutch<br />
garrisons aren't doing so well, buoying their spirits. (Oct) Dom Philip general. (9 Nov) Portuguese take<br />
Negombo and defeat a Sinhalese army; the entire coast from Colombo to Galle declare for the Portuguese who<br />
blockade Galle. Wijaya Pala revolts, is defeated and joins the Portuguese <strong>of</strong>fering to drive the Dutch out <strong>of</strong>
Ceylon. Nothing <strong>com</strong>es <strong>of</strong> this and he soon dies in Colombo. (1641, Oct) Ambassadors return from Batavia<br />
and embroil observation <strong>of</strong> the treaty's provisions in double talk. (1642, Jan-Feb) Dutch abandon idea <strong>of</strong> taking<br />
Colombo, give up on Negombo and return to Galle. (June) News <strong>of</strong> the treaty <strong>of</strong> 12 June, 1641, establishing<br />
peace between Holland and Portugal, arrives in Ceylon where there is no peace because <strong>of</strong> arguments over the<br />
territorial limits <strong>of</strong> Galle. (1643, 11 May) Portuguese defeat a Dutch force at Akuressa. (1644) Francis Carron<br />
lands near Galle but feels an assault is too risky so sails to (7 Jan) Negombo where he defeats a Portuguese<br />
force sent against him. Negombo is taken but an attack on Colombo is felt to be too risky. (June) Reinforced,<br />
the Portuguese try to take Negombo but are defeated. (1645, 10 Jan) A peace is declared that leaves each side<br />
in possession <strong>of</strong> such territory as is de facto in its power. Against the protests <strong>of</strong> R. Singha, the Dutch are<br />
establishing themselves at Seven Korales and equipping the garrison at Pannara. (13 May) A Dutch force under<br />
Adrian van der Stel leaves Negombo for Pannara is intercepted by the Sinhalese and soundly defeated; der Stel<br />
is decapitated. Pannara is surrounded and the garrison surrenders. For six months R. Singha refuses to talk to<br />
the Dutch yet both they and the Portuguese are jockeying for his ear. (1646) A temporary peace falls between<br />
Dutch and Portuguese during which the Dutch abuse their treaty obligations; R. Singha is beginning to doubt<br />
the sincerity and intentions <strong>of</strong> the Dutch and that perhaps the Portuguese can be used against them. Also this<br />
year, the cultivation <strong>of</strong> Indigo is attempted in Seven Korles but flops. Also a new Tombo is enacted (see 1617).<br />
(1647, July) R. Singha allows both at his court, playing one <strong>of</strong>f against the other. (1649) Wounded by R.<br />
Singh's scorched earth policy, the Kandyan-dutch alliance is resurrected: (July) R. Singh sends ambassadors to<br />
the Dutch and a new agreement is signed, though on slightly different terms; but tensions remain. Meanwhile,<br />
Maatsuycker at Galle writes Batavia saying the only way to deal with the King is by force, angering the King<br />
who accuses the Dutch <strong>of</strong> double-dealing. The Dutch, however, have decided that non <strong>of</strong> the territory that<br />
produces cinnamon will be returned to him. (1652, Oct) Two Dutch announce war has been declared; the<br />
Portuguese aren't prepared, as Kandyan-Dutch forces begin an increasingly brutal war against the Portuguese<br />
strongholds along the coast. (1653, 10 May) Aged Francisco de Melo de Castro general arrives Colombo is to<br />
restore order in Ceylon. His forces take Kalutara. (15 Aug) R. Singha appeals to Captain Major Van Kittenstein<br />
that he is honoring his part <strong>of</strong> the treaty <strong>of</strong> 1638, why aren't his forces? (2 Sept) Van Kittenstein replies that the<br />
Dutch have no intention <strong>of</strong> honoring the treaty. (1654, Aug) Dutch and Portuguese forces face each other<br />
across the Bentota River. (16 Dec) Portuguese withdraw to Kalutara. Meanwhile, R. Singha is running the<br />
Portuguese out <strong>of</strong> the Four and Seven Korales until Figueira arrives. (1655, Mar) Dutch appear before<br />
Kalutara. At Battle <strong>of</strong> Kotikapola, R. Singha is defeated, the Dutch leave Kalutara. Guerrilla warfare continues.<br />
(15 Aug) Antonio de Sousa Coutinho general brings funds to pay his soldiers (18 months overdue). (15 Sept)<br />
Dutch reinforcements under Geraard Hulft land north <strong>of</strong> Colombo but weather drives them <strong>of</strong>f to Beruwala<br />
where the go (29 Sept) to Kalutara. Other Dutch forces land Panadura and Kalu Ganga. (8 Oct) Figueira arrives<br />
Colombo and takes the field. (14 Oct) Kalutara falls to the Dutch. (16 Oct) Battle on Moratuwa to Panadura<br />
plain; the Portuguese are slaughtered almost to a man. Figueira and his remaining men make it to Colombo<br />
where he prepares for a siege that is soon begun by the Dutch. Bombardment begins. (25 Oct) R. Singha sends<br />
1,200 <strong>of</strong> his men to join the Dutch. (11 Dec) Before an assault begins, Hulft asks Coutinho to surrender.<br />
Refused. (12 Dec) The assault begins; Portuguese successfully keep Dutch ships from menacing the city, but<br />
they maintain a blockade, and on land it <strong>com</strong>es to a stand-still. Raja Singha, not trusting the Dutch at all, insists<br />
that the city should be ceded to him the moment it fell. The Dutch continue bombardment. Soon disease and<br />
hunger is taking its toll in the city and the Dutch refuse to allow non-<strong>com</strong>batants to leave. (1656, 10 Mar)<br />
Coutinho asks help from the King who tells him to surrender. R. Singha also appoints Hulft Director General<br />
over all his dominions. (March-April) Colombo suffers dysentery and is reduced to cannibalism. (5 April)<br />
Hulft has an audience with R. Singha then returns to Colombo where he is shot through the heart. Van der<br />
Meyden succeeds. (7 May) An assault begins and, with heavy losses on both sides, (11 May) surrenders and<br />
(12 May) the Terms <strong>of</strong> Capitulation are signed. The King is angered as the Dutch <strong>com</strong>pletely shut out the<br />
Sinhalese from their dealings with Colombo. He informs his people to not correspond with the Dutch,<br />
withdraws his support from the Dutch and his forces begin harassing Dutch outlying locations. (1657) R.<br />
Singha attempts to take Colombo from the Dutch but fails; he cuts <strong>of</strong>f supplies to the fortress and renews<br />
friendship with the Portuguese remaining on Ceylon. (1658, Jan) Dutch fleet arrives Tuticorin and reduces the<br />
Portuguese settlements on the Fishery Coast. (22 Feb) Fort <strong>of</strong> Manar surrenders and the Dutch march on Jaffna<br />
which (20 March) is attacked and (22 June) surrenders. (23 June) the Dutch celebrate the end <strong>of</strong> Portuguese<br />
presence in Ceylon.<br />
DUTCH PERIOD<br />
A conspiracy is discovered against the Dutch in Jaffna; 14 conspirators are sentenced to death: Three are stretched<br />
out on wooden crosses on the ground, stabbed in neck and breast then disemboweled, their hearts removed and<br />
stuffed in their mouths then their heads cut <strong>of</strong>f and exposed in the market place. A Jesuit is beheaded and<br />
eleven other hanged and left to rot. (20 Nov) A Special Day <strong>of</strong> Thanksgiving is declared, and anyone who
doesn't observe it will be fined 100 rix-dollars.<br />
The DEIC succeeds to a country suffering from long mis-management by the Portuguese: It is badly<br />
neglected and run to weed; from Negombo to the Walawe Ganga the country is largely waste and unpopulated,<br />
the rich tracts <strong>of</strong> rice fields are laying abandoned, with their dams and water channels destroyed, and the great<br />
reservoirs breached and useless. Thick tropical forest covers many a once happy village and the southern coastroad<br />
is so infested with wild elephants as to be dangerous to the traveler. The Company goes to work repairing,<br />
restoring and reviving old businesses and establishing new ones. Church attendance is <strong>com</strong>pulsory, though<br />
there isn't any insistence the Sinhales change faiths. Inter-racial marriage is discouraged. Dutch policy is to<br />
keep the King in good humor at all costs, their attitude toward him deferential to the point <strong>of</strong> servility.<br />
Repeated embassies are sent to him with presents - usually unusual animals - and he keeps the embassies as he<br />
is collecting a "zoo" <strong>of</strong> human racial types - Portuguese, Dutch, English and others. (1658, Nov) R. Singha,<br />
very angry at the Dutch, writes to Van Goens his appreciation <strong>of</strong> his services but that he is no longer King <strong>of</strong><br />
the Kanda Uda Rata, the Country above the Mountains, but <strong>of</strong> the Sinhale, the Country <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese which<br />
includes the low country formerly belonging to Kotte. Meanwhile, directors <strong>of</strong> the BEIC have been advised<br />
setting up a factory at Kalpitiya so as to secure a share <strong>of</strong> Ceylon's trade. (1659) Robert Knox and his father are<br />
blown ashore at Kottiar; they are thrown into captivity. Soon, Knox's father dies. Meanwhile, R. Singha is<br />
harassing those Sinhalese he suspects that have colluded with the Dutch. (May) Dutch garrison the Portuguese<br />
church at Kalpitiya, controlling the Putalam trade. The Dutch, however, are nervous because British and<br />
Danish ships have been seen at Kottiar since about 1640. (1660) By this time R. Singha faces discontented<br />
nobles and a populace who have always been opposed to the alliance with the Dutch. The internal situation has<br />
became so unstable that for a while R. Singha is forced to abandon the palace and allow rebels to seize control<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sengkadagala, and even suspends the annual Perahara. (1661, June) Treaty regulating marriage <strong>of</strong> Charles II<br />
with the Portuguese Infanta: If either <strong>of</strong> the contracting parties succeeds in obtaining possession <strong>of</strong> the Island,<br />
Colombo is to be given to Portugal and Galle the English while the cinnamon trade is to be divided between<br />
the two. Also this year the BEIC sends an embassy to R. Singha seeking permission to build a factory for the<br />
cinnamon trade. (1663) The cinnamon <strong>of</strong> Negombo is said to be the "very best in the universe" though the<br />
Kandyans are attempting to destroy Dutch and Portuguese pr<strong>of</strong>its from its trade, greatly straining their budgets<br />
to maintain a protective army. In addition, tension produces trade conflicts with the Moors, engendering<br />
differential tariffs, etc. Meanwhile, fearing British intrusion, a force is sent to Kottiar but must return due to<br />
sickness. Fortification <strong>of</strong> Point Pedro begins. (1664) Dutch and British ambassadors see R. Singha at Nilambe,<br />
seeking to have their prisoners released; he only releases (21 Dec) the British prisoners. Meanwhile,<br />
exasperated with R. Singha's harassment, the Kandyans, led by noble Ambanwela Rala, (21 Dec) revolt; they<br />
almost take over Nilambe where R. Singha resides: He flees to the stronghold <strong>of</strong> Gaulada (the English plunder<br />
the now vacant houses) and the rebels declare the young prince Emperor but he, 12 years old, flees with the<br />
King's sister, to his father. The rebels advocate the death <strong>of</strong> R. Singha and the royal family. Anarchy<br />
(considered by the Dutch a "gift from heaven.") reigns for about a month until R. Singha who has thrown<br />
himself into the arms <strong>of</strong> the Dutch, resumes control by threatening death to remaining rebels. The Dutch send a<br />
force into Sabaragamuwa (fortifying the Portuguese church there), occupy the Three and Four Korales and<br />
build a fort at Ruwanella: A severe blow to Kandy as they lose the ports <strong>of</strong> Kalpitiya, Kottiyar, Batticaloa and<br />
Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. Also, by this time Dutch trade in arecanut finally be<strong>com</strong>es lucrative. This year too, silk<br />
cultivation is tried at Jaffnaptam but fails. (1665, Sept) Du Pon builds a fort at Trin<strong>com</strong>alee on rumors the<br />
British are going to seize the place. The DEIC proposes Chilaw, still held by Singha, should be taken and<br />
fortified. Meanwhile, internal troubles in the BEIC give the Dutch joy: Winter usurps control <strong>of</strong> the Company.<br />
(1666) Van der Laan conducts a pearl fishing but so many people be<strong>com</strong>e sick the event fails. (July) 96<br />
elephants are captured in one kraal. Meanwhile, rice cultivation has been restored to where it is producing<br />
bumper crops but since rice is imported from India, its price remains low so its cultivation is turned over<br />
largely to the native Sinhalese. (1667) R. Singha sends envoys to the BEIC at Madras but they are seized by<br />
the Dutch. Also; Francois Carron (conquered Negombo in 1643) sends a letter to Singha stating he is Director<br />
<strong>of</strong> the FEIC and the Company would like to establish a settlement in Ceylon. (1668) Dutch occupy Arandora, a<br />
large Sinhalese force is soon facing them. (Oct) Sinhalese drive the Dutch out <strong>of</strong> the remote districts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sabaragamuwa Disawani. (1670) By this time the DEIC's holdings in southern India (administered from<br />
Ceylon) are in religious and economic chaos; the Company decides to resort to force. Meanwhile, R. Singha<br />
insists Kottiar is a free port and the English can trade there. The Dutch try to ease his increasing dislike <strong>of</strong> them<br />
by giving him certain shipping rights at Colombo and Galle. (Oct) Sinhalese take Arandora, taking the garrison<br />
as prisoners. The Dutch threaten reprisals and close the ports <strong>of</strong> Batticaloa, Kottiar and Kalpitiya. (1671, 21<br />
Feb) Henricus van Hysterbelt visits Singha as ambassador at Hanguranketa. Singha promises to return the<br />
prisoners and <strong>com</strong>plains about the closed ports. Hysterbelt states they were closed for his protection. Hysterbelt<br />
remains at the court but since the King's council is bitterly hostile to the Dutch and advocates war with the
Company. A Dane at the Court remarks the Company always uses fine words to the face, but calumny at the<br />
back, <strong>of</strong> people, enraging Hysterbelt. He is finally allowed to go back to (29 Oct) Colombo. (1672, March) A<br />
French squadron under Adm. de la Haye, and with Francois Carron, arrives Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. By this time it has<br />
be<strong>com</strong>e evident that Dutch attempts to secure absolute monopoly <strong>of</strong> political and economic control over<br />
Ceylon is failing due to expenditures far above in<strong>com</strong>e gained. Nevertheless the Dutch resist and the French<br />
fleet, under Adm Del la Haye, Viceroy <strong>of</strong> Madagasco, seize Trin<strong>com</strong>alee, seizing an island at the entrance to<br />
the inner harbor; R. Singha aids and supplies the fleet, gives them the entire bay and the admiral occupies<br />
Kottiar. The French are given free permission to build a fort. But the French are just as insolent as the Dutch<br />
who meanwhile seize the French fort, driving the French out <strong>of</strong> Trin<strong>com</strong>alee: (9 July) De la Haye sails away,<br />
leaving a garrison at Kottiar and sending an ambassador, Count de Lanarolle, a Huguenot, to the King. He<br />
eventually enters the King's service. (1673, 30 Oct) Tennekon, one <strong>of</strong> the King's generals, deserts to Colombo<br />
with his family. (Nov) People <strong>of</strong> Wanni appoint a successor to chief Don Philip without reference to Jaffna and<br />
the situation be<strong>com</strong>es tense; a military expedition is sent. (1675) A new Tombo (see 1617) is enacted. About<br />
this time German physician Paulus Hermann <strong>of</strong> Halle forms the herbarium laying the foundation for European<br />
Botany. Also Grimm, a Swede, is studying native medicine and drugs. (April) Van Goens is succeeded by his<br />
son Rykl<strong>of</strong>f van Goens Junior. (Aug) A Sinhalese army besieges Dutch fort at Bibilegama; it finally<br />
surrenders. Rumors at Colombo say the Sinhalese are threatening Ruwanella. Unrest pushes the Dutch to<br />
remove their garrisons from the Seven Korales, Batticaloa, Aripo and other southern points. For the next few<br />
years there is much political and diplomatic jockeying and appearance <strong>of</strong> a "savior," while the King wants to<br />
make himself as disagreeable as possible to the Dutch. (1679) Dutch Governor Van Goens delivers a present to<br />
the emperor but this does not placate Sinhalese hatred; many <strong>of</strong> the Dutch in the gift-bearing group are killed<br />
and others forced to flee to safety. Robert Knox escapes from captivity. (Nov) Van Goens is succeeded by<br />
Laurens van Pyl, Commandeur <strong>of</strong> Jafnapatnam. Van Goens tenure has been one <strong>of</strong> prosperity and pr<strong>of</strong>it for the<br />
Company; a financial success. But the Dutch realize as long as they hold Colombo, there will never be peace;<br />
they make plans about what to do when the King dies. (1680) Gov Laurens van Pyl, keepin the same<br />
relationship with the King suggested by Goens, sends an elaborate gift to the emperor, but to no avail. R.<br />
Singha, leading 30,000 attacks Malwana fort but a general, Thennekon, goes over to the Dutch and the siege is<br />
raised. (1682) Pyl passes legislation to stamp out heathenism and encourage Christianity. (1684) The Kandyans<br />
manage to drive the Dutch out <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the Korales and the salt Lewayas in the south. Pyl adopts a<br />
conciliatory tone, admitting the Company has done wrong retaining Colombo, the whole island belongs to the<br />
King and the Dutch are only there to aid him in its defense. He calls himself the King's "faithful and humble<br />
Governor," and Colombo as Singh's "imperial and invincible castle." Soon Singh's High Priest visits Pyl. There<br />
are hopes <strong>of</strong> a speedy resolution to the problem <strong>of</strong> prisoners. (May) The Adigar, Aswala Raya arrives with a<br />
long train <strong>of</strong> released prisoners. Meanwhile, Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede, High Commisioner for the Indies<br />
arrives Nagapatnam. (Aug) Pyl, acting on Rheede's suggestions, <strong>of</strong>fers to restore territory taken since 1665, but<br />
no one present has any authority to deal with that. (1685) The Company's Chief Physician draws attention to<br />
the alarming presence <strong>of</strong> a leprosy type disease, especially among the children <strong>of</strong> the Dutch by Sinhalese wives<br />
(see 1703). (1687) Pyl declares that all tanks (reservoirs) belong to the public. Raja Singha realizes his end is<br />
near and presents his son and heir Prince Mahastana who has been well hidden since his birth. (6 Dec) Death<br />
<strong>of</strong> Raja Sihgha II.<br />
1687 Wimala Dharma Suriya II (Mahastana; Vimaladharmasuriya II <strong>of</strong> Kandy), son. A great demonstration <strong>of</strong> joy<br />
takes place; slaves in chains are released, all criminals condemned to death or to be lashed are pardoned. (23<br />
Dec) A memorial celebration takes place in Colombo. Taking his father's advice, he labors to live (ie; "coexist")<br />
with the Dutch. (1688, 10 July) Maha Mohottiar arrives Colombo with a long line <strong>of</strong> Dutch with their<br />
wives and children whom the King has set at liberty. The Dutch plans for what to do when the death <strong>of</strong> R.<br />
Singha occurs are set aside as they think they can work their way with this inexperience King. But they are<br />
surprised when Suriya (accepting Pyl's statement that all Ceylon belongs to the King) grants the historic port <strong>of</strong><br />
Weligama to Navaratna. The Dutch Council quickly redefines what was meant by the Dutch being servants <strong>of</strong><br />
the King really meant they are here only to render service to the King. Suriya decides not to rule as an autocrat<br />
but be guided by ministers, including Maha Nayaka who understands the DEIC. His position is the ports <strong>of</strong><br />
Ceylon must be thrown open (free trade) and the DEIC must surrender all territory taken since 1665. Free trade<br />
is anathema to the Dutch, they want a new treaty and discuss the occupied territory. They want to reserve to<br />
themselves exclusive and unhampered trade with the Sinhalese Kingdom as well as the right to collect<br />
cinnamon within the King's dominions subject to their paying a yearly subsidy. Occupied territory should be<br />
held by them as security for their alleged claim against the King or transferred to them directly with claims<br />
extinguished. Mahastana grants only the collection <strong>of</strong> cinnamon. The Dutch begin paying the annual subsidy.<br />
The Dutch quietly evacuate the mountain Korales as well as the Three Korales, all <strong>of</strong> which are taken over by<br />
the King. He works to restore the National religion (Buddhism) to its past splendor, even assisted in this by the
Dutch trying to stamp out Roman Catholicism. The spread <strong>of</strong> Buddhism, especially close to Colombo, bothers<br />
the Dutch. (1690) No cinnamon is collected this year. Joseph Vaz, an Indian and native <strong>of</strong> Salsete and a Roman<br />
Catholic from the Congregacao <strong>of</strong> the Oratory <strong>of</strong> St. Felippe Neri <strong>of</strong> Goa, enters Jaffna and organizes a Roman<br />
Catholic campaign. A church is built at Bogambra. (1691) Pr<strong>of</strong>itable year in the pearl fisheries swells the<br />
Company's c<strong>of</strong>fers. (1692) Dutch receive permission to establish a place <strong>of</strong> Christian worship at Kelaniya. The<br />
King again demands all the Comapny's territories except the coast forts be returned to him, stating they will<br />
assert their rights by force if necessary. (Feb) Pyl is replaced by Thomas van Rhee. Later there is trouble with<br />
the cinnamon peelers but the King assuages them with better benefits. (1694-95) Drought brings hardship to all<br />
except the elephant trade bringing pr<strong>of</strong>its to the King. Feeding them be<strong>com</strong>es a problem, drying up other<br />
pursuits (coconut oil, etc). Evils <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese system remain, especially egregious is the tax on land<br />
without any trees; unable to pay, it is carried forward to where payment be<strong>com</strong>es impossible: Owners abandon<br />
it and flee the country. (1695) It is reported that the price <strong>of</strong> arable land in Jaffna (obtained by very hard work)<br />
has increased five-fold since the expulsion <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese. The Company forbids the wearing <strong>of</strong> red cloth (a<br />
staple <strong>of</strong> Sinhalese dress) to prevent theft <strong>of</strong> the dye. (1696) Rioting erupts over unfair administration <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Company is several matters; red dye, rice cultivation and prices, etc. The Dutch mollify Changarapillai's son,<br />
chief <strong>of</strong> the highest caste. Through Sinhalese persistence, Kalpitia and Kottiar be<strong>com</strong>e open ports to Indian<br />
traders. Batticaloa and Tri<strong>com</strong>alee be<strong>com</strong>e petty outposts. European vessels are not allowed in Company ports<br />
except for food and water. A vessel is given the King to fetch priests from Arrakan: Two embassies are sent and<br />
(1697) five ambassadors return with two high priests and 34 ordinary priests. Under their tutelage, Ceylon<br />
settles into a peaceful state. Van Rhee is succeeded by Gerrit de Heere. (1699) All Roman Catholic churches<br />
and conventicles are ordered closed. (1701) A trade war breaks out as the Kandyans close their borders with<br />
Dutch territories in order to stimulate trade through the ports <strong>of</strong> Puttalam and Kottiyar. (1703) Cornilis<br />
Johannes Simonsz governor. He has an Asylum built at Hendala for those with leprosy. (1704) The Seventy Six<br />
Rules and Orders that prevail in Jaffna are collected together and declared operative. (1705) The Dutch agree<br />
to buy all the arecanuts produced in the emperor's domains at the highest price they can be sold for in India.<br />
(1706) An embassy is sent to Madura to fetch a bride for the King's son. (1707, May) Mahastana goes to the<br />
shrine at Samanala Kanda and (4 June) dies.<br />
1708 Siri Vira-Parakrama Narendra Singha (<strong>of</strong> Kandy), son, 17 years old. He lives at peace with the Dutch and<br />
works to further literature and religion. The Dutch, however, return to the old ways: Ports are closed to Indian<br />
trade and a garrison is placed at Paumben to prevent European vessels from using that passage. Hendrik<br />
Becker has succeeded at Colombo and is ready to bring reforms to Ceylon. But the illness that plagued the<br />
Portuguese is effecting the Dutch: Smuggling and corruption are <strong>com</strong>monplace. A plot to kill the king is<br />
discovered; the plotters are put to death. The Dutch government sends instructions to bribe Sinhalese subjects<br />
<strong>of</strong> the emperor to drive tusked elephants across the Kandyan frontiers into the Dutch East India Company’s<br />
hunting grounds. This year Kandyan borders are reopened; Puttalam and Kottiyar are closed. The king's<br />
favorite priest is Saranakara, poet, preacher, controversialist and teacher author <strong>of</strong> Sarattha Sangaha, translator<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Maha Bodhivansa and the medical work Bhesajja Manjusa; for his king he <strong>com</strong>piles the Rajaratnacara,<br />
a history <strong>of</strong> Ceylon and the medical work Warayogasare. (4 June) The Thesawalamai or Customary Law <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Country, three year work <strong>of</strong> collecting Tamil law, is adopted as an authoritative statement. (1711, 6 June)<br />
Governor Becker issues a proclamation declaring "The clear instructions which we have constantly issued to<br />
dispel the darkness that surrounds the people <strong>of</strong> this country are to our immeasurable sorrow and great<br />
displeasure daily disobeyed and insulted, we find it expedient to awaken that attention which our blessed<br />
religion requires." Anyone found at a place <strong>of</strong> heathen worship or decorating heathen images or taking part in<br />
Hindu ceremonies is liable to be summarily arrested and punished corporally as well as by rigorous<br />
imprisonment. No one pays attention to this, or the one following that forbids Christians from marrying<br />
Buddhists. (1714) De Bevere arrives as ambassador; he is a thoroughly disagreeable person who is eventually<br />
arrested and sent back. (1715) There is trouble with two <strong>of</strong> the Wannias involving smuggling that is solved by<br />
erection <strong>of</strong> a fort at Mullativo. The King formally demands free trade at Puttalam, the Company refuses: The<br />
Moors <strong>of</strong> Kilakarai land north <strong>of</strong> Kudiramalai. The Company places military guards along the northern coast<br />
and has sloop patrol the area. (1716) I. A. Rumpf be<strong>com</strong>es Governor at Colombo, bringing a greater regard<br />
for humanity, justice and ability to the Dutch administration. (1720) Rumpf issues a proclamation urging the<br />
people to take up cultivation <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee. (1721) Rumpf announces in this year has the highest revenue collected<br />
by the Company. Death <strong>of</strong> the empress; Rumpf sends an embassy (Cornelius Takel) to Kandy <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
condolences <strong>of</strong> the DEIC, himself and his council, using the occasion to reduce the state <strong>of</strong> enmity with which<br />
the Sinhalese consider the Dutch. (1722) A pearl fishery is held (first in almost a century) and for the next four<br />
years. (1723) Death <strong>of</strong> governor Rumpf. Slaves revolt at Colombo and murder some Europeans. Chalias revolt<br />
preventing a cinnamon harvest this year. (1726, Sept) Stephanus Vuyst Governor; he attempts to make himself<br />
an independent prince, resorting to atrocious cruelties and other means (torture, extortion, etc) to rid himself <strong>of</strong>
opposition. For this he is imprisoned and sent to Batavia and punished. His successor Versluys, attempts to do<br />
the same: He raises the price <strong>of</strong> rice so high that famine strikes. A great flood sweeps over Jaffna, followed by<br />
famine (aggravated by Versluys' high price <strong>of</strong> rice) and disease. Governor Versluys fires on ships <strong>com</strong>ing with<br />
his successor, Diederik van Domberg, Commandeur <strong>of</strong> Galle. Versluys is recalled and sent to Batavia.<br />
Domberg finds the castle <strong>of</strong> Colombo closed to him. (Dec) Jacob Christian Pielat <strong>com</strong>missioner. He is busy<br />
with reforms, especially the court system. Also this year, Narendra Singha tries to appoint a Nayakkar (house<br />
<strong>of</strong> his wife) to a prominent position causes a rebellion that is only crushed with Dutch assistance. (1731) Great<br />
fire at Hanguranketa, with great loss <strong>of</strong> treasure. (1734, Jan) Ambassadors <strong>of</strong> the King visit Colombo and Pielat<br />
urges the ports <strong>of</strong> Kadawatu be opened. They reply that cannot be done until there's free trade at Puttalam.<br />
dissatisfaction with the Company is spreading; unrest in Siyane Korale require troops. Pielat is succeeded by<br />
van Domberg. (1736) Revolt <strong>of</strong> the Chalias (peelers) <strong>of</strong> Bellitota, Kosgoda and Madampe against Dutch<br />
misrule, (war is "declared") they are joined by other peelers and people protesting unfair taxation that is taking<br />
their lands; people <strong>of</strong> Matara, Galle, Siyanekorle, Gangaboda Pattu, Kandeboda Pattu, Hapitigain, Alutkuru,<br />
Salpity, Rygam, Pasdun and Hewegam Korels. Some Dutch-held territory is seized. Death <strong>of</strong> Domberg. The<br />
Council at Colombo seeks military assistance from Batavia. (July) Arrival <strong>of</strong> Governor Baron van Imh<strong>of</strong> who<br />
takes matters firmly in hand and pacifies the situation. Good government returns to Dutch Ceylon and<br />
Kandyans are again at peace. He boosts prosperity by broadening the trade base, from only cinnamon to now<br />
include pepper, cardamoms and c<strong>of</strong>fee. Also: Van Imh<strong>of</strong> oversees the establishment <strong>of</strong> Ceylon's first printing<br />
press. (1739) 100,000 pounds <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee are exported this year. Overshadowed by the output from Java and the<br />
West Indies, the price begins to plummet. (13 May) Death <strong>of</strong> the King.<br />
1739 Sri Vijaya Raja Singha (<strong>of</strong> Kandy, House <strong>of</strong> Nayak), brother-in-law and therefore a Nayak, beginning the<br />
Nayakkar Dynasty. Devotes most <strong>of</strong> his attention to the furtherance <strong>of</strong> religion. He procures a bride from the<br />
royal family (Nayak) <strong>of</strong> Madura; she quickly adopts his religion. Hearing that Buddhism in its purest form is<br />
practiced in Ayudhya, Siam, he sends an embassy there to obtain priests and books. (1740) Van Imh<strong>of</strong>f is<br />
succeeded by William Bruinink. Van Imh<strong>of</strong>f was a rare Dutch administrator; he had great breadth <strong>of</strong> view and<br />
liberality <strong>of</strong> mind; he fully realized the value <strong>of</strong> the island, and also realized the selfishness and ignorance has<br />
brought the Company into extreme danger. He advocated harmonious cooperation with the Court, something<br />
Batavia is not willing to do. By this time the Catholic missionaries <strong>of</strong> Jaffna, having obtained some success, are<br />
seen by the Ministers as working to destroy the religion <strong>of</strong> the country, and money is employed to secure socalled<br />
converts among Sinhalese lower classes. The King issues orders for the expulsion <strong>of</strong> the priests and<br />
destruction <strong>of</strong> their places <strong>of</strong> worship, but these orders are not strictly enforced. The main anxiety is to restore<br />
Buddhism. (1741) The Company sends an embassy to Pegu to secure some priests for the Sinhalese, but their<br />
ship is wrecked <strong>of</strong>f Pegu coast. Kandyans invade Dutch territory and seize Siyane Korale. In cooperation with<br />
the coast Moormen, an extensive smuggling system is organized. Also this year; war begins in Java (to 1758)<br />
and c<strong>of</strong>fee prices again fall. (1742) The Colombo Tombo is begun. (1745) Kandyans invade Dutch territory<br />
and ask for a ship to convey an embassy to Pegu. The Dutch refuse and the Sinhalese seize seven more villages<br />
in the Siyane Korale. A new request for a ship is made and Governor van Golnesse grants it. Also; the number<br />
<strong>of</strong> ranchu for the Colombo Disavani is fixed at 105. (1746) The embassy leaves for Siam, reaching (1747)<br />
Batavia then heading for Siam. Also (1746) the Company has a pearl fishery (and for the next four years) that<br />
interests the Court. (1747) A smuggling quarrel is patched up and the destroyed factory at Kilakarai is restored.<br />
(11 Aug) Death <strong>of</strong> King Raja Slingha.<br />
1748 Kirti Siri Raja Singha (<strong>of</strong> Kandy, House <strong>of</strong> Nayak), 16 years old brother-in-law, who works toward the<br />
advancement <strong>of</strong> literature and religion. The Ministers handle the administration until he is <strong>of</strong> age. The priest<br />
Tibbotuwawa is ordered to make a <strong>com</strong>parison <strong>of</strong> the Mahawansa as it exists in Ceylon with that procured<br />
from Siam and continue it to 1758. Copies are made <strong>of</strong> the Digha Nikaya and San-yutta Nikaya. (1749) A<br />
rebellion arises that is directed at his father Narenappa, a Nayak. (1750) Twenty one <strong>of</strong> the King's vessels<br />
appear <strong>of</strong>f Chilaw and dived for oysters (pearls); Company vessels hover nearby because the Dutch are not<br />
prepared to admit the right <strong>of</strong> the King any domain over the sea or to any oysers. No pearls are found. (Aug)<br />
With Dutch assistance, an embassy is sent from Trin<strong>com</strong>alee to king Dhammika <strong>of</strong> Siam requesting learned<br />
priests to further the advancement <strong>of</strong> Buddhism in Lanka. Ten are sent, under leadership <strong>of</strong> High-Priest Upali,<br />
along with books <strong>of</strong> Dhamma and the Vinaya. In recognition for this service, the emperor sends a likeness <strong>of</strong><br />
the Tooth-relic to Siam. Learned Sinhalese priest Saranankara (or Welliwitta), translator <strong>of</strong> the Milindapprasne<br />
is raised to <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> Sangha Raja (Arbish). Meanwhile, the Dutch are <strong>com</strong>pleting more adequate fortifications<br />
and pushing their posts farther into the interior; also increasing their demands on the emperor for their<br />
protection costs. Also; drought this year badly damages most <strong>of</strong> the pepper plantations. Also; Roman Catholics<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nagombo present a memorial written in Tamil, protest against their children being <strong>com</strong>pelled to learn at the<br />
school's tenets to which they object, and further <strong>com</strong>plain that they are forced by heavy fines to send their<br />
children to such schools. (1751) Raja Singha <strong>com</strong>es <strong>of</strong> age and assumes the throne. (1753) The embassy sent to
Siam returns: In the 2299th after the death <strong>of</strong> Buddha, in the presence <strong>of</strong> the King, Kobbyakaduwe Unanse,<br />
Saranankara and four others are solemnly admitted into the Upasampadawa. "And thus after many years this<br />
solemnity <strong>of</strong> the Great Ordination, is established once more amid the rejoicings <strong>of</strong> the populace, the triumphant<br />
noise <strong>of</strong> drums, chanks, and the five kinds <strong>of</strong> music, and the roar <strong>of</strong> cannon." (1754) Last revision <strong>of</strong> the Jaffna<br />
Tombo (done every 15 years). About this time Plague breaks out playing havoc with much <strong>of</strong> the population.<br />
(1755) Another chapter <strong>of</strong> priests leaves Siam for Ceylon. (May) A cyclone ruins several plantations; coupled<br />
with the Plague, inland revenue is seriously affected and restlessness arises. (1756) The Court makes a formal<br />
demand for a share in the elephant trade. The Dutch give evasive replies after which the Court asks for opening<br />
Puttalam. (1757) Jan Schreuder succeeds as Governor and refuses both requests. Also; to save c<strong>of</strong>fee<br />
production, Schreuder buys up all that is available. Also; growing <strong>of</strong> cardamom is abandoned due to the<br />
depredations <strong>of</strong> white ants. Also: At Negombo the Council orders some Catholic chapels pulled down; a crowd<br />
<strong>of</strong> women try to prevent it being done so some Lascarins are brought in to do the razing. Also: Schreuder<br />
begins a policy <strong>of</strong> reclaiming Company lands that have long been possessed by villagers but for which no<br />
documentary title can be produced. This begins to anger the people. (1758) The Thever attacks the factory at<br />
Kilakarai, seizing the Company's vessels on his coast. (1759) Completion <strong>of</strong> the Colombo Tombo: An<br />
immediate revision is ordered. (Mar) The dispute at Kilakarai is settled and what was seized is returned.<br />
(1760) A severe rebellion arises over Company exactions in the matter <strong>of</strong> land allotments and rents owed and<br />
how they are paid. Soon schools, rest-houses and even the Laandrad House at Galle are burned. The King<br />
expostulates with the Company and tensions ease. Meanwhile, there is a plot to kill Raja Singha and replace<br />
him with a prince who had been ordained in Siam. Narenappa Nayaker wields his power and quashes the<br />
plotters. Despite these tensions, however, the Nayakkar dynasty is establishing support by their patronage <strong>of</strong><br />
Buddhism and Kandyan culture. Also this year; passage <strong>of</strong> an ordinance stating if a Christian woman lives with<br />
a pagan man, both are liable to be flogged until blood appears, are to be branded, confined in chains to hard<br />
labor for life, have all their property confiscated and their children taken away to be slaves. Also; basis <strong>of</strong><br />
education at Colombo Seminary is widened so that suitable youths can be trained to be chief headmen and<br />
schoolmasters. Their preparation for the ministry is discouraged. (1761) Exasperated by Dutch activities<br />
(destruction <strong>of</strong> plantations and butchering the opposition) the emperor opens warfare anew by falling upon<br />
Dutch garrisons and forts at Matara (which is annexed), Katuwana, Hanwella (which is annexed), Tangalle,<br />
Marakade and Urubokke, <strong>com</strong>pletely destroying them, catching the Dutch, whose soldiers have be<strong>com</strong>es used<br />
to the lazy life and are unprepared. Reinforcements <strong>com</strong>e from Coromandel and Malabar, India, but they aren't<br />
ready to face the guerrilla tactics <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalesez: Soon half <strong>of</strong> them are dead and the rest demoralized. (8<br />
Dec) A letter arrives Colombo from the King trying to begin a dialog. (1762) After the Treaty <strong>of</strong> Paris, the<br />
Dutch pour troops into Ceylon. They retake Matara and Hanwella. (March) Subhert Jan Baron van Eck<br />
governor; with the reputation as a gallant soldier, he frowns on the use <strong>of</strong> diplomacy. (May) Singha seeks help<br />
from George Pigot, Governor <strong>of</strong> Fort St George Madras for assistance (the British also want Ceylon's<br />
cinnamon, pepper, betel nut (puwak) and to expel the Dutch). The British send John Pybus: The King <strong>of</strong>fers a<br />
harbor and a share in the cinnamon trade, but there's no help to expel the Dutch. Also; the Galle Tombo is<br />
nearly <strong>com</strong>plete. Also; legality <strong>of</strong> Roman Catholic baptisms and marriages is recognized. (1763) The Madras<br />
government sends Mr Pybus to the emperor to assure him <strong>of</strong> English friendship and to <strong>of</strong>fer English support in<br />
a war with the Dutch. An alliance is promised but nothing <strong>com</strong>es <strong>of</strong> it because the British are only after<br />
permission to establish a settlement in Ceylon and ascertain what concessions can possibly be forced out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
King. Meanwhile, with dissension among the Kandyan chiefs, the Dutch decide to take the <strong>of</strong>fensive, they<br />
seize Puttalam and Chilaw then head inland on a two-pronged invasion. The weather and Sinhalese guerrilla<br />
tactics take their toll, and the army soon returns to Colombo. (1764) By this time Kandy in on the brink <strong>of</strong><br />
starvation due to Dutch actions. The Dutch, however, want to make up for the disaster <strong>of</strong> 1762; (2 Dec) Don<br />
Simon Disanayaka sets out. (1765, 13 Jan) Van Eck leaves from Colombo as a second army leaves from<br />
Pattalam: Company army is made up <strong>of</strong> Europeans, Sepoys and Malays. (12 Feb) Sinhalese are driven back<br />
and Weuda taken. Van Eck is visited by the Adigar and some <strong>of</strong> the King's courtiers. Galagedera Pass is taken<br />
and (16 Feb) the King's pleasure garden at Katugastota. Messages are sent to try to keep the Dutch out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
King's palace. Eck considers the war won and demands the King pay a war indemnity <strong>of</strong> 200,000 pagodas, an<br />
annual tribute <strong>of</strong> elephants and lay down his crown to be crowned again as the Company's vassal. Valuables are<br />
hidden and Singha withdraws to Hanguranketa; the Dutch cross the river and van Eck enters the palace, setting<br />
it up as his HQ. Religious books and sacred things are destroyed. The palace is sacked, then the palace at<br />
Kundasala is sacked and (24 Feb) 900 men are sent to Hanguranketa but the King has gone to Badulla. The 900<br />
are faced with Guerrilla fighting Sinhalese who reduce them to a fleeing rabble. Van Eck realizes his gross<br />
mistake, he sends messages agreeing to the King's terms while his army wastes the countryside. With sickness<br />
making its appearance, (4 March) van Eck starts for Colombo, leaving a garrison <strong>of</strong> 1,800 under de Feber. (28<br />
March) Death <strong>of</strong> van Eck. De Feber withdraws to Wisinawaya, leaving a garrison under Rein. (11 April) By
this time the Sinhalese have <strong>com</strong>e as far as the boundary at Sitawaka, having wreaked vengeance on everyone<br />
and everything belonging to the Company. (Aug) Imam Willem Falck governor: He (10 Aug) begins<br />
negotiations but makes a show <strong>of</strong> force along some <strong>of</strong> the borders. (Dec) An ambassador arrives from the King.<br />
Falck has all stores <strong>of</strong> salt found and destroyed; the Three, Four and Seven Korales are ravaged; garrison at<br />
Tri<strong>com</strong>alee enters Bitenne and a force under Maj. Duflo enters Matale where people are starving to death. One<br />
<strong>of</strong> the King's palaces there are burned down along with years' worth <strong>of</strong> saltpeter collection. Negotiations begin.<br />
(1766, 14 Feb) The Treaty <strong>of</strong> Batticaloa is agreed upon that is favorable to the Dutch: See Appendix III. The<br />
King signs at Hanguranketa. Duflo withdraws from Matale. Soon the Sinhalese feel this treaty so harsh that<br />
they immediately begin searching for foreign assistance in expelling their foes. (1767, 24 Jan) Falck enters into<br />
an agreement with Thamotharam Pillai, the Thever's guardian and regent by which the Pamben passage is sold<br />
to the Company. Falk begins organizing the Company's holdings and restoring order in the country. This year<br />
de Coste finally <strong>com</strong>pletes his work bringing the sea-flooded tract <strong>of</strong> Mutu raja wela, about 6,000 acres, into<br />
rice production. A few years later is fails.(1768) Sinhalese chieftain Dissanayake Mudaliyar produces<br />
Makaraddaja; he has also translated the Tamil tale Wallimatakatawa into Sinhalese. (1769) The sale <strong>of</strong><br />
firearms and ammunition is placed under severe restrictions. (1770) Production <strong>of</strong> Kaw-minim-aldama and<br />
several poems by an inhabitant <strong>of</strong> Katuwana in Matara. (1771) A canal is opened between Kotte and Moratuwa<br />
Lake by way <strong>of</strong> Nedimale. (1772) By this time the powerful Nawab <strong>of</strong> the Carnatic, with British support, has<br />
reduced the Thever and is claiming a share in the Pearl Fishery. The King sends an embassy to Tanjore in this<br />
regard. (1775) A request is sent from the Court for a share <strong>of</strong> the Fishery: Refused. (1776) Another request,<br />
with added request for restoration <strong>of</strong> a portion <strong>of</strong> the coast: Refused. (1777) The Company takes over the<br />
Wanni area <strong>of</strong> Jaffna. (1778, Feb) American colonies enter an alliance with France. They are joined by Spain<br />
and enmity erupts between England and the Dutch; a struggle that quickly spreads to India and Ceylon, as the<br />
Dutch ally with the French. (1780) Britain declares war against the Dutch republic. (1781, Nov) English<br />
capture Nagapatnam. (1782, 2 Jan) Kirti Siri Raja Singha dies from falling <strong>of</strong>f a horse.<br />
1782 Siri Rajadi Raja Singha (<strong>of</strong> Kandy), brother. (1782, 4 Jan) English Admiral Huges captures Trin<strong>com</strong>alee: A Mr.<br />
Boyd is sent to Kandy to assure the emperor <strong>of</strong> English intentions and to enlist aid against the Dutch: An<br />
alliance is not secured but the Sinhalese supply the British squadron with provisions. Admiral Huges goes to<br />
Madras for refitting and supplies for Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. French admiral Suffrein (27 Aug) attacks the fort, it (31<br />
Aug) capitulates. The garrison is allowed to return to Madras. (2 Sept) Admiral Huges returns but the French<br />
have taken over Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. (1784) The Company regains Trin<strong>com</strong>alee (peace terms). (1785, 5 Feb) Death <strong>of</strong><br />
Falck. He is succeeded (7 Feb) by Willem Jacob van der Graaff, Commandeur <strong>of</strong> Galle. (Mar) Abayasinha <strong>of</strong><br />
Galle is appointed Maha Mudaliyar. The Court insists the humiliating ceremonies abolished in 1766 restored<br />
and wants the western coast restored; the latter is refused. Also; and abortive treaty is entered into with the<br />
agent <strong>of</strong> the Nawab in regards to the Pearl Fishery, but it is repudiated by the Nawab. Mutual friends intervene<br />
and (1788, 7 July) a new treaty is concluded: Company cedes to the Nawab half the Tutucorin fishery and the<br />
right to 36 boats in the Ceylon fishery. Meanwhile (1788, 15 April) a treaty between Dutch and British in<br />
which the latter will assist the settlements belonging to the United Provinces in case <strong>of</strong> hostilities with France.<br />
(1789) Lord Cornwallis assures der Graff he'll carry out the treaty's promise: Rice from British settlements<br />
eases a Ceylonese shortage. (1790) Lord Cornwallis appeals to der Graaff for assistance against Tippu Sultan<br />
who has attacked the Travancore Raja. (1791) Governor Van de Graaft, aware <strong>of</strong> Sinhalese preparations for<br />
war, prohibits their supply <strong>of</strong> salt as per treaty <strong>of</strong> 1766, but Batavia intervenes and re<strong>com</strong>mends conciliatory<br />
measures. But an alliance with the French against the Dutch is concluded. (June) Col. de Meuron advances into<br />
the Disawani, expecting to be joined by Pilima Talauwa but isn't. He pushes on to Kendangomuwa but finds<br />
himself cut <strong>of</strong>f and starving. He retreats to Sitawaka. (1792) With hostilities about to begin, a hardening <strong>of</strong><br />
relations between the governor and emperor occurs over the not-sending <strong>of</strong> an embassy to the court at Kandy.<br />
(1793) The Company, by refusing to send an embassy to the King, is limited to peeling cinnamon in its own<br />
territory. (End) Rumor reaches Ceylon that France has declared war (1 Feb) on Holland and England: Van der<br />
Graaff begins making thing ready. (1794, 10 Jan) Van der Graaff is succeeded by his father-in-law Joan<br />
Gerrard van Angelbeek. (Aug) Dutch seize a British ship with a cargo <strong>of</strong> piece goods (cotton) claiming a<br />
monopoly in the trade under a series <strong>of</strong> treaties since 1690, and by prescriptive right. Lord Hobart at Madras<br />
refuses to recognize their claim. He finally manages Angelbeek to (1795, June) refer the matter to Europe.<br />
(Dec) French enter the Netherlands and the government flees to England. (1795, 7 Feb) Van Angelbeek is<br />
requested to admit his Britannic Majesty's men and ships within the settlements in his charge, and to treat them<br />
as allies <strong>com</strong>ing to protect the Settlements from the French. Hobart immediately claims possession <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Settlements assuring they will be restored as soon as the Netherlands are free <strong>of</strong> France. (27 July) The Council<br />
replies that nothing was said about handing over the Settlements; but they will give all assistance to British<br />
vessels and receive garrisons at Colombo and Trin<strong>com</strong>alee as long as Madras will defray the expenses. (2 Aug)<br />
Col. Stuart <strong>com</strong>plains only Angelbeek signed the terms, not any <strong>of</strong> the council; he attacks the fort and (26 Aug)
Trin<strong>com</strong>alee is taken; (31 Aug) Fort Ostenberg is taken and British troops head for Batticaloa. The Court,<br />
pleased with all <strong>of</strong> this, is keeping the British forces well supplied. (18 Sept) Battacola and (28 Sept) Jaffna are<br />
taken. (29 Sept) Robert Andrews <strong>of</strong> the BEIC sees the King, asking for a place where the BEIC could build a<br />
fort and a factory. He <strong>of</strong>fers a draft treaty that would extend military aid in return for control <strong>of</strong> the seacoast<br />
and a monopoly <strong>of</strong> the cinnamon trade. The Ministers, while agreeing to give preference to the British, reserve<br />
for themselves the right to sell to any other nation. (12 Oct) Preliminaries <strong>of</strong> a treaty are signed. (Nov) Lord<br />
Hobart states the question <strong>of</strong> the entire exclusion <strong>of</strong> the Dutch can only be solved in Europe, causing much<br />
bitterness in the Sinhalese. (1796, Jan) Col. Stuart's army collects at Rameswaram and (10 Jan) starts for<br />
Negombo, soon taking it. (12 Feb) Kandyan ambassador Migastenne Disawa signs the treaty in Madras: It<br />
provides for the site <strong>of</strong> a factory, preferential trade, restoration to the King all territory occupied by force, with<br />
some salt pans and limited right <strong>of</strong> foreign trade, as well as protection for the religion <strong>of</strong> Buddhism. The<br />
Council prepares Colombo for a siege. Meanwhile, (9 Feb) Col. Stewart begins the siege <strong>of</strong> Colombo. He<br />
receives news that the King's forces are approaching from the east. (13 Feb) Van Angelbeek opens secret<br />
negotiations. (14 Feb) Maj. Agnew is taken to meet the Council. (16 Feb) Colombo is turned over to the<br />
English, ending Dutch power in Ceylon: The terms cast no obligation on the British to restore Lanka to the<br />
Dutch at the peace, though the Dutch believed it would. The emperor, who had rendered assistance to the<br />
English, now finds that nothing has changed; the British maintain the political and territorial relations as they<br />
were under the Dutch: Ceylon's maritime provinces <strong>com</strong>e under the Madras government; <strong>com</strong>missioner<br />
Andrews takes over; new tax measures are enacted: (1) The supersession <strong>of</strong> the natives <strong>of</strong> the country by<br />
foreign Madrasis, who are followed by swarms <strong>of</strong> Tamils in the hope <strong>of</strong> farming the revenues; (2) the<br />
subjection <strong>of</strong> each coconut tree as from September 1, 1796, to a yearly tax <strong>of</strong> one silver fanam, an impost<br />
sometimes in excess <strong>of</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> the produce; (3) abolition <strong>of</strong> the ancient service-tenure <strong>of</strong> land, which is<br />
replaced by a tax <strong>of</strong> one-tenth <strong>of</strong> the paddy crop; and. (4) the `union <strong>of</strong> powers <strong>of</strong> renter and magistrate.' It is<br />
reported that the `Revenue can only be collected at the point <strong>of</strong> the bayonet.' These impositions weighs heavily<br />
due to varying land fertilities; the whole country erupts in violent revolt. The Madrasis is abolished, as is the<br />
obnoxious tax, service-tenure and the authority <strong>of</strong> the native chiefs are restored, and lastly the institution <strong>of</strong> a<br />
mild and upright administration is re<strong>com</strong>mended. (1796, 26 July) Death <strong>of</strong> Siri Rajadi Raja Singha without<br />
issue: First Adigar Pilimi Talawa nominates 18 year old Konnasami (son <strong>of</strong> the sister <strong>of</strong> the Queen Dowager) in<br />
hopes the chiefs will disagree and invite him to the throne. But this backfires. (1797) By this time London has<br />
decided to retain Ceylon as a British possession. (1798) Ceylon's maritime provinces are transferred to the<br />
British Crown: The BEIC is <strong>com</strong>pelled to share in the administration <strong>of</strong> the island and the Company is<br />
guaranteed a monopoly <strong>of</strong> trade, especially the moderately pr<strong>of</strong>itable--but no longer robust--cinnamon trade.<br />
The governor <strong>of</strong> the island is responsible for law and order, but financial and <strong>com</strong>mercial matters are under the<br />
control <strong>of</strong> the director <strong>of</strong> the BEIC.(12 Oct) Frederick North is appointed administrator under control <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Governor in Council <strong>of</strong> the Madras Presidency. Konnasami ascends the throne as<br />
BRITISH PERIOD<br />
1798 (26 July) Sri Wickreme Raja Singha (Sri Vickrama Rajasinha)(<strong>of</strong> Kandy). Muttusami, brother-in-law <strong>of</strong> Sri<br />
Rajadhi Rajasinha also claims the throne <strong>of</strong> Kandy, but P. Talauve arrests him and his sisters. Now P. Talawa<br />
begins intriguing with governor North for Singha's removal and his own accession by trying to manipulate the<br />
king into an act <strong>of</strong> aggression which would give the British an excuse to seize the kingdom. (1799, Feb) P.<br />
Talawa and North meet at Avisawella. (Dec) They meet again; the Adigar directly requests the Governor to<br />
assist him in taking away the king's life and placing himself on the throne, in return for which he would make<br />
the English masters <strong>of</strong> the country. Rejected. (1800, Jan) Acting Secretary to the British Government Boyd<br />
meets with P. Talawa. The Adigar is informed that the Governor desires the continuance <strong>of</strong> the minister's<br />
power, and will secure it to him provided that the king places himself and his country under British protection<br />
and admits a garrison into the capital. The safety <strong>of</strong> the king's person and the continuance <strong>of</strong> his dignity are<br />
stipulated and the question <strong>of</strong> an embassy broached. (1 Feb) In an interview between Boyd and the Adigar, the<br />
latter renounces all attempts on the king's life. It is decided to send an embassy directly to Kandy: (12 Mar)<br />
Gen Macdowal and 1,164 leave Colombo for Kandy; he is stopped at Ruwanwella. S. W. R. Singha is unaware<br />
<strong>of</strong> P. Talawa's intrigues and turns down British treaty overtures, article III <strong>of</strong> which provides for British<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> the emperor and his succession and his payment for this protection. The Kandyan court proposes<br />
its own treaty; article VI is unacceptable to the British as it allows the emperor 12 ships and freedom <strong>of</strong> trade<br />
with them. Negotiations continue. (1801) Peace <strong>of</strong> Amiens; control <strong>of</strong> British settlement transferred from BEIC<br />
to Secretary <strong>of</strong> State for the Colonies in England; Ceylon be<strong>com</strong>es a Crown Colony (effected 1 Jan, 1802). All<br />
Dutch holdings in the country are transferred to the British. British agents are put in charge <strong>of</strong> lucrative pearl<br />
fisheries, cotton plantations, salt, and tobacco monopolies. (1802) North introduces the Jenner vaccination<br />
against smallpox. (Feb) an embassy from Kandy under the Second Adigar Migastenne is received at Colombo,<br />
and demands the cession <strong>of</strong> three small islands as well as the right to ten ships. This is ignored and the adigar
decides to involve the king and British in hostilities. (April) Thirty or forty British subjects, Moors from<br />
Puttalam, are forcibly detained, ill-treated, and robbed at the instigation <strong>of</strong> the Adigar, whose agent sells the<br />
stolen areca nuts. The British demand reparations from Kandy - refused - (but all messages are sent through<br />
Talawa and the king knows nothing <strong>of</strong> his adigar's designs on his throne). The British prepare to march on<br />
Kandy, beginning the First Kandyan War. (1803, 31 Jan) British under Major-General Macdowal leave<br />
Colombo (4 Feb) Second division under Colonel Barbut leaves Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. (20 Feb) The two divisions meet<br />
at the Mahaweliganga three miles from Kandy and (21 Feb) march into the deserted capital and install<br />
1803 (8 Mar) Muttusami, brother <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the queens dowager, who is not respected by the Kandyans. Upon his<br />
coronation, he enters a treaty with the British: The Seven Korales, the forts <strong>of</strong> Girihagama and Galagedara in<br />
Tumpane, and the road to Trin<strong>com</strong>alee are to be ceded to the British; the new king is to enter into no relations<br />
with foreign powers save with the consent <strong>of</strong> the Lanka Government; he is to pay for British troops, if required<br />
for his support, and also provide a pension for the prince lately on the throne; a British minister is to reside at<br />
the Court, when so required; finally, the frontier duties are to be abolished and free trade established between<br />
the interior and the Maritime Provinces. The Kandyans begin guerrilla warfare. (13-15 Mar) A disastrous<br />
expedition under Colonel Baillie is made to Hanguranketty to capture S. W. R. Singha. (28 Mar) P. Talawa<br />
concludes an agreement with general Macdowal wherein if S. W. R. Singha is captured, P. Talawa will be<br />
invested with supreme authority at Kandy as Ootoon Komarayen and other provisions: Muttusami is pensioned<br />
<strong>of</strong>f at Jaffnapatam; Fort Macdowal and district, the road to Trin<strong>com</strong>alee and province <strong>of</strong> Seven Korles ceded to<br />
the British; immediate cessation <strong>of</strong> hostilites. (1 April) Macdowal, his men greatly reduced by disease, leaves<br />
Kandy for Colombo, leaving a garrison behind under Barbut. The garrison is killed by the adigar. Retreating<br />
British are defeated on the Mahaveli River. Now Pilimi Talawa begins playing <strong>of</strong>f the British and Kandyans<br />
against each other to gain more power for himself. (1 April) Gen Macdowal leaves Kandy for Colombo (5<br />
May) Governor North agrees to terms <strong>of</strong> the treaty. (21 May) Death <strong>of</strong> Barbut (who had prevented the adigar<br />
from kidnapping the Governor) who is succeeded by Major Davie. The Adigar asks Macdowal to <strong>com</strong>e to<br />
Kandy, which (23 May) he does, but the adigar isn't there. He soon be<strong>com</strong>es sick with fever and (11 June)<br />
leaves. The garrison is blockaded and most <strong>of</strong> the Malays desert. (23 June) Kandyan forces seize British posts<br />
at Giriagamme and Galgedera. (24 June) Kandyan forces attack the British garrison at Kandy and force them to<br />
surrender. They agree to abandon Kandy and take Muttusami with them. (26 June) While preparing to cross the<br />
Mahaweliganga at Watapologa ferry, P. Talawa manages to have the British give up Muttusami whom he has<br />
killed. Having been abandoned by their Malays and Sepoys, the British force is slaughtered. (July, end)<br />
Kandyans threaten the frontiers. (Aug) The Kandyans pour out <strong>of</strong> the mountains into British settlements<br />
attempting to bring low-country Sinhalese to join them in expelling the British. (21 Aug) They take Hanwella,<br />
near Colombo but are driven back to Sitawaka. (Sept, early) Singha attacks the fort Hanwella defended by<br />
invalids; he (6 Sept) is routed, fleeing back to his own territory. The British begin a war <strong>of</strong> devastation and<br />
retaliation. (1804, Feb) Macdowall is relieved by General Wemyss. It is decided to carry out a concerted attack<br />
from all sides with the object <strong>of</strong> causing the greatest devastation and injury to the enemy's country; the troops<br />
to meet in Kandy Sept 28 and 29. Instructions are unclear. (20 Sept) Captain Johnston with 834 leaves<br />
Batticaloa and (6 Oct) reaches Kandy. Soon, without promised reinforcements, he is forced to retreat, arrives<br />
Trin<strong>com</strong>alee (20 Oct), there he learns the plan against Kandy has been abandoned. British-Kandy warfare<br />
continues with savage barbarities on both sides. (1805, Feb) Kandyans exercise an extensive invasion <strong>of</strong><br />
British settlements but they are driven back after British reinforcements arrive. The king goes to Four Korles<br />
where he brings one Molligoda into his government. (1805, 19 July) Sir Thomas Maitland assumes British<br />
government in Ceylon. Though enmity exists, there are no military operations from either side during his<br />
administration: End <strong>of</strong> First Kandyan War. (1806) Catholics are relieved <strong>of</strong> the disabilities imposed upon<br />
them by the Dutch. (1808) Death <strong>of</strong> Migastenna, second adigar and dissave <strong>of</strong> Seven Korles. Eheylapola is<br />
appointed second adigar. The king divides the district between chiefs Eheylapola and Molligoda but the people<br />
revolt at the double taxation this entails. P. Talawa suppresses the revolt; the district's administration is<br />
transferred to him and his nephew Eheylapola. (1809-10) Enmity grows between the king and P. Talawa; soon<br />
P. Talawa's acts are too much, he is tried and thrown in prison. Soon retired where he plots the king's<br />
assassination. But the plan runs awry and P. Talawa and his henchmen are apprehended; Talawa is executed<br />
(along with six petty chiefs and his nephew) and Ethelepoda be<strong>com</strong>es first adagir but he is not trusted too much<br />
by the king. (1811, 19 Mar) Major-General Wilson assumes the government <strong>of</strong> Ceylon. This year a Charter <strong>of</strong><br />
Justice is enacted in which trial by jury is extended to all British subjects. The Provincial Courts also are<br />
abolished and the Landraads revived (abolished next year). (1812, 11 Mar) Sir Robert Brownrigg assumes the<br />
government. This year he establishes the first Botanic Garden. (1813) Soon Eheylapola's true colors <strong>com</strong>e to<br />
light from his actions in his district (Sabaragamuwa) and he is recalled to Kandy for an investigation; but he<br />
defies the king and begins treasonable correspondence with Governor Brownrigg: His wife and family are<br />
imprisoned. Molligoda is appointed Eheylapola's successor. (1814) Complaints as to Ehelepola's rule reach the
king, already suspicious <strong>of</strong> his minister; Ehelepola is summoned to Kandy, but well knowing his master's<br />
temper refuses to obey and rebels. Molligoda, succeeding to his <strong>of</strong>fices, crushes the revolt. Eheylapola is<br />
routed; he flees to Kalutara (May) thence to Colombo and safety. Malligoda goes to Kandy. Suspected <strong>of</strong><br />
treason, Eheylapola's brother, wife and sister are executed; his wife is forced to take part in the brutal execution<br />
<strong>of</strong> her children then she, her sister-in-law are drowned in Bogambarawera tank. This brutal and barbaric<br />
execution angers the people against the king and Robert Brownrigg sees this as an opportunity to annex the<br />
Kandyan kingdom to the British Crown. His preparations are assisted by Eheylapola. (Nov) The king punishes<br />
ten cloth merchants who have <strong>com</strong>e to him <strong>com</strong>plaining <strong>of</strong> being plundered by a band <strong>of</strong> Kandyans for being<br />
British spies. (1815) British insist on the abolition <strong>of</strong> mutilation, torture and other inhumane practices. Sir<br />
Robert Brownrigg considers this an act <strong>of</strong> aggression and (Jan) his army <strong>of</strong> eight divisions enters Kandyan<br />
territory: Two divisions marching from each <strong>of</strong> the fortresses <strong>of</strong> Colombo, Galle and Trin<strong>com</strong>alee, and one<br />
each from Batticaloa and Negombo; war being declared 10 Jan. (Second Kandyan War), one <strong>of</strong> its chief aims<br />
is to deliver the Kandyans from their oppressors and subversion <strong>of</strong> the Malabar dominion. (10 Jan) Kandyans<br />
pursue Ehelepola's men across the Sitawaka River into British territory, where they burn a house. Malligoda<br />
and other chiefs support the British advance but do not renounce the Kandyan government. (14 Feb) The<br />
British army enters Kandy. (16 Feb) A detachment ac<strong>com</strong>panied by Eheylapola is sent to Doombera districts<br />
and (18 Feb) the king is captured and deposed; thus ends Ceylon's Suluwansa period (Ends Second Kandyan<br />
War). Measures are put in motion to permanently settle the government <strong>of</strong> the now British territory <strong>of</strong> Kandy.<br />
(2 Mar) A convention is held in the audience hall <strong>of</strong> the palace at Kandy between Governor-General Brownrigg<br />
(on behalf <strong>of</strong> King George III) and the adigars, dissaves and other chiefs <strong>of</strong> the Kandyan people. A treaty (the<br />
Kandyan Convention) is agreed to: (1) The king's unusual punishments and tortures flaunted justice, (2) he is<br />
deposed and no member <strong>of</strong> his family, however remote, may not claim the throne, all claim to the Kandyan<br />
throne is abolished and extinguished, (3) Any pretenders be<strong>com</strong>e enemies to the government <strong>of</strong> the Kandyan<br />
provinces. (4) The dominion <strong>of</strong> the Kandyan provinces is vested in the Soverign <strong>of</strong> the British Empire<br />
exercised through the Lt Gov <strong>of</strong> Ceylon who retains appointive authority over Kandyan chiefs and subordinate<br />
headmen. (5) Buddhism is inviolable, its rights, ministers and places <strong>of</strong> worship are to be maintained and<br />
protected. (6) Every species <strong>of</strong> torture and mutilation are prohibited and abolished. (7) Death sentence can only<br />
be carried out after written warrant <strong>of</strong> British Gov or Lt-Gov in whose presence all capital trials must be held.<br />
(8) Administration <strong>of</strong> civil and criminal justice is to be exercised according to established forms. (9) Etc: This<br />
agreement allows for the protection <strong>of</strong> Buddhism and the preservation <strong>of</strong> local systems <strong>of</strong> government under<br />
the authority <strong>of</strong> the British Governor in Colombo and supervised by British agents in Sabaragamuwa, the Three<br />
Korales, and Uva.<br />
1816 (24 Jan) The deposed king, Sri Wickreme Raja Singha, his family, dependents and adherents are transferred to<br />
Madras then to the fort <strong>of</strong> Vellore (dies 30 Jan, 1832). Meanwhile, by the treaty <strong>of</strong> 1815 local lords such as<br />
Ehelepola and Molligoda are acutely aware that they were ultimately answerable to the British, and are in<br />
practice junior to British military <strong>of</strong>ficers who now have free access to their domains.<br />
1817 (Sept) A strange priest appears in Wellassa who is ordered to be arrested, there is resistance, the priest is (16<br />
Sept) murdered. (Oct) The resistance be<strong>com</strong>es an insurrection against British rule (for it makes no distinctions<br />
as to caste or privileged class; the English differ from Kandyans in race, religion, language, customs, habits<br />
and mode <strong>of</strong> thinking), beginning in Wellassa province, it spreads quickly to Uva and Walpane (Third<br />
Kandyan War). Keppitipola, Dissave <strong>of</strong> Uva, is sent to quash the uprising, but defects and joins the rebels<br />
instead. (July) By this time every major Kandyan lord except Molligoda has joined the rebellion; several,<br />
including Ehelepola, have already been captured. Molligoda however ensures the road to Kandy remains open.<br />
(16 Oct) The rebels force Lieut Newman to retreat. (20-26 Oct) Revolt rises in Matale province and doubts as<br />
to Eheylapola's loyalty is entertained by the governor though both arrive at Kandy. It is decided to relieve<br />
Millawa, dissave <strong>of</strong> Wellasa. (30 Oct) Keppetipola is captured. (1 Nov) Madugalle Adikaram is captured. Now<br />
a body <strong>of</strong> troops under major Macdonald begins a destruction campaign in Wellasa province, but this merely<br />
inflames the Sinhalese even further. (26 Nov) Adikaram and Keppetipola are beheaded.<br />
1818 (Feb) By now all Kandyan country is in arms against the British except lower Sabaragamuwa, the Three and<br />
Four Korles, Udunuwara and Yatinuwara. (12 Feb) Martial Law is established. (3 March) Eheylapola is<br />
arrested by the British and imprisoned at Colombo (until 1825, dies Mauritius April 1829). (April) British<br />
reinforcements from Bengal and Madras arrive. (May-July) The rebellion continues, neither side gaining an<br />
advantage. (Aug) Rebellion leaders Wilbawa and Keppitapola are joined by Madugalla, chief <strong>of</strong> Doombera<br />
who persuades Wilbawa to be<strong>com</strong>e king. (Sept) The people begin to realize that they have nothing to gain from<br />
continued resistance except famine, and hostilities abate. (3 Sept) The king appoints Madugalla second adigar<br />
and Dissavve <strong>of</strong> Matale. Soon, however, Madugalla finds out that the king is not <strong>of</strong> royal blood line, but<br />
merely an unfrocked priest; Madugalla has both Wilbawa and Keppitapola seized and imprisoned. Wilbawa,<br />
soon freed renounces his kingly titles. (30 Oct) Capture <strong>of</strong> Keppitapola and Pilimi Talawa (son <strong>of</strong> Pilimi
Talawa). (1 Nov) Capture <strong>of</strong> Madugalla and the revolt <strong>com</strong>es to an end (he and Kappitapola executed 25 Nov)<br />
(End <strong>of</strong> Third Kandyan War). (21 Nov) Governor Brownrigg issues a proclamation that brings the Kandyan<br />
provinces under closer control. British agents usurp the powers and privileges <strong>of</strong> the chiefs and be<strong>com</strong>e the<br />
arbitrators <strong>of</strong> provincial authority, although the British are to show respect to higher class Sinhalese <strong>of</strong>ficers,<br />
and adigars, dissaves and other chiefs are to be <strong>com</strong>pensated for their services. Finally, the British reduce the<br />
institutional privileges accorded Buddhism, in effect placing the religion on an equal footing with other<br />
religions. In other matters the government reserves the right to reform abuses, notably, Brownrigg makes it<br />
possible for slaves who want to free themselves to purchase their freedom. With this final British consolidation<br />
over Kandy, the country falls under the control <strong>of</strong> a single power. (1819, 12 Feb) Martial Law ceases in the<br />
Kandyan provinces.<br />
1820 Kandyans demonstrate dissatisfaction toward the British government.<br />
1821 The road from Columbo to Kandy is opened. Also a connection to Kurunagala. Peradeniya Botanical garden<br />
developed. Barnes passes a regulation giving the government power to purchase from their masters all female<br />
slave children born after 24 April.<br />
1823 (and 1824) Kandyans stage uprisings against the British.<br />
1824 (18 Jan) Sir Edward Barnes governor; he continues his predecessors policy <strong>of</strong> opening <strong>com</strong>munications. He is<br />
responsible for consolidating British military control over the Kandyan provinces through a program <strong>of</strong><br />
vigorous road construction. He also begins experimenting with a variety <strong>of</strong> <strong>com</strong>mercial crops, such as c<strong>of</strong>fee.<br />
1825 The Colombo - Kandy road is <strong>com</strong>pleted. A connection to Ambepussa is made. Road construction continues<br />
throughout the country.<br />
1829 The British Colonial Office sends a Royal Commission <strong>of</strong> Eastern Inquiry--the Colebrooke-Cameron<br />
Commission--to assess the administration <strong>of</strong> the island.<br />
1830 About this time Barnes introduces c<strong>of</strong>fee cultivation in the interior. By this time the British have almost<br />
finished consolidating their position in Sri Lanka and are beginning to take more <strong>of</strong> an interest in securing the<br />
island's political stability and economic pr<strong>of</strong>itability. Ideas <strong>of</strong> Utilitarianism promote the idea <strong>of</strong> democracy and<br />
individual liberty. This philosophy sponsors the idea <strong>of</strong> the trusteeship, i.e., that new territories will be<br />
considered trusts and will receive all the benefits <strong>of</strong> British liberalism.<br />
1831 Construction <strong>of</strong> Kandy - Matale road. (1832) It is extended to Dambulla.<br />
1832 Construction <strong>of</strong> Royal College.<br />
1833 Issuance <strong>of</strong> the Colebrooke-Cameron report: The proposed reforms opposed mercantilism, state monopolies,<br />
discriminatory administrative regulations, and, in general, any interference in the economy. It aims to end the<br />
protested administrative division <strong>of</strong> the country along ethnic and cultural lines into lowcountry Sinhalese,<br />
Kandyan Sinhalese, and Tamil areas. (31 Aug) Charter <strong>of</strong> Justice: A new Supreme Court is erected, and shortly<br />
afterwards District Courts are brought into being. (28 Sept) Order <strong>of</strong> the King in Council, proclaimed:<br />
Compulsory labor is abolished; the old Council <strong>of</strong> Government is dissolved, and Executive and Legislative<br />
Councils established in its place; the separate administration <strong>of</strong> the interior is done away with and the Kandyan<br />
districts amalgamated with the old British settlements on the coast, each <strong>of</strong> the new provinces being under a<br />
Government Agent. The cinnamon monopoly, which had long ceased to be pr<strong>of</strong>itable owing to the <strong>com</strong>petition<br />
<strong>of</strong> Java and China, is also discontinued. The Civil Service is opened to the Sinhalese.<br />
1834 The union <strong>of</strong> the Kandyan with the Maritime Provinces, the substitution <strong>of</strong> smaller divisions under<br />
Ratemahatmayas for the old provinces under Disawas, and the abolition <strong>of</strong> forced service and <strong>of</strong> <strong>com</strong>pulsory<br />
attendance at festivals are not acceptable to the chiefs, and results in a plot against the Government led by the<br />
younger Molligoda. (1835) The conspirators are tried before the Supreme Court but are acquitted. Molligoda is<br />
dismissed and his place taken by Mahawalatenne, the last <strong>of</strong> the old line <strong>of</strong> Adigars.<br />
1837 Sugar and cocoa planting are tried but aren't very successful. Rubber as a crop is introduced.<br />
1840 To prevent abuse <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee planting land use, an ordinance is passed that makes it virtually impossible for a<br />
Kandyan peasant to prove that his land is not truly crown land and thus subject to expropriation and resale to<br />
c<strong>of</strong>fee interests.<br />
1841 Opening <strong>of</strong> the Ceylon Bank to finance the rapid expansion <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee plantations.<br />
1844 Slavery is abolished.<br />
1846 World-wide depression puts strains on Ceylon's economy, temporarily checking the rapid development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
plantation system. Falling c<strong>of</strong>fee prices cause financial disruption, aggravating the friction that had been<br />
developing between the static traditional feudal economy and modernized <strong>com</strong>mercial agriculture. In order to<br />
make up for lost revenue, the government imposes a series <strong>of</strong> new taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats,<br />
carriages, and bullock carts. All <strong>of</strong> these taxes affect Sinhalese farmers.<br />
1848 Passage <strong>of</strong> a land tax and road ordinance that reintroduces a form <strong>of</strong> rajakariya by requiring six days' free<br />
labor on roads or the payment <strong>of</strong> a cash equivalent. Also passed is the alienation <strong>of</strong> temple lands for c<strong>of</strong>fee<br />
plantations. A rebellion erupts over this that is so severely repressed the House <strong>of</strong> Commons in London
<strong>com</strong>missions an investigation to look into the matter. The governor and his chief secretary are subsequently<br />
dismissed, and all new taxes, except the road ordinance, are repealed. The government adopts a new policy<br />
toward Buddhism after the rebellion, recognizing the importance <strong>of</strong> Buddhist monks as leaders <strong>of</strong> Kandyan<br />
public opinion.<br />
1867 First railroad construction in Ceylon. Also this year, introduction <strong>of</strong> tea cultivation in central Ceylon and<br />
settlement <strong>of</strong> many Tamils in the region.<br />
1869 A devastating leaf disease--hemleia vastratrix strikes the c<strong>of</strong>fee plantations and spreads quickly throughout the<br />
plantation district, destroying the c<strong>of</strong>fee industry within fifteen years. Planters desperately search for a<br />
substitute crop, a promising one being chinchona (quinine). After an initial appearance <strong>of</strong> success, however, the<br />
market price soon falls and never fully recovers. Cinnamon is revived at this time, but only to be<strong>com</strong>e an<br />
important minor crop. Tea cultivation begins to gain interest.<br />
1880 (16 May) Henry Steele Olcott, with Madam Blavatsky, founders <strong>of</strong> the Theosophical Society, arrive Colombo.<br />
Their reputation precedes them as they receive a wild wel<strong>com</strong>e. (25 May) Kneeling at the Wijanada Monastery,<br />
they recite in broken Pali the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts <strong>of</strong> Theravada Buddhism, thus be<strong>com</strong>ing the<br />
first European-Americans to publicly and formally be<strong>com</strong>e lay Buddhists. During this visit he founds seven lay<br />
branches and one monastic branch <strong>of</strong> the Buddhist Theosophical Society (BTS). He is explicit about modeling<br />
his Asian work after Christian examples: “As the Christians have their Society for the diffusion <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />
knowledge, so this should be a society for the diffusion <strong>of</strong> Buddhist knowledge.” Olcott also founds, again on<br />
Christian models, Buddhist secondary schools and Sunday schools affiliated with the BTS, (July) Olcott and<br />
Blavatsky leave Ceylon as folk heroes.<br />
1881(April) Olcott leaves USA for Ceylon and spends eight months criss-crossing the country, "shocked" at<br />
Sinhalese ignorance <strong>of</strong> Buddhism, <strong>com</strong>ing to the conclusion that Ceylon’s Buddhists knew little, if anything,<br />
about “real” Buddhism. Like his hated missionaries and his beloved Orientalists, Olcott assumes the right to<br />
define what Buddhism really is. Unlike them, however, he assumes the duty to stir the Sinhalese masses from<br />
their ignorance, to instill in them his own creole representation <strong>of</strong> their Buddhist faith. His Buddhist<br />
Theosophical Society <strong>of</strong> Ceylon establishes three institutions <strong>of</strong> higher learning: Ananda College, Mahinda<br />
College, and Dharmaraja College. Olcott's society founds these and some 200 lower schools to impart<br />
Buddhist education with a strong nationalist bias. (24 July) Publication <strong>of</strong> his The Buddhist Catechism.<br />
1882 (18 July) Olcott's third tour to Ceylon. He finds the Catholic Church is making inroads in his Buddhist society.<br />
He finds he has the ability to "heal," be<strong>com</strong>ing again quite popular and reviving his Buddhist ideas. (1883, end)<br />
Olcott and his healing has be<strong>com</strong>e so popular that he is overwhelmed; Theosophical Masters (adepts with<br />
whom Blavatsky is supposed to have <strong>com</strong>municated telepathically) hand down an order to stop the healings,<br />
Olcott happily <strong>com</strong>plies.<br />
1883 (25 Mar) Buddhist-Catholic riot in Kotahena, a Catholic stronghold in Colombo. It lasts three hours, with one<br />
killed and many wounded. Sinhalese monks and laypeople cable Olcott urging him to <strong>com</strong>e to Ceylon.<br />
1884 (27 Jan) Olcott organizes a Buddhist Defense Committee, which elects him an honorary member and charges<br />
him to travel to London as its representative, “to ask for such redress and enter into such engagements as may<br />
appear to him judicious.” (May) Olcott arrives in London. Though <strong>of</strong>ficials are wary <strong>of</strong> augmenting his already<br />
significant influence, he is able to meet with Lord Derby’s assistant undersecretary, R. H. Meade. Shortly<br />
thereafter he sends a memo to Lord Derby, demanding: (1) that Catholics accused <strong>of</strong> instigating the riot be<br />
brought to trial; (2) that Buddhists be guaranteed the right to exercise their religion freely; (3) that Wesak - the<br />
full moon day on which the Sinhalese <strong>com</strong>memorate the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death - be<br />
declared a public holiday; (4) that all restrictions against the use <strong>of</strong> tom-toms and other musical instruments in<br />
religious processions be removed; (5) that Buddhist registrars be appointed; and (6) that the question <strong>of</strong><br />
Buddhist temporalities (the supposedly negligent control <strong>of</strong> Buddhist properties by monks) be resolved. Olcott<br />
encloses with his memo some ac<strong>com</strong>panying documents that testify to the “discontent and despair” that has in<br />
his view gripped the island’s Buddhists following the Kotahena riots. He hints that, if ignored, their<br />
dissatisfaction might result in a rebellion. (Fall) Colonial <strong>of</strong>ficials agree to pursue “more <strong>of</strong> a hands <strong>of</strong>f policy”<br />
regarding the use <strong>of</strong> tom-toms and other musical instruments in religious processions.<br />
1885 (28 April) Wesak be<strong>com</strong>es an <strong>of</strong>ficial holiday in British Ceylon. Also era (± five years) <strong>of</strong> Buddhist-inspired<br />
temperance movement initiated to fight drunkenness.<br />
1900 By this time tea production on the island had risen enormously. It shows a real promise <strong>of</strong> success. A decline in<br />
the demand for Chinese tea in Britain opens up possibilities for Indian tea, especially the fine variety<br />
indigenous to Assam. Climatic conditions for the cultivation <strong>of</strong> tea are excellent in Sri Lanka, especially in the<br />
hill country. The year-round labor required for tea lures many Tamils, who are Hindus, to settle on the island.<br />
1905 Founding <strong>of</strong> Ceylon Social Reform Society to <strong>com</strong>bat other temptations associated with Westernization.<br />
1910 The colonial government permits a modest experiment allowing a small electorate <strong>of</strong> Sri Lankans to send one<br />
<strong>of</strong> their members to the Legislative Council.
1915 WW I; rubber production exceeds tea production. Also: Communal rioting breaks out between Sinhalese and<br />
Muslims on the west coast. The British panic, misconstruing the disturbances as part <strong>of</strong> an anti-government<br />
conspiracy; they blame the majority ethnic group and indiscriminately arrest many Sinhalese, including D.S.<br />
Senanayake who actually uses his influence to try to curb the riots. The British put down the unrest with<br />
excessive zeal and brutality, which shocks British and Sri Lankan observers alike. This is a turning point in the<br />
nationalist movement as activists begin mobilizing for coordinated action against the British.<br />
1919 The major Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations unite to form the Ceylon National Congress. One <strong>of</strong> its<br />
first actions is to submit a proposal for a new constitution that would increase local control over the Executive<br />
Council and the budget. British Governor William Manning actively encourages the concept <strong>of</strong> "<strong>com</strong>munal<br />
representation"<br />
1920 The demands <strong>of</strong> 1919 are not met but a new constitution is promulgated. Colombo is made the town seat.<br />
1924 Constitutional reforms recognize Tamil distinctiveness as a group and their cultural differences from the<br />
Sinhalese. Two members <strong>of</strong> the Indian Tamil <strong>com</strong>munity are nominated to the Legislative Council. Although<br />
the nationalists' demand for representation in the Executive Council is not granted, the Legislative Council is<br />
expanded to include a majority <strong>of</strong> elected Sri Lankan un<strong>of</strong>ficial members, bringing the island closer to<br />
representative government. Yet the franchise remains restrictive and includes only about 4 percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
island's population.<br />
1927 A royal <strong>com</strong>mission under the Earl <strong>of</strong> Donoughmore visits Sri Lanka to ascertain why representative<br />
government as chartered by the 1924 constitution has not succeeded. It finds the 1924 constitution "an<br />
unqualified failure."<br />
1930 The world depression brings severe losses to the rubber industry that never quite revives.<br />
1931 Promulgation <strong>of</strong> the Donoughmore Constitution. It is a unique document that provided Sri Lankans with<br />
training for self-government. See Appendix IV. Also: Founding <strong>of</strong> the leftist Labor Party by A.E. Goonasimha.<br />
1935 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Trotskyist Ceylon Equal Society Party (Lanka Sama Samaja Party--LSSP).<br />
1936 Elected to the state council, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP) members N.M. Perera and Philip<br />
Gunawardena demand the replacement <strong>of</strong> English as the <strong>of</strong>ficial language by Sinhala and Tamil. (Nov) A<br />
motion that 'in the Municipal and Police Courts <strong>of</strong> the Island the proceedings should be in the vernacular' and<br />
that 'entries in police stations should be recorded in the language in which they are originally stated' are passed<br />
by the State Council and referred to the Legal Secretary.<br />
1937 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Great Council <strong>of</strong> the Sinhalese (Sinhala Maha Sabha), by S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike. It seeks<br />
once again to restore Buddhism to its former glory. Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demands a 50-50<br />
representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council.<br />
1938 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Burgher Political Association.<br />
1939 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Ceylon Indian Congress.<br />
1942 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Bolshevik-Leninist Party by unification <strong>of</strong> two Indian groups (the Bolshevik Leninist Party <strong>of</strong><br />
the United Provinces and Bihar and the Bolshevik Mazdoor Party <strong>of</strong> India), with the Lanka Sama Samaja<br />
Party. (Feb) With fall <strong>of</strong> Singapore, Sri Lanka be<strong>com</strong>es a central base for British operations in Southeast Asia,<br />
and the port at Trin<strong>com</strong>alee recaptures its historically strategic importance.<br />
1943 Founding <strong>of</strong> the Communist Party <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka (CPSL) and is a continuation <strong>of</strong> the United Socialist Party<br />
(USP). The USP had been formed out <strong>of</strong> the pro-Soviet Union wing <strong>of</strong> the Lanka Sama Samaja Party. The USP<br />
is proscribed by colonial authorities.<br />
1944 Founding <strong>of</strong> the All Ceylon Tamil Congress. (July) Lord Soulbury is appointed head <strong>of</strong> a <strong>com</strong>mission charged<br />
with the task <strong>of</strong> examining a new constitutional draft that the Sri Lankan ministers had proposed. The<br />
<strong>com</strong>mission makes re<strong>com</strong>mendations that lead to a new constitution (the Soulbury Reforms): The Soulbury<br />
Constitution <strong>of</strong> independent Sri Lanka, <strong>com</strong>bines a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature.<br />
Members <strong>of</strong> the first House <strong>of</strong> Representatives are directly elected by popular vote. Members <strong>of</strong> the Senate, or<br />
upper house, are elected partly by members <strong>of</strong> the House and partly by the governor general, who is primarily a<br />
figurehead. The British monarch appoints the governor general on the advice <strong>of</strong> the most powerful person in<br />
the Sri Lankan government--the prime minister. As the end <strong>of</strong> the war approaches, the constitution is amended<br />
to incorporate a provision giving Sri Lanka dominion status. J.R. Jayawardene moves in the State Council that<br />
Sinhala should replace English as the <strong>of</strong>ficial language.<br />
1947 Ceylon Independence Act formalizes the transfer <strong>of</strong> power. Senanayake is the founder and leader <strong>of</strong> the United<br />
National Party (UNP), a partnership <strong>of</strong> many disparate groups formed during the Donoughmore period,<br />
including the Ceylon National Congress, the Sinhala Maha Sabha, and the Muslim League. (14 Oct) Creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Office <strong>of</strong> Prime Minister.<br />
1948 (4 Feb) The new constitution goes into effect, making Sri Lanka a dominion (independent).<br />
1953 (12 Aug) A hartel (uprising) against the withdrawal <strong>of</strong> the rice ration.<br />
1956 Royal Navy presence at Tri<strong>com</strong>alee ends. Election <strong>of</strong> S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike as PM; Ceylon begins moving
towards better relations with the <strong>com</strong>munist bloc. He introduces the controversial Sinhala Only Act,<br />
recognising Sinhala as the sole <strong>of</strong>ficial language <strong>of</strong> the government, gravely concerning the Tamil people and<br />
leading to ethnic riots.<br />
1958 Bandaranaike's Sinhala Only Act is partially reversed. An agreement agreement (Bandaranaike-<br />
Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader <strong>of</strong> the Federal Party, to resolve the looming ethnic<br />
conflict sputters. (1959) Bandaranaike is assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk.<br />
1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike, widow <strong>of</strong> Bandaranaike, PM, faces (1962) an attempted coup d'etat. In her second<br />
term her government institutes socialist economic polices, further strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and<br />
later China, while promoting a policy <strong>of</strong> non-alignment. (Late 1960s) Documents relating to a separate Tamil<br />
state <strong>of</strong> 'Tamil Eelam' begin to circulate. Separatist supporters carry out hit-and-run operations against progovernment<br />
Tamil politicians, Sri Lanka Police and civil administrators.<br />
1971 A Marxist insurrection is quickly suppressed.<br />
1972 Amendment to the Constitution, Ceylon be<strong>com</strong>es the Republic <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka, repudiating the dominion status.<br />
Prolonged minority grievances and the use <strong>of</strong> <strong>com</strong>munal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by<br />
both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abets a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north, during the 1970s. Also;<br />
Prabhakaran, together with Chetti Thanabalasingam, a well known criminal from Kalviyankadu, Jaffna form<br />
the Tamil New Tigers (TNT).<br />
1975 Assassination <strong>of</strong> Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah by the TNT.<br />
1976 Formation <strong>of</strong> the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) with the Vaddukkodei (Vattukottai) resolution leads to<br />
a hardening <strong>of</strong> attitudes. The resolution calls for the creation <strong>of</strong> a secular, socialist state <strong>of</strong> Tamil Eelam, based<br />
on the right <strong>of</strong> self-determination. The TULF clandestinely supports the actions <strong>of</strong> young militants called "our<br />
boys." Also; the TNT changes its name to the Liberation Tigers <strong>of</strong> Tamil Eelam or the LTTE.<br />
1977 J.R. Jayawardene, elected PM this year, introduces a new constitution, together with a powerful executive<br />
presidency modeled after France, and a free market economy. It makes Sri Lanka the first South Asian country<br />
to liberalise its economy. TULF be<strong>com</strong>es the leading opposition party, with around one sixth <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
electoral vote winning on a party platform <strong>of</strong> secession from Sri Lanka. After the election, the Government<br />
launches unprecedented state violence against the opposition, targeting supporters <strong>of</strong> the Sri Lanka Freedom<br />
Party, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party, the Communist Party <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka, and the People's Democratic Party. In<br />
particular, some 9,000 families <strong>of</strong> supporters <strong>of</strong> LSSP leader NM Perera in Yatiyantota are driven from there<br />
homes, many <strong>of</strong> which are destroyed. (12 Aug) Fierce riots break out that the government can only (20 Aug)<br />
suppress by using the military. The government makes one concession to the Tamil population; it lifts the<br />
policy <strong>of</strong> standardization for university admission that had driven many Tamil youths into militancy. It is<br />
considered too little too late. Violent attacks continue: Assassination <strong>of</strong> Tamil Member <strong>of</strong> Parliament, M.<br />
Canagaratnam.<br />
1983 LTTE orders civilians to boycott the local government elections that even TULF contests. (23 July) Tamil<br />
Tiger rebels kill 13 Sinhalese soldiers at a checkpoint outside Thirunelveli, prompting a backlash by the<br />
Sinhalese. (24 July) Island-wide anti-Tamil riots break out in which at least 400 people die. The Indian army<br />
gives military support and training to the Tigers. (25 July) 37 Tamil prisoners at the Welikada high security<br />
prison, most <strong>of</strong> them detained under the Prevention <strong>of</strong> rebels Act, are killed by Sinhalese prisoners using knives<br />
and clubs. (28 July) A second riot occurs at the prison, 15 are killed. (29 July) A civilian riot is broken up by<br />
the police who shoot 15 rioters. (Aug) Indian government, through its intelligence agency Research and<br />
Analysis Wing (RAW), begins providimg arms, training and monetary support to six Sri Lankan Tamil militant<br />
groups including LTTE, Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization (TELO), People's Liberation Organisation <strong>of</strong><br />
Tamil Eelam (PLOTE), Eelam Revolutionary Organisation <strong>of</strong> Students (EROS) Eelam People's Revolutionary<br />
Liberation Front (EPRLF) and Tamil Eelam Liberation Army (TELA) (to May, 1987).<br />
1984 (30 Nov) Kent and Dollar Farm massacres: The LTTE kills 33 Sinhalese, injuring a few more at Dollar farm,<br />
and kills 29 Sinhalese at Kent Farm. Among the civilian casualties are men, women and children. The LTTE<br />
operatives use submachine guns, automatic rifles and hand grenades to kill civilians. Survivors also report that<br />
LTTE cadres killed children by bashing their heads against walls.<br />
1985 Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents begin peace talks at Thimphu; four rounds held (to 2006) without<br />
achieving any agreement. Meanwhile, (14 May) the Anuradhapura massacre: The LTTE hijacks a bus and<br />
enters Anuradhapura. As the LTTE cadres enter the main bus station, they open fire indiscriminately with<br />
automatic weapons killing and wounding many civilians who are waiting for buses. LTTE cadres then drive to<br />
the Buddhist Sri Maha Bodhi shrine and gun down nuns, monks and civilians as they prayed inside the<br />
Buddhist shrine. Before they withdraw, the LTTE strike force enters the national park <strong>of</strong> Wilpattu and kill 18<br />
Sinhalese in the forest reserve. The LTTE cadres have massacred 146 Sinhalese men, women and children. (15<br />
May) In the Kumudini boat massacre, at least 23 minority Sri Lankan Tamil men, women and children on a<br />
ferry boat named Kumudini sailing from the island <strong>of</strong> Delft to the island <strong>of</strong> Nainathievu are alleged to have
een killed by Sri Lankan Navy personnel.<br />
1986 (3 May) Tigers bomb Airlanka plane at Colombo airport, killing 16 people.<br />
1987 (21 April) Tigers explode car bomb at Colombo central bus stand, killing 113: The conflict explodes with<br />
ferocity, as both the government forces and the LTTE fighters engage in a series <strong>of</strong> bloody operations. (May-<br />
June) Sri Lankan military launches an <strong>of</strong>fensive, called "Operation Liberation" or Vadamarachchi Operation,<br />
to regain control <strong>of</strong> the territory in the Jaffna peninsula from the LTTE. (5 June) Indian Air Force airdrops food<br />
parcels to Jaffna while it was under siege by Sri Lankan forces. The siege is successful and LTTE leaders<br />
barely escape advancing troops. (July) An LTTE suicide attack kills 40 soldiers. (24 July) Tiger leader<br />
Velupillai Prabhakaran arrives India to sigh peace agreement with the Sri Lanka government. (29 July) Indo-<br />
Sri Lankan Agreement on the Re-establishment <strong>of</strong> Peace and Normality in Sri Lanka: Devolution <strong>of</strong> power to<br />
the provinces, a merger - subject to later referendum - <strong>of</strong> the Northern and the Eastern provinces into a single<br />
province, and <strong>of</strong>ficial status for the Tamil language (this was enacted as the 13th Amendment to the<br />
Constitution <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka). India agrees to establish order in the North and East through a force dubbed the<br />
Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF), and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups including the<br />
LTTE, although initially reluctant, agree to surrender their arms to the IPKF, which initially oversees a ceasefire<br />
and a modest disarmament <strong>of</strong> the militant groups. This decentralization <strong>of</strong> the hitherto unitary state gives<br />
the Tamils scope to develop their identity. (30 July) Indian troops arrive Jaffna to enforce peace pact. (5 Aug)<br />
The Tigers begin to surrender weapons to Indian army, but later change course and fight against the Indians -<br />
their former benefactors. Despite the cut<strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial Indian government aid to the rebels, the government <strong>of</strong><br />
southern Tamil Nadu state and rightist Hindu factions <strong>of</strong> the Indian army continue helping the rebels.<br />
1988 Elections to the provincial councils in the north and east under the supervision <strong>of</strong> an Indian Peace Keeping<br />
Force (IPKF) which suffers serious losses following attacks by the Liberation Tigers <strong>of</strong> Tamil Eelam (LTTE).<br />
1989 (April) Ranasinghe Premadasa government orders the Sri Lankan Army to clandestinely hand over arms<br />
consignments to the LTTE to fight the IPKF and its proxy Tamil National Army (TNA). (Dec) Parliamentary<br />
elections in India bring V.P. Singh as PM. He orders the withdrawal <strong>of</strong> the IPKF from Ceylon which begins<br />
immediately.<br />
1990 (13 Mar) Indian troops (IPKF) leave Sri Lanka. Their last ship leaves 24 March. With India's withdrawal from<br />
Ceylon, the LTTE establishes many government-like functions in the areas under its control. A tentative<br />
ceasefire holds as the LTTE occupies itself with destroying rival Tamil groups while the government cracks<br />
down on the JVP uprising. Soon, as both major <strong>com</strong>batants establish their power bases, they turn on each other<br />
and the ceasefire breaks down. The government launches an <strong>of</strong>fensive to try to retake Jaffna. (11 June) The<br />
LTTE massacres 600 Policemen in the Eastern Province after they had surrendered on promises <strong>of</strong> safe<br />
conduct. The government places an embargo on food and medicine entering the Jaffna peninsula and the air<br />
force relentlessly bombs LTTE targets in the area. The LTTE responds by attacking Sinhalese and Muslim<br />
villages and massacring civilians. One <strong>of</strong> the largest civilian massacres <strong>of</strong> the war occurs when the LTTE<br />
massacres 166 Muslim civilians at Palliyagodella. The government trained and armed Home Guard Muslim<br />
units then takes revenge on Tamil villages. There is also significant massacres <strong>of</strong> Tamil civilians attributed to<br />
government forces, especially in the Eastern Province. (Oct) The LTTE expels all the Muslims residing in<br />
Northern province: A total <strong>of</strong> 72,000 Muslims are forced to leave their homes taking nothing but the clothes on<br />
their backs.<br />
1991 (2 March) Deputy defense minister Ranjan Wijerafne is killed by Tiger car bomb in Colombo. (21 May)<br />
Assassination <strong>of</strong> PM Rajiv Gandhi; India be<strong>com</strong>es an observer <strong>of</strong> the civil war. (July) The army's Elephant<br />
Pass base, which controls access to the Jaffna Peninsula, is surrounded by 5,000 LTTE cardres, beginning a<br />
month long siege in which 2,000 die. (Aug) 10,000 government troops relieve the base.<br />
1992 (Feb) another series <strong>of</strong> government <strong>of</strong>fensives fails to capture Jaffna. (8 Aug) Lt. General Denzil<br />
Kobbekaduwa together with Major General Vijaya Wimalaratne and Rear Admiral Mohan Jayamaha, die at<br />
Araly (Aeraella) point Jaffna due to a land mine blast, which badly affects military morale.<br />
1993 (1 May) Tiger suicide bomber kills President Premadasa in Colombo. (11 Nov) Large force <strong>of</strong> Tigers overrun<br />
Pooneryn army camp, killing or capturing some 600 servicemen. Army puts rebel death toll at 500.<br />
1994 During the Presidential election campaign, an LTTE bomb attack is carried out during a rally held at<br />
Thotalanga, Grandpass, eliminates the entire top brass <strong>of</strong> UNP leadership, including its presidential candidate<br />
Gamini Dissanayake. President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga (People's Alliance) with Srimavo<br />
Bandaranaike as Prime Minister; President Kumaratunga takes new initiative in the search for a political<br />
solution to the conflict in the north-east: easing <strong>of</strong> the economic boycott, reconstruction program for the north<br />
and direct talks with the LTTE. (16 Aug) People's Alliance government <strong>com</strong>es to power promising an end to<br />
bloody war. (13 Oct) Peace talks begin in Jaffna. (24 Nov) Opposition presidential candidate Gamini<br />
Dissanayake and 51 others killed by Tiger suicide bomber.<br />
1995 (8 Jan) Tigers (LTTE) and government agree to a truce. (19 April) Tigers break truce, blow up two navy boats,
killing 12 sailors in northeastern port <strong>of</strong> Trin<strong>com</strong>alee. (28-29 April) Tigers use anti-aircraft missiles for first<br />
time, downing two air force transport planes, killing 90 people. (4 June) Tigers blow up ship chartered by<br />
International Committee <strong>of</strong> the Red Cross. (28 July) Tigers lose 400 guerrillas, including child fighters, in raid<br />
on northeastern Weli Oya army camp, in which only two soldiers die. (Aug) Air Force jets bomb St. Peter's<br />
church at Navali (Naavaella), killing at least 65 refugees and wounding 150 others. (17 Oct) Army troops start<br />
first phase <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fensive to take full control <strong>of</strong> Jaffna peninsula. In the ensuing months, the military <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
retaliates against civilians with shelling and bombing. (20 Oct) Guerrillas blow up two oil depots in Colombo.<br />
(11 Nov) Two rebel suicide bombers kill 15 people in Colombo in unsuccessful attack on Army HQ.<br />
Governement troops finally take control <strong>of</strong> Jaffna, (5 Dec) raising the national flag over Jaffna fort.<br />
1996 (31 Jan) Tiger suicide bomber blows up Central Bank, killing almost 100 people. (14 Feb) Tiger arms ship<br />
sunk <strong>of</strong>f northeastern coast. (5 Mar) Sri Lankan army raises flags over Jaffna town, marking end <strong>of</strong> seven-week<br />
campaign to capture the Tamil rebel stronghold. (18 July) Battle <strong>of</strong> Mullaitivu; large force <strong>of</strong> Tigers overrun<br />
northeastern army camp amid reports that they have killed or captured almost the entire garrison <strong>of</strong> more than<br />
1,000 troops. (Aug) Government launches another <strong>of</strong>fensive, (29 Sept) Kilinochchi is taken.<br />
1997 (Jan) Heavy fighting around Paranthan and Elephant pass <strong>com</strong>plex takes the lives <strong>of</strong> 223 Army personnel. (13<br />
May) Government troops fail to open a supply line through LTTE-controlled Vanni. As violence continues in<br />
the North, LTTE suicide and time bombs are exploded numerous times in populated city areas and public<br />
transport in the south <strong>of</strong> the country, killing hundreds <strong>of</strong> civilians. (Oct) LTTE bombs the Sri Lankan World<br />
Trade Center.<br />
1998 An Indian court finds the LTTE and its leader Velupillai Prabhakaran responsible for the assassination <strong>of</strong> PM<br />
Gandhi. (Jan) LTTE detonates a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple <strong>of</strong> the Tooth, one <strong>of</strong> the holiest<br />
Buddhist shrines in the world. In response to this bombing, the Sri Lankan government outlaws the LTTE and<br />
with some success presses other governments around the world to do the same, significantly interfering with<br />
their fund-raising activities. (27 Sept) Battle <strong>of</strong> Kilinochchi: The LTTE launches Operation Unceasing Waves<br />
II and after heavy fighting captures Kilinochchi.<br />
1999 (March) In Operation Rana Gosa, the government tries invading the Vanni from the south. The army makes<br />
some gains, taking control <strong>of</strong> Oddusuddan (Oththan-thuduva) and Madhu, but can not dislodge the LTTE from<br />
the region. (Sept) LTTE massacres 50 Sinhalese civilians at Gonagala. (2 Nov) LTTE returns to the <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
with Operation Unceasing Waves III, regaining nearly all <strong>of</strong> Vanni. LTTE launches 17 successful attacks in the<br />
region which culminates in the overrunning <strong>of</strong> the Paranthan (Puranthaenna) Chemicals Factory base and the<br />
Kurrakkan Kaddukulam (kurakkan-kaela vaeva) base. The rebels also advance north towards Elephant Pass<br />
and Jaffna. The LTTE is successful in cutting all land and sea supply lines <strong>of</strong> the Sri Lankan armed forces to<br />
the south, west and north <strong>of</strong> the town <strong>of</strong> Kilinochchi. (Dec) LTTE attempts to assassinate President Chandrika<br />
Kumaratunga in a suicide attack at a pre-election rally. She loses her right-eye, among other injuries, but (21<br />
Dec) is re-elected with over 51% <strong>of</strong> the vote. She continues to pursue her goal <strong>of</strong> finding a political solution to<br />
preserve the territorial and executive integrity <strong>of</strong> the country using military means.<br />
2000 (Feb) Norway is asked to mediate both sides <strong>of</strong> the conflict. (22 April) The Elephant Pass military <strong>com</strong>plex,<br />
which had separated the Jaffna peninsula from the Vanni mainland for 17 years, <strong>com</strong>pletely falls to the hands<br />
<strong>of</strong> the LTTE leaving 1,008 soldiers dead. The army is able to stave <strong>of</strong>f LTTE efforts to oust them from Jaffna.<br />
(June) By this time many organizations are holding peace camps, conferences, trainings and peace meditations,<br />
and many other efforts to bridge the two sides at all levels. (Dec) LTTE calls for a unilateral cease fire.<br />
2001 (24 April) The cease fire is ended as LTTE launches another <strong>of</strong>fensive against the government. They secure a<br />
vast area controlled by the military and advance northwards, threatening the Elephant Pass military <strong>com</strong>plex.<br />
(July) LTTE carries out a devastating suicide attack on Bandaranaike International Airport, destroying eight <strong>of</strong><br />
the air force's planes and four Sri Lankan Airlines planes, dampening the economy and causing tourism, a vital<br />
foreign exchange earner for the government, to plummet. (Sept) After the attacks on New York City's World<br />
Trade Center, the LTTE begins to declare their willingness to explore measures for a peaceful settlement to the<br />
conflict. One reason for this action could be fear <strong>of</strong> international pressure and the direct US support <strong>of</strong> the Sri<br />
Lankan Government as part <strong>of</strong> the War on Terror. (5 Dec) Election brings a pro-peace position to the<br />
government; a negotiated settlement is to be searched for. (19 Dec) The LTTE announces a 30 day ceasefire<br />
with the Sri Lankan government and pledges to halt all attacks against government forces. The new<br />
government wel<strong>com</strong>es the move, and reciprocates it 2 days later (21 Dec), announcing a month long ceasefire<br />
and agreeing to lift a long standing economic embargo on rebel-held territory.<br />
2002 (22 Feb) A Memorandum <strong>of</strong> Understanding is signed by both sides. They also sign a permanent ceasefire<br />
agreement (CFA). Norway is named mediator, and it is decided that they, together with the other Nordic<br />
countries, monitor the ceasefire through a <strong>com</strong>mittee <strong>of</strong> experts named the Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission.<br />
(Aug) The government lifts the ban on the LTTE, paving the way for direct negotiations. (16-18 Sept) First<br />
peace talks at Sattahip Naval Base, Phuket, Thailand. Here, and at the subsequent talks, both sides agree to the
principle <strong>of</strong> a federal solution and the Tigers drop their long-standing demand for separate state. This is a key<br />
<strong>com</strong>promise from the LTTE, which has always insisted on an independent Tamil state and it also represents a<br />
<strong>com</strong>promise from the government, which has seldom agreed to more than minimal devolution. Both sides also<br />
exchange prisoners <strong>of</strong> war for first time. (13 Oct-3 Nov) Second round <strong>of</strong> peace talks at Rose Garden hotel,<br />
Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. (2-5 Dec) Third round at Radisson SAS Plaza Hotel, Oslo, Norway.<br />
2003 (6-9 Jan) Fourth round at Rose Garden hotel, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. (7-8 Feb) Fifth round at Norwegian<br />
Embassy, Berlin, Germany. (18-21 Mar) Sixth round at Hakorn Prince Hotel, Kanagawa, Japan. (21 April)<br />
Talks break down as the Tamil Tigers announce they are suspending any further talks due to their "displeasure"<br />
at the handling <strong>of</strong> some "critical issues". Among the reasons they give are their exclusion from reconstruction<br />
talks in Washington DC on 14 April and a more general insinuation that they are not receiving the full<br />
economic rewards <strong>of</strong> peace. The LTTE, however, maintains it is <strong>com</strong>mitted to a settlement to the two-decade<br />
conflict, but states that progress has to be made on the ground before the settlement proceeds. (31 Oct) The<br />
LTTE issues its own peace proposal, calling for an Interim Self Governing Authority (ISGA) which would be<br />
fully controlled by the LTTE and would have broad powers in the North and East (see Tamil Tiger Text).<br />
2004 (March) There is a major fracture between the northern and eastern wings <strong>of</strong> the LTTE; fighting goes on but<br />
the cease fire holds. (26 Dec) A tsunami raised by an undersea earthquake west <strong>of</strong> Indonesia sweeps Sri Lankan<br />
shores killing 35,000. Aid pours in from donor countries, but disagreements arise instantly over how it should<br />
be distributed to the Tamil regions under LTTE control.<br />
2005 (24 June) The government and LTTE agree on the Post-Tsunami Operational Management Structure (P-<br />
TOMS), but it receives sharp criticism from the JVP, who leaves the government in protest. The legality <strong>of</strong> P-<br />
TOMS is also challenged in the courts. President Kumaratunga eventually has to scrap P-TOMS, which leads<br />
to widespread criticism that sufficient aid is not reaching the North and East <strong>of</strong> the country. However,<br />
immediately following the tsunami there is a marked decrease in violence in the North. (12 Aug) LTTE sniper<br />
assassinates Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, a Tamil who was highly respected by foreign diplomats<br />
and who had been sharply critical <strong>of</strong> the LTTE. This act marginalizes the LTTE from the international<br />
<strong>com</strong>munity, and is the instant when the LTTE loses much <strong>of</strong> its sympathy in the eyes <strong>of</strong> foreign nations. (Dec)<br />
Just after national elections, there is increased guerrilla activity to the northeast, including Claymore mine<br />
attacks which kill 150 government troops, clashes between the Sea Tigers and the Sri Lanka navy, and the<br />
killing <strong>of</strong> sympathizers on both sides including Taraki Sivaram, a pro-LTTE journalist, and Joseph<br />
Pararajasingham, a pro-LTTE MP allegedly by the government <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka.<br />
2006 (Jan) The focus <strong>of</strong> the civil war turns to civilian targets, with <strong>com</strong>muter bus and train bombings carried out in<br />
most parts <strong>of</strong> the country, including a series <strong>of</strong> attacks against <strong>com</strong>muters in and around Colombo. (2 Jan)<br />
Massacre <strong>of</strong> five Tamil students. To salvage an agreement between the parties, Norwegian special envoy Erik<br />
Solheim and the LTTE theoretician Anton Balasingham arrive in the island. (7 Feb) They agree to hold new<br />
talks in Geneva, Switzerland on 22 and 23 February. During the weeks after the talks, there is a significant<br />
decrease in violence. (April) LTTE resumes attacks against the military. LTTE calls for a postponement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
talks until 24 - 25 April. Later, a civilian vessel is agreed to carry truce monitors on 16 April, the Tamil Tigers<br />
cancel the meeting, claiming not to have agreed to a naval escort. According to the SLMM, the Tamil rebels<br />
had previously agreed to the escort. (20 April) LTTE <strong>of</strong>ficially pulls out <strong>of</strong> peace talks indefinitely. (23 April)<br />
Six Sinhalese rice farmers are massacred in their fields by suspected LTTE cadres. (13 May) 13 Tamil civilians<br />
are killed in the islet <strong>of</strong> Kayts. Later, a female suicide bomber blows herself up at Sri Lankan Army HQ in<br />
Colombo trying to kill the Army's <strong>com</strong>mander. For the first time since the 2001 ceasefire, the Sri Lanka Air<br />
Force carries out aerial assaults on rebel positions in the north-eastern part <strong>of</strong> the island nation in retaliation for<br />
the attack. (19 May) The European Union proscribes the LTTE as a terrorist organization: Its assets in the 27<br />
member nations are frozen. Violence continues and talks are scheduled in Oslo, Norway, 8-9 June but they fall<br />
through. (8 June) Massacre <strong>of</strong> a family <strong>of</strong> four Tamils from the village <strong>of</strong> Venkalai: The victims are tortured<br />
and the mother is gang raped before her murder. The Sri Lankan government and the LTTE accuse each other<br />
<strong>of</strong> perpetrating the killings. (15 June) 60 people are killed as a result <strong>of</strong> claymore attack on a bus in<br />
Kebithigollewa. This prompts more air strikes by the Air Force. (26 June) Assassination <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka's third<br />
highest-ranking army <strong>of</strong>ficer and Deputy Chief <strong>of</strong> Staff General Parami Kulatunga by an LTTE suicide<br />
bomber. (21 July) The LTTE closes the sluice gates <strong>of</strong> the Mavil Aru reservoir, cutting the water supply to<br />
15,000 villages in government controlled areas. (26 July) The Air Force attacks LTTE positions and ground<br />
troops began an operation to open the gate (done 8 Aug). After heavy fighting, government troops (15 Aug)<br />
gain control <strong>of</strong> the Mamil Aru reservoir. Meanwhile, LTTE attacks the Navy base at Trin<strong>com</strong>alee and (2 Aug)<br />
the town <strong>of</strong> Muttur, displacing thousands <strong>of</strong> residents. (5 Aug) Muttur is retaken, and over 150 LTTE fighters<br />
are killed. (4/5 Aug) Massacre <strong>of</strong> 17 workers <strong>of</strong> the French charity Action Against Hunger. (11 Aug) LTTE<br />
launches massive attacks on Sri Lanka Army defence lines in the Jaffna peninsula. Sri Lanka Air Force carries<br />
out an air strike against a facility in the rebel held Mullaitivu area, killing a number <strong>of</strong> Tamil girls: There is
dispute about they were innocent, or LTTE trainees. There is an attempt on the life <strong>of</strong> the Pakistani High<br />
Commissoner: India is accused as Pakistan is supplying the Sri Lankan military. (28 Aug) Assault against<br />
Sampur and the adjoining Kaddaiparichchan and Thoppur areas: (4 Sept) Sampur is taken and the Army begins<br />
to set up a military base there. (Oct) LTTE kills 130 soldiers at Muhamalai. (Few days later) A suspected LTTE<br />
suicide bomber strickes a naval convoy in Habaraba, killing about 100 sailors who are returning home on<br />
leave. (Two days later) 15 LTTE Sea Tigers launch an attack against the Dakshina naval base in the southern<br />
port city <strong>of</strong> Galle. Both sides agree to attend peace talks in Geneva 28-29 Oct. They break down over opening<br />
the highway between Jaffna and government controlled areas in the south. (7 Nov) The Vaharai Bombing; there<br />
are conflicting cliams over who killed 45 Tamil civilians. (Dec) Government plans to drive LTTE out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
eastern province in order to "free the civilians." (8 Dec) Government begins operations in the Batticoloa<br />
district against Vakarai, principle LTTE eastern stronghold. After a week the rains and great number <strong>of</strong><br />
civilians bring a halt.<br />
2007 (Jan) suspected LTTE cadres carry out two bus bombings in the south <strong>of</strong> the country, killing 21 civilians. (2<br />
Jan) LTTE and others accuse the government <strong>of</strong> murdering 15 civilians in the Padahuthurai bombing. (Mid<br />
Jan) The assault on Vakari resumes and (19 Jan) it is taken. (Feb) Troops mostly operating in small groups <strong>of</strong><br />
Special Forces and Commando units begin a new operation to clear the last remaining LTTE cadres from the<br />
Eastern Province. (28 Mar) They capture the key LTTE base in Kokkadicholai. (1 April) The Sri Lankan<br />
military accuses the LTTE <strong>of</strong> killing six Sinhalese tsunami aid workers in the Eastern district <strong>of</strong> Batticaloa. (2<br />
April) Suspected LTTE cadres set <strong>of</strong>f a bomb aboard a civilian bus in Ampara which kills 17 people, including<br />
3 children. (12 April) Special Forces and Commandos capture strategic A5 highway, bringing the entire<br />
highway under government control for the first time in 15 years. (11 July) After three months, the army<br />
captures Thoppigala Peak, ending the LTTE's military capability in the Eastern Province. (Sept) Fighting in the<br />
north intensifies. (2 Nov) S. P. Thamilselvan, head <strong>of</strong> the LTTE political wing, is killed during a government<br />
air raid. (26 Nov) The leader <strong>of</strong> the LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran, is seriously injured during air strikes carried<br />
out by the Sri Lanka Air Force on a bunker <strong>com</strong>plex in Jayanthinagar. (Dec) By this time the Army has taken<br />
LTTE defenses at Uyilankulama, Parappakandal and Thampanai.<br />
2008 (2 Jan) Sri Lankan government abandons the cease fire agreement. (5 Jan) Colonel Charles, Head <strong>of</strong> LTTE<br />
Military Intelligence, is killed in a claymore mine ambush by a Sri Lanka Army Long Range Reconnaissance<br />
Patrol. The government attempts to open a third front along the Muhamalai Forward Defence Line: (23 April)<br />
There is a setback, then the Army advances rapidly; capturing (9 May) Adampan, (30 June) Mannar "Rice<br />
Bowl" (most fertile paddy fields), (16 July) Vidattaltivu and (20 July) Iluppaikkadavai. (21 July) LTTE<br />
announces that it will be declaring a unilateral ceasefire from 28 July to 4 August, to coincide with the 15th<br />
summit <strong>of</strong> the heads <strong>of</strong> state <strong>of</strong> SAARC to be held in Colombo. Ignored by the government. (2 Aug) Capture <strong>of</strong><br />
Vellanculam <strong>com</strong>pletes the government's recapture <strong>of</strong> Mannar District. (2 Sept) Mallavi taken. (9 Sept) LTTE<br />
attacks Vavuniya air base; both sides claim victory. (30 July) Army enters Kilinochchi district, last stronghold<br />
<strong>of</strong> the LTTE. (6 Oct) LTTE kills Major General Janaka Perera along with 26 other victims in a suicide blast.<br />
(17 Oct) SLA troops cut <strong>of</strong>f the Mannar-Poonaryn A32 highway north <strong>of</strong> Nachchikuda, the main remaining Sea<br />
Tiger stronghold on the northwestern coast <strong>of</strong> the island. (29 Oct) Nachchikuda taken. Then Army Task Force 1<br />
continues their advance towards Pooneryn, capturing Kiranchchi, Palavi, Veravil, Valaipadu and Devil's Point.<br />
(15 Nov) Pooneryn is entered. Meanwhile, new Task Foce 3 enters the area <strong>of</strong> Mankulam with the objective <strong>of</strong><br />
engaging the LTTE cadres in a new battlefront towards the east <strong>of</strong> the Jaffna–Kandy A9 highway. (17 Nov)<br />
Mankuam and surrounding area taken. (23 Nov) Attack on Kilinochchi begins.<br />
2009 As Sri Lankan forces are bringing LTTE toward its end, both civilian casualties and brutality increase. (1 Jan)<br />
Paranthan taken. (2 Jan) Kilinochchi taken. The Tigers abandon their positions on the Jaffna peninsula and<br />
make their last stand in the jungles <strong>of</strong> Mullaitivu. (14 Jan) The entire Jaffna peninsula is taken. (25 Jan)<br />
Mullaitivu taken. (5 Feb) Chalai, the last Sea Tiger base, is taken. (19 Feb) Human Rights Watch issues a<br />
report accusing the Sri Lankan army <strong>of</strong> "slaughtering" civilians during indiscriminate artillery attacks<br />
(including repeated shelling <strong>of</strong> hospitals) and calling on the Sri Lankan government to end its policy <strong>of</strong><br />
"detaining displaced persons" in military-controlled internment camps. Human Rights Watch also urges the<br />
Tamil Tigers to permit trapped civilians to leave the war zone and to "stop shooting at those who try to flee".<br />
(20 Feb) Two LTTE planes on a suicide mission attack the capital Colombo, killing two and wounding 45, but<br />
both planes are shot down before they can damage the intended targets, Army HQ and the main Air Force base.<br />
(March, late) Pressure is placed on Mahinda Rajapaksa to find a political solution to the conflict but there are<br />
calls that a solution <strong>of</strong> the humanitarian crisis should <strong>com</strong>e first. (5 April) Battle <strong>of</strong> Aanandapuram in which<br />
most if not all <strong>of</strong> LTTE's battle <strong>com</strong>manders are killed; the LTTE is pushed into a small littoral strip <strong>of</strong> territory<br />
located between the Paranthan-Mullaitivu A35 highway, Nanthikadal and Chalai lagoons on one side and the<br />
Indian ocean on the other where they build a defensive bund, trapping 20,000 civilians. This is destroyed. (21<br />
April) Assault launched with aim <strong>of</strong> taking LTTE leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran. At the same time, a mass
Tamil exodus from the 'no-fire zone' was underway. (22 April) Two senior LTTE leaders surrender. When<br />
asked why they had surrendered, both men stress that rebels are shooting at the civilians and preventing them<br />
from escaping from the 'no-fire zone' to safety in government-controlled areas. They also alleged that the LTTE<br />
is still abducting and conscripting children as young as 14 years old, and will fire at anyone who tries to resist.<br />
(16 May) Army captures the last section <strong>of</strong> coastline held by the Tigers, declaring victory over the LTTE. (17<br />
May) LTTE admits defeat. The Sri Lanka Armed Forces re-establishes control <strong>of</strong> the entire country under the<br />
Sri Lankan Government. The Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka, drops its demand<br />
for a separate state, in favor <strong>of</strong> a federal solution. There are "mop up" campaigns <strong>of</strong> several small groups <strong>of</strong><br />
LTTE cadres through August.<br />
APPENDIX I; King <strong>of</strong> Portugal's Letter to his Viceroy in India (1546):<br />
He bewails the idol worship prevailing the Portuguese controlled parts <strong>of</strong> India. Then; "We charge you to<br />
discover all the idols by means <strong>of</strong> diligent <strong>of</strong>ficers, to reduce them to fragments and utterly to consume them, in<br />
whatsoever place they may be found, proclaiming rigorous penalties against such persons as shall dare to engrave,<br />
cast, sculpture, limn, paint or bring to light any figure in metal, bronze, wood, clay or any other substance, or shall<br />
introduce them from foreign parts; and against those who shall celebrate in public or in private any festivities which<br />
have any Gentile taint, or shall abet them, or shall conceal the Brahmins, the pestilential enemies <strong>of</strong> the name <strong>of</strong><br />
Christ." He emphasizes the necessity for severe punishment, then; "And because the Gentiles submit themselves to<br />
the yoke <strong>of</strong> the Gospel not alone through their conviction <strong>of</strong> the purity <strong>of</strong> the faith and for that they are sustained by<br />
the hope <strong>of</strong> Eternal Life, they should also be encouraged by temporal favors, such as greatly mollify the hearts <strong>of</strong><br />
those who receive them; and therefore you should earnestly set yourself to see that the new Christians from this time<br />
forward do obtain and enjoy all exemptions and freedom from tribute, and moreover that they hold the privileges<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fices <strong>of</strong> honor which up till now the Gentiles have been wont to possess."<br />
APPENDIX II; Treaty between Raja Singha II and the Dutch (23 May, 1638):<br />
It is between Raja Singha "Emperor and King <strong>of</strong> Ceylon and Candia," and Westerwold, acting on behalf <strong>of</strong><br />
"Their Illustrious High Mightiness the States General <strong>of</strong> the United Netherlands and his Princely Excellency<br />
Frederick Hendrick, Prince <strong>of</strong> Orange," by which the King accepts the Hollanders as his "friends, allies and<br />
protectors" against the "great and intolerable deceit and impertinence <strong>of</strong>, and annoyance created by, the Portuguese."<br />
It is agreed that the booty found in all forts captured by the allied powers should be equally divided between the two<br />
High Contracting Parties, and that, should the King so desire [this phrase "should the King so desire" is left out <strong>of</strong><br />
the Dutch copy], the positions should be occupied by garrisons with sufficient artillery for their protection against<br />
the Portuguese. The King for his part undertakes to strengthen the fortifications where required, to pay the salaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the garrisons employed in holding them, and to allot the Hollanders suitable places for the storage <strong>of</strong> their<br />
merchandise. He agrees not to begin hostilities without previously consulting them, to render them assistance by<br />
counsel and deed, and to repay in kind all expenses incurred by them in his behalf. Tho Hollanders are to be allowed<br />
unrestricted freedom <strong>of</strong> trade, with a monopoly <strong>of</strong> the <strong>com</strong>merce in cinnamon, pepper, wax and ivory. The trade in<br />
elephants is, however, reserved to the King, though a most-favored-nation clause is inserted by which he undertakes<br />
to supply the Hollanders each year with as many <strong>of</strong> the animals as he sold to others.<br />
The treaty further guarantees the extra-territoriality <strong>of</strong> the Hollanders, and while it secures for their<br />
merchants untrammeled access to the country, makes it incumbent on the Sinhalese to provide the necessary<br />
transport for all good purchased by them. Provision is made for the extradition <strong>of</strong> criminals; <strong>com</strong>munication for the<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> trade or otherwise between the Portuguese and Sinhalese is forbidden, and the Portuguese declared the<br />
eternal enemies <strong>of</strong> both parties. Catholic priests in particular, "who alone are the cause <strong>of</strong> <strong>com</strong>motion. dissension<br />
and disturbance, and are the destruction <strong>of</strong> kingdoms and countries wherever they happen to be," are not allowed to<br />
enter the country. Finally, all prize ships captured on the high seas are to be the property <strong>of</strong> the Hollanders.<br />
APPENDIX III; Treaty <strong>of</strong> Batticaloa between Kirti Siri Raja Singh and the Dutch (14 Feb, 1766):<br />
The Company is acknowledged as sovereign over the districts it had possessed previous to the<br />
<strong>com</strong>mencement <strong>of</strong> the war. The King cedes to it the whole seaboard which had remained to him, for the distance <strong>of</strong> a<br />
gowwa inland, the Company undertaking to pay him yearly the revenue which was collected therefrom. He is<br />
acknowledged paramount over the rest <strong>of</strong> the island, and all other territory occupied by the Company during the war<br />
is to be restored to him. The right to take as much salt as they liked from the Lewayas, Puttalam and Chilaw, is<br />
reserved for his subjects, while the Company obtains the privilege <strong>of</strong> peeling cinnamon from the whole <strong>of</strong> the Low<br />
Countries belonging to the King, namely Sabaragamuwa, and the Three, Four and Seven Korales as far as Balane.<br />
The cinnamon found east <strong>of</strong> Balane is to be peeled by the King's subjects and sold at a fixed rate exclusively to the<br />
Company, which obtains in addition the monopoly in the trade in ivory, pepper, cardamons, c<strong>of</strong>fee, arecanuts and<br />
wax.
There is to be unrestricted trade between the subjects <strong>of</strong> the two contracting parties, with the right <strong>of</strong> entry<br />
into each others' territory for the purpose, the Company undertaking to procure for the King such articles as he<br />
requires from foreign countries. In return he agrees to supply the Company at Battiacola and Tri<strong>com</strong>alee with all the<br />
timber they need, and to surrender all the Hollanders who are kept as prisoners by him, together with the cannon<br />
captured at Hanwella. Runaway slaves are to be restored and criminals extradited.<br />
The Company pledges itself to protect the King's dominions from all external aggression, and to make no<br />
agreement with any foreign power which might be prejudicial to him; while the King promises not to enter any<br />
treaty with any European power or Indian Prince, and to deliver up all Europeans <strong>com</strong>ing within his territory. The<br />
Company's ambassadors are no longer required to go through the humiliating ritual for an audience with the King.<br />
The King states he signed this treaty only by his love <strong>of</strong> peace: He protests the loss <strong>of</strong> his sea-coast, and the<br />
refusal to return his guns and deserted subjects. He declares that further representations will be made to Batavia.<br />
The Company finally achieves its long-cherished policy: The King is cut <strong>of</strong>f from all foreign intercourse.<br />
His kingdom is now dependent on everything that cannot be produced locally, on the humor <strong>of</strong> the Company's<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficials, and the trade <strong>of</strong> his subjects has to be regulated by its demands. The Dutch have earned the Court's hatred<br />
and they must stand the expense <strong>of</strong> maintaining an armed force.<br />
APPENDIX IV; Donoughmore Consititution <strong>of</strong> 1931:<br />
The document reserves the highest level <strong>of</strong> responsibility for the British governor, whose assent is<br />
necessary for all legislation. The legislative branch <strong>of</strong> the government--the State Council-- functions in both an<br />
executive and legislative capacity. Seven <strong>com</strong>mittees perform executive duties. Each <strong>com</strong>mittee consists <strong>of</strong><br />
designated members <strong>of</strong> the State Council and is chaired by an elected Sri Lankan, who is addressed as minister.<br />
Three British <strong>of</strong>ficers <strong>of</strong> ministerial rank, along with the seven Sri Lankan ministers, form a board <strong>of</strong> ministers. The<br />
British ministers collectively handle responsibility for defense, external affairs, finance, and judicial matters.<br />
This Constitution ushers in a period <strong>of</strong> experimentation in participatory democracy but contemporary<br />
political scientists criticized it for not having provided an atmosphere conducive to the growth <strong>of</strong> a healthy party<br />
system. The system <strong>of</strong> executive <strong>com</strong>mittees does not lead to the development <strong>of</strong> national political parties. Instead, a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> splinter political groups evolve around influential personalities who usually follow a vision too limited or<br />
an agenda too <strong>com</strong>munally partisan to have an impact on national politics.<br />
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BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Geiger, Wilhelm; The Mahavamsa, Great Chronicle <strong>of</strong> Ceylon; Oxford University Press, London, 1912<br />
Hocart, H.W.; A Short History <strong>of</strong> Ceylon; MacMillan, London, 1926<br />
Obeyesekere, Donald; Outlines <strong>of</strong> Ceylon History; The Times <strong>of</strong> London, Colombo, 1911<br />
Pieris, P.E.; Ceylon and the Hollanders, 1658-1796; American Ceylon Mission Press, Tellippalai, 1918<br />
Pieris, P.E.; Ceylon and the Portuguese, 1505-1658; American Ceylon Mission Press, Tellippalai, 1920<br />
Various internet sources including, but not limited to:<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffna_kingdom.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandyan_Wars.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_<strong>of</strong>_Kandy.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom _<strong>of</strong>_Kotte.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_<strong>of</strong>_Sitawaka.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_<strong>of</strong>_Sri_Lankan_monarchsWiki.html<br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri-Lankan_Civil_War.html<br />
www.Virtual Library-Sri Lanka