Lesson 1-Ancient Civilizations

Course World History 

Humans have lived in almost every corner of the globe for tens of thousands of years. While 

they are no longer around to tell us their stories, the objects and writings they left behind give 

us a glimpse into the past. This course will provide a broad survey of the history of the world, 

from the earliest humans who emerged from Africa to the modern peoples and nations that 

exist today. You'll learn how people adapted to live in different environments, developed 

tools and technology, practiced diverse religions, created political institutions to govern, and 

spread ideas as they interacted with one another. By following the stories of different 

peoples and cultures through time, you'll observe how key developments and events that 

took place over thousands of years have shaped the world today. While many stories and 

people have been forgotten with the passing of time, what remains is a rich record of the 

human experience that can help us better understand the present. 

Course Objectives 

Recognize features and achievements of ancient civilizations 

Recognize features and achievements of the Byzantine Empire, Middle Ages, and Europe 

during the Renaissance and Age of Exploration 

Compare society and politics of world regions during the period of 1500–1800 

Explain causes of revolution, impacts of industrialization on society, and factors leading to 

development of global empires during the late 1700s to the early 1900s 

Describe how the Great War, Great Depression, and nationalism affected world regions 

Describe how World War II, the Cold War, and economic globalization affected world 

regions 

© 2021 Penn Foster Inc. 

World History (v3) : Page 1

World History : Ancient Civilizations 

Lesson 1 Overview 

In this lesson, you’ll learn about human prehistory and ancient history. This lesson begins 

with an examination of early humans as they spread throughout the world until the 

development of agriculture. Over the next six sections, this lesson surveys the technology, 

societal structures, cultures, religions, and political developments among the prominent 

civilizations and cultures of Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Europe until approximately 1,000 

years ago. As you’ll find out, these early peoples and civilizations were interconnected with 

common threads that continue to influence the world today. 

1.1 Describe how the first humans lived 

Ancient Civilizations and the First Humans 

READING ASSIGNMENT 

In this section, you'll learn about the origins of humans and how they survived in the harsh 

conditions of the last ice age. It was only after a warming change in the climate that humans 

developed farming. This allowed them to live in permanent settlements, paving the way for 

complex societies called civilizations. 

Prehistory 

Prehistory is the story of the past before there were written records of it. Most of human 

existence occurred before writing. The oldest fossil of an anatomically modern human is 

about 200,000 years old. Writing, on the other hand, was invented only about 5,000 years 

ago. This means that about 97.5 percent of the entire time that humans have walked the 

earth, which is over about 195,000 years, their stories went unrecorded. If all of human 

existence was squashed into a single year, with humans first appearing on January 1 and 

December 31 representing the early twenty-first century, we would have a written record of 


World History (v3) : Lesson 1 : Page 1

only about the last nine days of the year—a tiny proportion. 

Since there are no written records of humanity's early ages, historians studying this early 

period rely on archaeologists' work. Archaeology is the study of the past by excavating, or 

digging up, ancient sites and studying physical remains such as ruins or artifacts. Artifacts 

are objects of historical or cultural importance. These may include fossilized bones, weapons, 

art, clothing, and other remains. 

[Four archaeologists digging up an 

ancient site] 

Archaeologists excavating a 

site. 

One of the key tools archaeologists and scientists use to analyze the past is radiometric 

dating. Radiometric dating is a technique that measures naturally occurring radioactive 

decay in objects to determine when those objects were created. For example, if an ancient 

human built a campfire and, thousands of years later, archaeologists found the remains of 

that campfire, radiometric dating could be used to figure out how long ago the fire burned. 

Radiometric dating doesn't work all the time. If ancient humans carved a stone figure, 

radiometric dating may be able to determine the age of the stone only, which will be far older 

than when humans carved the stone. To determine the age and other information about such 

an artifact, archaeologists would need to study other objects and features of a site. 

Archeologists may also look to see what else was buried with the object to find a date. 

Dating objects, therefore, is never exact, which is why when you read about prehistory, you'll 

often see ranges of dates. Archaeology is good at determining when something occurred, 

but it doesn't provide you with the exact day or even year when something happened. 

Archaeologists don't just learn about the age of objects and prehistoric sites. They also study 



the artifacts and sites they uncover to learn about people's culture, technology, and other 

lifeways. Sometimes, their findings are educated guesses, which means that some riddles 

of the past can never be answered completely. For example, if a team of archaeologists 

finds the grave of a prehistoric human and the body has small figurines or statues beside it, 

they might assume that the objects are part of that people's religion. This may be correct, but 

it's usually impossible to know for certain. Often, the theories of one archaeologist are 

replaced by new theories based on new discoveries, evidence, and debate. Yet, despite 

these limitations, archaeologists have collected enough information, which is then studied by 

scientists and historians, that we can see a big picture of humanity's deepest past. 

Becoming Human 

Humans belong to the species Homo sapiens (meaning "wise human"), which is a part of the 

primate group called hominids. Aside from humans, hominids include gorillas, chimpanzees, 

and orangutans. At some point, between 6 and 7 million years ago, a branch of the hominids 

of the genus Australopithecus evolved to become bipedal (able to walk upright on two legs) 

and developed larger brains. This branch of the hominids became hominins, of which 

humans are a member. 

There were many species of hominins, but the first members of the human genus, Homo 

(which simply means "human"), appeared around 2 million years ago. One of those species, 

the four-feet-tall, 70-pound Homo habilis, was one of the first hominins to create and use 

stone tools. Tools at this stage consisted of basic stone choppers and scrapers, which Homo 

habilis used to butcher and skin animals as well as cut plants. 

[The image depicts three basic stone 

choppers of Oldowan technology 

found in Ethiopia.] 

These examples of stone 



choppers were used by early 

species of human in what's now 

Ethiopia. (Image by Didier 

Descouens [CC BY-SA 4.0 (cre 

ativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/4.0/) 

], via Wikimedia 

Commons) 

The Ice Ages 

The use of tools marked the beginning of a period called the Paleolithic Era, or Old Stone 

Age, which lasted from about 2 million to just 11,000 years ago. The Paleolithic Era, or 

Paleolithic period, took place during the Pleistocene epoch. Both terms cover roughly the 

same time span, but Paleolithic Era refers to human development, while Pleistocene is a 

term used to describe the geological lifespan of the Earth. 

The Pleistocene is best known for its ice ages. Throughout this time, the Earth saw great 

swings in climate, with periods of warmth followed by thousands of years of cold. This was 

caused by natural cycles in the Earth's tilt and orbit as well as the movement of continents. 

As temperatures cooled, immense glaciers formed as water iced up over the North and 

South Poles. As the glaciers grew, their own weight pushed them away from the poles and 

into lower latitudes in a process called glaciation. 

[The image depicts a map of the Earth with lowered sea levels during 

the last ice age.] 

A map of the earth shows lowered sea levels during the 



last ice age. 

During the ice ages, the glaciers grew to be over two miles thick and extended far from each 

pole. As glaciers iced up, grew, and then retreated and melted, they carved out lakes, 

created rivers, dug gorges, and moved boulders. The glaciers locked up so much water as 

ice that sea levels dropped by well over 300 feet at times. The drop in sea level exposed 

large areas of land and connected regions that are separated by water today. Glaciers were 

one of nature's most powerful bulldozers and, over time, they changed the landscape 

completely. For example, glaciers made the Great Lakes in North America, which serve as a 

testament to the dramatic changes that glaciers made to the landscape. 

Early Humans 

Scientists believe that climate change probably allowed early hominins to spread out of 

Africa. The species Homo erectus was probably the first to enter Eurasia, about 1.8 million 

years ago. Homo erectus had larger brains and used more advanced tools than Homo 

habilis. They were also the first hominins to control fire, which was an important adaptation 

when moving into new territories. Fire protected early humans from the cold and from 

predators. It also allowed them to cook. Cooking gave hominins access to new foods that 

were indigestible when eaten raw. The ability to cook food provided early humans with a 

more varied and nutritious diet, which helped them develop. Homo erectus, in turn, evolved 

into several other species of hominin, which ultimately gave rise to Neanderthals and, 

eventually, modern humans. 



[This chart shows the differences between four period of time as the archaic human and modern human 

skulls.] 

A Comparison of Skulls Among Humans and Human Ancestors 

Neanderthals, or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 

about 400,000 years ago until 40,000 years ago. Neanderthals were broad and strong, 

having evolved adapted to ice-age conditions. After Neanderthal fossils were discovered in 

1856, the species has often been stereotyped as unintelligent cave people. However, 

scientific evidence shows this not to be the case. Neanderthals had larger brains than 

modern humans, which they used to carefully craft tools, communicate through speech with 

one another, and carry out rituals like burying their dead. The practice of burying their dead 

has led some scholars to argue that Neanderthals had spiritual beliefs. Meanwhile, in central 

Eurasia, another species related to the Neanderthals, the Denisovans, developed. 



[The image depicts the human family tree and the origins of modern 

Homo sapiens. The tree shows proportionally what areas of land each 

species of human occupied in Eurasia.] 

Early human evolution and the areas that different human 

species occupied. The numbers on the Y-axis indicate 

millions of years ago. The X-axis indicates how widely 

spread that species was over Eurasia. 

Modern humans, Homo sapiens, appeared after the Neanderthals. The oldest Homo sapiens 

skeleton that archaeologists have found dates to about 200,000 years ago. Early modern 

humans developed slowly in Africa, with small populations. However, by about 100,000 

years ago, Homo sapiens had developed the complex tools, weapons, language, and 

technology needed to expand outside the African continent. 

Early Human Migration 

Early human migration occurred in a start-and-stop pattern, since Homo sapiens had mixed 

success at trying to move across large distances. The first attempts to migrate out of Africa 

occurred about 100,000 years ago, but these were unsuccessful. However, starting about 

70,000 years ago, humans successfully moved into Western Asia and East Asia. Humans 

then migrated through Southeast Asia and used boats to cross the sea to reach Australia 

about 50,000 years ago. Traveling so far across the water was a major accomplishment. 

They had some favorable conditions, though, since the channel of water separating 



Southeast Asia from Australia was narrower at the time due to lower sea levels. 

Nevertheless, it was the first time that humans took to the ocean, which demonstrates how 

advanced their technology had become. Then, about 40,000 years ago, humans pushed into 

Europe, where they intermingled with the Neanderthals, eventually replacing them. Following 

their migration to northern Europe, Homo sapiens occupied every continent in the Eastern 

Hemisphere. 

The last major migration of Homo sapiens was to the Americas about 15,000 years ago. At 

that time, due to lower sea levels during the ice age, Alaska and Eastern Russia were 

connected by a great land bridge called Beringia. Most likely, bands of humans who were 

following big game animals crossed the land bridge and entered the Western Hemisphere 

for the first time. Humans also migrated by a coastal route, using boats to skirt the North 

American and South American shores. Regardless of whether they came by land or sea, 

humans populated the Americas within a couple of thousand years. 

It took tens of thousands of years, but humans were able to reach every continent on Earth 

except for Antarctica. As Homo sapiens grew in number and migrated throughout the world, 

all other species of Homo became extinct. It's theorized that other early humans disappeared 

either due to climatic change or through conflict with Homo sapiens. Interestingly, genetic 

evidence shows that Neanderthals and Denisovans interbred with some Homo sapiens, 

meaning that small parts of their genomes were passed down and are present within modern 

humans even today. 



[An image of a map of the migration of early humans ] 

This map shows how humans originated in Africa and had migrated into six of the seven 

continents by 12,000 years ago. Also shown are the ranges of Homo neanderthalensis and 

Homo erectus. 

Early Human Life and Culture 

Early humans explored a world that was quite different from ours today. Aside from glaciers, 

the land was dominated by very large animals referred to as megafauna. Each continent 

contained its own unique set of large animals, such as giant kangaroos and other large 

marsupials in Australia, woolly mammoths and saber-toothed cats in the Northern 

Hemisphere, and giant ground sloths throughout the Americas. 



[The image depicts a skeleton of a 

wooly mammoth in the foreground 

and an aurochs in the background at 

the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois.] 

A Museum Display of 

Prehistoric Megafauna (Image 

by Zissoudisctrucker [CC BY- 

SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/li 

censes/by-sa/4.0/) ], via 

Wikimedia Commons) 

To survive, humans lived by hunting and gathering, and their diet was completely wild. 

They hunted wild animals, collected wild plants, and fished. Hunter-gatherers usually lived in 

small bands of not more than a few dozen people. Because of their small size, many 

scholars argue that most hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian, meaning that they lived in 

a society in which all people were treated equally, sharing power and roles. Scholars 

theorize that, while there were different roles between males and females at this stage, they 

were less pronounced than in more modern societies. As these small hunter-gatherer bands 

grew, groups most likely stayed small, as individuals and small groups left and migrated to 

new areas. 

While some hunter-gatherers stayed in long-term camps or caves if resources were 

abundant, most didn't stay in one place. Instead, they were nomadic, meaning they didn't 

have permanent settlements. Hunter-gatherers followed big game and foraged plants to 

sustain themselves. They fished with hooks and collected wild seed to grind into flour. 

Because the ice age climate was harsh and unpredictable, humans needed to be flexible. In 

order to survive, Homo sapiens had developed advanced technologies such as superior 

hunting weapons and boats. They were also cooperative and planned ahead. This made 



them the top predator in any ecosystem they entered. Even the most powerful megafauna, 

such as six-ton woolly mammoths, had difficulty stopping a group of determined humans 

from successfully hunting them. 

By the time humans had finished their migrations, many of the megafauna species were 

extinct. Some scientists have theorized that the extinction of the ice-age megafauna was 

caused by overhunting. This is supported by evidence that after humans arrived in areas 

where they had never been before, such as Australia and the Americas, many of the 

megafauna disappeared. By this theory, it's assumed that the large animals, unafraid of the 

unfamiliar humans, were easily killed. Other scientists believe that climate change brought 

the animals to extinction or contributed to the disappearance of the megafauna. 

[This image of ancient animal 

paintings is part of the cave art at 

Lascaux, France.] 

Cave Art at Lascaux, France 

Little is known about early human spiritual beliefs. Nevertheless, it's assumed there was 

some form of religion, since humans buried their dead and left behind evidence of burial 

rituals. Much of the spirit of Paleolithic people can be seen in their art. In the famous 15,000– 

17,000-year-old cave paintings found in Lascaux, France, almost 600 paintings decorate the 

walls, depicting horses, ibex, deer, mammoth, wooly rhinoceros, and bison. Older still are the 

cave paintings in Chauvet, France, which date to about 30,000 years ago. There are even 

older cave paintings, such as on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, which date to over 

35,000 years ago. 



[This image shows the Venus of Dolní 

Věstonice at the Moravian Museum in 

the Czech Republic.] 

The Venus of Dolní Věstonice 

at the Moravian Museum in the 

Czech Republic (Image by 

Miroslav Zachoval [CC BY-SA 

4.0 (creativecommons.org/licen 

ses/by-sa/4.0/) ], via Wikimedia 

Commons) 

Another valuable site that shows ancient works of art is at Dolní Věstonice in the Czech 

Republic. Here, archaeologists uncovered a large, 30,000-year-old Paleolithic camp that has 

a collection of early clay pots depicting images of animals. Also at Dolní Věstonice were 

numerous other figurines of animals. However, the most famous artifact is the so-called 

"Venus of Dolní Věstonice," which is one of the best-known works of art from the prehistoric 

period. The stone figure, which is a nude female, is thought by some to be a fertility symbol. 

Based on what the archaeologists found, we know that these people belonged to a more 

complex society that took part in long-distance trade. 

The Agricultural Revolution 

Humans lived as hunter-gatherers for thousands of years. Then, about 11,700 years ago, the 

Pleistocene ended and the world's climate warmed. The glaciers retreated. These conditions 

allowed humans to domesticate plants and animals. Domestication is the process of taming 

wild animals and the cultivation, or transformation, of wild plants for human use. 

Domestication allowed humans to adopt agriculture, which is simply the practice of farming. 

While humans had always incorporated wild plants into their diets, a warmer, more stable 



climate made growing crops as the main source of food possible. 

In what's modern Syria, Israel, and Lebanon today, hunter-gatherers foraged wild crops of 

rye, wheat, and barley. Over time, they found that they could plant some of the wild seeds 

they collected to generate new crops. By planting the most desirable seeds in a process 

called selective breeding, wild plants slowly transformed into domesticated crops that 

humans could depend upon as a regular food source. The same types of discoveries were 

made independently by different groups of humans around the world. Rice was domesticated 

in East and South Asia about 8,000 years ago, maize (corn) in Mesoamerica 8,000 years 

ago, and potatoes in the Andes Mountains at the same time. These are just a few examples 

of many plants that would eventually form a large part of the human diet, which we still eat 

today. 

[This image is a map of the world showing the original locations of plant species and the approximate 

locations where they were domesticated.] 

Global Locations of Early Plant Domestication. It is noted that the pointer locations indicate 



general regions where crops are believed to have first been domesticated. In some cases, 

the center of origin is uncertain. Other geographic regions also harbor important genetic 

diversity for these crops. 

As time passed, humans improved farming techniques. They developed irrigation, bringing 

water to crops, usually by digging channels from freshwater sources. They discovered the 

advantages of terrace farming, which involves making steps in a hill or mountainside on 

which crops could be planted. These advances allowed crop yields to become surpluses, 

providing extra food to store. 

Meanwhile, humans domesticated certain wild animals. This was a trial-and-error process, 

since only a few animal species were ever successfully domesticated. Before agriculture was 

practiced, while humans lived as hunter-gatherers, the only domesticated animals were 

dogs, descended from wolves that had become tame. The best proof of the first dog is from 

15,000 years ago, although there's evidence that dogs were human companions far earlier. 

Like plants, humans selectively bred animals, choosing those with desirable traits like being 

easier to handle, having more meat, or having more wool. People in the Taurus and Zagros 

mountains in the west of Asia domesticated goats and sheep about 9,500 years ago. About 

8,000 years ago, cattle and pigs were domesticated, as well as the chicken from wild jungle 

fowl in Southeast Asia. Horses were domesticated about 6,000 years ago on the Eurasian 

steppes. In the Americas, people domesticated the guinea pig, llama, and alpaca. All these 

animals provided protein through meat and milk, something domesticated plants lacked. 

Domesticated animals also provided hides or wool for making clothing and other items. 

Large domestic animals, such as cattle and the horse, were useful in helping to work farms 

and transport people and goods. 

It's important to understand that humans didn't develop agriculture suddenly. It was a 

process that took centuries and, for a long while, people continued to hunt and gather while 

growing crops. But eventually, agriculture took over as the main food source for the human 

species. This dramatic transformation away from nomadic, hunter-gather societies marked 

the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the Neolithic, or New Stone Age. Thus, the 

development of agriculture is called the Neolithic Revolution or Agricultural Revolution. 

The Impact of Farming 



Once humans had a reliable food source, they could be sedentary, which means staying in 

one place and living in permanent settlements. As people developed agriculture, they 

needed to live in one place to tend their crops. Farming produced surpluses, or excess food, 

which needed to be stored in permanent buildings. The extra food resulted in population 

growth, which required more food than what could be foraged in a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. 

As settled societies grew, more land needed to be farmed. 

Another change that occurred as people settled and grew extra food was specialization. 

With surplus food, some individuals didn't have to be farmers and were able to specialize in 

other types of work and trade for food and supplies. Specialization meant the creation of 

professions, from clothing makers to builders to priests to scholars. This new type of society 

contrasted sharply with hunter-gatherer cultures, which require every individual to be broadly 

knowledgeable in all areas of work to survive. 

As permanent farming settlements grew, living patterns and households changed. Whereas 

people in nomadic bands lived communally and didn't live in permanent houses, people in 

settled communities began spending more time with their families in separate homes. With a 

permanent settlement, people were able to start accumulating possessions, which translated 

into wealth for some. Gender roles became more pronounced, with males taking up most of 

the farming work while females worked more in the household. In most cases, societies 

slowly became dominated by men. 

One early Neolithic settlement is the site of Jericho in modern-day Palestine. Jericho was 

settled near the Jordan River, which flooded regularly. The floods fertilized the soil along the 

riverbanks, making it good land to farm. By 11,000 years ago, the site became populated 

with hundreds of residents. The people of Jericho used mud to build a brick wall around their 

settlement, most likely to protect it and the grain storage buildings from floods. Jericho, which 

is still inhabited today, is the oldest known continually inhabited settlement in human history. 



[This image shows the excavations at 

Catalhuyuk.] 

Çatalhüyük After the First 

Excavations (Image by Omar 

Hoftun [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creative 

commons.org/licenses/by-sa/4. 

0/) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

As time passed and as agriculture became increasingly sophisticated, settlements grew 

larger—in both population and size. A famous Neolithic site that grew quite large is 

Çatalhüyük in modern-day Turkey. By 9,000 years ago, this town contained several 

thousand people. At this site, archaeologists have discovered many houses filled with 

decorative murals and figurines, which show that the people of Çatalhüyük probably had a 

rich religious life. While the people there farmed foods like wheat, barley, and peas, they still 

hunted wild animals. 

Hierarchies developed in societies with rulers and specialized workers. A hierarchy is a 

system of organizing people into groups called classes, in which one group is ranked above 

or below others. This process was strengthened as towns grew larger and some people 

became wealthier than others. There was a need for organized work and order, as farms 

needed to be irrigated and building projects needed organization. People with more 

resources came to form a ruling class that held more power and could influence others and 

create rules. The egalitarian social order of the hunter-gatherer society vanished as societies 

became more complex and interdependent. 

Settled life brought stability and growing populations, but it also ushered in some less 

desirable ways of life as well. Growing human populations led to more intensified warfare as 

people came into conflict with one another. At sites like Jericho, archaeologists have found 

skeletons bearing wounds from weapons. Another impact of the Agricultural Revolution was 

that the food wasn't as varied or as nutrient-rich as a hunter-gatherer diet, even though there 

was more of it. Studies have shown that Paleolithic hunter-gatherers were, on average, taller 

than Neolithic farmers, which likely points to poorer nutrition for settled people. Also, many 

diseases were able to jump from domesticated animals to humans and, because humans 

were living in denser settlements, they were more susceptible to disease and epidemics. 



Despite warfare, disease, and other downsides to settled life, sedentary, agricultural 

communities proved to be successful as populations continued to grow. By 6,000 years ago, 

Neolithic towns had grown to cities. Humans were about to transform into the complex 

society known as civilization. 

Key Points and Links 


Key Points 

Prehistory is the story of human history before there were written records. 

Archaeologists study the past by excavating and studying artifacts to learn more about 

history before the written word. 

Humans belong to the species Homo sapiens (meaning "wise human"), which is a part 

of the primate group called hominids. Humans evolved in Africa and migrated across 

the world during the Paleolithic Era. 

Climate change probably allowed early hominins to spread out of Africa. 

Early humans lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers in small bands. 

Humans developed agriculture by domesticating certain plants and animals. Agriculture 

resulted in human population growth and the establishment of permanent settlements, 

which resulted in dramatic cultural transformations. 

Exercise: Ancient Civilizations and the First Humans 

Fill in the blank. 

1. By controlling _______, early humans were able to eat a more varied, nutritious diet. 

2. Larger human settlements caused more equal, egalitarian societies to be replaced with 

a more structured _______. 

3. Archaeologists use _______ to determine the age of artifacts by measuring the 

radioactive decay of an artifact. 

4. Humans migrated to the Americas across the land bridge named _______. 

5. Despite the many positive developments, the Agricultural Revolution led to a rise in 

_______, since humans were living in close contact with more people and animals. 

6. The first domesticated animal was the _______. 



Respond to the following based on your reading. 

7. The change from hunting and gathering to agriculture was one of the most important 

events in human history. What are the advantages and disadvantages of farming over 

hunting and gathering? 

8. Describe the migration patterns Homo sapiens took out of Africa during the Pleistocene. 

What was the impact of those migrations? 

Exercise Answer Key: 

Exercise: Ancient Civilizations and the First Humans 

1. fire 

2. hierarchy 

3. radiometric dating 

4. Beringia 

5. disease 

6. dog 

7. Agriculture provided a stable food source and encouraged population growth, which 

allowed for the development of settlements which would become towns and later cities. 

However, the settled diet wasn't as varied as a hunter-gatherer diet and the dense 

settlements allowed diseases to spread easily. As populations and wealth grew in 

settled communities, hierarchies and classes were established. Warfare also intensified. 

8. Humans first successfully migrated into the west of Asia about 70,000 years ago, and by 

50,000 years ago had migrated to Eastern Asia and Australia. About 40,000 years ago, 

humans first migrated to Europe. The last areas to be reached were the Americas, 

through the Beringia land bridge about 15,000 years ago. As they migrated, humans 

impacted the environment and become the top predators. Many scientists believe that 

humans were a main factor for the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna. 

1.2 Describe the structures of the civilizations in Ancient Western Asia 

Ancient Western Asia 




In this section, you'll learn about the establishment, growth, and contributions of the world's 

earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia, from the rise of the Sumerians to the Babylonian 

Empire. You'll learn that the Mesopotamians established the building blocks of government, 

science, religion, law, and empire-building for future societies. 

BCE and CE 

Take note of the use of the abbreviations BCE and CE when reading a date. BCE stands for 

"Before Common Era," and CE stands for "Common Era." Dates that are labeled with BCE 

occurred before those that are followed by CE. Before 1 CE, the dates begin with 1 BCE and 

grow larger as you go backward in time while, today, dates get larger as we move forward in 

time. 

For example, when people started farming around 12,000 BCE, this happened before paper 

was invented, around 100 BCE. Likewise, the US moon landing in 1969 CE is much more 

recent than the first windmill made in the year 650 CE. Many historians use this method of 

marking time instead of the older method, which uses the abbreviations BC and AD. If you 

encounter BC and AD in other readings, they're exact substitutes for BCE and CE. 

What's a Civilization? 

The Agricultural Revolution led to population growth and the establishment of permanent 

settlements. While large Neolithic settlements had their own culture, religion, and 

government, historians generally don't consider them to be civilizations. A civilization is an 

advanced, complex society with large populations centered in urban areas. 

Historians debate what exactly makes up a civilization. However, most historians agree that 

civilizations generally share the following characteristics: 

An organized system of government 

Social classes and hierarchy 

Job specialization 

Cities 

Writing 

Complex religion 

Monumental architecture, such as monuments or large public works 



The Land Between the Two Rivers 

History's earliest civilization developed in Mesopotamia, which consisted of what are now 

Iraq and parts of Turkey, Syria, and Kuwait. The name "Mesopotamia" is Greek for "the land 

between the two rivers." These two rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates, which originate in 

what's now eastern Turkey and empty into the Persian Gulf. Mesopotamia was the land 

between and around these two rivers. 

Ancient Mesopotamia was divided into two regions—Upper Mesopotamia in the northwest, 

where the rivers originated, and Lower Mesopotamia in the southeast. Upper Mesopotamia 

was hillier, with river valleys and regions that were good for animal husbandry, the care of 

domesticated animals. Lower Mesopotamia, on the other hand, was mostly an alluvial plain, 

which was ideal for farming. Alluvial plains are flatlands that are created when rivers that 

flood regularly deposit sediment and soil. 

Upper Mesopotamia received little rain and Lower Mesopotamia received only seasonal rain. 

Therefore, early farmers depended on the water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to nourish 

their crops. The two rivers were essential to life in Ancient Mesopotamia. They were the 

main source of water and they also deposited nutrient-rich silt, which made the land very 

fertile and good for farming. However, the rivers were dangerous, too. At times, flooding 

washed away settlements. 

To control the rivers and increase access to water, the people in Lower Mesopotamia built 

irrigation canals and drainage ditches. These developments protected the land and provided 

consistent water. The regular water allowed for highly productive agriculture. 

Lower Mesopotamian staple crops included wheat, barley, sesame, and date palm. Staple 

crops are foods that make up most of a people's diet. People in Upper Mesopotamia farmed, 

too. But, because of the high hills of the land, irrigation couldn't be used as frequently. 

Farmers stayed closer to the rivers. 



[The image depicts a map of the Fertile Crescent, 

including Mesopotamia] 

A map of the Fertile Crescent contains 

Mesopotamia and also parts of modern-day 

Syria, Israel, Lebanon, and Egypt (Image 

adapted from Nafsadh [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creati 

vecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) ], via 


Mesopotamia belonged to a larger area that historians call the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile 

Crescent is a crescent-shaped region encompassing not only Mesopotamia, but also parts of 

modern-day Syria, Israel, Lebanon, and Egypt. Most of the region had access to ample 

water and developed agriculture quite early. That's why the name Fertile Crescent refers to 

not only the region's curved shape, but also because of how fertile, or productive, the land 

was for farming. Historians have also called the Fertile Crescent the "Cradle of Civilization," 

since the very first complex societies grew in this area. 



Sumer 

Evidence of agricultural settlements in Lower Mesopotamia go back to 13,000 years ago. 

The farming was so successful that by 4000 BCE, the population had grown immensely, and 

settlements transformed into cities. The earliest cities were founded in Lower Mesopotamia 

in a region called Sumer. The people of Sumer were called the Sumerians. 

[A map of Sumer in Lower Mesopotamia including 

some of its major cities.] 

A Map of Ancient Sumer (Image adapted 

from ca:Imatge:Umma2350.png [CC BY-SA 

3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0 

/) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

The Sumerian cities were early examples of city-states. City-states are independent urban 

centers that govern themselves and the lands around. At least a dozen Sumerian city-states, 

such as Ur, Eridu, and Uruk, were among the most well-known. These cities grew, with the 

largest being Uruk, with a population of up to 80,000. At various times, the city-states would 

cooperate, compete, and make war with one another. 

Sumerian Religion 



[A stone relief carving of the goddess 

Innana] 

The Goddess Innana 

The Sumerians practiced polytheism, meaning that they worshipped many gods and 

goddesses. Each city had its chief deity or god. For example, the chief goddess of Uruk was 

Inanna, a goddess of love and fertility. Eridu's chief god was Enki, a god of wisdom and 

freshwater. There may have been up to 1,000 gods and goddesses in the Mesopotamian 

pantheon. A pantheon is a term that refers to all the deities in a religion. In addition to 

religion, the Sumerians developed art, which reflects the people's devotion to their beliefs. 

Their art, interestingly, is the earliest art to depict humans in a realistic manner. 

[This photograph shows a reconstruction of the Great Ziggurat of Ur.] 

A Reconstruction of the Great Ziggurat of Ur 



Sumerian city-states were designed with temples at the center, surrounded by a complex of 

buildings. The temples were places where Sumerians not only worshipped but also 

conducted financial and legal transactions. The temples also controlled granaries that stored 

extra food. The best-known features of the temple complexes were ziggurats, which were 

stepped pyramids built of sun-dried clay brick. These ziggurats originated first as platforms 

where priests built shrines to a deity at the top. The ziggurats grew in size over time. The 

best-known of these ancient structures is the Great Ziggurat of Ur, which was built in about 

2100 BCE. The building is thought to have been over 100 feet high and composed of 

hundreds of thousands of bricks. 

Sumerian Society 

Sumerian society followed a hierarchy, with people divided into ranks and classes. High 

priests and nobles occupied the upper ranks. Early in their history, the Sumerian city-states 

were ruled by priest-kings assisted by a council of nobles or other priests. Under the upper 

ranks were officials and scribes. Under them were craftspeople, followed by laborers and 

farmers. Up to 90 percent of the Sumerian people were farmers. At the lowest level of 

Sumerian society were enslaved people. Some enslaved people were taken from other citystates 

during warfare, while many others were enslaved to pay off a debt. 

Sumerian society was patriarchal, meaning that men dominated it. A patriarchal society, in 

which men have more power, is the opposite of a matriarchal society, one dominated by 

females. In the Sumerian patriarchal society, men inherited property from their fathers and 

were the heads of state. Women didn't have the same amount of power and influence. Yet, 

women did have more rights in Mesopotamian society than they would in other early 

civilizations. Sumerian women could own property, participate in legal proceedings, serve as 

priestesses, run businesses, and even divorce their husbands. However, it was far more 

difficult for a wife to divorce, since she needed to prove her husband's misconduct. 

Husbands, on the other hand, could initiate divorce at any time they wanted. 

Sumerian Science and Technology 

As the cities in Sumer grew, people developed important innovations. There's evidence that 

suggests that ancient people living in Mesopotamia were the first to use sails on boats in as 

early as 5000 BCE. Being able to harness the wind to move faster on the water allowed for 



more efficient trade and transportation on rivers and the coasts. 

Historians credit the Sumerians for developing the potter's wheel, a machine that's used to 

make bowls, cups, plates, and other clay vessels. The machine was comprised of a round 

disk that spun, allowing potters to shape clay and to produce pottery quickly. 

The potter's wheel was an important invention, as its influence went far beyond producing a 

plentiful supply of inexpensive pottery. The Sumerians adopted the potter's wheel and 

applied it to carts to carry and move weight, and thus, invented the wheel. This innovation 

revolutionized transportation. Sumerians began building the chariot, which first appeared in 

about 3000 BCE. It was a two-wheel or four-wheel horse-drawn carriage that was used in 

warfare, transportation, and racing. Many historians also credit the Sumerians with 

developing the plow around 3000 BCE. This farming tool greatly increased the productivity of 

Sumerian agriculture, since it allowed farmers to turn over the soil easily, making hard, 

compacted soil into a looser consistency that was better for planting. 

[The image shows a bronze axe head 

of Mesopotamian origin.] 

An Inscribed Bronze Axe Head 

from Upper Mesopotamia 

(Image by Gary Todd, via 


The Sumerians were the earliest known people to work with bronze, starting around 2900 

BCE. Bronze, a metal alloy made of copper and tin, is stronger than copper, which was the 

main metal used before bronze. Bronze gave the Sumerians better tools and stronger 

weapons. The use of bronze spread to other civilizations, which has led historians to name 

the period when people mainly used bronze the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age lasted until 



about 1200 BCE, when metallurgists, people who work with metal, were able to master the 

use of iron—an even stronger metal. 

Sumerian Trade 

While Lower Mesopotamia had highly productive lands for agriculture, it lacked other 

resources such as stone, wood, and precious metals. To obtain these goods, the Sumerians 

conducted trade by using the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to transport finished goods in 

exchange for resources that they needed. The Sumerians mainly traded with neighboring 

people living in the Fertile Crescent, but they also traded by sea, going as far as the Indus 

River Valley civilization in modern-day India and Pakistan. 

Sumerian Writing and Mathematics 

The creation of writing is essential to learning what happened in the past. Ancient writings 

reveal much about the people who recorded their myths, political events, and daily life from 

their point of view. Without writing, much of what happened in the past would remain 

unknown today. Writing is also essential for passing on knowledge from one generation to 

the next. Writing was able to convey knowledge across distances as well, which led to 

technological advancements. 

The Mesopotamians were the earliest known civilization to develop writing. Their writing 

system, which first appeared in about 4000 BCE, is called cuneiform. Originally, the script 

was composed of pictograms, in which a scribe using a reed stylus would create an image 

that represented a word or idea. This system was used, at first, to keep track of transactions 

through pictures on tokens. For thousands of years, cuneiform was changed and simplified. 

Slowly, this system transformed, and ancient Mesopotamians pressed wedge-shaped marks 

into clay tokens to indicate more complicated meanings. By 100 CE, cuneiform was no 

longer used, and soon after, no one knew how to read it. It was only in the 1800s that 

scholars were able to decipher cuneiform entirely. 

While cuneiform was used in ancient Mesopotamia, scribes were generally the only literate 

people. Scribes used cuneiform to keep financial transactions, record legal documents, and 

develop mathematics. The Sumerian system of mathematics was based on the number 60 

as opposed to the base-ten system that we use today. Yet, Sumerian math is still in practice 

today, as modern people continue to use the base-60 system to divide an hour into 60 



minutes, and minutes into 60 seconds. 

[The image shows how cuneiform evolved over time, showing the words star, sun, and month. The first 

column shows Sumerian cuneiform; the second shows early Babylonian cuneiform; the third shows late 

Babylonian cuneiform; the fourth shows Assyrian cuneiform; and the fifth provides the meaning of the 

cuneiform signs across all civilizations.] 

The Evolution of Cuneiform (Image adapted from Mason, William Albert, 1855-1923 [PD-US ( 

commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Template:PD-US) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

The Epic of Gilgamesh 

[The image shows a relief of 

Gilgamesh holding a lion in 



his left arm and a snake in 

his right hand.] 

A Carved Image of 

Gilgamesh (Image by 

Kadumago [CC BY-SA 

4.0 (creativecommons.o 

rg/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) ], 

via Wikimedia 

Commons) 

As time passed, writing grew more complex. Sumerian records reveal much about their 

ancient society, including their rulers, beliefs, and histories. One of the best-known Sumerian 

texts is the Epic of Gilgamesh. This story, which was written down around 2000 BCE, is a 

poem that relates the adventures of Gilgamesh, a king of Uruk, who slays the monster 

Humbaba alongside his friend Enkidu. It's considered the earliest work of great literature. 

The Epic of Gilgamesh contains themes of loyalty, humility, and bravery. In the story, 

Gilgamesh goes on a quest to achieve immortality, which he ultimately fails to attain. The 

epic also features a great flood in which only a family of humans selected by the gods 

survive, which is strikingly similar to the biblical flood account. Historians have speculated 

that this story may have originated from the unpredictable flooding of the Tigris and 

Euphrates rivers. 

The Akkadian Empire 

Over time, city-states conquered other city-states. The priest-kings of early Sumer were 

replaced with kings who ruled outside of religion. Different kings grew in power until 2334 

BCE, when Sargon of Akkad, also called Sargon the Great, conquered many other citystates, 

creating the world's first empire. An empire is a large territory of different states that 

was created by conquest and is controlled by a single ruling authority. 



[A of Mesopotamia with colored areas outlining the empire and arrows indicating where military campaigns 

took place.] 

A map of the Akkadian Empire with arrows showing the direction of military campaigns. 

(Image adapted from Middle_East_topographic_map-blank.svg: Sémhur (talk)derivative 

work: Zunkir [CC BY-SA 3.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) ], via Wikimedia 

Commons) 

Sargon wasn't Sumerian. Akkad was located somewhere to the north of Sumer. Interestingly, 

the exact location of Akkad has been lost to history. Legend has it that Sargon was born 

illegitimately, and his mother set him adrift on the Euphrates River in a basket. He was found 

by a gardener, who raised him. Sargon then rose within the Mesopotamian social hierarchy, 

becoming a cupbearer, and eventually being crowned as king. 



[The image shows a bronze-sculpted 

head of an Akkadian ruler with a 

beard who is presumed to be Sargon 

or one of his descendants.] 

A bronze head of an Akkadian 

ruler is presumed to be Sargon 

or one of his descendants. 

(Image by Kadumago [CC BY- 

SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/li 

censes/by-sa/4.0/) ], via 


After his many successful military campaigns, Sargon built monuments across the empire to 

celebrate his conquests and declare his power. At the time of Sargon's rule, Akkad was 

probably the wealthiest city in Mesopotamia. The Akkadians helped to spread the culture 

and technology that developed in Sumer, and Sargon extended his empire's trade network. 

The Akkadian Empire lasted until 2100 BCE, when it collapsed after attacks from 

neighboring peoples. 

Hammurabi and the Babylonian Empire 

The next empire to rise in Mesopotamia was the Babylonian Empire, centered around the 

city of Babylon. The empire rose slowly after the collapse of the Akkadian Empire. Its first 



major and best-known ruler was Hammurabi, who expanded the empire through conquest. 

Hammurabi followed in the footsteps of Sargon and unified Mesopotamia under his control. 

He ruled from about 1792 BCE to 1750 BCE. 

[The map shows the Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi. The darker area indicates Babylonia at the start of 

Hammurabi.] 

A map showing the Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi. The darker area indicates 

Babylonia at the start of Hammurabi's reign and the lighter color indicates the areas he 

conquered. (Image by MapMaster [CC BY-SA 4.0 (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) 

], via Wikimedia Commons) 

Hammurabi promoted trade and improved infrastructure, a system of public works such as 

roads, irrigation canals, and other public services. Of all the developments that Hammurabi 

initiated during his rule, he is best-known today for the Code of Hammurabi, or 

Hammurabi's Code, which is the earliest known written law code. 



[This photograph shows the 

Stele of Hammurabi. At the 

top is a relief showing 

Hammurabi being given the 

laws by a god. Below the 

relief are the cuneiform 

inscriptions that detail the 

laws.] 

The Stele of Hammurabi 

The code was meant to cement the ruler's authority. To make his rules and laws known, 

Hammurabi had 282 laws inscribed on a black stone pillar called a stele, or stela, and 

ordered them to be prominently displayed for the public to see. At the top of the stone was a 

relief, a sculpture carved into the stone, that showed King Hammurabi receiving the laws 

from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The message to subjects of the 

Babylonian empire was clear—the laws came from the gods. The original stele containing 

Hammurabi's Code was discovered by archaeologists in 1901. 

In addition to setting out the laws, the Code of Hammurabi declares how just and fair the 

king's rule is. The laws of the code champion a kind of justice that's usually referred to as 

retribution law. This type of law means that when somebody breaks the law, then the 

offender must suffer. For example, law 196 in Hammurabi's Code states, "If a man put out 



the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out." Another example is the next law, stating, 

"If he breaks another man's bone, his bone shall be broken." 

Hammurabi's laws had a simple "eye for an eye" format. There were no great principles of 

justice or declaration of rights. Under Hammurabi's Code, people weren't treated equally 

under the law. Despite the claim that the law was fair, people of higher classes were given 

lighter punishment for offenses that lower-class people were punished for severely. 

The following excerpts from Hammurabi's Code show how people were treated differently. 

You might also notice how violent and, perhaps, strange justice in Babylon was compared to 

laws today. 

Law #3: If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove 

what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death. 

Law #195: If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off. 

Law #200: If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out. 

Law #201: If he knock out the teeth of a freed man, he shall pay one-third of a gold mina. 

Law #202: If any one strike the body of a man higher in rank than he, he shall receive sixty 

blows with an ox-whip in public. 

Law #203 If a free-born man strike the body of another free-born man of equal rank, he shall 

pay one gold mina. 

Law #204: If a freed man strike the body of another freed man, he shall pay ten shekels in 

money. 

Law #205: If the slave of a freed man strike the body of a freed man, his ear shall be cut off. 

Law #229: If a builder build a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the 

house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. 

After Hammurabi's death around 1750 BCE, the Babylonian Empire declined. Ultimately, 

Babylon was sacked by a people called the Hittites in 1595 BCE. While the Babylonian 

Empire came to end, it (along with the Akkadian Empire) had spread Mesopotamian culture 

throughout the Middle East. In the next section, you'll learn about another influential early 



civilization in the Fertile Crescent: ancient Egypt. 



Key Points 

Mesopotamia's geography encouraged large-scale agriculture, which resulted in the 

establishment of Sumer's earliest civilization. 

The Sumerians were the earliest known people to invent writing, and they made 

important advances in technology that influenced later civilizations. 

History's first empire, the Akkadian Empire, helped to spread Sumerian culture and 

knowledge. 

The Babylonian Empire helped spread Akkadian knowledge, and its ruler, Hammurabi, 

developed the earliest known written code of law. 

Exercise: Ancient Western Asia 


1. Mesopotamia's two important rivers were the Euphrates and the _______. 

2. Large stepped pyramid structures found in Sumerian temple complexes are called 

_______. 

3. The practice of worshipping more than one god is called _______. 

4. _______ was the system of writing invented by the Sumerians. 

5. The earliest story in literature is the _______. 

6. The earliest written code of laws was created by the Babylonian king _______. 


7. Civilizations possess certain common characteristics. What are these characteristics? 

8. What's Hammurabi's Code and what does it tell you about Babylonian society? 


Exercise: Ancient Western Asia 

1. Tigris 



2. ziggurats 

3. polytheism 

4. Cuneiform 

5. Epic of Gilgamesh 

6. Hammurabi 

7. Civilizations are complex societies that generally have cities, writing, complex religion, 

job specialization, social hierarchy, and monumental architecture. 

8. Hammurabi's Code was the earliest written law code. It supports "an eye for an eye" 

form of justice but at the same time shows how people of different social rankings were 

treated differently under the law. This means that Babylonian society was very 

hierarchical. 

1.3 Analyze the traits, achievements, and struggles of civilizations in 

Ancient Egypt 

Ancient Egypt 


In this section, you'll learn about the origins of civilization in ancient Egypt and the 

achievements of that society. Ancient Egypt is one of the most famous civilizations and has 

fascinated people for centuries. From pyramids to pharaohs to mummies, most people know 

at least a little information on this society. However, ancient Egyptian history has many more 

stories and details, and it spans thousands of years. 

Ancient Egyptian Geography 

Egypt is in northeastern Africa, where the corner of that continent meets Asia at the Isthmus 

of Suez. (An isthmus is a small area of land that connects two larger landmasses.) Egypt's 

main geographic features are the Nile River and the surrounding deserts. Both features 

significantly shaped the region's history. 



[This map of ancient Egypt shows Upper Egypt and 

Lower Egypt with the Nile flowing through it.] 

A Map of Ancient Egypt 

The Nile River flows south to north through eastern Africa until it reaches the Mediterranean, 

where it empties into the sea in a fan-like delta. A delta is a triangular area of wetlands 

formed by sediment deposits from a river. At 4,258 miles long, the Nile River has traditionally 

been considered the longest river in the world. However, geographers in Brazil have 

disputed this claim, stating that the Amazon River in South America is slightly longer. The 

matter is still debated. 

The ancient Egyptians were familiar with the Nile as far upstream as Khartoum, which is in 

modern-day Sudan. As the river flows from that point north, it encountered a series of 

cataracts— lengths of the river impassable to boats due to shallowness or rapids. 

Because the Nile River flows from south to north, the northern area of ancient Egypt was 

called Lower Egypt and the southern area Upper Egypt. This can sometimes lead to 

confusion since, on a map, Upper Egypt is actually in the south and is below Lower Egypt. 



The Nile was the most important transportation and trade route in ancient Egypt. The river's 

currents carried boats northward, and winds blowing in the opposite direction brought sailing 

vessels southward. 

The Red Land and the Black Land 

The most remarkable, important feature of the Nile was its annual flood. Unlike the often 

destructive flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile's flooding 

was predictable and positive. Every summer, yearly rains in the Ethiopian highlands filled the 

river. The Nile flooded and the land around the river became inundated, or soaked, with 

water enriched by silt. After the waters receded, farmers planted wheat, barley, vegetables, 

fruits, and other crops. They harvested crops several months later and, by then, much of the 

river valley had dried. The next year, the floods came again, and the cycle started anew. 

[This image shows the difference 

between the green, fertile land along 

the river and the sudden transition to 

desert.] 

Life along the River Nile 

The Nile River Valley was a highly productive, arable land, surrounded by desert. To the 

west lay the Sahara Desert, and aside from an occasional oasis—a place in the desert with 

a water source—the land was arid, with few resources. To the east of the Nile was the 

Eastern Desert, which had some resources, including mineral deposits such as gold. Then 

there was the Isthmus of Suez that led to Asia's Sinai Peninsula. This, too, was a desert 

region, but it was an important trade route for the Egyptians. Through the Sinai, the 

Egyptians were able to conduct business with other people from the Fertile Crescent, such 

as in Mesopotamia or the Levant. The Levant are the lands on the eastern shore of the 



Mediterranean Sea, including today's Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, and Israel. 

The ancient Egyptians called the rich, fertile lands near the river the "Black Land" due to the 

rich layer of black silt the Nile deposited there yearly. The people called the barren desert the 

"Red Land." 

The ancient Egyptians understood the importance of the Nile, which is reflected in a hymn 

they sung that was created in about 2100 BCE. 

The beginning of the hymn is as follows: 

Hail to thee, O Nile! Who manifests thyself over this land, and comes to give life to Egypt! 

Mysterious is thy issuing forth from the darkness, on this day whereon it is celebrated! 

Watering the orchards created by Re [the Egyptian sun god], to cause all the cattle to live, 

you give the earth to drink, inexhaustible one! 

Egyptian Origins 

[This image shows ancient Egyptians carrying a 

surplus of goods from farming.] 

The Bounty of Egyptian Agriculture 

The ancient Egyptians adopted agriculture as far back as 8000 BCE, probably learning how 

to farm from other peoples in the Fertile Crescent. At that time, the Sahara was wetter, and 

people farmed in areas away from the Nile. Starting around 5000 BCE, the climate became 

dryer, and desertification set in. Desertification happens when fertile land becomes arid, 

desert land. As a result, people migrated to the well-watered areas around the river. By about 

3500 BCE, complex societies had developed along with the beginning of cities, with Thebes 

and Memphis being the two most important. The early Egyptians further developed the land 



using irrigation techniques so that their farming could support large populations. They were 

highly successful. Egypt, in ancient times, regularly had a surplus of grain. 

[This image of the stone ] 

The so-called "Narmer palette" 

from 3100 BCE shows the 

Egyptian king Menes defeating 

the ruler of Lower Egypt. 

As Egypt grew, multiple kings ruled in various cities. Over time, these rulers consolidated 

power until there were just two kings—one in Upper Egypt and one in Lower Egypt. In about 

3100 BCE, King Menes of Upper Egypt is thought to have conquered Lower Egypt and 

unified the kingdom. At that point, Ancient Egypt was a large territory, extending from the first 

cataract to the Mediterranean Sea. 

Most historians have identified Menes as the first pharaoh—the term used for a ruling king or 

queen of ancient Egypt. The term was used for the first time only late in ancient Egypt's 

history. However, historians typically refer to all rulers of Egypt as pharaoh, even before the 

term was invented. 

Ancient Egypt's Three Kingdoms 

The rise of the pharaohs marked the beginning of the dynastic period in Ancient Egypt, 

which lasted from 2660 BCE until 1070 BCE. Because the history of dynastic Ancient Egypt 



is so long—over 1,500 years—historians divide it into three different parts: the Old Kingdom 

(2660 to 2181 BCE), the Middle Kingdom (2050 to 1650 BCE), and the New Kingdom 

(1550 to 1069 BCE). During these Kingdoms, various dynasties (ruling families) ruled Egypt. 

Between the Kingdoms were periods of disruption that are called Intermediate Periods. 

There were approximately 20 different dynasties that ruled Egypt until the end of the New 

Kingdom. 

The Pre-Dynastic Period, 3000 to 2660 BCE 

The Old Kingdom, 2660 to 2181 BCE 

The First Intermediate, 2181 to 2050 BCE 

The Middle Kingdom, 2050 to 1650 BCE 

The Second Intermediate, 1650 to 1550 BCE 

The New Kingdom, 1550 to 1069 BCE 

Ancient Egypt's Social Order 

Ancient Egypt was hierarchical. At the top was the pharaoh, who claimed his or her power 

from the gods. The pharaoh was the head of Egyptian religion as well as the state. When 

pharaohs died, they were deified, which means that the people believed they became gods 

themselves. In the ancient Egyptian hierarchy, below the pharaoh were nobles, court 

officials, and priests. Beneath them were soldiers and scribes. The bottom layers of the 

social hierarchy consisted of merchants, then craftsmen, followed by farmers (who made up 

most of Egypt's population), and at the very bottom were enslaved people. Slavery grew over 

time in Egypt and was particularly present in the Middle and New Kingdom periods. 



[This image shows a pyramid of ancient Egypt’s social hierarchy with the pharaoh at the top of the pyramid, 



priests, officials, and nobles at the second level down, soldiers at the third level down, merchants and 

craftsmen at the fourth level down, and peasants, farmers, and slaves at the bottom level] 

A Pyramid Graph of Ancient Egypt's Social Hierarchy 

[This image shows a statue of Queen 

Hatshepsut. It depicts the pharaoh as 

if she was a male, wearing a 

traditional pharaoh beard] 

A statue of Queen Hatshepsut. 

Note that the artists placed a 

traditional pharaoh's beard on 

the statue, even though it 

portrays a woman. 

In Egyptian society, men and women had different roles, with men providing for the family 

while women managed it. Egyptian society was patriarchal and favored men but, at the same 

time, women in ancient Egypt had more freedom and rights than women in other civilizations 

at that time. Women were able to own property, could sue in court, serve as priestesses, and 

enter contracts. Women were even able to rule as pharaohs and queens. There's some 

debate over who was the first female pharaoh, since the evidence is limited. However, most 

historians agree that the first verifiable woman pharaoh was Sobekneferu, who ruled from 

about 1789 BCE to 1785 BCE. The most famous of the female queens of Egypt during the 

dynastic period was Hatshepsut, who reigned from 1473 to 1458 BCE. Hatshepsut is known 

for expanding trade as well as building monumental architecture, which still survives today. 

Her temple at Deir el-Bahri is a great example of this architecture. The building is a mortuary 

temple—which means it was a temple built to worship the deceased pharaoh. 

Egyptian Religion 



Like the Mesopotamians, Ancient Egyptians were polytheistic and believed in many deities. 

Each god or goddess in the Egyptian pantheon had different functions. Some of the more 

famous gods were Horus, who was a sky god, Isis, who was a mother goddess, Ra (or Re) 

the sun god, and Set, who was a god of disruption and chaos. Ancient Egyptian beliefs 

emphasized harmony and had many rituals dedicated to asking for favors from the gods. 

[This image shows depictions of eight Egyptian 

deities. Some of them have animal heads.] 

Ancient Egyptian Deities 

The only exception to Egyptian polytheism occurred during the reign of the pharaoh 

Akhenaten, who ruled from about 1353 BCE to 1336 BCE. During his reign, Akhenaten 

pushed to worship only Aten, a sun god who originally was an aspect of Ra. Many historians 

believe that this was history's first example of monotheism, which is the belief in one god. 

There's some debate about this among historians, since the pharaoh still acknowledged the 

existence of other gods but chose to worship only Aten. Regardless, after the pharaoh's 

death, traditional polytheistic practices resumed. 

[This image shows a statue of the 



Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten in full 

pharaoh dress.] 

Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten 

(Image by Yaser Alamoudi via 

Shutterstock) 

Egyptians were concerned with the afterlife and believed that life continued after death. They 

believed that the afterlife was similar to the living one. Egyptians believed that when a 

person died, the jackal-headed god Anubis would lead the deceased to the god Osiris, who 

measured their virtues by weighing their heart against the weight of a feather. If the heart 

was lighter than the feather, the person would pass into paradise. If it was heavier, then the 

deceased entered nonexistence. Thus, a person needed to be prepared to make the journey 

into the afterlife. 

Because of their belief system, the Egyptians tried to preserve the body as much as possible 

after death. As a result, they practiced mummification, in which they preserved the body by 

removing all moisture. The first mummies were probably accidental, since the arid conditions 

in Egypt easily preserved bodies. The practice of mummification grew more elaborate over 

time. To mummify a body, the Egyptians removed the organs from the body and then 

covered it with natron, which is a kind of salt. After more processing, the body was wrapped 

for entombment. The whole process, from beginning to end, took 70 days. 

In Egyptian history, it was typically only pharaohs or nobility who were mummified, since the 

process took so long and was expensive. There were some exceptions to this, however, with 

instances of commoners and even animals being mummified. Some estimates show that 70 

million mummies were made in ancient Egypt. As large as this figure may seem, it still may 

be low. 

Some have argued that because of these practices, the ancient Egyptians were obsessed 

with death. This is a misconception. The Egyptians enjoyed the living world and practiced 

sports, music, dance, and other forms of recreation like modern humans today. It's more 

accurate to state that the ancient Egyptians were obsessed with life. 



[This image shows ancient Egyptian artwork showing a pharaoh being mummified ] 

A Depiction of the Mummification Process 

The Age of the Pyramid Builders 

After the unification of Egypt under Menes and his successors, the pharaohs and ruling elite 

grew powerful. Their capital was the city of Memphis. This period, the Old Kingdom, is also 

referred to as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders," since this is 

when these famous structures were created. 

[This image shows the Egyptian Step Pyramid of 

Djoser. This pyramid has tiered sides as opposed to 

later pyramids.] 



The Step Pyramid of Djoser 

Pyramids are burial tombs that were created for the pharaohs and their wives. The pharaohs 

were entombed not only with elaborate wealth, but also those things that they needed in life, 

such as food, chariots, wine, and household items. Some pharaohs were even buried with 

pets. During the first dynasty in Egypt, pharaohs had gone so far as to execute servants to 

have them join them in the afterlife. This practice ended after the dynasty ended. The first 

pyramid was created during the reign of the pharaoh Djoser, who ruled from 2670 to 2613 

BCE. This first pyramid, designed by the architect Imhotep, is known as the Step Pyramid 

since it has sides like steps. This influenced later generations of architects, who figured out 

how to create a pyramid with smoother sides. 

[This image shows the pyramids of the Giza plateau. 

In the foreground are three smaller pyramids known 

as the Queens] 

The Pyramids of Giza 

The first appearance of pyramids as most people understand them today came during the 

reign of the pharaoh Sneferu, who ruled from about 2613 to 2589 BCE. The most famous of 

the pyramids are those at Giza—notably the Great Pyramid, which was built during the reign 

of Sneferu's successor, Khufu. A huge structure built from over 2 million limestone blocks, it 

covers over 13 acres of land. It took about 20 years to complete and was built mainly by 

farmers during the Nile's flooding when they couldn't work the land. The Great Pyramid, at 

455 feet high, was the tallest structure in the world for about 3,800 years. Based on how 

massive the structures were, it's clear that the pharaohs were mobilizing much of Egyptian 

society to build the pyramids. 

The pyramids were and still are an engineering marvel. They serve as an example of the 



advanced state of Egyptian engineering and technology. There are over a hundred pyramids 

that have been identified by historians today. Some of the mystery surrounding the Egyptian 

pyramids has to do with figuring out how they built them without modern engineering. The 

debate still goes on, but archaeological findings reveal that the Egyptians used a ramp 

system to build up the pyramids. 

Egyptian Writing 

[This image shows elaborately carved Egyptian 

hieroglyphics on stone.] 

An Example of Egyptian Hieroglyphics 

Like the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians developed writing. Their earliest form of writing is 

famous for its hieroglyphs. A hieroglyph is a symbol that represents a word, sound, or 

syllable. At the start of early Egypt's history, there were well over 1,000 hieroglyphs. This 

number was reduced to roughly 750 during the Middle Kingdom period. 



[This image shows the Rosetta 

Stone. There are three sets of written 

languages containing the same 

inscriptions, with hieroglyphics on the 

top. ] 

The Rosetta Stone was the key 

to deciphering Egyptian 

hieroglyphics. 

Egyptians used hieroglyphs until the late 300s CE. After that, knowledge of how to read the 

symbols vanished. Deciphering the language remained a puzzle for centuries, until 1799 CE, 

when French soldiers in Egypt made a surprising discovery. They discovered a stele that 

had the same inscription written in hieroglyphics and ancient Greek. Because scholars could 

understand ancient Greek, they were able to use their understanding to decipher ancient 

Egyptian writing. This stone was called the Rosetta Stone, and was named after the place 

where it was found. Using this, the French scholar Jean-François Champollion deciphered 

the hieroglyphs in 1822 CE. This breakthrough has allowed modern historians to learn much 

about Egyptian civilization. 

Egyptian Science 

As shown by the construction of the pyramids and other monuments, the Egyptians 

possessed advanced engineering. The Egyptians also were advanced mathematicians and 



astronomers. They developed a 365-day calendar, probably to predict the annual flooding of 

the Nile. They also were probably the first people to use standardized measurements. 

Standardized measurements are created to use consistent units. For example, a foot of 

length was roughly as long as a man's foot. However, not all feet are the same size. To 

create a standardized measurement, one size is agreed upon as a standard unit. In Egypt, 

the most well-known standard measure was the cubit, which was almost 21 inches by our 

measuring system. This standard measurement was important because it allowed works 

such as the pyramids to be built with precision. 

The Middle and New Kingdoms 

The Old Kingdom collapsed around the year 2181 BCE, and the authority to rule went to the 

local provincial officials. In 2050 BCE, the pharaoh Mentohotep II reunited Egypt, ushering in 

the period of the Middle Kingdom. During this time, the pharaohs consolidated their power by 

establishing a capital in the city of Thebes. Trade expanded, especially to the south, where 

there was a cultural exchange between the Nubian kingdoms of Africa and Egypt. 

The Middle Kingdom came to an end when it was invaded around 1670 BCE by a people 

called the Hyksos from the north and the Kingdom of Kush from the south in Nubia. Egypt 

entered another intermediate period when foreigners dominated it. However, in 1550 BCE, 

the Egyptians managed to defeat the invaders and established a new order. 

[This image shows the temple of Hatshepsut in the 

Valley of the Kings with dramatic cliffs in the 

backdrop.] 



The Temple of Hatshepsut in the Valley of 

the Kings 

This period, the New Kingdom, was when ancient Egypt grew most powerful. The Egyptians 

expanded outward into the Middle East and to the south to create a buffer against invasion, 

which was most likely due to the invasions that ended the Middle Kingdom. Egyptian territory 

reached its greatest extent under the pharaoh Thuthmose III, whose reign was from 1479 

BCE to 1425 BCE. Egypt held territory south into Nubia as well as through the Levant. 

Thuthmose, like many of the pharaohs of the New Kingdom period, wasn't buried in 

pyramids, but in an elaborate tomb in the Valley of the Kings outside of Memphis. 

[This image shows the golden sarcophagus of the 

pharaoh Tutankhamun.] 

The Sarcophagus of the Pharaoh 

Tutankhamun 

Robbers had plundered virtually all the tombs in the Valley of the Kings over time. However, 

in 1922 CE, the British archaeologist Howard Carter discovered the untouched tomb of the 

pharaoh Tutankhamun, who reigned from 1336 BCE to 1327 BCE. Tutankhamun is 

commonly known as "King Tut." Many of the treasures found belong to the Egyptian Museum 

in Cairo. 

Another pharaoh from this period is the famous Ramses II, who ruled from 1279 BCE to 

1213 BCE. He was known as a warrior king who asserted Egyptian influence in the region. 

He is often considered Egypt's most powerful pharaoh. 



By the 1200s BCE, Egypt's power began to decline through a succession of weaker 

pharaohs. The civilization lost strength and was eventually invaded by foreigners. The New 

Kingdom ended in 1059 BCE, and although there would be future pharaohs, the dynastic 

period and Egypt's strength as a great power in the ancient world had ended. 



Key Points 

The Nile River was the key to the development of civilization in ancient Egypt. Its annual 

floods provided fertile land that produced ample food, and it was a major trade route. 

The Egyptians were an advanced civilization that developed writing, religion, and 

sophisticated engineering and mathematics—as observed in the pyramids they 

constructed. 

Ancient Egypt was hierarchical and patriarchal, but Egyptian women had more rights 

than women in other ancient civilizations. 

Ancient Egypt was a religious society whose beliefs in the afterlife led them to create 

massive monuments and practice mummification. 

Better knowledge of ancient Egypt came after the hieroglyphs were deciphered. 

Exercise: Ancient Egypt 


1. The Nile River made Egypt fertile due to its yearly _______. 

2. Pyramids were built during the _______ period in ancient Egypt. 

3. The French scholar Jean-François Champollion used the _______ to decipher Egyptian 

hieroglyphics. 

4. The pharaoh Akhenaten introduced the first example of _______ by pushing for the sole 

worship of the sun god Aten. 

5. The first female pharaoh was _______. 

6. During the _______, ancient Egypt's territory reached its greatest extent. 




7. The Nile was a key geographic feature in Egyptian history. Why was the Nile River 

important? 

8. Pretend you're explaining the role of religion in ancient Egyptian society, giving some 

examples of evidence that back up its importance. 


Exercise: Ancient Egypt 

1. flooding 

2. Old Kingdom 

3. Rosetta Stone 

4. monotheism 

5. Sobekneferu 

6. New Kingdom 

7. The Nile was the main source of water and the main route of transit in ancient Egypt. Its 

annual flooding was predictable and enriched the soil, which made the Nile River Valley 

one of the most productive in the ancient world. 

8. The Egyptians worshipped many gods. The pharaohs were not only the head of the 

religion in Egypt, but their rule was also thought to be ordained by the gods. Ancient 

Egyptians believed that the afterlife was similar to their living life and wanted to prepare 

people for a similar existence after death. As a result, for the pharaohs during the Old 

Kingdom, the pyramids were constructed as elaborate tombs that contained everything 

that a ruler might need in the afterlife. 

1.4 Describe the societies of Ancient India and Ancient China 

Ancient India 


In this section, you'll learn about the development of civilizations in South Asia and China. 

You'll learn about how geographic features and the regional climate affected their 

development and the earliest civilizations. South Asia and China both have rich, long 

histories with religious and philosophical beliefs that are still influential today. 



South Asian Geography 

Just after the development of civilization in ancient Egypt, civilization arose in South Asia. 

Like those of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the civilizations of South Asia emerged through the 

domestication of plants and animals within river valleys. 

[The image depicts a modern map of South Asia.] 

A Map of South Asia (Image by CIA [PD-US 

(commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Template:PD- 

US) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

South Asia consists of the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri 

Lanka, Bhutan, and the Maldives. Of these countries, India takes up the most land area. It's 

situated on a large, triangular peninsula that pushes south into the Indian Ocean. South Asia 

is often called the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is an easily recognized portion of a 

continent. 

The Indian subcontinent has many different climate zones, including desert, mountain, 

subtropical, and tropical areas. The mountain ranges that border the region's northern and 



western sides have had a great impact on how people in the area have lived. The mountains 

include the Himalayas, the tallest mountain range in the world. While the mountains served 

as impressive barriers, passes within the ranges allowed for communication, contact, 

migration, and invasion between the subcontinent and the rest of Eurasia. Mountain ranges 

also blocked cold air from the north, giving the region a warmer climate than central or 

eastern Asia. 

South Asia has always been impacted by winds known as the monsoons. Monsoons are 

seasonal winds that blow in opposite directions at certain times of the year. From May to 

September, the monsoons blow from the southwest, bringing moisture from the sea to create 

a wet season. Then, from October to April, the wind blows from the northeast through central 

Asia, which brings a dry season. 

South of the mountains is the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Two rivers, the Ganges and the Indus, 

form the central geographic features of this region. Both rivers were critical in the 

development of early civilization. 

The southern part of India is centered on the Deccan Plateau, with two coastal mountain 

ranges on either side—the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats. 

The Indus River Valley Civilization 

[This photograph shows excavated ruins of the Indus 

Valley Civilization.] 

Indus Valley Civilization Ruins 

The earliest civilization in South Asia developed in the Indus River Valley in what's modern- 



day Pakistan and northwest India. Neolithic farmers used the fertile lands of the river valley 

to establish villages, towns, and cities. By 2600 BCE, a civilization was fully developed. This 

civilization is called the Indus Valley Civilization, or the Harrapan Civilization. The 

civilization is named after Harappa, the modern village where the first evidence of the 

civilization was discovered. 

Historians didn't know about the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization until the discovery 

of ruins in the nineteenth century CE, followed by the first serious excavations in the early 

twentieth century CE. These first excavations were at Harappa as well as at Mohenjo-Daro. 

The remains of these ancient cities reveal a vibrant urban life with well-planned cities based 

on grid systems like those in cities today. Homes made of brick had indoor plumbing, the 

earliest known instance of that technology in history. The people of the Indus Valley also 

conducted long-distance trade with Mesopotamia. In Mesopotamian sites, Indus Valley seals 

and goods have been discovered and mentioned in Mesopotamian written sources. 

[This photograph shows an example 

of Indus Valley writing on a seal.] 

An Indus Valley Seal 

Like the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians, the Indus Valley Civilization developed writing. 

Examples of their writing have been found on pottery, wax seals, and tablets. However, their 

writing system has yet to be deciphered. Due to this mystery, archaeologists and historians 

can only deduce what the civilization's political system and religious beliefs were. However, 

the evidence suggests that, unlike other ancient states, there was neither a central political 

organization nor a fully organized religion. By around 1900 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization 

began to decline, most likely due to environmental changes. By 1700 BCE, the civilization 

collapsed. 



[The image depicts a map of Indus Valley Civilization towns and cities.] 

A Map of the Indus Valley Civilization (Image adapted from Avantiputra7 [CC BY-SA (creativ 

ecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

The Vedic Age, 1700 to 600 BCE 

After the collapse of the Harappan civilization, the next major event in the subcontinent's 

history was the migration of a nomadic people called the Aryans into India around the year 

1500 BCE. The Aryans were cattle herders who came from Central Asia and traveled 

through passes within the Hindu Kush Mountains. The name Aryan means "free" or "noble." 

It should be noted that the term Aryan has been misused in modern history and applied by 

some to mean a "supreme race" of humans. This idea comes from an incorrect nineteenthcentury 

theory, which argued that the Aryans were a separate race from which some modern 

Europeans were descended. Nazi Germans particularly latched onto the idea and fought to 

promote the "Aryan race" above others. 



While this nineteenth-century race theory has no basis, it's known that the Aryan people had 

some connection to European people. The language of the Aryans was part of a larger family 

of languages called Indo-European languages. There are several branches of this language 

family, which include modern English and other European languages. 

[This photograph shows Sanskrit text from the Vedas 

on bronze.] 

The Text of the Vedas in Sanskrit 

By around 1000 BCE, the Aryans had adopted an agricultural lifestyle and had established 

cities. Much of what's known of the period comes from the Vedas, which lends its name to 

this time period—the Vedic Age. The Vedas are four collections of hymns, rituals, myths, 

and ceremonies. They were originally oral traditions passed down verbally, but they were 

finally written down in the Sanskrit writing system around 500 BCE. The Vedas contain 

sections called the Upanishads, which are more philosophical in nature and the parts of the 

Vedas most read today. 

From the Vedas, historians have learned much of the early religious beliefs of the Aryans. 

The Vedas are, in part, one of the foundations of Hinduism—the oldest religion in the world 

that's still practiced today. At this early stage of Hinduism, priests recited prayers and made 

sacrifices to gods such as Indra, a sky god, or Agni, a god of fire. 

During the Vedic Age, society became sorted into four classes, known as the varnas. They 

were in the following order of rank: 

The Brahmins were the priestly class. They were responsible for passing on the 



knowledge of the Vedas as well as conducting religious rituals. 

The Kshatriya, also called the Rajanya, were the warriors and political leaders. 

The Vaishya, or commoners, were traders and farmers. 

At the lowest level were the Shudras, also called Sudras, who were servants and 

unskilled laborers. 

In the Vedic Age, it was believed that the varnas created an orderly society. This idea is 

described in the Rigveda, a hymn within the four parts of Vedas that describes each varna 

as a vital part of an entire cosmic being. 

"When they divided Purusha [the cosmic being], in how many different portions did they 

arrange him? What became of his mouth, what of his two arms? What were his two thighs 

and his two feet called? 

His mouth became the Brahman; his two arms were made into the Rajanya; his two thighs 

the Vaishyas; from his two feet the Shudra was born." 

As the Vedic Age ended, the varnas hardened into a caste system. A caste system is a 

social order in which people are locked into hereditary, permanent roles. Whereas the 

varnas were a general designation of classes, the caste system was much more rigid. For 

example, a carpenter's child could only be a carpenter and could only marry somebody 

within the same caste. What caste you were also determined how spiritually pure you were. 

Brahmins, for example, were considered the highest caste because of their ability to mediate 

between the gods and people. The lowest castes were called untouchables. The people in 

this caste interacted with bodily waste, handled corpses, and performed other jobs that were 

considered impure. The untouchables were pushed to the margins of society. 



[A pyramid diagram representing caste system in India into white background] 

This diagram shows the caste system in India, with the Brahmin at the top and the 

Untouchables at the bottom. 

Hinduism 

Hinduism is a complex religion. Unlike other world religions, there was no founder of 

Hinduism. Rather, it incorporated many beliefs in the course of its long history. The term 

Hindu originally referred to people who lived on one side of the Indus River and, until the 

eighteenth century, it simply referred to people living in India. 

The religion can be described as henotheistic. Henotheism is the worship of one supreme 

being or god but, at the same time, acknowledging that there are other gods. Woven into the 

fabric of Hinduism is the idea of reincarnation, which means rebirth after death. In 

Hinduism, life is a continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. 



A person's deeds in life—good or bad—accrued in what's called karma. Karma was the total 

sum of a person's good and bad deeds, counted from both current life and past lives. 

According to the system, when people died, they were reincarnated into a higher level or 

lower level of varna, or some other state, based on their karma. Thus, it was important for 

people to accrue good karma to be reborn into higher varna. Accruing good karma meant 

one had to follow dharma, which means following the cosmic order. In Hindu belief, it meant 

that people of lower caste must fulfill their roles and accept the system to be reborn into a 

higher order. Ultimately, a person strove for moksha, which was to end the cycle of birth, 

death, and rebirth and to become one with the universe. 

Buddhism 

Not everybody was satisfied with early Hindu religious beliefs. Instead, they became 

dissenters, or people with differing beliefs. Part of this dissatisfaction was over the idea of 

the caste system and the numerous ritual elements and worship in ancient Hinduism. 

The most notable and influential of the dissenters was Siddhartha Gautama, who founded 

Buddhism. Siddhartha was a prince, born around the year 563 BCE in the foothills of the 

Himalayas. Siddhartha saw suffering in the world and became obsessed with finding its 

cause and the meaning of life. 

Siddhartha departed from his life of privilege and embarked upon a spiritual quest. After 

practicing asceticism, which is a spiritual practice in which you deny the body indulgences 

or pleasure, Siddhartha couldn't find the answer. Finally, after meditating beneath a tree for 

49 days, he found what he believed to be the answer. He took on a new title called the 

Buddha, which means "Enlightened One" or the "One Who Woke Up." His answer became 

known as the "Middle Way," since it was a means to end the suffering that was neither the 

extremes of sensual pleasure nor asceticism. 



[ This image shows a stone carving of the Buddha.] 

A Stone Carving of the Buddha 

The Buddha's main teachings are related in his Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. 

The teachings largely relate to dukkha, or suffering. The Four Noble Truths are: 

1. Life is suffering. 

2. The cause of suffering is wanting for life to be other than it is. 

3. To end suffering, one must stop wanting for life to be other than it is. 

4. To remove wanting, one must follow the Eightfold Path. 

At the end of the Eightfold Path was nirvana. Nirvana means "blown out." When one 

reached nirvana, one reached enlightenment. This form of enlightenment is similar to the 

Hindu concept of moksha. 

The Eightfold Path is a series of directions people should follow to obtain enlightenment: 

1. Right Understanding means to accept the nature of suffering and existence, as 

understood in Buddha's Four Noble Truths. 

2. Right Intent means to avoid harmful thoughts. 

3. Right Speech means to avoid lying, gossiping, or speaking in a hateful manner. 

4. Right Action means acting morally by not doing evil actions such as stealing and 

murder. 

5. Right Livelihood means not having an occupation that directly or indirectly harms others. 

6. Right Effort means to direct one's mind to positive goals. 

7. Right Mindfulness means to be mindful of what one is saying, doing, and feeling at all 



times. 

8. Right Concentration means to use meditation to enhance one's concentration to help 

reach enlightenment. 

Buddhism became very popular and appealed to people from the lower castes. Unlike 

Hinduism, Buddhism suggested that individuals could attain enlightenment in this life and 

that caste wasn't a punishment for bad deeds from previous lives. So, rather than move up 

the caste hierarchy, people could attain enlightenment in their one, present life. Additionally, 

people from any caste could enter a Buddhist community called a sangha. After the Buddha 

died around 480 BCE, Buddhism spread rapidly and soon left India, and two main branches 

of Buddhism developed. 

The first branch is Theravada Buddhism. Theravada means "Way of the Elders." This 

branch practiced Buddhism like the early ways of the religion. A person practiced the 

Eightfold Path—ideally as a monk or nun—to eventually achieve enlightenment and become 

an arhat, a person who has reached nirvana. This school of Buddhism became widely 

adopted in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. 

The second branch is Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana means the "Great Vehicle," with the 

idea that Buddhism should be accessible to all. Mahayana Buddhism focused on the idea 

that, for many lifetimes, people could achieve enlightenment and become a buddha, or one 

who has been "freed from the fog." Once achieving enlightenment, one could also become a 

bodhisattva. A bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism is similar to a buddha. Instead of 

seeking the Eightfold Path for individual enlightenment, bodhisattvas sought Buddhahood for 

all sentient beings. Mahayana Buddhism spread and became popular in China. Later 

variations of Mahayana Buddhism would take root in Japan and Tibet in another branch 

called Vajrayana. 



[The image depicts a map showing the expansion of the branches of Buddhism.] 

The Expansion of Buddhism (Image by Gunawan Kartapranata [CC BY-SA (creativecommon 

s.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

The Maurya Empire 

It's in the context of the rise of Buddhism that the Maurya Empire needs to be discussed. 

This empire, which formed around the year 321 BCE, was the first major empire on the 

subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya and continued expanding until it 

took up nearly the entire region. The empire reached its height under Chandragupta's 

grandson, Ashoka, who ruled from 268 to 232 BCE. 



[This image shows a pillar with a lion atop it built by 

the Indian ruler Ashoka.] 

A Stone Pillar of Ashoka 

After causing destruction and death through warfare, Ashoka rejected violence and 

converted to Buddhism. Ashoka chose to rule by virtue, and established laws to promote 

ethical behavior in his empire. He declared that he would rule by dharma, which, at that time, 

meant universal law. He dedicated important Buddhist sites and declared his laws by 

installing monuments throughout the empire. Ashoka helped to spread Buddhism across the 

subcontinent. 

After Ashoka's death, the empire declined and finally fell in 184 BCE. For the next 500 years, 

various regional kingdoms developed and vied for power. During that time, trade networks 

expanded, reaching east to China and as far west as the Roman Empire. 

The Gupta Empire 

Around 300 CE, one of the states in India along the Ganges grew massively under the king 

Chandra Gupta I and his son Samudragupta. At its peak around 400 CE, the Gupta Empire 

controlled northern India, central India, and a large area of its southern peninsula. 



[This image shows the entrance to the cave temple of 

Ajanta with highly detailed statuary on the rock.] 

A Cave Temple at Ajanta 

Historians often consider the Gupta era a high point of Indian history that's sometimes 

referred to as a golden age. There was a flourishing of literature, art, architecture, and 

science. The period produced many masterpiece Hindu and Buddhist sculptures, works of 

poetry, plays, and innovations in mathematics and science that would spread across 

continents. In architecture, the Gupta era is known for Buddhist temples cut into caves, with 

the most famous example at Ajanta. 

In the 500s CE, the empire began to decline as it faced internal rebellion and foreign 

invaders, especially the nomadic Huns who destabilized the empire. The Gupta Empire 

ended around the year 550 CE. After the fall of the Gupta Empire, India fragmented into 

many kingdoms, which led to its medieval period. 

Ancient China 


Ancient China 

The people of China historically referred to their land as the "Middle Kingdom." This came 

from the belief that Chinese civilization existed at the center of the world and that barbarians 

surrounded China. This historical viewpoint of China's place in the world reflects the power 

and influence that the Chinese had on civilization in eastern Asia. 



[This image shows a modern map of China with major rivers and bordering countries] 

A Modern Map of China 

The Geography of China 

China is located in East Asia, which includes today's South Korea, North Korea, Japan, and 

Taiwan. China is the largest of these countries and has a diverse geography that influenced 

its past. 

Chinese civilization first developed around the Huang He River, also called the Yellow 

River, which is in northern China. That name came from the fact that the river collects large 

amounts of sediment from farther inland, which gives the river its yellow color. This river has 

also been nicknamed "China's Sorrow," because the river is prone to frequent, disastrous 

floods. Another major river in China's history is the Yangtze River, which is in southern 

China. The Yangtze is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world. 



[This image shows a photograph of 

the Yellow River.] 

The water of the Yellow River is 

colored yellow by collecting 

large amounts of sediment from 

farther inland. 

Like other ancient societies, civilization first developed in China around major rivers. Millet, a 

grain, was first domesticated in the Yellow River Valley around 8000 BCE, followed by rice 

cultivation along the Yangtze a little later. Neolithic settlements developed, growing into 

chiefdoms and, finally, states. 

The Xia and Shang Dynasties 

The first of China's many dynasties, the Xia, developed along the Yellow River. This 

civilization lasted from 2000 BCE to 1600 BCE. Much of its history is legendary, since the 

only written accounts of it were created centuries after its collapse. It may be that the Xia 

didn't exist at all. However, archaeologists have discovered sites containing bronze tools and 

tombs that could be attributed to them. 

The first definite Chinese dynasty was the Shang Dynasty, which came to power in the 

Yellow River Valley around 1600 BCE. Historians know much more about the Shang 

because there are written records from the period. 

Chinese writing is like that of Egyptian hieroglyphs and Sumerian cuneiform. Individual 

characters can represent ideas or syllables. The written language evolved over time, and it's 

still used today, making it the oldest writing system still in use. 



[This image shows a photograph of 

an oracle bone featuring early 

Chinese writing.] 

An Oracle Bone 

Chinese writing was found in association with the Shang Dynasty oracle bones. Oracle 

bones were often turtle shells or ox shoulder bones that were used to predict the future. After 

they were heated, the bones would crack and leave lines for a fortune-teller to read. The king 

or one of his fortune-tellers would ask a question from a deity, such as a weather prediction, 

river flood, the potential outcome of a battle, or crop yields. A hot metal rod was pressed into 

a hole on the bone until it cracked from the heat. The fortune-teller studied the cracks, which 

people believed was the gods' answer to the question. The question, answer, and sometimes 

the real outcome were written on the oracle bone. 

Interestingly, the existence of the Shang was considered as legendary as the Xia. However, 

this changed when oracle bones were found and then traced back in the late nineteenth and 

early twentieth century CE. It was in this way that scholars learned much about the Shang 

and their beliefs. The ancient Shang Chinese worshipped a high god named Di, nature gods, 

and the spirits of deceased kings. The Shang also practiced ancestor worship. 

The Zhou Dynasty 

The next major dynasty in China was the Zhou, which reigned in China starting around 1046 



BCE. The Zhou conquered the Shang and, to claim legitimacy, the Mandate of Heaven 

principle took shape. The Mandate of Heaven was the idea that there could be only one 

rightful ruler and that the gods chose this ruler. By this principle, the gods revoked the 

Mandate from bad rulers, and, in the case of the Shang, it was the Zhou's moral duty to 

overthrow the old dynasty and establish a new one. The gods might make their displeasure 

known in many ways, such as disastrous floods, peasant revolts, or famine. The Zhou 

claimed that while the Shang had good rulers early on, the later rulers became corrupt and, 

thus, the Zhou were selected by the gods to overthrow the Shang. The concept of the 

Mandate of Heaven would be used in the future not only to justify the overthrow of old 

dynasties but also to explain history as a cycle. 

The Zhou ruled their kingdom through a system of feudalism, a government system in which 

a king offers land and power to nobles in exchange for loyalty and service. The Zhou king 

appointed local rulers who swore loyalty to the king. These local rulers originally had kinship 

ties to the Zhou court, which allowed them to share veneration, or great respect, for their 

ancestors. However, over time, the system weakened as local lords grew more powerful and 

identified with their own domains rather than serving the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou lost 

control of their realm, and power divided so that there were several different states. 

Zhou kings were unable to keep order. Different states rebelled against the Zhou, and the 

situation deteriorated into what's called the Warring States Period, which lasted from 

around 475 BCE to 221 BCE. During this time, 15 small kingdoms fought for power. The 

period came to an end when one of the states, controlled by the Qin family, triumphed over 

the others and pushed China into a new phase. 



[The image depicts a map of China toward the end of the Zhou Dynasty, showing all the different kingdoms in 

China that would be at war during the Warring States Period.] 

A map of the Zhou Dynasty shows the different states that would be in conflict during the 

Warring States Period. (Image by SY [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) 

], via Wikimedia Commons) 

Confucianism and Daoism 

It was during the decline of the Zhou that China's foundational philosophies developed. 

There are two that had a lasting impact on China's development: Confucianism and Daoism. 



[This image shows a modern statue 

of the Chinese philosopher 

Confucius.] 

A Modern Statue of Confucius 

Confucianism is named after a minor noble and scholar known to history as Confucius, 

who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. The name "Confucius" is a name understood by Western 

nations, but, to the Chinese, he was known as Kongzi, which means "Master Kong." 

Confucius saw the growth of conflict and moral deterioration in his time and wanted to return 

the world to a more harmonious, decent period. The philosophy of Confucianism, therefore, 

focuses on character. Confucius emphasized education and self-improvement. He taught 

that people should practice filial piety, which means being respectful and good to their 

parents. Likewise, Confucius emphasized a strict social order, but didn't believe one's 

character was tied to class status. Confucius taught of the goodness innate to people and 

the need for rulers to have strong morals in order to lead well. Confucian ideas formed a 

bedrock of Chinese philosophy for over 2,000 years. This philosophy is captured in the 

classical Chinese work, the Analects of Confucius, which is a collection of hundreds of 

sayings and ideas that were supposedly collected by Confucius's students. 

The meanings of these sayings are still relevant today, with examples such as: 

"He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north 

polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." 

"To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage." 

"The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the mean 

man is conversant with gain." 

"When a country is well-governed, poverty and a mean condition are things to be 



ashamed of. When a country is ill-governed, riches and honor are things to be ashamed 

of." 

"The relation between superiors and inferiors is like that between the wind and the 

grass. The grass must bend when the wind blows across it." 

[This image shows a modern statue 

of the Chinese philosopher Laozi, 

constructed in a natural setting.] 

A Modern Statue of Laozi 

Equally important to the Chinese were the philosophy and religion of Daoism. Daoism is 

credited to a mythical founder, who may not have existed, called Laozi. His name means 

"Old Philosopher." He supposedly lived at the same time as Confucius. One of Daoism's 

main principles is the Dao, which means "the Way." This principle emphasizes the 

importance of humans living in balance with nature and embracing simplicity. According to 

this philosophy, nature itself was stronger than any order imposed by people. 

Daoist belief also focused on the concept of yin and yang. Yin and yang is the concept that 

there are two opposing forces in the universe— a feminine, negative, and passive force 

called yin and a masculine, bright, aggressive force called yang. These forces, while 

opposite, complement each other and maintain balance in the universe. 

Unlike Confucianism, Daoism dismissed hierarchy and would eventually become a major 

religion in China. Daoism, like Hinduism, is complex and incorporates religious elements, 

folklore, and philosophy. In fact, many experts still argue over a clear definition of Daoist 

beliefs. 

Many of its enigmatic (mysterious) beliefs are found in the work Dao De Jing, which means 

"The Classic of the Way and Its Virtue": 



"Dao is like a cup or bowl, yet use it and there exists no need to fill it." 

"Heaven is eternal, earth is enduring. The reason that heaven and earth can be eternal 

and enduring is because they do not live for themselves. Therefore they can live 

forever." 

"Attain the utmost emptiness. Maintain a profound stillness." 

"Dao ever-constantly resides in non-action, yet nothing is left undone." 

Both Daoism and Confucianism would influence Chinese civilization after the Qin Dynasty 

emerged victorious from the Warring States Period. Once they came to dominate, the Qin 

would unify China for the first time as an empire in 221 BCE. 



Key Points 

The civilizations of South Asia and China developed in river valleys like other early 

civilizations, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt. 

The Indus Valley Civilization is a lost civilization that made great technological and 

cultural achievements. 

Hinduism developed in India, and Buddhism developed partially as a response to the 

religion. 

Indian culture was shaped by the belief in a very strict social hierarchy called the caste 

system. 

Both Hinduism and Buddhism have shared beliefs in reincarnation. 

Buddhist beliefs are centered on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. 

Confucianism and Daoism shaped Ancient Chinese philosophy. 

Ancient China developed a dynastic system of government that was justified by the 

concept of the Mandate of Heaven. 

Exercise: Ancient India 


1. Buddhism's two main branches are _______ and Mahayana. 



2. Mohenjo-Daro is a site where ruins from the _______ civilization were discovered. 

3. _______ involves the worship of one supreme god but, at the same time, 

acknowledging other deities. 

4. The ruler of the Maurya Empire who renounced violence and converted to Buddhism 

was _______. 

5. The Indus Valley Civilization conducted long-distance trade with _______. 

6. The sum of a person's deeds—both good and bad—is called _______ in Hinduism and 

Buddhism. 


7. The subcontinent of India gave birth to Hinduism and Buddhism. What are the basic 

differences between Hinduism and Buddhism? 

8. What are the unique geographical features of South Asia? 


Exercise: Ancient India 

1. Theravada 

2. Indus Valley/Harappan 

3. Henotheism 

4. Ashoka 

5. Mesopotamia 

6. karma 

7. Hinduism is more ritualistic and complex. People have castes and can achieve 

enlightenment only over multiple lives. Buddhism isn't as ritualistic, and people of any 

caste can achieve enlightenment in just one life. Buddhists also believe in a certain set 

of doctrines from the Buddha called the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. 

8. South Asia is often called a subcontinent. It's bordered by mountains to the north and 

west, and it also experiences monsoons, which are seasonal winds that cause rainy 

seasons and dry seasons. 

Exercise: Ancient China 




1. Oracle bones from the _______ Dynasty contain the first examples of Chinese writing. 

2. The Zhou Dynasty used the concept of _______ to justify overthrowing the Shang. 

3. The concept of _______, or respecting one's parents, was emphasized by Confucius. 

4. _______ is a philosophy and religion that emphasizes nature. 

5. The _______ Dynasty was China's first dynasty; however, there are no written records 

of it, and it may not have existed. 


6. Compare and contrast Confucianism and Daoism. 

7. Why did the Zhou Dynasty finally fall? 


Exercise: Ancient China 

1. Shang 

2. Mandate of Heaven 

3. filial piety 

4. Daoism 

5. Xia 

6. Confucianism emphasizes self-improvement, social order, and hierarchy. Daoism 

emphasizes simplicity and encourages people to live in harmony with nature and allow 

for things to happen as they should. 

7. The Zhou Dynasty fell because its system of government gave too much power to local 

rulers, who then over time declared their own independence. 

1.5 Recognize major accomplishments of the Assyrian Empire, New 

Babylonian Empire, Persian Empire, Ancient Israelites, Phoenicians, Qin 

Dynasty, and Han Dynasty 

World Civilizations: Ancient Assyria, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Persia, and the Middle 

East 




In this section, you'll learn about the development and accomplishments of several world 

civilizations, including the empires developed in southwestern Asia, from the Assyrian 

Empire to the Persian Empire. You'll also learn about the first imperial dynasties in China, 

the Qin and the Han. You'll also learn about the early development of Judaism and the 

foundations of modern monotheism. 

Ancient Assyria and the Neo-Babylonian Empire 

New empires emerged in southwestern Asia that were larger and more powerful than the 

earlier states in Mesopotamia, starting around 900 BCE. The first of these empires was the 

Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians originally came from northern Mesopotamia. They 

developed a strong military, which they used to conquer cities and peoples across the 

region. Much of Assyrian military success was due to their use of iron. Assyrian soldiers wore 

metal armor and helmets, which protected them in battle, and their iron spears and swords 

were stronger than their enemies' bronze weapons. Yet iron weapons were only a portion of 

their arsenal. Fear also played a great part in their success. 

The Assyrian army carried out advanced planning and technical skill to conquer city after 

city. Soldiers were trained to fight as a unit, executing complicated maneuvers to overcome 

barriers like city walls, deep waters, and enemy assaults. Once they were able to enter the 

city gates, the Assyrians didn't hesitate to execute opposing kings, destroy cities, and 

mutilate enemy soldiers. Among the conquered peoples, the Assyrians gained a reputation 

for cruelty. They used the wealth from the lands they conquered and conscripted defeated 

peoples into their armies to claim even more territory. (Conscription is the practice of forcing 

people into military service.) With this, the Assyrians amassed the largest empire in history 

up to that point. Assyria reached its peak in about 671 BCE, when they controlled all of 

Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia (the regions of modern-day Turkey in Asia), and 

Egypt. 



[This image is a map of the Assyrian Empire at its height when it encompassed Mesopotamia, the Levant, 

Egypt, and parts of Turkey.] 

Map of the Assyrian Empire (Image adapted from Péter Gulyás [PD-US (commons.wikimedi 

a.org/wiki/Template:PD-US) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

[An image of an Assyrian king on a 

chariot wielding a bow and arrow with 

warriors bearing spears.] 

This Ancient Assyrian relief 

shows a king and warriors in 



attle. 

The Assyrians ruled out of their capitals, first at Assur and later Nineveh, both of which 

contained several million inhabitants. The Assyrian court used governors to rule their various 

territories in their name. At the society's height, there were over 100 such governors across 

the empire. The Assyrians built one of the world's largest libraries at Nineveh, which became 

a center for learning. Ultimately, the empire spread too thin, and a series of rebellions that 

occurred resulted in Assyria's collapse. In 612 BCE, an army made up of Medes and 

Chaldeans took over Nineveh. 

After overthrowing the Assyrians, the Chaldeans took power. The Chaldean king 

Nebuchadnezzar restored the city of Babylon, establishing the New Babylonian, or Neo- 

Babylonian, Empire. More than 1,000 years after Hammurabi ruled from Babylon, the 

Chaldeans rebuilt in the same place and made the city a place of learning, culture, and art. 

The empire was short-lived, lasting from 629 to 539 BCE, and it controlled much of the same 

territory as the Assyrians except for Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar is known in Jewish tradition as 

the ruler who deported many of Jerusalem's Jewish population to Babylon in what's known 

as the Babylonian Captivity. He was also responsible for many massive building projects, 

including a huge ziggurat in Babylon, which may have inspired the Old Testament's Tower of 

Babel story. 



[This image shows a map of the New Babylonian Empire at its height encompassing most of Mesopotamia, 

the Levant, and parts of Turkey.] 

Map of the Neo-Babylonian Empire (Image by 

wiki/Template:PD-US) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

[PD-US (commons.wikimedia.org/ 

[This image is a rendering of a multilevel building with 

gardens on the various tiers. This is an artistic 

conception of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.] 



An Artistic Conception of the Hanging 

Gardens of Babylon 

Another famous structure of the New Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar was the 

Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The legendary gardens began when the king ordered that 

elevated gardens be built atop a massive structure. He initiated this project to please his 

wife, who missed the flowering shrubs from her homeland. The Greek historian Herodotus 

later named it one of the "Seven Wonders" of the ancient world. However, no archaeological 

evidence of the existence of the Hanging Gardens has been found, and some scholars 

doubt it existed. The Neo-Babylonian Empire quickly declined after Nebuchadnezzar's death 

in 562 BCE. In 539 BCE, the rising Persian Empire conquered the Babylonians. 

Ancient Persia 

The Persian Empire developed in the area corresponding roughly to modern-day Iran. Persia 

had two dominant tribes, the Medes and the Persians. The Medes grew into a small empire 

first, with the Persians as a vassal state. (A vassal state is a country or territory that 

promises obedience to another country or territory.) However, the Persians eventually 

overthrew the Medes and united the entire region by 550 BCE under Cyrus II of the 

Achaemenid Dynasty. It's for this reason that the Persian Empire is also called the 

Achaemenid Empire. 

Cyrus II, also called Cyrus the Great, transformed Persia from a kingdom to an empire 

through his military genius. By the end of his reign in 530 BCE, he controlled Babylon, 

Mesopotamia, modern-day Turkey, and the Levant. Unlike the Assyrians, the Persians 

adopted a much less violent approach to the people they conquered. Cyrus didn't allow the 

Persian military to loot and burn a city after they conquered it. Cyrus respected local customs 

and religions and allowed the people of a city to practice their own culture after submitting to 

his rule. 

Cyrus solidified his realm through building projects. The most notable of these was a large 

network of roads that allowed for quick communication across the empire. The conquered 

people were required to do little more than be vassal states and pay tribute to the empire. 

This allowed the Persians to rule over a very diverse empire for two centuries and bring 

stability to a region that had been torn apart by warfare for centuries. A famous example of 

the tone Cyrus set is a tale from Hebrew tradition. According to the story, Cyrus allowed the 



Jews who were exiled in Babylon to return to Jerusalem. Under Persian rule, the Jews were 

able to rebuild their city and temple. 

[This image is a map of the Persian Empire at its height encompassing modern-day Iran, Mesopotamia, 

Anatolia, Egypt, and the Levant.] 

A Map of the Persian Empire in 490 BC (Image by Feedmecereal [CC BY-SA (creativecomm 

ons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

After Cyrus's death, the Persian Empire continued to expand by conquering Egypt. Yet, 

during this time, the Persians were also facing internal revolts, as Cyrus's son and successor 

was unpopular and died soon after taking over as king. These rebellions were put down 

during the reign of Darius I, who ruled from 522 to 486 BCE. After suppressing the revolts, 

Darius pushed the boundaries of the empire to its farthest extent: probing into Macedonia in 

the west, which was just north of Greece, and further into the Indus River Valley. He 

established a new capital for the empire at the city of Persepolis. Darius continued the 



policies of Cyrus and strengthened the empire's infrastructure. He was able to reestablish 

peace and stability to the empire by establishing a centralized government structure 

connected by roads. He built the Royal Road, which connected major cities in the Persian 

Empire in a 1,600-mile stretch from Sardis, a city in Anatolia, to Susa, near the Persian Gulf. 

The road was serviced by horse-mounted couriers who would relay messages for the king. 

They could cover the distance in just nine days, whereas it would take 90 days by foot. 

[The image is a map of the Achaemenid Empire. The Royal Road is shown as a dashed black line.] 

This map of the Achaemenid Empire shows the Royal Road as a dashed line. (Image 

adapted from Mossmaps [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) ], via 


Under the Achaemenid Empire, the religion of Zoroastrianism achieved prominence. 

Zoroaster, sometimes called Zarathustra, was a prophet who lived around 600 BCE. 

Zoroastrianism was a dualistic religion, which meant it promoted the idea that there were 

opposing forces of good and evil in the world that fought one another. In Zoroastrianism, 



there was a supreme god of good, light, and order called Ahura Mazda, who battled against 

his opponent, Angra Mianyu, who was the god of chaos and evil. The Earth, according to the 

prophet, was the battleground between these two forces. Zoroaster believed that everyone 

had a role to play and could either be on the good god's side, by acting morally, or on the evil 

side. In return for good acts, one would expect a resurrection and everlasting life. Those that 

didn't perform good acts would receive eternal punishment. These concepts of free will—in 

which people choose between good and evil to decide their destiny—and eternal judgment 

would influence later monotheistic religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. 

[This image is a photograph of some of the ruins of 

the Persian capital of Persepolis.] 

The Ruins of Persepolis 

The Persian Empire contained not only Persians, but also Indians, Medes, Greeks, Jews, 

Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Among others, the Persians diffused the ancient technologies 

of the Fertile Crescent to Central Asia and introduced rice from India to the Middle East. 

Darius I would come into conflict with the ancient Greek city-states as well as his son Xerxes 

I, who attempted to conquer the Greeks. However, the Persians lost, and by 329 BCE, the 

Persian Empire was conquered by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great. 

The Ancient Israelites 

An important development in the long-term history of the world was the establishment of the 

Kingdom of Israel. The Israelites, also called Hebrews, were founders of Judaism. Their 

concepts of monotheism directly influenced the development of Christianity and Islam. 



Much of what's known about the ancient Hebrews comes from religious scripture usually 

referred to as the Hebrew Bible or the Old Testament. These works were written long after 

the actual events had passed. The gap in time between events and writing creates a problem 

for historians. It's difficult for historians to verify accounts in the Bible, particularly since the 

archaeological records of the time are scarce. This has led to vigorous debate among 

scholars to determine what's historical and what's mythical. Still, the early story of Judaism is 

important for understanding the development of several of today's major world religions. 

According to Hebrew tradition, the founder of Judaism was Abraham, from the 

Mesopotamian city of Ur. He had become a worshipper of a single god named Yahweh and 

migrated to Canaan, which corresponds roughly with modern-day Israel and Palestine. 

Abraham is, therefore, recognized as the founder of the Jewish religion. According to 

tradition, Abraham struck a covenant, or sacred agreement, with the single god that he 

would worship Yahweh alone and, in return, the god would protect him and his descendants. 

According to tradition, the Twelve Tribes were descended from Abraham and eventually 

migrated to Egypt. An Egyptian pharaoh enslaved the Hebrews, but a prophet named Moses 

freed them after a series of miracles now celebrated during the Jewish holiday of Passover. 

After escaping, the Israelites entered a second covenant to worship Yahweh as the only god 

and uphold the Ten Commandments. The Ten Commandments form the backbone of 

moral behavior in the Judeo-Christian tradition. These laws are considered holy, prohibiting 

acts such as murder, theft, and adultery. The Commandments also require believers to 

honor their parents and not to desire other people's possessions. 



[This map depicts the Levant with the kingdoms of 

Israel and Judah at center with surrounding kingdoms 

such as Phoenicia and Moab.] 

This map shows the Levant at the time of the 

Kingdom of Israel. (Imaged adapted from 

Richardprins [CC BY-SA (creativecommons. 

org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) ], via Wikimedia 

Commons) 

The Israelites returned to the Levant to form small kingdoms. The first king was Saul, who 

ruled from about 1080 BCE to 1010 BCE. His successor, King David, ruled until 970 BCE 

from the city of Jerusalem and is credited with uniting and expanding the Israelite kingdoms. 

David is, perhaps, best known today for his biblical Psalms, which are religious poems, and 

for his legendary slaying of the giant Goliath. 



[This image is a modern-day photograph of the 

Western Wall in Jerusalem with crowds of visitors in 

front of it.] 

The Western Wall is in Jerusalem. The 

Roman Empire destroyed it in 66 CE, and its 

ruins are now a place of worship. 

David's son, Solomon, further consolidated the realm and built the first Jewish temple in 

Jerusalem. The Babylonians destroyed the temple, but a second temple replaced it after the 

Jews returned from Babylon. This second temple became a center of worship, but it was 

later destroyed by the Roman Empire in 66 CE. Its ruins, called the Western Wall or the 

Wailing Wall, are a pilgrimage site for Jews today. (A pilgrimage is a journey taken for 

religious reasons.) According to legend, Solomon was well regarded for his wisdom. Still, 

Solomon used forced labor and exacted tributary payments. This is probably the reason that, 

after Solomon died in 931 BCE, Israel split permanently into two kingdoms, with Israel in the 

north and Judah in the south. 

Eventually, the kingdoms in Israel came to an end when the Assyrians conquered them. In 

722 BCE, the population of the northern kingdom was relocated. This gave rise to the legend 

of the "Ten Lost Tribes of Israel." Judah kept its identity and became a vassal state. Later 

conquerors were the Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and finally the Romans. While the 

Israelites didn't have the great empires of Persia or the Assyrians, in many respects, they 

were very impactful due to their contributions to the development of Christianity, Islam, and 

religious thought. 

Phoenicia 

The Phoenicians were the most powerful traders in the Mediterranean around 1100 BCE. 



Rather than unite in a single country, Phoenicia was a collection of independent, wealthy 

city-states located along the eastern Mediterranean coast in modern-day Lebanon, Syria, 

and northern Israel. The chief three city-states were Sidon, Byblos, and Tyre. 

[This is a map of the Phoenician city-states in what is modern-day Lebanon.] 

A Map of the Phoenician City-States (Image adapted from Kordas, based on Alvaro's work 

[CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

The Phoenicians were expert shipbuilders and seafarers, which was the secret to their 

success. They traded throughout the Mediterranean world and are thought to have traveled 

as far as southern Britain. Additionally, some scholars believe that the Phoenicians even 

sailed around the entire continent of Africa, returning home through the Strait of Gibraltar. 

The Phoenicians also established new colonies in the Mediterranean. The most powerful of 

these was Carthage, a city that fought with the Roman Republic for control of the 

Mediterranean between 264 and 146 BCE. 



In addition to trading goods from other lands—wine, precious metals, weapons, ivory, and 

slaves—Phoenicians were exceptional craftspeople. They were well-known for their 

glasswork, such as vases that repeatedly appear in archaeological excavations across the 

Mediterranean. The Phoenician city of Tyre is famous for producing a brilliant purple dye that 

was used to color royal robes throughout the ancient world. Interestingly, the dye was made 

from excretions from a sea snail. The process of making a substantial amount of dye was 

very intensive, requiring massive numbers of snails. Because of this, its price was high. The 

dye is also how the Greeks named the Phoenicians, since the Greek word Phoinikes means 

"Tyrian Purple." 

[This image is a photograph of a 

Phoenician vase held at the National 

Museum of Beirut.] 

An Example of a Phoenician 

Vase 

Perhaps the Phoenicians' greatest contribution is that they're generally credited with 

inventing the alphabet, as long ago as 1000 BCE. The alphabet was an important 

development in the history of writing. Before alphabets, writing systems, such as Sumerian 

cuneiform or Egyptian hieroglyphics, had symbols that represented ideas or syllables. These 

types of symbolic writing systems had hundreds to thousands of characters. Imagine trying to 

learn a language with so many letters! The number of characters made it difficult to learn. 

In contrast, the Phoenician alphabet consisted of just 22 consonant letters, or characters. 

The Phoenician alphabet became one of the most widely used writing systems in ancient 

history. It directly influenced the development of the Greek alphabet which, in turn, evolved 

into the Latin alphabet under the Romans, the alphabet used in Western nations today. 





Key Points 

Southwestern Asia, the area around Mesopotamia, saw a series of large empires 

develop, including the Assyrians, Neo-Babylonians, and Persians. 

The Assyrian Empire was created through violent conquest. It was short-lived, partially 

due to the brutal tactics that the Assyrian rulers adopted. 

Nebuchadnezzar II, a Chaldean king, established the New Babylonian, or Neo- 

Babylonian, Empire. He rebuilt the ancient city of Babylon, taking on ambitious projects 

such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 

The Persian Empire succeeded the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It was established by 

Cyrus the Great, who practiced religious tolerance and allowed conquered peoples to 

practice local customs. It was the largest of the empires, centered in Mesopotamia, and 

unified its realm through strong infrastructure such as roads and communication 

networks. 

Zoroastrianism was an important, dualistic religion in the Persian Empire that influenced 

Judaism and Christianity. 

The Kingdom of Israel was small in size but has had a large impact on history, since its 

religion, Judaism, would influence the development of Christianity and Islam. 

The Phoenicians were expert shipbuilders and seafarers who dominated trade in the 

Mediterranean. They were excellent craftspeople, and their alphabet became the 

foundation for modern Western languages today. 

World Civilizations: Chinese Dynasties 


The Unification of China 

The Zhou Dynasty lasted for at least eight centuries. While the first half of the Zhou Dynasty 

was more peaceful, since the rulers had more control, the last half was less stable. In the 

latter half of the dynasty, local lords and rulers pushed to be independent, resulting in 

conflict. This period of strife is known as the Warring States Period, and it lasted from 475 to 

221 BCE. The end of this era occurred when the Qin, a western state, established a new 

dynasty and united all of China through conquest. This was the beginning of the Qin 



Dynasty and the start of the Chinese Empire. It's believed that Qin (pronounced CHEEN) 

eventually morphed into the word China that now indicates the entire country. 

The Qin Dynasty 

In 221 BCE, Ying Zheng defeated the last rival state to start his new empire. After ruling for 

over two decades, the Qin ruler took on the new name of Shi Huangdi, which means "First 

Emperor." The emperor was able to quell internal conflicts while also doubling the empire's 

lands. Additionally, the emperor had learned from the Warring States Period and executed a 

strategy to prevent it from happening again. Shi Huangdi called all the ruling nobles from 

throughout the empire to live in the capital city, where they would be under his surveillance. 

At the same time, he sent officials of his choosing to rule in their place. The emperor called 

his policy the "strengthening of the trunk and the weakening of the branches." 



[The image depicts a map of the Qin Dynasty at its height.] 

A Map of the Qin Dynasty (Image adapted from SY [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licens 



es/by-sa/4.0) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

Being determined to centralize rule and create a flourishing kingdom, the First Emperor 

started a civil service administration. He also built thousands of miles of roads to connect the 

capital to the rest of the empire and started a major canal project to link the Yangtze River to 

the Pearl River. The Qin standardized weights and measures and made currency the same 

throughout the kingdom. The dynasty also standardized the writing system. Since the 

Chinese system is character-based and not sound-based like an alphabet, a standard 

character system made it possible for people who spoke different dialects or languages to 

communicate through writing. A simple explanation of this would be that an English speaker 

and a Russian speaker would both use a pictogram of a bird to be a bird. Although the word 

itself is pronounced differently in the two languages, the concept is the same. The Qin were 

also responsible for building border walls on the northern frontier against nomadic tribes. 

This was the first version of China's Great Wall. 

As part of reinforcing their rule, the Qin embraced legalism. Legalism is a Chinese 

philosophy of government in which rule is centralized and a strong ruler heads the 

government. This in practice meant that every person was to be obedient to the government 

and any criminal received the severest punishment. Those who followed the rules were wellrewarded. 

The Qin applied this equally to all social ranks. The Qin managed the smallest 

aspects of people's lives. It also strictly controlled thinkers and ideas. To prevent people from 

dissenting or spreading alternative ideas, the Qin burned texts and books and murdered 

hundreds of Confucian scholars. 

[This photograph depicts long rows of terracotta 

warriors and horses from the tomb of Shi Huangdi] 

Terracotta Warriors of Shi Huangdi 



Like other powerful rulers, the "First Emperor" was memorialized in a time-consuming, 

elaborate fashion. Upon his death in 210 BCE, he was buried in an enormous tomb filled 

with life-sized terra cotta warriors. While Shi Huangdi was able to rule over a unified China 

with a tight fist, his sons couldn't. The Qin didn't last long after the emperor's death. By 207 

BCE, rebellions broke out and civil war followed. 

The Han Dynasty 

The rebellions that triggered the collapse of the Qin Dynasty continued and a full-on civil war 

began. This was resolved in 202 BCE when Liu Bang successfully built an army to unite 

China once more under his rule. Liu Bang was born a farmer and became a general. In the 

civil war, he turned against his superior, an aristocratic general, and won in what would be 

the general's final battle. Upon victory, Liu Bang declared himself the new emperor and 

established the Han Dynasty. 

The Han Dynasty continued to centralize the Chinese government, but they were more 

moderate, unlike the Qin. Rather than adopt the harsh Legalist system, the Han softened 

their approach and lowered taxes. Perhaps due to these changes, the Han Dynasty was able 

to stay in power for longer than the previous dynasty. Altogether, the Han Dynasty was in 

power for over 400 years, from 202 BCE to 220 CE. This period is the longest of any dynasty 

in China's history except for the earlier Zhou Dynasty, which was in power twice as long. The 

Han Dynasty was so successful that today, most Chinese people identify as belonging to the 

"Han" ethnicity. 

The history of the Han Dynasty is divided into two parts. The first part is called the Western 

Han, which dates from 202 to 8 BCE. Then, from 8 BCE to 25 CE, an official named Wang 

Mang usurped the throne and attempted to establish his own dynasty, which failed. 

(Usurpation is the practice of illegally taking power.) After Wang Mang, the Han 

reestablished themselves in a new capital to the east. This later period is called the Eastern 

Han. 

One of the Han's key emperors was Emperor Wu, who reigned from 140 to 87 BCE. Wu 

further centralized the government under the ideas of Confucianism. The Chinese state 

promoted education and the establishment of an academy to advance important Confucian 

texts. This strengthened its civil service system, which promoted people into important 

positions based on education and merit rather than by their status at birth. This allowed 



successful students to advance into the empire's bureaucracy. It also created a unified, 

educated upper class. 

During the Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced to China for the first time, which would 

have a lasting impact on Chinese culture. Buddhism existed alongside traditional 

Confucianism, Daoism, and traditional ancestor veneration. Science and technology also 

flourished during this time. The Han invented paper and sundials and even developed a 

seismograph to detect earthquakes. Future Chinese dynasties looked to the Han as a model. 

[This map shows the Han Dynasty at its greatest extent.] 

Map of the Han Dynasty (Image adapted from Qiushufang [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org 

/licenses/by-sa/4.0) ], via Wikimedia Commons) 

Under the Han Dynasty, the population grew, and, with it, so did the empire's strength and 

territory. This was especially true under Wu, who managed to break up a tribal confederation 

of nomadic peoples to the north. He also took control of territories by forcing them to be 



subject to the Han to the west in central Asia. Much of this was to control trade. Many 

Chinese goods and resources had been making their way west to other civilizations. These 

east/west trade routes were called silk roads. During this time, Chinese goods were traded 

as far west as Imperial Rome. Much of the goods that were traded were luxuries such as silk. 

The Chinese never traded directly with the Romans. Instead, goods often passed through 

many different people, and, as they did so, the price greatly increased. 

The Han Dynasty eventually declined. In 220 CE, it collapsed, partially due to the growing 

power of local leaders. A united China broke apart into various kingdoms, and wouldn't be 

united again until 589 CE, when the Sui Dynasty achieved dominance. 



Key Points 

The Qin Dynasty united China into a single imperial empire for the first time after 

overthrowing the Zhou Dynasty. 

The Qin followed harsh policies, embracing the philosophy of legalism, which led to its 

downfall. 

The Han Dynasty replaced the Qin and had more moderate policies that made this a 

long-lasting dynasty of over 400 years of rule. 

The Han Dynasty established a merit-based bureaucracy, had a strong centralized 

government, and embraced Confucian ideals. 

Exercise: World Civilizations: Ancient Assyria, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Persia, and 

the Middle East 


1. The Assyrians mastered the use of _______, which gave them advantages in battle. 

2. Nebuchadnezzar is known for having built the legendary _______. 

3. _______ was a dualistic religion practiced by the Persians. 

4. The New Babylonian Empire was established by the _______. 

5. King _______ was the last king of a unified Kingdom of Israel. 



6. A purple dye that was highly prized by royalty in the ancient world was produced by the 

city of _______. 


7. What are some common traits among the Neo-Babylonian and Assyrian empires? 

8. What were some of the accomplishments of the Phoenicians? 


Exercise: World Civilizations: Ancient Assyria, Neo-Babylonian Empire, Persia, and 

the Middle East 

1. iron 

2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon 

3. Zoroastrianism 

4. Chaldeans 

5. Solomon 

6. Tyre 

7. Both empires used iron and conquered by force. They were intolerant of conquered 

peoples' religious beliefs and practices. 

8. The Phoenicians were expert shipbuilders and seafarers. They traveled incredibly long 

distances and conducted overseas trade in the Mediterranean. In addition to trading 

goods from other lands, the Phoenicians fostered an active, skilled crafts industry. The 

Phoenicians also developed an alphabet that many other civilizations adopted, leading 

to the alphabet used in Western countries today. 

Exercise: World Civilizations: Chinese Dynasties 


1. The Qin Dynasty ruled by following the philosophy of _______. 

2. The _______ collapsed because of its harsh policies. 

3. The Han Dynasty was founded by _______, who was a peasant. 

4. The Han Dynasty followed the teachings of _______ to emphasize social hierarchy and 

order. 

5. The _______ were trade routes from and to East Asia. 



6. The Emperor _______ expanded Chinese territory and broke up nomadic tribal groups 

in northern Asia. 


7. What was a main goal of the Qin Dynasty? 

8. What were some of the major accomplishments of the Han Dynasty? 


Exercise: World Civilizations: Chinese Dynasties 

1. legalism 

2. Qin Dynasty 

3. Liu Bang 

4. Confucius 

5. silk roads 

6. Wu 

7. The Qin Dynasty sought to centralize the government's power under an absolute 

monarch. In doing so, the Qin were able to have more control over a vast territory. 

8. The Han Dynasty is China's longest-lasting dynasty, aside from the Zhou. Its rulers 

promoted Confucian ideals, centralized government, and education of elites for its 

bureaucracy. They also were advanced in technology such as in the invention of paper. 

1.6 Identify significant achievements of the Ancient Greeks and Ancient 

Romans 

Ancient Greece 


The Geography of the Greek World 

Western Civilization, the culture and society that developed in Western Europe, draws its 

origins from Ancient Greece. Many of the foundations of art, architecture, government, 

science, and culture created after the Renaissance can be traced back to the Greeks. 



The geography of Greece and its surrounding regions greatly impacted its development as a 

civilization. Mainland Greece, a peninsula on the European continent, is rugged, with 

mountainous conditions that once made travel by land difficult. Due to this, people living on 

the peninsula were isolated and their settlements developed separately as independent 

communities in the valleys of the peaks. The terrain was also difficult for farming crops. 

Instead, herding was more common throughout mainland Greece. 

While mountains separated the people, water connected them. Over 8,000 miles of coastline 

meant Greeks had to travel only about 85 miles, regardless of where they lived, to reach the 

surrounding seas. Additionally, the Greek world had more than 2,000 islands. The sea had 

natural resources and an avenue for trade and cultural diffusion, which means spreading 

beliefs, technology, and ideas into different areas. The Greek world was primarily centered 

on the seas that connected the peninsula and islands. 

[This map shows modern-day Greece and its surrounding regions] 

A map shows modern-day Greece. 



The Minoans and Mycenaeans 

From 2000 BCE to 1450 BCE, the Minoan civilization thrived on the island of Crete. The 

Minoans were a powerful seafaring people who dominated trade. The archaeologists who 

discovered the Minoan civilization named it after the myth of King Minos, in which the king 

built a labyrinth to house a half-man, half-bull monster called the Minotaur. 

[A photograph shows the ruins of the 

palace of Knossos.] 

The Ruins of Knossos 

Minoan culture was centered on palace sites, with the most notable being at Knossos. At 

Knossos, archaeologists found a rich Minoan culture that included fine frescoes, jewelry, 

vases, and pottery. Minoan art was vibrant, featuring marine life as well as repeated 

depictions of bull-leaping, which some archaeologists have conjectured might have been a 

sport. However, much of Minoan civilization is still a mystery because its writing system, 

called Linear A, hasn't yet been deciphered. The Minoan palaces were destroyed around 

the year 1450 BCE. The evidence suggests that they were destroyed by natural disaster or 

invasion—or possibly both. 

The Mycenaeans were the next major civilization in the region. Like the Minoans, they were 

a palace culture, and some scholars have argued that they may have conquered the 

Minoans. Their civilization, which was based on the mainland, spanned from 1600 to 1100 

BCE. Archaeological evidence shows a thriving culture with much material wealth. The 

Mycenaeans also had a form of writing, called Linear B. Unlike Minoan writing, Linear B has 

been deciphered and identified as a form of early Greek. The existing writing mostly 

concerns lists of goods and commercial transactions. 



[A photograph of the Mycenaean 

ruins in Greece.] 

Ruins of the Mycenaean 

civilization. 

Around 1200 BCE, the Mycenaean civilization declined. Its palaces were abandoned or 

destroyed so that, by 1100 BCE, Greece entered a period known as its Dark Ages because 

so little is known of it. Scholars believe that, at that time, Greece and other civilizations in the 

Eastern Mediterranean and the Fertile Crescent suffered from a combination of natural 

disasters, invasions, and strife. This period lasted until about 700 BCE as the Greek 

economy and culture recovered. 

By this time, the Greeks had adopted a new writing system based on the Phoenician 

alphabet. (An alphabet is a system of written symbols which represent sounds.) An alphabet 

has advantages over other writing systems—there are fewer symbols to learn than in 

pictogram or hieroglyphic writing. Therefore, the alphabet was easier to learn and more 

accessible. 

The Rise of City-States 

By about 700 BCE, Greece had become a land dominated by numerous, independent citystates. 

Each city-state, called a polis, had a variety of governments and societies. The most 

famous of these poleis (plural for polis) were Sparta and Athens. 

Sparta 

The city-state of Sparta was in the mountainous Peloponnese, which is the southern part of 

Greece. It was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus but was quite isolated from 

the rest of Greece. Around 725 BCE, Sparta conquered the lands of neighboring city-states, 



including Messenia, and enslaved their population, known as the helots. Helots were 

peasants who were tied to the land where they were ordered to work. Less than 100 years 

later, the Messenians revolted to escape the harsh rule of the Spartans. The Spartans were 

greatly outnumbered—about eight helots to one Spartan—but they managed to quell the 

rebellion. Out of this experience, the Spartans resolved to develop a strong military to 

maintain their power. 

[This image shows a recreation of Greek warriors on 

a piece of pottery.] 

A recreation of Greek warriors in battle. 

Ultimately, the Spartans were highly successful. They created the most powerful army in 

Greece, which was possible due to the enslaved helots. With enslaved people working the 

fields and producing food, the Spartans were able to concentrate entirely on training. The 

Spartans practiced infanticide, in which newborns who were thought to be too weak were 

killed. Boys were separated from their families at a young age to be trained in communal 

barracks. Adult men were expected to serve in the military until the age of 60, which was 

quite old for the time. 

As part of a military-oriented society, self-control and discipline were important traits in 

Sparta. Interestingly, out of all the other poleis, Sparta gave more rights to women. Even 

girls received some military training and were taught to put service to Sparta above 

everything. Ancient Greek society was highly patriarchal and oppressive to women, but in 

Sparta, female citizens could own property and take part in athletic competitions. This was 

unheard of in other Greek city-states. 

The Spartan government was made up of several branches. There was an assembly that all 

Spartan citizens were a part of and a council of elders made up of 30 men. There were also 

five elected officials who carried out laws, and two kings, who ruled over Sparta's military. 



Regardless of the branch, women, foreigners, helots, and enslaved people weren't allowed 

to participate in the government. The society was oriented to be strong and impenetrable. 

Because they focused their efforts on developing military strength, the Spartans spent little 

time in areas such as art, literature, science, or mathematics. War was everything for the 

Spartans. 

Athens 

Athens offered a stark contrast to Sparta. Athens is in the region of Attica, on the other side 

of the Greek isthmus. One of the earliest forms of democracy, which means rule by the 

people, was born in Athens. While the result was an equal form of government, it came 

about due to violence. Ongoing conflicts between the poor and the rich led the Athenian elite 

to create a structure that both groups could live with peacefully. 

The first move toward an equal society was when Draco, a nobleman, developed a legal 

code that assumed that all Athenians, rich and poor alike, were equal under the law. Solon, 

another Athenian man, also played a key role in forming the democratic government. In 594 

BCE, Solon outlawed debt slavery and ruled that no citizen could own another citizen. Under 

his rule, the aristocracy (the noble class) had more power, but any citizen could bring 

charges against a wrongdoer. 

Athens moved further closer to democracy when Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes 

diminished the power of the aristocracy, allowing all citizens to have a say in making laws. In 

Athens, adult male citizens voted directly on matters of law. The leaders of Athens, called the 

archons, were chosen randomly rather than by birth. It's important to note, however, that 

citizenship was limited. Only free adult males who owned property and were born in Athens 

could be citizens, which excluded women, enslaved people, and people born outside the 

city-state. 

The Persian Wars 

As the poleis grew and farmlands and other resources grew scarce, the Greeks sent settlers 

to colonize new locations throughout the Mediterranean. (To colonize means to conquer 

other lands to establish control and claim resources.) The Greeks established colonies as far 

west as Spain and created numerous colonies in southern Italy, Sicily, and on the west coast 

of Asia Minor. While Greek colonization was occurring, to the east, the Achaemenid 



Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was expanding under Cyrus the Great. The empire 

pushed against Greek city-states in Asia Minor and installed tyrants in cities that were 

supportive of Persia. As Persia increased its control further into the Greek world, city-states 

such as Athens supported their fellow Greeks. The wars between the Greeks and the 

Persians took place over the course of a decade and would have great consequences in the 

Mediterranean world. 

In 490 BCE, the new Persian king, Darius, sent a force in revenge against Greek city-states 

that opposed his expansion into neighboring city-states. Darius targeted his revenge against 

Athens, sending a Persian fleet to land on the Athenian plain, called Marathon. Despite 

being outnumbered, the Athenians were able to stop the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. 

This battle became a source of pride for the Athenians. It also demonstrated the strength of 

Greece's battle formation called the phalanx, which is a group of foot soldiers who stand 

side-by-side with a spear in one hand and a shield in the other. By locking shields and 

moving as one, soldiers in a phalanx were difficult to penetrate. 

[A carved relief of Spartan warriors 

doing battle.] 

A monument to the Spartan 

warriors at Thermopylae. 

Ten years later in 480 BCE, Darius's son, Xerxes, launched a new invasion of Greece with a 

much larger army looking for revenge. The Greek city-states were divided, with some joining 

Persia, others fighting Persia, and some standing by the sidelines, waiting to see who would 

win. The result involved the Persian forces marching through Greece with little resistance. 

However, this changed when Xerxes and his troops came to a narrow pass in the mountains 

at Thermopylae. At this narrow path, just 300 Spartan warriors, plus contingents from other 

city-states, held off the Persian advance at a mountain pass for two days before they were 



etrayed by a local. All 300 Spartans were killed, but the example of their heroism became 

an inspiration for the Greeks. 

The Spartans bought time for the Athenians to evacuate their city. Two Greek victories 

followed this by sea and land at Platea and Mycale. This resulted in a Persian defeat and 

Xerxes' withdrawal from Greece. At the end of the war, Athens and Sparta were clearly the 

strongest of the poleis. 

The history of the Persian Wars was captured by the author and traveler Herodotus, who is 

sometimes called the "Father of History." Herodotus wrote down a detailed record of the 

things that he saw and learned about in his travels. It's through his book Historíai that 

historians have learned so much of the Persian wars. After the defeat of Persia, Greece 

entered what's called its Classical Period, which lasted until 323 BCE. The flowering of 

Greek culture characterizes the period. 

Ancient Greek Religion, Culture, and Society 

While there was no one, singular Greek culture, Greeks from various city-states interacted, 

spoke the same language, held many of the same beliefs, and had some shared cultural 

elements. One of the most defining features of shared Greek experience was religion. 

[A stone sculpture of the Greek God Zeus reclining 

and holding a cornucopia.] 

A sculpture of the Greek God Zeus holding a 

cornucopia. 

The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, meaning that they believed in many gods and 

goddesses. Individual deities, or gods, might personify ideas, objects, or phenomena. For 

example, Dionysus was the Greek god of wine. Wine was important in Greek society, and 



people honored the god Dionysus to win favor and ensure good grape harvests. Greek gods 

and goddesses were given human forms and characters, which could be both good and bad. 

The central Greek gods were the Olympian Gods, who lived on Mount Olympus, where 

Zeus led them. Other prominent gods and goddesses included Athena, the goddess of 

wisdom; Aphrodite, the goddess of love; Apollo, the god of the sun and beauty; and 

Poseidon, the god of the sea, who brought storms and earthquakes. 

Individual gods became patrons of various poleis. For example, Athena was central to 

Athens and Aphrodite was important to the city-state of Corinth. Greeks worshipped gods in 

temples, which were thought of as dwellings of the gods. Rituals to gods involved sacrificing 

animals and pouring wine for the god. Religion was also very personal to the Greeks, with 

individual households offering prayers and sacrifices to gods and goddesses. 

The Greeks also believed in prophecy. There were centers where people would go to consult 

with oracles, who were believed to forecast the future. The most famous of these was the 

oracle of Apollo at Delphi. People would travel great distances to visit the oracle for matters 

of great importance. Delphi's pronouncements were recorded in historical narratives, which 

points to how important foretelling was in Greek culture. 

[An ancient statue of a Greek discus 



thrower, midmotion.] 

A statue of a discus thrower by 

the sculptor Mirone, ca. 455 

BCE. 

Religion also made its way into games, especially the ancient Olympic Games, which were 

held at the sacred site of Olympia. These games were held in honor of the god Zeus and 

consisted of events such as foot races, wrestling, boxing, javelin throws, and the discus. The 

ancient Olympics were held annually from 776 BCE to 393 CE. The Games were revived in 

modern form in 1896. 

Women in Greek Society 

Greek society was highly patriarchal, allowing little agency or power for most women. At 

every point in their lives, women were subject to male command, either as a girl to her father 

or as a woman to her husband. Women were confined to the home and expected to manage 

the household and rear children. In city-states such as Athens, women had few legal rights— 

they couldn't vote, own or inherit property, and they had no say in whom they married. Apart 

from the Spartans, Greek women couldn't even attend the Olympics. 

The rights of women did vary from polis to polis. In Sparta, for example, women had rights. 

They could own property and move freely in public. This was partly due to the structure of 

Spartan society, in which men lived in separate barracks, which allowed women to have 

more freedom. 

Greek Literature 



[An ancient Greek sarcophagus with relief carvings 

inspired by Homer] 

An ancient Greek sarcophagus depicting 

scenes from Homer's Iliad. 

The earliest Greek works of literature are two epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Both works 

are attributed to Homer. These two poems were originally oral traditions originating from 

Greece's Dark Ages. This meant that the stories, which are hundreds of pages long, 

originally would have been told from memory. The Iliad is centered on the Trojan War's last 

days, consisting of the Greeks' besiege of the city of Troy. This work features legendary 

heroes such as Achilles, Hector, Paris, and Odysseus. The second, the Odyssey, recounts 

the adventures of Odysseus on his long voyage home from Troy. Both works reveal much 

about Greek religion and the people's strong regard for individual bravery and competition. 

There's some debate among scholars today about who Homer was or if he ever existed. 

Some believe that Homer did exist and that he authored both works. On the other hand, 

others believe that the two stories were created by many people over time, as the tales were 

retold over the centuries. Another work from this period is Hesiod's Theogony, which relates 

the beginnings and relationships of Greek gods. 



[A photograph of two Greek masks used in drama. 

The mask on the left is of a person smiling and the 

mask on the right shows a face that is weeping.] 

Ancient Greek masks were used in drama to 

depict joy and sorrow. 

During Greece's Classical Period, there were several playwrights. They wrote dramas, 

tragedies, and comedic plays. Three tragic writers stand out. Aeschylus (525 to 456 BCE) 

wrote about Greek mythology and the suffering of humanity. His most famous play is 

Agamemnon, which relates the murder of Agamemnon by his wife. Sophocles (496 to 406 

BCE) is most famous for his plays about King Oedipus and his household's sorrows. The 

third playwright is Euripides (484 to 407 BCE), who was innovative by showing traditional 

Greek heroes as ordinary mortals. 

The best-known comedy playwright was Aristophanes (450 to 386 BCE). His works were 

sharp satires that were highly critical of political and intellectual figures of the day. His bestknown 

works include the Frogs and the Clouds. 

Greek Philosophy 



[This image is a painting by Jacques Louis David called the ] 

This 1787 painting by Jacques Louis David is called the 

"Death of Socrates." 

Greek writing also contained extensive work in philosophy. Ancient Greece's most prominent 

and influential philosopher was Socrates (470 to 399 BCE). An Athenian, he developed the 

Socratic Method in his school, which uses questioning and argumentation between teacher 

and student to critique ideas and form knowledge. Using this method, Socrates questioned 

traditions and customs in Athens. Eventually, the political climate turned against him, 

accusing and convicting him of "corrupting the youth" of Athens. He was executed by forced 

drinking of poisonous hemlock. 

Much of what's known about Socrates comes from his students, who wrote of him after his 

death. The most prominent of his students is Plato (427 to 347 BCE). His work includes 

dialogues with Socrates, but his most famous work is the Republic, which looks at human 

behavior and justice. Aristotle (384 to 322 BCE) was a student of Plato. He made 

contributions to multiple disciplines, including physics, mathematics, ethics, logic, and 

politics. He was also the tutor of Alexander the Great. His influence extended through the 

rest of ancient history and into the Middle Ages and Renaissance. 

Greek Art and Architecture 

Ancient Greek architecture was highly influential. Its forms have inspired design for centuries. 

The Greeks concentrated their efforts on making their buildings symmetrical and 

proportionate. Perhaps the most famous of these structures is the Parthenon at Athens, 

which was built as a temple to Athena on top of a hill called the Acropolis. Architecture in 



Greece was divided into three systems called orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These 

orders are shown in different column types used by the Greeks. Two other orders were 

added afterward, known as the Tuscan and the Composite. The Romans used the 

Corinthian order. 

[This image shows five column types developed by the ancient Greeks. From left to right, they are Tuscan, 

Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite.] 

The Greek column types. 

Greek art survives mostly in the forms of pottery and sculpture. Pottery that survived displays 

religious scenes that grew to look more realistic over the course of centuries. The same 

holds true with Greek sculpture. Master sculptors such as Phidias used perspective and 

knowledge of human anatomy to create natural, realistic works. This influenced later forms of 

art. 

The Peloponnesian War 

The Classical Period of ancient Greece—in which art, literature, architecture, and other 

forms of culture thrived—ended with the onset of the Peloponnesian War. 

Leading up to the war, a group of Greek city-states, led by Athens, formed the Delian 

League. The league was meant to be a defensive alliance. However, after about 20 years, 



Athens dominated the alliance and it transformed into the Athenian Empire. Athens took 

funds from the common cause and used them to create a strong navy. They also used the 

funds to improve their own polis, which included building the famous temple to the goddess 

Athena, the Parthenon. During this time, Athens was under the leadership of Pericles, who 

strengthened the democracy of Athens. Even though Athens itself was democratic, it didn't 

share ideals of equality with its neighbors and allies. 

At the same time, the Spartans led a rival alliance system called the Peloponnesian 

League. Tensions eventually erupted into battle and led to a long war that lasted from 431 to 

404 BCE. This conflict was described in one of history's first narratives in The 

Peloponnesian War by Thucydides. The result, after a long and brutal war, was a decisive 

Spartan victory. The defeat of the Athenians brought an end to Greece's Classical Period. 

The wealth and stability that helped give rise to works of art, architecture, drama, literature, 

and science were crushed in the conflict. Sparta was also weakened in the course of the 

fighting, as was the entire region. Years of conflict strained their resources and cost many 

lives. It made the Greek city-states vulnerable, which neighboring King Philip II of 

Macedonia used to his advantage. Phillip II managed to conquer the entire Greek mainland 

after the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. Philip was assassinated in 336 BCE and was 

succeeded by his son Alexander III, who became known to history as Alexander the Great. 

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Period 

[This image shows a portion of a mosaic that depicts 

Alexander the Great in battle on a horse.] 

A fragment of a mosaic shows Alexander the 

Great in battle. 



Alexander was just 20 years old when he came to power. The young king had dreams of an 

empire. After consolidating his power in Greece, he set forth to conquer Persia. A brilliant 

strategist and general, he used his Macedonian armies to defeat the Persians at the battles 

of the Granicus River and Issus. In the process, Alexander conquered the Levant as well 

as Egypt, where he established the city of Alexandria. In 331 BCE, Alexander defeated the 

Persian King Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius fled and was assassinated by 

his own troops. Following his victory, Alexander became King of Persia. 

After joining the Greek world to Persia in an empire, Alexander began to take on the 

trappings of a Persian ruler rather than a king of a Greek city-state. He encouraged Greeks 

to mix and mingle with the cultures of West Asia. Deciding that he wanted to expand his 

empire further, Alexander pushed his armies east into India in 327 BCE. They achieved 

some victories there as well; however, many were terribly wounded. Alexander's troops, 

being so far from home, threatened to mutiny. Even though Alexander wanted to conquer 

more, he was forced to turn back. When he returned to Persia in 324 BCE, he had built the 

largest empire in history up to that point. 

[This shows the empire of Alexander the Great and the routes he took to conquer lands as he built it] 

A map of the empire of Alexander the Great shows the route he took to conquer lands. 

Alexander didn't live long enough to enjoy his empire. He died in 323 BCE at age 32, either 

from disease or poisoning. He had no official heir and never named a successor. Instead, 



Alexander's generals carved up his immense empire into different kingdoms, which vied 

against each other. 

Alexander's conquests spread Greek culture far and wide. The various cultures of West Asia 

blended with Greek language and culture. This was the beginning of what's called the 

Hellenistic Period, which was a time of cultural exchange and diffusion. The Hellenistic 

culture was a blending of Greek culture with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences. 

The Hellenistic Period saw a flourishing of art, science, and culture. Greek became 

established as the language of learning and commerce. This period also saw Euclid develop 

concepts of modern geometry. During this time, the scientist and inventor Archimedes also 

created machines for peace and war, such as the screw pump, compound pulleys, and 

improved levers. 

New philosophical schools developed. Diogenes (412 to 323 BCE) helped develop 

Cynicism, a philosophy that rejected wealth and power. By this thinking, people should live 

virtuous, simple lives. Another new philosophy was Epicureanism, which was founded by 

Epicurus (341 to 270 BCE). He argued that people should avoid pain and fear and seek to 

live a simple life. The third school of philosophy that developed during this period was 

Stoicism, which was founded by Zeno of Citium (334 to 262 BCE). Stoicism emphasizes 

self-control to obtain a balanced mind. 

[This image shows a 



photograph of the Venus de 

Milo, which was carved 

during the Hellenistic period.] 

Venus de Milo is a 

famous statue from the 

Hellenistic Period. 

Alexandria became the main center for commerce and Hellenistic civilization. It was a center 

of trade, learning, and cultural exchange. The city had massive public projects, such as the 

tomb that housed Alexander's remains, a 350-foot-tall lighthouse, and the famous museum 

and library of Alexandria. The library housed more than 500,000 papyrus scrolls, enabling 

scholars to study and learn a massive amount of information. 

The Hellenistic period eventually declined. Many historians agree that it ended in 30 BCE 

with the death of the famous Cleopatra VII, who ruled Egypt and was a descendant of one 

of Alexander's generals. By the end of the Hellenistic period, Greek culture dominated the 

Mediterranean. This culture would be highly influential to the Romans. 

Ancient Rome 


Roman Geography 

The Roman state dominated the lands around the Mediterranean Sea for over 500 years. 

Rome has had a direct influence on modern forms of government, art, and citizenship. The 

Roman state was also the way in which Christianity spread through Europe and eventually 

became its dominant religion. 

Rome is situated in the middle of the Italian peninsula, which juts out into the Mediterranean 

Sea. The city itself was founded about 16 miles inland, which protected it from seaborne 

attacks. It was also situated on seven hills, which were useful for defense. Also next to Rome 

was the Tiber River, which allowed the city access to the sea and long-distance trade 

networks. 

Early Roman History 



[This image shows a statue of the mythical she-wolf 

nursing Romulus and Remus.] 

This statue depicts the mythical she-wolf 

nursing Romulus and Remus. 

According to myth, Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus and his twin brother 

Remus, the sons of the god Mars. This story says that Romulus and Remus were 

abandoned as infants, but a female wolf nursed them, saving their lives. Later, Romulus built 

Rome, but killed Remus after he insulted Romulus' new city. 

In reality, the first peoples to occupy the area around Rome came early and were made up of 

multiple groups. Three groups—Latins, Greeks, and Etruscans—lived in the region from 

1000 to 500 BCE. Over the years, the three groups would come into conflict over who would 

dominate the region. 

The Etruscans eventually won out, and around 600 BCE, an Etruscan became king of 

Rome. The Etruscans were originally from northern Italy and were highly influential to Roman 

culture. They ultimately inspired the early Romans in art, architecture, and language. 

Early Rome was a monarchy, ruled by kings and queens. According to tradition, there were 

seven kings of Rome, with the last three being Etruscans. The last king was Tarquinius 

Superbus, who was known to be harsh. The aristocratic class of the city, called the 

patricians, overthrew him for his brutality. After they overthrew the last king, the Romans 

declared a monarch would never rule them. Instead, they established a new form of 

government called a republic, in which citizens have the power to vote for their leaders. 

The Roman Republic 

The patricians dominated the early days of the Roman Republic. Over time, however, 



plebeians, citizens of middle and poorer classes, resisted and started to gain more power. 

An early example was the writing of the Twelve Tables, which was Rome's first law code. 

Codifying, or writing down, the Twelve Tables ensured that everyone knew the laws and that 

people in power had to enforce them fairly. The laws were carved onto 12 stone tablets and 

hung in public. This protected all citizens and would be a practice taken up by other states, 

right into the present day. 

When the laws were written down, there was no written constitution for the Roman Republic. 

Instead, its system of government evolved over time and was very complex. Its best-known 

form consisted of these major elements: 

Consuls—Consuls held the highest office in Rome and headed civil and military affairs, 

just as a king would do. But unlike a king, there were two consuls and they could serve 

only one year. The Senate nominated the consuls, while the Comitia Centuriata voted 

on them. Each consul had veto power over the other. 

Senate—This was a body of patricians who served for life. Their official role was to 

provide advice to a magistrate. In reality, the prestige of the Senate members gave their 

decrees the force of law. Their traditional focus was on foreign policy. 

Assemblies—There were several legislative assemblies in the Roman Republic. The 

three most powerful were: 

The Comitia Centuriata elected officials such as consuls, praetors, and censors, 

and was composed of patricians and plebeians, although patricians had more say 

because votes were weighted toward the wealthy. 

The Comitia Populi Tribute, or Tribal Assembly, contained all Roman citizens 

divided by geographic region. It approved or rejected laws. 

The Concilium Plebis represented the plebeians. They elected Tribunes, which 

represented plebeian interests and had the power to veto the consuls, summon the 

Senate, and propose laws. 

Dictator—In times of emergency, the Senate could appoint a dictator for a six-month 

period. At the end of that period, the Dictator was forced to give up power. 

Roman Expansion under the Republic 

Roman expansion began around the year 500 BCE. All land-owning citizens were required to 

serve in the army. The Roman army was highly structured. Soldiers were organized into 



large units called legions. Each legion contained about 5,000 foot soldiers and a smaller 

number of soldiers on horseback called cavalry. The legions were broken up into smaller 

units called centuries, which contained about 80 soldiers. Romans relied on their trained, 

organized military to retain power and conquer new lands. 

After fighting in several wars, Rome achieved control of the Italian peninsula by 264 BCE. 

The other states, cities, and tribes in Italy were made of client states, which were technically 

allies, but were actually subject to Rome. After gaining control of Italy, Rome had become a 

major power in the Mediterranean. This brought it into conflict with Carthage, a city founded 

by Phoenicians in North Africa that had also become a major power. Between 264 and 146 

BCE, Rome fought three wars with Carthage called the Punic Wars. The most famous of 

these wars is the second, which featured the Carthaginian general Hannibal and his 

invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps with an army supported by war elephants. Ultimately, 

Carthage lost the wars and Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. 

The Fall of the Republic 

The victory over Carthage was the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic. While Rome 

gained much power and wealth, divisions between the wealthy and the poor grew. Rome's 

richest citizens lived on large estates worked by enslaved people. It's estimated that, by 100 

BCE, enslaved people made up as much as one-third of Rome's population. Smaller farmers, 

who were mostly former soldiers, had a difficult time competing with the rich slave-owning 

class. Ultimately, two parties developed in Rome, the populares, who represented the 

interests of most people, and the optimates, who represented the wealthy's interests. 

Tensions rose until the first instance of political violence in Rome occurred with the death of 

the tribune Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BCE. Optimate senators assassinated him for passing 

a law that would have taken land out of the hands of rich landowners. Tiberius's younger 

brother, Gaius Gracchus, attempted to flee when it was clear that he would be executed. 

However, he was unsuccessful and, when he was cornered without hope for escape, he took 

his own life in 121 BCE. 

More disruption followed. First, there was the Social War (90 to 88 BCE) in which Rome's 

Italian allies revolted. They had grown poorer even as Rome grew richer. The result was a 

defeat for Rome's old allies. However, the Romans expanded citizenship so that all the 

people of the Italian peninsula were soon citizens. By this time, the Republic's structures 



were breaking down, and the army started to become professional. Whereas soldiers fought 

seasonally before, they now served as career military members. Soldiers began to feel more 

loyal to their commanders than to the government. Disputes between generals led to Lucius 

Cornelius Sulla marching an army on Rome in 88 BCE. Sulla had declared himself dictator 

for three years before retiring. 

The system then fell apart when three powerful men joined forces to create an alliance called 

the Triumvirate. It involved Marcus Licinius Crassus, who was the richest man in Rome; 

Gnaeus Pompey, who was a famous general; and Gaius Julius Caesar, who was an 

ambitious military man. Caesar obtained a consulship out of the alliance. He went on to earn 

military glory when he conquered Gaul, which is modern-day France, and subsequently 

gained popularity at home. 

[A statue of Gaius Julius Caesar with a hand raised.] 

Julius Caesar 

Eventually, the Triumvirate fell apart. Crassus died, and Pompey and Caesar fought for 

control in a civil war. Ultimately, Caesar won, and power fell to him. 

Caesar made many reforms. He governed as an absolute ruler, granted citizenship to people 

in the Roman provinces, and expanded the Senate to include his friends. He started the 

construction of new public works that gave people jobs, and began colonies where people, 

especially soldiers, had new opportunities to hold land. To cement his power, Caesar had 

himself declared "Dictator for Life." This angered some senators so much that on March 15, 

44 BCE, they assassinated him in the Roman Senate. This day is known as the Ides of 

March. 



Removing Caesar from power didn't restore the Republic. Caesar's heir and nephew, Gaius 

Octavius, or Octavian, formed a Second Triumvirate with Marcus Antonius, known as 

Marc Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. They jointly defeated Caesar's enemies, but 

after they achieved victory, Octavian and Antony turned on each other. In a second civil war, 

Octavian emerged victorious after winning the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. He was given 

the name Augustus, which means "Great One," and ruled Rome as an autocracy, or rule by 

one. Rome had become an empire, and the Republic was no more. 

[This image shows a statue 

of Augustus, the first Roman 

emperor, with one arm 

raised and a cherub at his 

leg.] 

Augustus, the First 

Roman Emperor 

The Early Roman Empire 

As the newly installed emperor, Augustus cemented his power through diplomacy and by 

controlling offices. The structures of Roman government were still in place, but with the role 

of an all-powerful emperor, it no longer functioned as a republic. By the time Augustus died in 

14 CE, there was no chance that the Republic could return. 



The immediate successors of Augustus were from his family. This rule was called the Julio- 

Claudian dynasty, reigning until 68 CE. Some of the Julio-Claudian dynasty emperors (like 

Caligula) are the most famous in history for being harsh, unpopular rulers. From 96 CE to 

180 CE, a series of emperors—Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius 

—transferred power peacefully. This period is often called the period of the Five Good 

Emperors. Part of the reason for this peaceful transition was that the first four of these 

emperors didn't have blood heirs, and bequeathed their powers to a selected person, whom 

they adopted. This period was the high point of Roman power. From the reign of Augustus to 

the death of Marcus Aurelius is sometimes called the Pax Romana, which means "Roman 

Peace." This meant that the armies of Rome generally provided a stable society for a very 

diverse collection of peoples to live in. 

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Emperor Trajan, who reigned from 98 

to 117 CE. His successor, Hadrian, reigned from 117 to 138 CE and scaled back Trajan's 

conquests, focusing on administration, building, and traveling through the empire. During this 

span, the empire generally experienced quiet borders and peace. However, by the reign of 

Marcus Aurelius, tribes on the empire's borders were rebelling against Roman control. 



[This map shows the Roman Empire at its greatest extent in red, covering much of modern-day Europe and 

North Africa.] 

A Map of the Roman Empire at Its Greatest Extent 

Roman Culture 

The Roman Empire was largely characterized by warring, inequality, maneuvering for 

political control, and dominating foreign lands and people. Nevertheless, city life and 

accumulated wealth made many cultural achievements possible as well. 

Traditional Roman culture operated in a system called patronage. Wealthy Romans 

established relationships with free people, who became clients of the wealthy Roman, or 

patron. The client would receive support from the patron in the courts or in other practical 

ways, such as supplying food. In return, the client showed respect to the patron and was 

expected to support him either in elections or in his private life. 



The traditional social hierarchy of Ancient Rome was rigid. At the top were the patricians, 

who had a higher-ranking senatorial class and a lower-ranking equites class. The equites 

were patricians who were engaged in commerce, while the senatorial-ranked patricians 

weren't allowed to trade, since it could lead to corruption. Below the equites were the 

majority—the plebeians. Plebeians ranged from wealthy to poor and engaged in almost all 

trades. What plebeians lacked was the social prestige and power of being a patrician. 

Below the plebeians were freed slaves. Slavery was a common practice in Rome. Slaves 

could be set free by their owners or, at times, they amassed enough money to buy their own 

freedom. While freed slaves were granted citizenship, they couldn't hold political office. 

Enslaved people were the lowest class. Having no rights and forming over 30 percent of the 

population, they were often enslaved in war, although some had sold themselves to pay a 

debt. Their masters could beat or kill them at will. The slaves performed many kinds of jobs 

in agriculture and skilled trades, and they also served as house servants and laborers. The 

most famous slave of Roman history is Spartacus, a gladiator slave who led a massive, but 

failed, revolt from 73 to 71 BCE. 

Like the ancient Greeks, the Romans were patriarchal. In a family, a father had tremendous 

powers. Fathers had complete control over their children, no matter their age. A father could 

even decide if a newborn should be abandoned to die. They also determined who their 

children would marry. Women had no political power and were mainly expected to work in 

the home. However, women could still inherit property and plebeian women could operate 

small shops. 

Roman Literature 

The Greeks greatly influenced Roman literature, and the Romans started developing their 

own writing after conquering Greek lands. This is seen in poetry of Ovid (43 BCE to 17 CE), 

whose works, including Amores, influenced later writers such as Shakespeare, Chaucer, and 

Milton. The poet Virgil (70 to 19 BCE) is most famous for writing the Aeneid, an epic inspired 

by Homer, which relates the journeys of Aeneas and the founding of Rome. 



[This image shows a marble statue of 

the Roman orator Cicero] 

A Sculpture of the Roman 

Orator, Cicero 

Aside from poetry, several Roman writers are famous to the present day. Marcus Tullius 

Cicero (106 to 43 BCE) was a prominent politician and orator whose letters detailing life 

during the last days of the Roman Republic have been passed down to today. Julius Caesar 

himself wrote commentaries on his own wars, such as the Gallic Wars, which was used as a 

classic text to learn Latin for centuries. Seneca (4 BCE to 65 CE) was a prominent Stoic 

writer who even tutored the emperor Nero. Nero forced Seneca to commit suicide when he 

was implicated in a plot. Another example of fine Roman literature is Apuleius, whose work, 

The Golden Ass, is the story of a character who is transformed by magic into an ass, or 

donkey. It's the only surviving Roman novel. 

Roman Art, Architecture, and Engineering 

Roman art and architecture drew much influence from the Greeks. The Romans created 

realistic, naturalistic portraits, which can be seen in surviving sculptures. In the same way, 

Roman architecture was heavily influenced by the Greeks and widely used the Corinthian 

style. At the same time, the Romans were innovative and used new techniques to develop 

arches and aqueducts. An aqueduct is a public work designed to carry water over long 

distances. Aqueducts helped improve sanitation and provide clean water sources. 



[An exterior shot of the Pantheon in 

Rome.] 

The Pantheon in Rome, Italy 

One of the best-known surviving examples of Roman architecture is the Pantheon in Rome. 

This temple, which was built in 128 CE during the reign of Hadrian, features a massive dome 

ceiling that was the largest of its kind at the time. 

The Romans also benefitted greatly from the wide use of concrete. Concrete allowed the 

Romans to build large public works on a massive scale. Many concrete structures built by 

the Romans survive to this day. 

One of the most important engineering projects for the Romans was their extensive network 

of roads. These were built to move troops from province to province, to facilitate quick 

communication, to collect taxes, and serve as a crucial means of managing a large empire. 

However, roads were also used by the public, which greatly benefitted the economy of the 

Roman Empire. These public works helped to unite the Roman state and help it prosper. 

These roads remained in use well after the end of the Roman Empire. 

Religion and the Roman Empire 

Traditional Roman religion was very similar to the ancient Greek religion. In fact, many of the 

Greek gods and goddesses had counterparts in the Roman Pantheon. For example, Jupiter 

was the Roman version of Zeus, Mars was Ares, and Venus was Aphrodite. The chief priest 

of Roman religion was the Pontifex Maximus. 

While the Romans were ruthless in putting down those who rebelled against their rule, they 

were, on the whole, tolerant of other religions so long as their people honored Roman gods 

along with their own. This was easy for the majority of people, since most states the Romans 



conquered were polytheistic and could easily accept other gods' validity. 

In contrast, the Romans had problems with people who practiced monotheistic religions. 

After Rome conquered Judea in 63 BCE, they found that its Jewish inhabitants would neither 

acknowledge the existence of Roman gods nor honor them. This refusal was seen as a sign 

of disloyalty. Still, the Romans ultimately gave the Jewish people an exemption and 

determined their religion was legal, as the Jews had helped Julius Caesar. However, the 

province of Judea was subject to frequent revolts. The Romans crushed these revolts, and, 

after 135 CE, Jews were barred from their traditional capital at Jerusalem. It was during this 

period of Roman occupation and disruption that Christianity developed. 

Christianity was founded by Jesus of Nazareth, who was a Jew. In the Christian religion, he 

is called Jesus Christ. Originally, Jesus was believed to be a Jewish Messiah, or a person 

sent from God to liberate the Jewish people. Jesus preached a message of faith and peace 

that would lead to eternal salvation. He was critical of Judaism and was an advocate for the 

poor so, as a result, the Jewish leaders in Judea advocated to execute him. They brought 

him to the Roman governor to enforce their wishes, and he was accused of treason and 

executed by crucifixion. 

Christian tradition further states that, after Jesus's execution, he was resurrected from death. 

Christians believe that Jesus was the son of God and that his death was a sacrifice that 

allowed humans to achieve salvation. Christianity quickly grew as a religious movement in 

the Roman Empire. Jesus's promise of salvation appealed to the poor, and Christianity was 

an inclusive religion that welcomed all who would believe, including women, enslaved 

people, and the rich. In the religion's early history, Christian leaders decided that they would 

preach to both Jews and non-Jews. 

As Christianity spread, it met resistance from Roman leaders. Christians, like Jews, wouldn't 

honor Roman gods. However, unlike Judaism, Christianity wasn't limited to people of the 

same ethnic heritage. Anyone could practice Christianity, and the message of tolerance and 

equality of the oppressed was a threat to Rome's rigid social structure. The teachings of 

Jesus also questioned authority. To quell the threat of Christianity, Rome didn't issue the 

same exemption as it did for Judaism. As a result, Christians experienced periods of 

persecution in which they were targeted and executed. This was especially true under the 

Roman emperors Nero and Diocletian. However, the persecutions were sporadic, and the 



death of Christians for their faith, called martyrdom, resulted in more converts. By the time 

of the late Roman Empire, Christianity had grown into a powerful force. 

The Late Roman Empire 

The Roman Empire entered a period of crisis that lasted from 235 to 284 CE, in which the 

Senate and rival armies declared dozens of emperors. Civil war was more common than not. 

A severe economic downturn exacerbated this political problem. The empire had expanded 

to its maximum limits and couldn't find new sources for gold and silver. It started minting 

coins that contained less silver, resulting in inflation, a drop in the value of the currency and 

rising prices. Harvests were poor and food shortages occurred. 

The rise of Emperor Diocletian, who reigned from 285 to 305 CE, provided some stability 

with his strong rule. Diocletian implemented price controls to control inflation, which had 

mixed results. He recognized that the empire was too large and full of problems for one 

person to rule alone. Therefore, he created the Tetrarchy, in which he divided his rule by 

four, appointing himself and another as senior emperors with two junior emperors below. 

However, Diocletian abdicated the throne due to illness and chaos broke out immediately. 

Out of the civil war, a young commander named Constantine won out by 312 CE. 

[This carving shows four 

emperors in an embrace, 

demonstrating the closeness 

of the rulers in Diocletian's 

Tetrarchy] 

A Statue Depicting the 



Tetrarchy Located in 

Venice, Italy 

Constantine built a new capital for the empire at the old city of Byzantium, located on the 

strategically important Bosporus Strait. He named the city Constantinople after himself. 

The city played an important role in world history for centuries. Today, Constantinople is 

called Istanbul and is in Turkey. 

Another major impact of Constantine had to do with religion. According to legend, 

Constantine had a vision of the cross, a Christian symbol, before an important battle. In his 

vision, Jesus Christ told him to place the symbol on his soldiers' shields. Constantine was 

victorious in the battle and, after becoming emperor, he inserted himself into the affairs of the 

growing Christian Church. He gathered Christian bishops at the Council of Nicaea, which 

decided on important matters of doctrine. Under Constantine, Christianity started to become 

the main religion of the Roman Empire. Constantine converted to Christianity upon his 

deathbed in 337 CE. The process of turning the Roman Empire into a Christian one was 

completed by the emperor Theodosius in 395 CE, which made Christianity the empire's 

official religion. 

The Fall of the Roman Empire 

After Theodosius's death in 395 CE, the empire became permanently divided into two: An 

Eastern Roman Empire and a Western Roman Empire. The idea behind this decision 

stated it was beneficial for two emperors and administrations to defend the empire. At the 

time, foreign tribes were pushing into Roman territory. 

The situation had become dire and foreign peoples started to invade from different 

directions. In 378 CE, the Romans lost a key battle at Adrianople, in which the Eastern 

Roman Emperor, Valens was killed. In 410 CE, a tribe called the Goths sacked Rome, 

sending tremors throughout the empire. A tribe known as the Vandals then sacked Carthage 

in 439 CE. Then, in the 440s, the Huns, led by the infamous Attila, further attacked the 

Western Roman Empire. The last Roman Emperor in the West was Romulus Augustulus, 

who was removed from power in 476 CE. Western Europe transitioned into its early Medieval 

period with the fall of the Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire would gradually evolve 

into the Byzantine Empire. 



[This map of the late Roman Empire shows the movements of various foreign tribes within the empire] 

A Map Showing the Routes of Foreign Invasions into the Roman Empire (Image adapted 

from MapMaster [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5) ], via Wikimedia 

Commons. 



Key Points 

Greek civilization was influenced by Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Greece was 

organized into city-states, which developed different systems of government. 

In the Persian Wars, between Persia and the Greek city-states, the Persians lost. 

The conquests of Alexander the Great led to a massive empire that allowed for the 

spreading of Greek culture and its mixing with West Asian cultures. 

The blending of Greek culture with Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences created the 

Hellenistic culture. 



Greek society was highly patriarchal; however, Spartan women had more rights than 

most Greek women. 

During Greece's Classical Period, art, architecture, literature, drama, science, and 

philosophy thrived. 

Greeks practiced a rich polytheistic religion devoted to gods and goddesses that 

personified ideas, natural phenomena, and objects. 

Rome was settled by three main groups: the Etruscans, Greeks, and Latins. 

Roman society had a rigid hierarchy based on birth status, wealth, and land ownership 

status. Rome was originally a republic, but it then transformed into an autocratic empire 

ruled by an emperor. 

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent in the early 100s CE and united many 

peoples through roads and public works. Roman art, architecture, and religion were 

greatly influenced by the Greeks. 

Rome initially prohibited Christianity from being practiced; however, this policy changed 

as the religion spread across the empire. Ultimately, the emperor Constantine 

converted, and Christianity eventually became the official religion of the Roman Empire. 

Exercise: Ancient Greece 


1. _______ is the undeciphered writing of Minoan civilization. 

2. The Iliad and the _______ are the two epic works attributed to Homer. 

3. The Republic was written by the Greek philosopher _______. 

4. Athens had a form of government called a/an _______. 

5. The Peloponnesian War was fought between _______ and Athens. 

6. The _______ Period began after the conquests of Alexander the Great. 


7. How was Spartan society unique, compared to other Greek city-states? 

8. What was central to Socratic thinking? 


Exercise: Ancient Greece 



1. Linear A 

2. Odyssey 

3. Plato 

4. democracy 

5. Sparta 

6. Hellenistic 

7. Spartan society was geared toward the suppression of the helots, who were stateowned 

slaves. All male Spartan citizens were trained to be warriors from a young age, 

when they were separated from their families. 

8. Socrates used questioning, described today as the "Socratic method," to critique society 

and culture in such a way as to develop reason and logic. 

Exercise: Ancient Rome 


1. The _______ formed the aristocratic class in ancient Rome. 

2. The first triumvirate was made up of _______, Crassus, and Pompey. 

3. The Roman Empire first dominated the Mediterranean after a series of conflicts called 

_______. 

4. The River _______ allowed early Rome to conduct long-distance trade. 

5. The Eastern Roman Empire's capital was at _______. 

6. The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Emperor _______. 


7. Describe imperial Rome's problem with the transfer of power. 

8. Describe the class structure of the Roman Republic. 


Exercise: Ancient Rome 

1. patricians 

2. Julius Caesar 

3. the Punic Wars 

4. Tiber 



5. Constantinople 

6. Trajan 

7. Emperors in Rome could designate heirs, but armies would often proclaim their own 

emperors. Since there was no clear line of succession, this created political problems. 

8. The Roman Republic was hierarchical, and the patricians made up the dominant class. 

They were divided into Senatorial-rank and the equites. Below that class were the 

plebeians, who formed the majority of Roman citizens. Below them were freed slaves, 

and at the bottom were enslaved people. 

1.7 List the notable achievements of the Early African and Medieval Asian 

world and summarize the settlement and different cultures of Oceania 

Early Africa, Medieval Asia, and Oceania 


In this section, you'll learn about some of the prominent civilizations and cultures of early 

Africa. You'll also learn about how China reunited after centuries of conflict following the fall 

of the Han Dynasty. You'll also learn about the islands of Oceania, their settlement, and their 

traditional culture. 

African Geography 

The portion of Africa south of the Sahara Desert is called sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan 

Africa has a distinct history from areas in northern Africa, such as Egypt, Morocco, and 

Libya. The reason for this is primarily that the Sahara Desert has been a formidable barrier, 

separating regions in the south of the continent from regions in the north. The desert was a 

major obstacle to communication and trade. As a result, much of sub-Saharan Africa's story 

has been largely unknown to other people of the world. The data that scholars have studied 

include oral histories, some writing, archaeological findings, and DNA research. 

Africa is the second-largest continent in the world and contains over 50 countries today. The 

continent straddles the equator and stretches north to south by about 5,000 miles and east 

to west by 4,600 miles. Due to its position and size, Africa has a diverse geography and 

climate. Some of its major geographic regions include the following: 



Sahara Desert—The Sahara is the largest desert in the world outside the polar regions 

and covers the northernmost quarter of the continent. The Sahara has historically acted 

as a barrier in communication and trade between Eurasia and the region of Africa below 

the desert. 

Sahel—The Sahel is a band of somewhat arid land between the Sahara to the north 

and the forested areas to the south. 

Savanna—The savanna are grasslands that cover nearly half the continent. They're 

located mainly in central Africa. These grasslands are famous for their vast abundance 

of wildlife, seen within the Serengeti in Kenya and Tanzania. 

Ethiopian Highlands—These highlands are located in Ethiopia and are mountainous 

with high plateaus. Important African civilizations developed in the highlands. 

Tropical rainforest—These dense forests have abundant rain and a great variety of 

plant and animal species. Much of the rainforest is concentrated along the Congo River 

in central Africa, and it's greatly decreased from its past size due to human 

development. 

Southern Africa—This region has a variety of climate types from mild, Mediterranean 

conditions along the coast to grasslands to deserts. Southern Africa is rich in mineral 

resources. 



[This image shows a modern map of Africa and its major political and geographic features.] 



Africa is a large continent with many political divisions and geographical features. 

African History 

Like many people who lived thousands of years ago, many African societies didn't keep 

written records. Instead, people passed down knowledge and stories through oral 

tradition—meaning through speaking, listening, and remembering. 

Nok Culture 

Nevertheless, archaeologists have unearthed a rich archaeological record of artifacts to learn 

about the Nok culture in West Africa. West Africa's earliest known culture was the Nok, a 

people who lived in modern-day Nigeria between 500 BCE and 200 CE. The Nok were 

ironworkers, who made tools, weapons, and other objects from smelted iron. Interestingly, 

unlike other peoples who also developed smelting, the Nok didn't work with copper or bronze 

first. Instead, they exclusively worked with iron ore. They built furnaces to create a chemical 

reaction meant to purify iron from iron ore. Their iron products have been found in other 

regions, revealing that the Nok were part of land-based trade routes. Terra cotta sculptures 

and other sophisticated objects have also been found. These creations show that the early 

ironworkers had specialized trades and were a settled people. 

Bantu Migrations 

An important series of events in Africa's history are the Bantu migrations. Between 2,000 

and 3,000 years ago, people known as the Bantu migrated from their homelands south of 

West Africa into central, eastern, and southern Africa. Anthropologists believe that the Bantu 

people may have been related to the Nok people. The Bantu had more advanced technology 

such as ironworking, pottery, and agriculture. They pushed through the continent, spreading 

their way of life and technology. These people came to dominate the cultures of sub-Saharan 

Africa. Their migrations led to an increase in settled village life. It also resulted in violence, as 

many of the lands they entered were already occupied. Some of the indigenous people, 

who were native to the area, were pushed out to other regions. Today, some 500 languages 

in Africa belong to the Bantu language family, and about one-third of Africans speak a 

language derived from Bantu. The exceptions to this are in areas where the Khoisan, a 

hunter-gatherer people, remain. 



Aksum 

Much further north, above the Sahara Desert near Egypt, was the kingdom of Aksum 

(sometimes spelled Axum), an early, powerful state. Aksum grew into prominence in the first 

century CE and, at its height, controlled the territory of what's modern-day Ethiopia, Eritrea, 

Somalia, and Djibouti. 

[The image depicts a map of the kingdom of Aksum, identified in 

green, at its greatest extent.] 

Map of Aksum at Its Greatest Extent (Image adapted from 

Trokiodero [CC BY-SA (creativecommons.org/licenses/by-s 

a/4.0) ], via Wikimedia Commons. 

Aksum partially flourished because of its location on the Ethiopian Highlands. The Ethiopian 

Highlands had fertile soil, which allowed agriculture to take root. It was also adjacent to the 

Red Sea, which allowed trade to flourish. In the late first century CE, a single king took 

control of the territory. Aksum extended its power and forced neighboring cultures to pay 

tribute, usually in the form of cattle. The king of Aksum held the title of Negusa Negast, 

which means "King of Kings." The capital of Aksum was the city of Aksum. 

The kingdom of Aksum expanded under a strong ruler named Ezana. Under his leadership, 

Aksum conquered the kingdom of Kush to the north by 350 CE. This allowed the kingdom 

access to the upper reaches of the Nile and trade with the Byzantine Empire. The strength of 



Aksum became its ability to control trade by land and sea. Traders from Arabia, Egypt, 

Persia, India, and the Roman Empire visited Aksum's seaports to do business. Aksumite 

merchants traded salt, precious metals, jewels, prized ivory, and rhinoceros horns for goods 

made from outside the kingdom. The trade of goods also led to a cultural exchange. 

[This image shows obelisks set in place by the rulers 

of the Kingdom of Aksum.] 

Obelisks, or Memorial Pillars, from Aksum 

Aksum grew wealthy from its powerful trading position. Aksum was the first sub-Saharan 

state to mint its own coinage and the first to develop its own alphabet, called Ge'ez. Aksum 

ruins show extensive monumental architecture such as obelisks, or monumental pillars. To 

adapt to the hilly, rugged environment, the Aksumites developed terrace farming. This new 

form of agriculture involved building step-like ridges for planting crops where water could 

collect, rather than run down the hill. As Aksum interacted with other cultures and peoples, 

religious beliefs changed as well. Aksumites traditionally believed in one god, Mahrem, and 

believed that the king was descended from him. At the same time, they believed in animal 

spirits and honored their ancestors. When Ezana's son of the same name became ruler, he 

converted to Christianity. Around 325 CE, the Aksum emperor adopted Christianity as the 

official religion, which eventually evolved into the modern Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox 

Churches. 

The empire continued to thrive and became a power in the Red Sea region. In about 520 

CE, the Aksum emperor Kaleb sent an expedition across the Red Sea to Yemen, where 

Christian Aksumites were being persecuted. Yemen was made into Aksum's vassal state. 

However, this seems to be the end of Aksum's power. Islamic invaders conquered parts of 



the African coast, which cut off Aksum as a major trading port. As empires moved closer 

inland, Aksum's leaders retreated to the mountains. Soil erosion and shrinking forests 

partially led to the kingdom's decline at the end of the sixth century CE. Its territory shrunk 

until it eventually transformed into the medieval kingdom of Abyssinia. 

Ghana 

West Africa's Sahel zone also gave rise to several important African empires. The first of 

these was the kingdom or empire of Ghana. This state possibly began in the 500s CE, 

although there's some debate among historians as to when it was founded. The term Ghana 

literally means "king," and the inhabitants of Ghana called their kingdom Wagadu. 

The people of Ghana were agriculturalists. They farmed rice and millet and herded 

domesticated animals. They also had abundant natural resources in their lands, particularly 

copper, iron, and gold. Ghana established trade with the people of North Africa and the 

Middle East via caravans. Aside from mineral resources, merchants from the north would 

trade salt (which was almost as valuable as gold) and enslaved people. In this way, the gold 

from Africa made its way into Eurasia. 

[This map shows Africa with a red 

highlight in the area where the Empire 

of Ghana existed.] 

A Map of Africa Showing the 

Location of the Ghana Empire 

(Imaged adapted from 

Flominator [CC BY-SA (creative 



commons.org/licenses/by-sa/3. 

0/) ], via Wikimedia Commons. 

The wealth of Ghana was legendary. The king, whose capital was at Koumbi Saleh, had 

stockpiled gold nuggets. As an absolute monarch, only the king could own gold nuggets. 

Traders, on the other hand, could deal only in gold dust. In this way, the kings controlled the 

gold market and ensured that it remained valuable. Ghana's iron was used to make the best 

weapons available, and gold was used to pay its troops. All trade was highly taxed, which 

added to the kingdom's wealth. 

The kingdom was also highly influenced by Islam as Muslim traders met the people of 

Ghana. While people in Ghana continued to practice their animistic religions, Islam would 

come to be the main religion in later empires within this region. An animistic religion is a 

belief system in which people believe that nonhuman beings and objects contain souls and 

spirits. 

Ghana started to decline in the eleventh century CE after attacks occurred and when trade 

routes changed due to a severe drought. By 1180, Ghana had collapsed. However, the 

region would see further kingdoms built on its natural resources throughout the rest of the 

medieval period. 

Medieval China 

After the fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE, China broke up into three states in what's known 

as the Three Kingdoms period. This era was marked by violence and constant warfare until 

280 CE, when the country was briefly reunited. This didn't last, as China entered a new 

period of disruption called the Northern and Southern Dynasties, which lasted from 317 to 

589 CE. 

Sui Dynasty 

The long period of disunity ended in 589 CE when a general united northern China and then 

conquered southern China. He set up his capital at Chang'an and took on the title of 

Emperor Wen. He named his new dynasty the Sui after his father's fief. (A fief is an 

inherited territory.) His son, Yang, reigned from 604 to 618 CE. 

Emperor Wen was concerned with uniting China and began massive building projects, the 



most notable being the construction of China's Grand Canal. This canal, which is still used 

today, linked the Yellow River in the north to the Yangtze in the south. This facilitated trade 

and transportation between the different sections of the country. The Sui emperors also 

established a single law code and bolstered the civil service administration to select only 

officials who had passed China's civil service examinations. The Sui also attempted to reform 

land ownership by allocating land to destitute farmers. However, this last reform largely failed 

due to corruption by officials and large landholders. 

[A modern photograph of China's 

Grand Canal ] 

China's Grand Canal 

The Sui expanded Chinese territory in southeast and northeast Asia. However, there were 

military failures in Korea and continuing hardships faced by China's peasants. These 

problems were multiplied by disastrous floods on the Yellow River. In 617 CE, Emperor Yang 

was assassinated by one of his own officers and the dynasty was overthrown. The Sui 

Dynasty was brief, but it was critical because it reunited China after centuries of strife and set 

the stage for a high point in Chinese history. 

Tang Dynasty 

The new dynasty in China was the Tang. Its first emperor, Gaozu, claimed that since the Sui 

were corrupt, the Mandate of Heaven passed to him. 

Historians consider the Tang Dynasty to be a golden age in Chinese history. The early 

emperors enacted land and tax reforms, improving government and establishing law codes 

that were used for centuries. The second emperor, Taizong, who ruled from 626 to 649 CE, 

is credited with being one of the Tang's most effective emperors. He pushed for the reforms 

mentioned above and had a policy of religious toleration. This allowed other religions, 



particularly Buddhism, to spread into China and establish itself next to traditional 

Confucianism and Daoism. 

Taizong is also credited with defeating nomadic Turkic people and resettling them in the 

Chinese Empire. This was an important development, since China had a long history of 

conflict with Central Asian people who often raided the cities. Taizong was so effective at 

being able to divide the nomadic peoples—either through force, diplomacy, or bribery—that 

the tribes acknowledged China as the dominant power in the region. 


statue of the Tang Empress, Wu 

Zetian.] 

Empress Wu Zetian 




statuette from the Tang Dynasty of a 

horse.] 

A Tang Dynasty Statuette of a 

Horse 

Taizong's successor was Empress Wu Zetian, who ruled from 690 to 705 CE. She is the 

only female ruler in China's history, and she worked to improve education and administration. 

During her reign, China's foreign influence extended farther abroad. Empress Wu was often 

vilified after her death by Chinese historians as ruthless, corrupt, and sinister, having 

committed multiple murders and crimes. However, many historians agree that such 

vilification is partially due to her being a woman in a patriarchal society. 

Literacy in China improved under the Tang Dynasty with the opening of public libraries. In 

addition, the Tang made important technological and scientific achievements. The Tang 

invented gunpowder and clocks. A usable compass first appeared under the Tang as 

well.The height of the Tang Dynasty occurred during the reign of the emperor Xuanzong, 

who ruled from 712 to 756 CE. He promoted the arts and was a poet himself. He was also 

called minghuang, which means "brilliant monarch." He improved the economy by guarding 

the silk roads and was a patron of Daoism. This period saw China as probably the most 

powerful state in terms of its economic, military, and cultural influence. 

After Xuanzong's death, the Tang Dynasty declined. The later emperors weren't as effective. 



The last Tang ruler was assassinated in 907 CE, opening the way for yet another dynasty. 

Oceania 

The Pacific Ocean is vast. It covers one-third of the earth's surface and contains roughly 

25,000 islands. Of these, 10,000 islands belong to a region called Oceania, which consists 

of the Central and Southern Pacific Oceans. Oceania is divided into three island regions: 

Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. These regions are defined by shared or similar 

cultures in those island groups. Melanesia encompasses New Guinea and islands to the east 

as far as Fiji. Micronesia is those islands to the east of the Philippines as far as Kiribati. 

Polynesia is the most remote area and encompasses an area from New Zealand in the 

southwest to Hawaii in the north to Easter Island, also called Rapa Nui, in the southeast. 

This region is sometimes called the Polynesian Triangle. 

[This map shows Oceania, outlining the regions of Polynesia in blue, Melanesia in green, and Micronesia in 

red] 

A Map of Oceania and Its Regions: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia 

Much of the early history of Oceania is known through archaeology and DNA evidence, since 

the traditional cultures of the Pacific didn't have writing. The first regions settled about 50,000 



years ago in some of humanity's first major migrations were those closest to the continents, 

Australia and Melanesia. These settlers would become the ancestors of today's aboriginal 

Australians and the Melanesians of New Guinea. By about 38,000 years ago, these people 

had expanded as far east as the Northern Solomon Islands. 

The next major wave of settlement occurred from 3,500 to 2,000 years ago, with people 

sailing to and settling on the islands of Micronesia. The last wave that colonized the remotest 

parts of the Pacific (Polynesia) occurred between around 1100 BCE and 1200 CE. The 

people probably originated from the island of Taiwan off China and migrated first to Samoa 

before exploring the Pacific's farther reaches. 

Cultures of Oceania 

Each of these areas developed separate cultures. In Melanesia, there are large continental 

islands, such as Papua New Guinea, with high mountains and isolated valleys. These 

geographic features kept diverse tribes that spoke different languages separate from one 

another. There are an estimated 400 different languages spoken in Melanesia. The 

Melanesians weren't traditionally seafarers, mostly because the islands of Melanesia are 

larger and have plenty of resources, so long-distance travel was unnecessary. 

Micronesia is characterized mainly by low coral atolls with poor fertility. Due to the risks of 

flooding and disaster, the people who lived there developed strong inter-island connections 

and networks. 

[This photograph shows the large stone figures on 

Easter Island called the Moai.] 



The Moai of Easter Island 

In contrast, the islands of Polynesia tend to be high and volcanic. They were fertile, which 

allowed for agriculture and the creation of complex societies and chiefdoms. The best 

example of this is Hawaii, which was settled around 400 CE. The islands were divided into 

different chiefdoms. Easter Island's famous stone Moai show that monumental architecture 

was possible in these complex Polynesian societies even on these isolated islands. The 

people of Easter Island who built the Moai eventually suffered societal collapse, most likely 

due to overusing the island's resources. 

The Voyagers 

Historians speculate on why the people of the Pacific sought and settled in new islands. 

Population pressures on old islands may have forced people to seek new lands. Sometimes, 

raiding parties would set sail looking for plunder. In addition, some people may have been 

motivated by the human drive for adventure. 

In any case, the achievements of the Pacific people are impressive when considering the 

geography. In the northeast corner of Polynesia, Hawaii is 2,400 miles away from the 

nearest landmass. Western explorers once thought that the indigenous people must have 

come by accident after being blown by a storm. Yet, the reality is that the people of Oceania 

colonized these distant islands on purpose. 

Polynesians needed to employ expert seamanship in large canoes that could carry up to 100 

persons. When they settled a new island, they brought domesticated plants such as 

breadfruit, taro, coconuts, and livestock such as pigs and chickens. They read the stars, 

used currents, and studied natural phenomena to determine land location while at sea. This 

art and science of navigation called wayfinding survived until extensive contact with 

European explorers occurred in the eighteenth century. When explorers first encountered the 

Polynesians, they couldn't believe that the island people could make sea voyages that 

spanned thousands of miles. 

Much of the traditional cultures of Oceania came under attack after European colonization 

began in the 1600s. Europeans forced Pacific Islanders to adopt Western Christianity and 

technology so that much of their traditional beliefs and skills were suppressed. This cultural 

domination was made many times worse through the inadvertent introduction of diseases to 



the Pacific Islanders, as they had no immunity. Today, the people of Oceania are recovering 

their heritage. 



Key Points 

Africa is geographically diverse, hosting a large variety of different cultures. 

The Bantu Migrations helped spread agricultural and advanced technology to sub- 

Saharan Africa. 

The Kingdom of Aksum was an early empire in sub-Saharan Africa. It grew powerful 

through controlling major trade routes. 

Ghana was an important West African empire whose power was built on the wealth of its 

mineral resources (gold). 

The Sui Dynasty is important because it's the dynasty that reunited China after 

hundreds of years of civil war. 

The Tang Dynasty marked a golden age in Chinese power and influence. 

Oceania was settled in waves of voyages over the course of thousands of years. 

There are three main areas in Oceania with different cultures: Melanesia, Micronesia, 

and Polynesia. 

Exercise: Early Africa, Medieval Asia, and Oceania 


1. The Bantu migration in Africa pushed out native peoples called the _______ to other 

areas. 

2. The _______ is the geographic feature that separates northern Africa from southern 

Africa. 

3. The wealth of the empire of Ghana was based on _______. 

4. The _______ reunited China after centuries of disruption after the fall of the Han 

Dynasty. 

5. Oceania is divided into Micronesia, _______, and Polynesia. 

6. _______ was the only female empress in China's history. 




7. How did the Sui Dynasty help prepare for the cultural heights of the Tang Dynasty? 

8. What are the differences among the three geographic areas of Oceania? 


Exercise: Early Africa, Medieval Asia, and Oceania 

1. Khoisan 

2. Sahara Desert 

3. gold/mineral resources 

4. Sui Dynasty 

5. Melanesia 

6. Wu Zetian 

7. The Sui Dynasty united China, instituted reforms, and built infrastructure that united 

China. 

8. Micronesia is characterized by low islands and interisland networks. Melanesia is 

characterized by continental islands with geographic features that isolated people. 

Polynesia is characterized by volcanic islands with fertile soil and larger social 

structures. 

Lesson 1 Review 

Self-Check 

1. What development marked the beginning of the Paleolithic period? 

a. Use of irrigation 

b. Building of boats 

c. Control of fire 

d. Use of tools 

2. What innovation resulted in people living in large, permanent settlements? 

a. Control of fire 

b. Agriculture 



c. Creation of tools 

d. Irrigation 

3. Which of the following places was an early agricultural settlement? 

a. Dolní Věstonice 

b. Lascaux 

c. Çatalhüyük 

d. Chauvet 

4. What was an impact of the Neolithic Revolution? 

a. Better nutrition 

b. Mass extinction 

c. Sedentary lifestyles 

d. Control of fire 

5. Who created the earliest known empire in history? 

a. Gilgamesh 

b. Sargon 

c. Hammurabi 

d. Enkidu 

6. What did the Sumerians first use cuneiform for? 

a. To record financial transactions 

b. To record religious beliefs 

c. To record their laws 

d. To record a list of their kings 

7. What's a male-dominated society called? 

a. Patriarchy 

b. Matriarchy 

c. Hierarchy 

d. Polytheism 

8. What did Hammurabi's Code promote? 

a. Polytheism 

b. Equality 

c. Matriarchy 

d. Hierarchy 

9. What important discovery did the Rosetta Stone help achieve? 

a. The ability to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs 



. The excavation of King Tutankhamun's tomb 

c. The excavation of the Valley of the Kings 

d. Understanding the process of mummification 

10. What innovation helped the Egyptians build with precision? 

a. Irrigation 

b. Standardized measurement 

c. Writing 

d. The wheel 

11. What's the practice of worshipping a single deity called? 

a. Polytheism 

b. Monotheism 

c. Hierarchy 

d. Mummification 

12. What was the purpose of the pyramids? 

a. Storage facilities for grain 

b. Tombs for the pharoahs 

c. Temples to worship the gods 

d. Palaces for nobles 

13. The collection of myths, hymns, rituals, and ceremonies called the _______ were 

foundational texts for Hinduism. 

a. Analects 

b. Four Noble Truths 

c. Dao De Jing 

d. Vedas 

14. Civilization in China first developed around which river? 

a. Huang He 

b. Yangtze 

c. Ganges 

d. Indus 

15. What did the Mandate of Heaven justify? 

a. Showing reverence toward parents and elders through filial piety 

b. Believing in the Four Noble Truths 

c. Establishing the caste system in India 



d. Overthrowing dynasties and establishing new ones 

16. In Buddhism, what does a person need to follow to try to gain enlightenment? 

a. Yin and yang 

b. Filial piety 

c. Naturalism 

d. The Eightfold Path 

17. The philosophy of _______ , which thrived during the Qin dynasty, advocated for harsh 

punishment of disobedience to ruling government. 

a. Confucianism 

b. Daoism 

c. Legalism 

d. Zoroastrianism 

18. In the ancient Mediterranean world, the Phoenician city of Tyre manufactured _______, 

which was/were highly prized by royalty. 

a. glassware 

b. iron weapons 

c. purple dye 

d. ships 

19. Zoroastrianism, which saw the Earth as a battleground between two opposing gods of 

good and evil, is a type of _______ belief system. 

a. polytheistic 

b. dualistic 

c. monotheistic 

d. henoistic 

20. Compared to rulers of the Assyrian Empire and the Neo-Babylonian Empires, the Persian 

ruler named Cyrus was more _______. 

a. tolerant 

b. democratic 

c. brutal 

d. legalistic 

21. The first Roman Emperor was _______. 

a. Augustus 

b. Hadrian 

c. Trajan 



d. Nero 

22. Which Macedonian warrior-king conquered the Persian Empire and started the 

Hellenistic Period? 

a. Julius Caesar 

b. Xerxes 

c. Alexander the Great 

d. Pericles 

23. Self-control is of central importance to the philosophy of _______. 

a. Cynicism 

b. Epicureanism 

c. Christianity 

d. Stoicism 

24. What culture besides Greece had a great influence in the early development of Roman 

culture? 

a. Persian 

b. Egyptian 

c. Etruscan 

d. Carthaginian 

25. The band of semi-arid land in Africa south of the Sahara is called the _______. 

a. Sahel 

b. savanna 

c. highlands 

d. rainforest 

26. The kingdom of Aksum adopted _______ as its official religion. 

a. Buddhism 

b. Christianity 

c. Islam 

d. Judaism 

27. Why was the Grand Canal built? 

a. To protect China from nomads 

b. To outcompete the Silk Roads 

c. To move military forces to conquer southern China 

d. To help unify China 



28. _______ is a region of Oceania characterized by isolated tribes living subsistence 

lifestyles in large mountainous islands. 

a. Polynesia 

b. Australia 

c. Melanesia 

d. Micronesia 

Self-Check Answer Key 

1. Use of tools 

Explanation: The use of tools by early humans marked a major technological milestone 

in humanity's development. 

Reference: Section 1.1 

2. Agriculture 

Explanation: Agriculture increased food supply, allowing people to live in larger 

settlements. 


3. Çatalhüyük 

Explanation: Çatalhüyük in Turkey is an important site that contains artifacts from the 

Agricultural Revolution. 


4. Sedentary lifestyles 

Explanation: The rise of agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution led to permanent 

settlements and sedentary lifestyles. 


5. Sargon 

Explanation: Sargon of Akkad founded the Akkadian Empire around 2334 BCE. 


6. To record financial transactions 



Explanation: The Sumerians developed cuneiform to record financial transactions. 


7. Patriarchy 

Explanation: Male-dominated societies, like the ones in Ancient Mesopotamia in which 

men had more power than women, are patriarchal. 


8. Hierarchy 

Explanation: Hammurabi's code set out different punishments depending on one's 

social status, and thus, promoted hierarchy. 


9. The ability to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs 

Explanation: Jean-François Champollion translated Egyptian hieroglyphs using the 

Rosetta Stone. 


10. Standardized measurement 

Explanation: The Egyptians were the first to use standardized measurement in the form 

of cubit rods. 


11. Monotheism 

Explanation: The Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten introduced the single worship of the sun 

god, which is the first known instance of monotheism in history. 


12. Tombs for the pharoahs 

Explanation: The pyramids were built as burial tombs for the pharaohs and their wives. 


13. Vedas 

Explanation: The Vedas are the earliest known religious text and contain the early 



tenets of the religion that would become Hinduism. 


14. Huang He 

Explanation: The Yellow River, or Huang He, is where the earliest evidence of 

civilization in China comes from. 


15. Overthrowing dynasties and establishing new ones 

Explanation: The Mandate of Heaven was used to justify the overthrow of old dynasties 

by new ones. 


16. The Eightfold Path 

Explanation: The Eightfold Path is an instruction guide for Buddhists to attain 

enlightenment. 


17. Legalism 

Explanation: Legalism was used by the Qin Dynasty to attempt to make the empire as 

efficient as possible. It contained rewards for obedience but harsh punishments for 

those that disobeyed. 


18. purple dye 

Explanation: Tyre created a purple dye that sea snails produced. This dye was often 

used on royal robes and was highly valued. 


19. dualistic 

Explanation: Dualism is a belief system where there are opposing forces of good and 

evil. Zoroastrianism is the first example of dualism in a religion. 




20. tolerant 

Explanation: Cyrus II wasn't as brutal as the emperors before him and respected 

conquered peoples' religions and local practices. 


21. Augustus 

Explanation: By defeating Marc Antony, Augustus effectively ended the Roman 

Republic. 


22. Alexander the Great 

Explanation: Alexander the Great conquered Persia, and his successors established 

kingdoms throughout his empire, mixing Greek culture with West Asian cultures and 

establishing the Hellenistic Period. 


23. Stoicism 

Explanation: Stoicism emphasized controlling one's emotions to lead a fulfilling life. 


24. Etruscan 

Explanation: The Etruscans controlled Rome in its early days and introduced many 

cultural elements to it. 


25. Sahel 

Explanation: The Sahel is the semi-arid zone between the Sahara and the forests to the 

south. 


26. Christianity 

Explanation: The Aksum emperor Ezana adopted Christianity in 325 CE. 




27. To help unify China 

Explanation: The Grand Canal was built by the Sui Dynasty to promote trade and 

connections between northern and southern China. 


28. Melanesia 

Explanation: Melanesia has continental islands that separated tribes from one another, 

leading to isolation and diversity. 


Flash Cards 

1. Term: Archaeology 

Definition: The study of the past by excavating ancient sites and studying physical remains 

such as ruins or objects 

2. Term: Artifact 

Definition: An object of historical or cultural importance 

3. Term: Radiometric Dating 

Definition: A technique that measures naturally occurring radioactive decay in objects to 

determine when they were made 

4. Term: Hominins 

Definition: The branch of hominids that gave rise to humans 

5. Term: Glaciation 

Definition: The buildup of glaciers on the Earth due to cold climate 

6. Term: Land Bridge 

Definition: A connection between two large bodies of land 

7. Term: Megafauna 



Definition: Large animals that lived at the same time as early humans 

8. Term: Domestication 

Definition: The taming of wild animals and transformation of wild plants for human use 

9. Term: Irrigation 

Definition: The process of bringing water to crops 

10. Term: Terrace Farming 

Definition: The creation of steps on a steep landscape for agriculture 

11. Term: Agriculture 

Definition: The practice of farming, including planting crops and rearing animals for human 

use 

12. Term: Bipedal 

Definition: Regularly walking upright on two legs 

13. Term: Sedentary 

Definition: Staying in the same place 

14. Term: Egalitarian 

Definition: A society in which people tend to be treated equally 

15. Term: Prehistory 

Definition: The story of the past before there were written records 

16. Term: Paleolithic 

Definition: The era of prehistory when humans evolved and migrated across the planet 

17. Term: Hunting and Gathering 

Definition: A method of surviving in which small bands of people hunted wild game and 

foraged wild plants 



18. Term: Nomadic 

Definition: Not living in one place permanently 

19. Term: Neolithic 

Definition: The period of time in human prehistory after the development of agriculture 

20. Term: Agricultural Revolution 

Definition: The changes brought upon humans by the development of farming 

21. Term: Specialization 

Definition: The process of becoming adept at different jobs beyond growing food 

22. Term: Hierarchy 

Definition: A system of organizing people into groups called classes in which groups are 

ranked above or below others 

23. Term: Civilization 

Definition: An advanced, complex society with a large population centered in urban areas 

24. Term: Mesopotamia 

Definition: The region between and around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers where 

civilization first developed 

25. Term: Animal Husbandry 

Definition: The care of domesticated animals 

26. Term: Alluvial Plain 

Definition: Flatlands that are created by sediment deposits from one or more rivers 

27. Term: Staple Crops 

Definition: Foods that make up most of a people's diet 

28. Term: Fertile Crescent 



Definition: A crescent-shaped region in the Middle East which, in ancient times, was 

agriculturally productive 

29. Term: Sumer 

Definition: A region in Lower Mesopotamia where the earliest civilization developed 

30. Term: City-states 

Definition: Independent urban centers that govern themselves and the lands around them 

31. Term: Polytheism 

Definition: The worship of many gods 

32. Term: Pantheon 

Definition: All the deities in a religion 

33. Term: Ziggurat 

Definition: Stepped pyramids built of sun-dried clay brick that were part of Sumerian 

religious practices 

34. Term: Patriarchal 

Definition: A male-dominated society 

35. Term: Matriarchal 

Definition: A female-dominated society 

36. Term: Potter's Wheel 

Definition: A machine used to make round bowls, plates, and other clay vessels 

37. Term: Bronze 

Definition: A metal alloy made of copper and tin 

38. Term: Cuneiform 

Definition: The earliest form of writing, developed by the Sumerians 



39. Term: Pictograms 

Definition: The use of images to represent a word or idea 

40. Term: Empire 

Definition: A large territory with different states that was created by conquest and is 

controlled by a single ruling authority 

41. Term: Chariot 

Definition: A two-wheel or four-wheel horse-drawn carriage that was used in warfare, 

transportation, and racing 

42. Term: Metallurgist 

Definition: A person who works with metals 

43. Term: Infrastructure 

Definition: A system of public works 

44. Term: Stele 

Definition: A stone pillar usually bearing an inscription or a relief 

45. Term: Hammurabi's Code 

Definition: The earliest known written law code 

46. Term: Isthmus 

Definition: A smaller area of land that connects two larger land masses 

47. Term: Delta 

Definition: An area of wetlands formed from sediment deposits from a river 

48. Term: Cataract 

Definition: An impassable part of a river due to shallowness or rapids 

49. Term: Oasis 



Definition: A place in a desert where there's a source of water 

50. Term: Levant 

Definition: The lands of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, including modern-day 

Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine 

51. Term: Desertification 

Definition: The process of fertile land becoming arid, desert land 

52. Term: Pharaoh 

Definition: A ruling king or queen of ancient Egypt 

53. Term: Dynasty 

Definition: A ruling family 

54. Term: Deification 

Definition: Becoming a divinity 

55. Term: Monotheism 

Definition: A religion that believes in only one god 

56. Term: Mummification 

Definition: A process of preserving a body by removing all moisture 

57. Term: Elite 

Definition: A small group of powerful persons 

58. Term: Hieroglyph 

Definition: A symbol that represents a word, sound, or syllable 

59. Term: Standardized Measurement 

Definition: Using consistent measurements 

60. Term: Subcontinent 



Definition: An easily recognized portion of a continent 

61. Term: Monsoons 

Definition: Seasonal winds that blow in opposite directions at certain times of the year 

62. Term: Henotheism 

Definition: The worship of a single god but also acknowledging that there are other gods 

63. Term: Reincarnation 

Definition: Rebirth after death 

64. Term: Varnas 

Definition: Social classes in ancient India 

65. Term: Karma 

Definition: Sum of a person's good and bad deeds, a concept in Hinduism and Buddhism 

66. Term: Dharma 

Definition: The Hindu and Buddhist concept of a cosmic order 

67. Term: Moksha 

Definition: The Hindu concept of ending the cycle of death and rebirth 

68. Term: Asceticism 

Definition: A spiritual practice in which you deny your body of indulgence or luxury 

69. Term: Nirvana 

Definition: A spritual state in which one transcends suffering 

70. Term: Sangha 

Definition: A Buddhist community 

71. Term: Oracle bones 



Definition: Bones used by the ancient Chinese to predict the future 

72. Term: Mandate of Heaven 

Definition: The concept that there could be only one rightful ruler whom the gods legitimized 

73. Term: Feudalism 

Definition: A system of government in which a king offers land and power to nobles in 

exchange for loyalty and service 

74. Term: Filial Piety 

Definition: To be respectful and good to one's parents 

75. Term: Caste System 

Definition: A social system in which people are locked into social classes and occupations 

based on birth 

76. Term: Arhat 

Definition: A person who attains nirvana in the Theravada branch of Buddhism 

77. Term: Bodhisattva 

Definition: A person who tries to reach enlightenment in the Mahayana branch of Buddhism 

for the sake of all sentient beings 

78. Term: Yin and Yang 

Definition: The Daoist principle that there are opposite but complementary forces, both 

feminine and masculine, that give balance to the universe 

79. Term: Conscription 

Definition: The practice of requiring people to join a military force 

80. Term: Babylonian Captivity 

Definition: The period of time in the 500s BCE when, according to Jewish tradition, the 

Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II forced large portions of the Jerusalem population to 

relocate to Babylon 



81. Term: Royal Road 

Definition: The over-1,600 mile road built by the Persian Empire connecting Sardis to Susa 

82. Term: Dualism 

Definition: A belief system in which there are opposing forces of good and evil 

83. Term: Covenant 

Definition: A sacred agreement 

84. Term: Yahweh 

Definition: The name of the single god worshipped by the Israelites 

85. Term: Vassal State 

Definition: A country or territory that promises obedience to another country or territory 

86. Term: Legalism 

Definition: A Chinese philosophy of government in which rule is centralized and government 

is headed by an absolute monarch 

87. Term: Silk Roads 

Definition: Trade routes from East Asia to western Eurasia 

88. Term: Pilgrimage 

Definition: A journey for religious reasons 

89. Term: Assyrian Empire 

Definition: Empire starting in 900 BCE that was centered in Mesopotamia; employed high 

levels of violence to conquer and maintain control 

90. Term: Nebuchadnezzar 

Definition: King and founder of the New Babylonian Empire, who was Chaldean 



91. Term: Persian Empire 

Definition: Established by Cyrus the Great, with much more tolerance of conquered peoples 

compared to the Assyrian Empire 

92. Term: Zoroastrianism 

Definition: A dualistic religion that saw two opposing forces of good and evil in the world 

that fought one another 

93. Term: Ten Commandments 

Definition: A set of laws that form the backbone of moral behavior in Judeo-Christian 

tradition 

94. Term: Qin Dynasty 

Definition: Short-lived dynasty that unified China; used the philosophy of legalism to 

centralize power 

95. Term: Shi Huangdi 

Definition: Means "First Emperor"; was the title used by Ying Zheng, who established the 

Qin Dynasty 

96. Term: Han Dynasty 

Definition: Long-lasting dynasty of 400 years; implemented a strong, organized, and 

centralized government to rule over vast territory 

97. Term: Alphabet 

Definition: A written system of symbols that represent sounds 

98. Term: Polis 

Definition: A city-state in ancient Greece 

99. Term: Helots 

Definition: Enslaved people controlled by Sparta in ancient Greece 

100. Term: Oligarchy 



Definition: Rule by a small group 

101. Term: Aristocracy 

Definition: Rule by a noble class 

102. Term: Tyranny 

Definition: An oppressive form of government 

103. Term: Democracy 

Definition: Government characterized by rule by the people 

104. Term: Archons 

Definition: Political leaders in ancient Athens 

105. Term: Colonization 

Definition: To settle new areas and establish control over them 

106. Term: Phalanx 

Definition: A body of troops moving in close formation 

107. Term: Hoplites 

Definition: Warriors in an ancient Greek phalanx 

108. Term: Oracle 

Definition: A person in ancient Greece who would foretell the future 

109. Term: Autocracy 

Definition: Forcible rule by one 

110. Term: Patrician 

Definition: The aristocratic class in ancient Rome 

111. Term: Plebeian 



Definition: The commoner class in ancient Rome 

112. Term: Martyr 

Definition: A person who dies for his or her beliefs 

113. Term: Tetrarchy 

Definition: Rule by four 

114. Term: Patronage 

Definition: A social system in which a poorer person gives service to a wealthy person in 

exchange for support 

115. Term: Client 

Definition: A person who gives service to a patron 

116. Term: Equites 

Definition: Patricians engaged in commercial activity 

117. Term: Socratic Method 

Definition: A method of teaching in which a teacher and student engage in questions and 

answers 

118. Term: Linear A 

Definition: The undeciphered writing system of the ancient Minoans 

119. Term: Linear B 

Definition: The writing system of the ancient Myceneans 

120. Term: Hellenes 

Definition: The term Greeks used to describe themselves after the Hellenic Period 

121. Term: Peloponnese 

Definition: The southern part of mainland Greece connected to the rest of Greece by an 

isthmus 



122. Term: Orders 

Definition: Architectural styles of ancient Greece 

123. Term: Monarchy 

Definition: Rule by a king or queen 

124. Term: Twelve Tables 

Definition: Rome's first written law code; provided fairness in law enforcement 

125. Term: Legion 

Definition: A Roman army made up of 5,000 foot soldiers and some cavalry 

126. Term: Punic Wars 

Definition: Wars fought between Rome and Carthage for control of the Mediterranean 

127. Term: Populares 

Definition: Political party in ancient Rome that represented the interests of the people 

128. Term: Optimates 

Definition: Political party in ancient Rome that represented the interests of the wealthy 

129. Term: Aqueduct 

Definition: A public work designed to carry water over long distances 

130. Term: Sub-Saharan Africa 

Definition: The region of the African continent south of the Sahara Desert 

131. Term: Sahel 

Definition: A band of semi-arid land between the Sahara to the north and the forest areas to 

the south 

132. Term: Savanna 



Definition: Grasslands on the continent of Africa, which are famous for their abundance of 

wildlife 

133. Term: Rainforest 

Definition: A dense forest in regions with heavy rainfall 

134. Term: Indigenous 

Definition: Native to a region 

135. Term: Khoisan 

Definition: Hunter-gatherer people who were indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa 

136. Term: Ge'ez 

Definition: The alphabet used by the Kingdom of Aksum 

137. Term: Animism 

Definition: Religious systems in which animals and objects contain souls and spirits 

138. Term: Grand Canal 

Definition: A canal first built during the Sui Dynasty that linked the Yellow and Yangtze 

rivers in China 

139. Term: Polynesian Triangle 

Definition: A geographic region in the Pacific shaped like a triangle 

140. Term: Wayfinding 

Definition: The traditional methods of navigation by Polynesians 

141. Term: Oceania 

Definition: A geographic region consisting of the central and south Pacific Ocean 

142. Term: Obelisk 

Definition: A monumental pillar 



143. Term: Fief 

Definition: An inherited territory in a feudal system

Lesson 1-Ancient Civilizations

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