Graduate School Research Journal Vol XVIII No 1 (Body)(edited)
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
© Copyright 2020
St. Paul University Philippines
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced
in any form or by any means without the
written permission of the authors and
St. Paul University Philippines
ISSN NO. 2012-2551
Published by
CENTER FOR PLANNING, RESEARCH,
INNOVATIONS, AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES
St. Paul University Philippines
Tuguegarao City, Cagayan Valley 3500
EDITORIAL BOARD
JESUS B. PIZARRO, DPA
Editor-in-Chief
INICIA C. BANSIG, PhD
SR. MA. ADELINA J. PORTILLO, SPC
Consultants
AGRIPINA B. MARIBBAY, PhD
CHARITO M. GUILLERMO, DBM
ANUNCIACION T. TALOSIG, DNS
PILAR B. ACORDA, DME
MARIFEL GRACE C. KUMMER, DIT
Publication Advisory Board
LITA A. JOSE
Managing Editor
CHRISTIAN JADE G. RUAM
Layout Artist and Encoder
CONTENTS
1 OMANI STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES: BASIS
FOR A PROPOSED COMMUNICATION ENHANCEMENT
TRAINING PROGRAM
Aldrin L. Apolonio
Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric and Linguistics
39 IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD)
ACTIVITIES AT QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY: BASIS FOR A
UNIFIED GAD PROGRAM
Emma Daynos Aspiras
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Major in Educational Management
72 DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE HEALTHY AGING
PROGRAM FOR ELDERLY WITH COGNITIVE DECLINE
Gracia Herni Pertiwi
Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing Science
103 MOBILE-BASED EGGPLANT DISEASES RECOGNITION
SYSTEM USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Jake Guabes Maggay
Doctor in Information Technology
128 STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION, HEALTH-SEEKING
BEHAVIORS AMONG MOST-AT-RISK POPULATION AND
PERSONS LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS, AND CARING
BEHAVIORS OF NURSES: BASES FOR TOOL DEVELOPMENT
Janet Alexis A. De Los Santos
Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing Science
175 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES AND VALUE
FORMATION OF THE SISTERS OF ST. PAUL OF CHARTRES IN
THAILAND
Sr. Anchulee Intiya, SPC
Master of Arts in Education Major in School Leadership
192 RECORDS MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING SYSTEM OF
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY, LAL-LO CAMPUS
Vicky B. Agcaoili
Master in Information Technology
202 CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTION IN EFL CLASSES
Zheng Weizheng
Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric and Linguistics
OMANI STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES: BASIS FOR A
PROPOSED COMMUNICATION ENHANCEMENT
TRAINING PROGRAM
Aldrin L. Apolonio
Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric and Linguistics
ABSTRACT
The study determined the oral communication techniques of
Omani learners. It utilized a mixed-method type of research which was
conducted in one of the University of Technology and Applied Sciences
(UTASs) in North Al Batinah Governorate, Sultanate of Oman. The
research used two questionnaires. For the quantitative data, the first
questionnaire is a modified, researcher-made, and Likert scale survey
that consists of strategies for coping with oral communication problems
based on Yule’s (2014) definition of communicative competence and
divided into Part I - Grammatical Communication Strategies with eight
questions; Part II - Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies with 35
questions; and Part III - Strategic Communication Strategies” with 32
questions. For qualitative data, the second is an open-ended
questionnaire that consists of six parts. The participants of the study
were the Foundation and Post-Foundation students and all the teachers
or lecturers. The questionnaires were distributed online through
Microsoft forms. The study found that the students used to a moderate
extent the grammatical communication strategies and used to a great
extent both sociolinguistic and strategic communication strategies.
Based on the difficulties and needs of the students, the researcher
recommends the creation of a proposed communication enhancement
training program for the students in all the three aspects – grammatical
communication strategies, sociolinguistic communication, and strategic
communication strategies.
Keywords: oral communication, communication strategies, grammatical
communication strategies, sociolinguistic communication
strategies, strategic communication strategies, Oman
INTRODUCTION
Communication strategies started with Chomsky (1965) in
his book “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” where he wrote the
traditional skills required in communication such as “competence
(the speaker-listener’s expertise of the language) and “performance”
(the real use of language in actual circumstances)”.
“Competence” refers to the knowledge of the language (nonverbal
communication) while “performance” relates to the “use” of
the language (oral communication).
Hymes (1972) added that communicative competence as
intrinsic language structure proficiency and the capacity to utilize
knowledge in grammatical in diverse interactive circumstances,
consequently adding the sociolinguistic element into Chomsky’s
language interpretation of competence.
Currently, communicative competence points to the three
context of “communicative competence” by Canale and Swain (1980,
1983), Bachman and Palmer (1996), and Yule (2014). The academic
model suggested by Canale and Swain initially had “three main
elements - grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence.
Later, Canale added discourse competence.”
Yule (2014) categorized communicative competence into
grammatical competence (the correct use of words and structures),
“sociolinguistic competence (the capacity to use suitable language),
and strategic competence (the proficiency to manage a message
efficiently and to compensate, through strategies, for some
problems).”
Competence in oral communication, however, involves not
only the proficiency in grammar but also knowledge of culture and
coping strategies. According to Brown (2007), "a language is a part of
a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately
interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the
significance of either language or culture." Likewise, sociolinguistics
cannot be separated from culture since it involves the relationship
between language and society (Yule, 2014). Strategic competence is
using oral and written techniques in communication to remedy
interaction failures because of inconsistences in performance or
because of deficient proficiency (cited in Brown, 2000).
Proficiency in oral communication is important in Oman since
the English language is an essential mode of communication in Omani
workstations, particularly in non-government sectors, with the
multicultural character of expatriate workers (Al-Mahrooqi &
Tuzlukova, 2014). English is a requirement to obtain a desk job (Al-
Issa, 2002).
English is also the mode of teaching is English in all the
government and private colleges, universities, or post-secondary
institutions in the Sultanate (Al-Busaidi, 1995). Likewise, according to
Al-Issa (2002), English is a valuable instrument for economic
revolution and is given political, economic, legislative, and
government attention which finds its standing on the public
perception. The knowledge of English also happens to be the
foundation for the nation’s progress (Wiley, 1996) so its use is
founded for purposes of transition. In fact, the knowledge of English
has been deemed to be a vital mechanism to speed up Omanization
(Al-Issa, 2002) – the methodical and slow procedure where the
foreign worker is changed by a citizen (Al-Busaidi, 1995).
In Arab countries, the learners of the English language face
difficulties in oral and written communication (Abdul Haq (1982),
Harrison, et al. (1975), Abbad (1988), & Wahba (1998).
Arab learners who are studying English meet several
difficulties in accomplishing correctness and eloquence in English. A
problem met by learners of English from the Arab region is their
inadequate ability in the English language (Rabab'ah, 2003). They
consider it a challenge in grasping the basics of the English language
and then fail to express their intended message to others. Their range
of semantic and grammatical resources is inadequate in articulating
their thoughts. As a result, they utilize different techniques to
surmount difficulties in communication when they have problems in
the language sought to be learned. Their goal to communicate
effectively can be achieved with linguistic or non-linguistic strategies
like imitating the sound, using bodily gestures, utilizing pause fillers,
creating novel words, rephrasing, or code-switching. CSs have been
considered as different kinds of techniques to improve
communication and to avoid communication problems.
The outcome of the research of Al-Shammakhi & Al-Humaidi
(2015) also demonstrated that both the male and female teachers
meet similar problems on the need to learn teaching approaches.
Knowledge of structure is the basis of interaction that assists
in grasping the idea and the objective of the communication (Praise,
Meenakshi, 2015). Thus, the results suggest that while the Omani
learners effectively use vocabulary that is familiar to them, they
cannot successfully communicate using correct grammar.
The facts establish that oral communication in the English
language is essential in school and in workplaces in Oman. However,
Omani learners have a difficulty in verbal interaction. There is then a
need to find out the existing level of oral communication of Omani
learners and provide mitigating measures to improve their speaking
skill.
In Japan, Nakatani (2006) published an “Oral Communication
Strategy Inventory (OCSI)” utilized in assessing the speaking
techniques used by Japanese students. It consisted of eight elements
as follows: “(1) Speaking Social Affective; (2) Fluency-Oriented: (3)
Negotiation for Meaning while Speaking; (4) Accuracy-Oriented; (5)
Message Reduction and Alteration; (6) Nonverbal Strategies While
Speaking; (7) Message Abandonment; and (8) Attempt to Think in
English.”
While some researchers cast doubt on the benefits of explicit
teaching of communication strategies, Dörnyei & Thurrell (1994)
found that the teaching communication strategies could offer
learners a comforting feeling of safety. Littlemore (2012) also
observed that training on coping techniques improves the capacity to
understand the rubrics of the language sought to be learned and the
proper use of the language in diverse situations.
While there is a broad study about communication strategies
on native and non-native English language students, not many
inquiries have been conducted about students in the Arab region or
on Arab learners utilizing the English language (Rababah, 2005;
Rababah and Seedhouse, 2004, Rababah and Bulut, 2007).
In Oman, there were two studies that researched only in one
aspect of oral communication. The first is a study by Al Alawi (2015)
about the strategic communication strategies used by 60 Omani
students using the communication strategy taxonomy by Tarone
(1977, cited in Bialystok in 1990). He found that the students’
aptitude affected the utilization of CSs, with better students that
utilized approximation and circumlocution, but least skillful students
utilized avoidance techniques and first language-based
methodologies. The second research was conducted by Al-Siyabi
(2014) who studied the strategic communication strategies
employed by three boys and two girls at the Foundation level. She
utilized the taxonomy of Faerch and Kasper (1983a) and discovered
that although the students did not receive adequate training in
applying the strategies, they were implementing some
communication strategies.
However, there is a gap in these studies that the present
study sought to fill. First, the two studies only researched about the
strategic coping techniques of Omani students but did not study the
grammatical and sociolinguistic communication strategies. Second,
the researches only studied the students’ perspective or assessment
of their strategic communication strategies. Third, these studies did
not provide any intervention measures on the communication
difficulties of the students. Fourth, the population of these studies
was only limited and could not make any conclusive generalization to
apply to the whole population.
This study was then conducted to find out the level of oral
communication of Omani learners in three categories (grammatical,
sociolinguistic, and strategic) which were not studied by earlier
studies about oral communication in Oman. The findings became the
basis to formulate a proposed communication enhancement training
program to improve the oral communication of Omani learners.
Additionally, this study investigated how the English teachers
managed the oral communication strategies used by Omani students
and whether the assessments of the teachers and the students were
similar. Mourssi & Al Kharosi (2014) studied that some of the
problems in improving the learners’ oral communication are
teachers’ training, designing teaching resources, and context
concerns.
Statement of the Problem
The present study aimed to assess the oral communication
strategies of Omani learners in the Sultanate of Oman.
Specifically, sought answers to the following problems:
1. To what extent do the Omani learners use the oral
communication strategies as assessed by the teacher and
student-participants in terms of:
1.1. Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCSs)
1.2. Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies (SoCSs)
1.3. Strategic Communication Strategies (StCSs)
2. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of the
teacher-and student-participants on the extent of use of the
oral communication strategies by Omani learners in terms of:
2.1. GCSs
2.2. SoCSs
2.3. StCSs
3. How do the English teachers manage the oral communication
strategies used by Omani students?
4. What are the needs and difficulties of Omani students in
expressing themselves?
5. What program can be proposed to address the needs and
difficulties of Omani students in expressing themselves?
Research Design
METHODOLOGY
The research utilized the mixed methods technique which
involved gathering together the quantitative and qualitative
information and merged the two varieties of information. The
fundamental idea of this kind of research is that the fusion of
qualitative and quantitative methods gives a better and
comprehensive appreciation of a study as compared to only one
method (Creswell, 2014). This entailed the gathering and analysis of
the qualitative (open-ended) and quantitative (closed-ended)
information to answer the questions of the study.
Mixed technique of study was selected for its capacity to
extract from a qualitative and quantitative study and reduce the
constraints of the two methods. It was the best method since the
researcher could retrieve the quantitative and qualitative
information.
Specifically, this involved the explanatory sequential mixedapproach
strategy. It included two-stages of gathering the
information in which the researcher gathered quantitative
information in the initial stage, investigated the outcomes, and then
utilized the outcomes to organize the second, qualitative stage. It
involved gathering information from the questionnaire in the initial
stage, evaluating the information, and then subsequently assessing
the qualitative open-ended survey (Creswell, 2018).
Participants of the Study
The participants of the study were the Foundation and Post-
Foundation students and all the teachers or lecturers. The size of the
population was obtained through a confidence level of 95% with a
5% margin of error.
The participants were from similar cultural and language
backgrounds. Their naïve language is Arabic, and it is the official
language in Oman. The English language is the primary means of
teaching at universities and colleges. The Foundation program has
five different levels: Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, Level 4, and Post-
Foundation. They were completely informed of the objectives of the
study and their prerogatives as participants.
The participants were 46 teachers or lecturers of the ELC of
different nationalities and 675 students of the Foundation and Post-
Foundation Programs
Instrumentation
The study used both the quantitative and qualitative method
of inquiry. As such, this utilized two types of questionnaires in
gathering data. For the quantitative aspect, the first questionnaire is
a modified, researcher-made, and Likert scale survey questionnaire
for both the teachers and the students. It consists of strategies for
dealing with verbal interaction difficulties based on Yule’s (2014)
definition and discussion of communicative competence. The
questionnaire is split into three sections. Part I consists of the
Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCS) with eight statements;
Part II is the Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies (SoCSs) with 35
statements; and Part III is the Strategic Communication Strategies
(StCSs) with 32 statements. It is modified since some of the questions
were taken from previous oral communication strategies inventories.
The researcher incorporated questions especially on the
sociolinguistic aspect from insights gathered from the Oman
“Ministry of Culture and Heritage”, the Oman “Ministry of Tourism”,
and from journals published by the “Sultan Qaboos University”, the
premier university in the country. The proficiencies evolved into a
Likert-type survey that required the teachers and the learners to
relate the rate with which they utilized particular techniques in verbal
interaction.
For the qualitative aspect, the second questionnaire for the
teachers consisted of six parts. Part I contained the question on what
would the teachers do when a student has difficulty in grammar or in
pronunciation while speaking/talking to them; Part 2 is a question on
what would the teachers do when an Omani student, while having a
conversation with them, shows an action/expression which is
inappropriate in the context of the Omani culture; Part 3 is a question
on what would the teachers do if a student is unable to continue the
conversation with them because he/she doesn’t know the proper
word, or he/she doesn’t know his grammar, or he/she doesn’t know
how to pronounce the word; Part 4 asked the teachers the best way
to teach English grammar to Omani students in the English Language
Centre (ELC); Part 5 is a question on the best way to teach the Omani
students the use of suitable/appropriate language (in English) and
actions/gestures in accordance with Oman’s culture or social context;
and Part 6 asked the teachers the best way to teach the Omani
students the proper strategy when there is a breakdown in
communication in the English language. The following were the
coding used in this study:
4.20 – 5.00 always used to a very great extent
3.40 – 4.19 often used to a great extent
2.60 – 3.39 sometimes used to a moderate extent
1.80 – 2.59 seldom used to a limited extent
1.00 – 1.79 never used to a very limited extent
Data Gathering Procedure
After the proposal defense, the researcher submitted the
proposed study to the Ethics Research Committee (ERC) of St. Paul
University Philippines (SPUP), Tuguegarao. When it was cleared from
the ERC, the researcher then obtained permission from the Head of
Center (HoC) of the English Language Center (ELC) to conduct the
study. Subsequently, the researcher conducted the study through the
online distribution of the questionnaire.
Pre-test or Pilot test. The questionnaire was pilot tested for
both the teachers (10) and the students (20) in an online format
(Microsoft forms). Since the questionnaire was distributed online and
since the participation is merely voluntary, the informed consent was
incorporated in the introduction of the questionnaire that the
participants have freely consented to participate in the survey when
they answered the questionnaire. The data were collected through
the following procedure:
1. The teachers’ survey questionnaire was encoded into the
Microsoft forms. The specific parameters were set like only
those in the organization could answer the questionnaire and
the participants could only answer once.
2. The students’ survey questionnaire was first transcribed into
Arabic and checked by an Omani teacher for accuracy. Then
the translated (Arabic) version of the survey questionnaire
was given to another independent translator (who has no
knowledge of or contact with the original text) and translated
it back into the English language. It was then encoded into
the Microsoft forms with the explicit requirement that only
students in the institution could answer and that they could
only answer once.
3. The participants (teachers and students) were then given two
weeks to answer the questionnaire.
4. The result obtained was then exported to excel from the
Microsoft forms. After the data were extracted from the
Microsoft forms, the survey questionnaire was deactivated
and deleted from the system for security reasons. The
Microsoft Office used is registered and maintained by the
college so the data could be accessed by the information
technology administrators.
Data Analysis
In analyzing the results, the following steps were followed:
The answers of the participants – teachers and students –
were exported to excel from the Microsoft forms.
Weighted Mean or Average. This was used to describe the
extent of use of the oral communication strategies of the Omani
learners or students in terms of GCSs, SoCSs, and StCSs with the
following verbal interpretation of the scores:
4.20 – 5.00 always used to a very great extent
3.40 – 4.19 often used to a great extent
2.60 – 3.40 sometimes used to a moderate extent
1.80 – 2.59 seldom used to a limited extent
1.00 – 1.79 never used to a very limited extent
Test for Independent Samples. This was used to test for the
significant difference on the assessment of the teachers and the
students on the extent of use of the oral communication strategies
by the Omani learners in terms of GCSs, SoCSs, and StCSs.
Thematic Analysis. To answer the third and fourth problem
statements, the researcher used thematic analysis of the answers of
the teachers in an open-ended questionnaire.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Teachers’ and Students’ Assessment on the Extent of Use of the Oral
Communication Strategies by the Omani learners in Terms of
Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCSs), Sociolinguistic
Communication Strategies (SoCSs), and Strategic Communication
Strategies (StCSs)
1.1 Grammatical Communication Strategies
The grammatical communication strategy used to a great
extent by the students is they “often” (Item 7) use words that are
familiar to them. This indicates that when the students are taught
certain vocabulary, they use them confidently because they
understand their meanings and usage.
Al-Mahrooqi, et. al. (2015) observed that Omani learners
most frequently used academic terms relevant to their courses. Thus,
the teaching of vocabulary related to the courses of the students
emerges as effective in improving oral communication. Teng (2011)
also said that the technique that learners frequently utilize is to use
vocabulary which are recognizable to them.
The least-used GCSs by the students or used to a moderate
extent are difficulty in word stress and intonation (Item 1), proper
pronunciation (Item 2), grammar and word structure (Item 3), selfcorrection
(Item 4), use of the active voice (Item 5), and use of
complex sentences (Item 8). Al-Issa (2005) had the same observation
when he mentioned that Omani students are deficient in how to use
the structure and form of the language (grammatical competence).
Mukattash (1983) also stated that the difficulties that Arab learners
of English like university students persist to make are simple mistakes
in pronunciation, spelling, morphology, and syntax.
Al-Issa (2006) wrote that when students in Oman leave high
school, they largely face difficulties with using English
communicatively. They do not have grammatical proficiency,
discourse competence, sociolinguistic aptitude, and strategic
competence. Al Hosni (2014) also narrated that one of the several
reasons that cause the problem in speaking is the Omani learners’
grammatical difficulties. Sergon (2011) also found that the Omani
students still labor with English. Moreover, Mukattash (1983) stated
that Omani college learners persist to do certain simple mistakes in
enunciation, spelling, morphology, and syntax.
Knowledge of structure is the basis of interaction that assists
in grasping the idea and the objective of the communication (Praise,
Meenakshi, 2015). Thus, the results suggest that while the Omani
learners effectively use vocabulary that is familiar to them, they
cannot successfully communicate using correct grammar. This finding
highlights the importance of implicitly teaching grammar and
structure.
Interestingly, the students “sometimes” try to talk like a
native speaker. Norman (2017) in her research deduced that the
learners appear to believe that possessing a native-like pronunciation
is misunderstood and that being understood is favored more than
their supposed English pronunciation. Among Arab students, Siddiqui
(2016) found that the emphasis on fluency versus accuracy proved
inadequate in reaching the needed proficiency for second language
learners of English. This signifies that for non-native speakers, the
goal is effective communication and not to achieve native-like
pronunciation. Liu (1998) discusses that a brilliant use of the English
language does not refer to native-like enunciation.
Overall, the extent of use by the students of the GCSs is
described as “sometimes” which denotes that the students have a
deficiency in using their grammatical communication strategies since
they are using them only to a moderate extent.
1.2 Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies
Since there is an absolute relation between sociolinguistics
and culture (Saussure, 2002), the findings indicate that since the
students used to a great and very great extent the majority of the
sociolinguistic communication strategies, they are then fully aware of
the influence of their Omani culture in oral communication.
The life and culture in Oman are principally regulated by
religion since Islam is the state religion and that Shari'a is the source
of legislation. Hence, the study found that most of the sociolinguistic
communication strategies that were used to a great extent by the
students were in respect to their religion like saying “Prophet
Mohammad, May Peace be Upon Him” or “Inshaallah” and
“Assalamu Alaikum.” Arabs tend to demonstrate respect when
addressing each other by utilizing sacred terms and offering spiritual
compliments. This reflects their strong faith and the weight they
ascribe to the Qur’an and particularly to the issue of the future and
fate in Islam (Bouchara, 2015).
Aside from religious influences, the other Items relate to
cultural practices that play an important role in effective
communication. For instance, shaking the hands using only the right
hand is important since, in many Arab nations affected by Arab
culture, the left arm is believed to be dirty and is not involved in
public socialization (U.S Army Training…, 2006). Other cultural
practices include not asking about the wife of an Omani in a
conversation and boys and girls do not mix together when talking to
the teacher.
The findings reveal that the least-used sociolinguistic
communication strategy relates to the practice of Omani learners in
inappropriately applying their culture to other cultures. Islam does
not recognize any castes (Ansari, 1960) so the Arab people respect
social equality and they do not follow usual politeness in other
cultures like using “sir, madam” even for superiors. For instance, it is
a practice that in other cultures the students address their teachers
as “sir, madam” or “Mister ____, Miss ____.” But the research
revealed that the students “sometimes” (mean of 3.20) call their
teachers by their first names. The Omani learners also used a gesture
to a moderate extent with their fingers pointed together upward to
say, “wait” or “come” but other cultures may find this insulting. They
also “sometimes” change their way of saying things according to the
context (like talking to their peers or talking to their teachers). As
discovered by Al-Mahrooqi (2016), Omani learners are struggling in
interacting in English with individuals from various socio-cultural
circumstances.
The research likewise found that there is an effect of the
Arabic language in the learners’ oral communication. Arabic imparts
an idea like English but conveys it in a distinctive manner which
results in the learners shifting their understanding from Arabic into
English. This explains why the leaners utilize the structure of Arabic if
they convert to English. Such variances in the form of the two
languages produce difficulties in converting to English (Al-Zoubi, Dalal
& eid, Mohamad, 2014). Because of this difference in sentence
structure, the study found that the Omani learners have problems in
using appropriate words, phrases, or idioms according to the context.
Overall, the extent of use by the students of the SoCCs is
described as “often” which means that Omani learners are using to a
great extent their sociolinguistic communication strategies.
1.3. Strategic Communication Strategies
The study finds that the Omani learners try to a great extent
to prevent communication breakdown by having the courage to
participate in the conversation. Since there is an inadequate practice
of English language outside the classroom (Al hadhrami & Amzat,
2012), the Omani learners often attempt to provide a polite reaction
to the hearer and keenly urge themselves to say their ideas to the
tutors. Likewise, they often take some period to say their ideas. It is
also discovered that the Omani learners use to a great extent the
clarification request or they reiterate their ideas until the hearer
comprehends. The study discovered that Omani learners use
circumlocution to a great extent – they elucidate or reword the
intended message. As an example: if a student is not familiar with the
term corkscrew, he/she substitutes it by stating “the object used to
open a bottle.” This indicates that Omani learners are keen on
communicating in English using basic strategies to get their message
across.
However, the study also found that many of the students use
pause fillers to a great extent when they are not able to reflect on
what to say. Khojastehrad (2012) explained that a limited number of
the interlocutors express themselves effortlessly devoid of some kind
of breaks, reluctances, vocabulary, and sounds. Reluctance can show
panic, hesitancy, doubt, or stammering, in oral communication.
Rieger (2003) found that intermediate learners or novices are
inclined to abandon their reluctance breaks that produce a very
faltering speech. Thus, this indicates that there is a need to increase
the awareness of the Omani learners of the fillers if they are reluctant
in using the English language.
Many of the Omani learners also initially consider to a great
extent a statement they presently understand in English and
afterwards attempt to modify it to suit the circumstances. They
reflect on what they need to express in Arabic and subsequently
creäte statement in English or translate to English a phrase or a
structure literally from the Arabic structure. Arabic has more words
and word-combinations as compared to English thus it obstructs the
study of the English language (UKEssays, 2018). Hence, Arab learners
may be confused by the lack of patterns in English in Arabic that could
permit them to differentiate “nouns from verbs or adjectives”, etc.
As a consequence, the dominance of intrasentential code-switching
in which English words are often inserted into the middle of Arabic
sentences (Al-Mahrooqi & Al Aghbari, 2015). This implies that there
is a need to explicitly teach grammar and structure to Omani leaners.
As Ur (1996) contended, studying sentence structure and instruction
in many diverse circumstances are often what the learners request.
Due to their less proficiency in grammar, the study found that Omani
learners often shorten their ideas and utilize easy terms and utilize
signs when they couldn’t articulate their ideas.
The research likewise discovered that the Omani learners’
limited learning of words causes a communication breakdown so
they often illustrate or reword the planned message. As an example,
when a student is not familiar with the term corkscrew, he/she
substitutes it by stating “the object used to open the bottle.” Also,
they use another word to say the idea of the intended word as nearly
as possible. As an example, “ship” for “sailboat” or “pipe” for “water
tube.” This indicates that the Omani learners have difficulty in using
the proper vocabulary. The same conclusion was found by Al-
Mahrooqi, et al. (2016) that there are irregularities in learning words
such that vocabularies are not presented at appropriate stages.
Overall, while the extent of use by the students of the StCSs
is described as “often,” there are certain areas in grammar and
vocabulary that should be improved.
The inability to continue the conversation of Omani leaners
could be understood since English is not generally conversed or
utilized in day-to-day conversations (Saeed Al-Sobhi, & Preece, 2018).
This was also observed by Rabab'ah (2003) who said that a few of the
difficulties met by Arab students of English is their inadequate ability
in the English language. Al-Issa (2005) mentioned that Omani learner
are deficient in interrelating (sociolinguistic competence), and how
to get their meaning across effectively to others, particularly when
there are problems in the communication process (strategic
competence). In a similar study, there is really a problem in oral
communication for Omani learners as researched by Al-Mahrooqi &
Tuzlukova (2014) who discovered that college students of Sultan
Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman were only moderately prepared in
terms of all the skills including oral communication. The study found
that the Omani learners abandon a conversation and Al Hosni (2014)
revealed that Omani students exert effort to discover a suitable
vocabulary when trying to speak in English, which indicates their
deficient vocabulary so they have difficulty in developing sentences
when they try to articulate their ideas. Arab English language
students face difficulties in both oral and written communication
(Abdul Haq, 1982). Rabab'ah (2014) also noticed that another
significant part of the problem that Arab English language students
encounter is speaking. Arab students consider it hard to speak easily
in the language sought be learned.
The least-used strategic communication strategies reveal the
items that the student needs to improve on. For example, the
students sometimes try to relax when they feel anxious/nervous in a
conversation or when talking and they sometimes try to speak clearly
and loudly to make themselves heard. This indicates the lack of
motivation and confidence of Omani learners to communicate in
English. Al-Mahrooqi (2012) found that the Omani learners do not
have the motivation and confidence because they do not like English
and they see it adversely so they give no importance to it. Students
consider English unimportant and they are unaware of its
importance. They fail to give importance in it. In their view, it has no
significance like the other courses. Moreover, this absence of
motivation showed that they sometimes give more attentiveness to
the dialogue.
As previously found in the present study, the Omani learners
were found to be deficient in grammar and vocabulary which causes
a communication breakdown. For instance, the students substitute
the intended idea with a new idea since they are unable to
accomplish the intended message and they abandon an idea
incomplete due to certain linguistic problems. Also, they stop if they
couldn’t clearly express themselves and they leave the
implementation of an oral communication and merely state certain
terms if they couldn’t express what is in their minds. Moreover, they
create a new word in English like “vegetarianist” for vegetarian.
Furthermore, the Omani learners’ deficiency in grammar and
vocabulary makes them do code-switching by using both English and
Arabic in a conversation or within a sentence. For example, the
students would say, “I want to go to hamam.” (“hamam” is Arabic for
bathroom). Tukinoff (1985) perceived in Omani English language
schools that understanding and speaking in English is an obstacle for
Omani students. Thus, the students are often noticed to utilize the
interchange of Arabic, the native language, and English, the language
sought to be learned, i.e., code-switching in Omani schools.
Overall, the extent of use of the students of the StCSs is
described as “often.” The result, however, discloses that the extent
of the students’ use of strategic communication strategies also
reveals some of their inadequacies.
Test of Significant Difference in the Mean Assessment of the
Teacher and Student Participants on the Students’ Extent of Use of
the Oral Communication Strategies
Grammatical Communication Strategies. Since p < .882 is
greater than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is
accepted and conclude that there is no significant difference in the
assessment by the teachers and the students on the extent of
students’ use of the GCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the students
are united in their assessment of the grammatical communication
strategies of the students. This unity of assessment signifies that the
result is conclusive.
Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. Since p < .755 is
greater than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is
accepted and conclude that there is no significant difference in the
assessment of the teachers and the students on the extent of the
students’ use of the SoCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the
students are united in their assessment of the sociolinguistic
communication strategies of the students. This unity of assessment
signifies that the result is conclusive.
Strategic Communication Strategies. Since p < .010 is less
than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected
and conclude that there is a significant difference in the assessment
of the teachers and the students on the extent of the students’ use
of the StCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the students differ in their
assessment of the strategic communication strategies of the
students. This difference in the assessment signifies that there is a
need to look into the context of the study to determine the exact
result.
Ways English Teachers Manage the Oral Communication Strategies
Used by Omani Students
The teachers answered that they “seldom” immediately stop
the student in speaking/talking and then give the correction; they
“sometimes” allow the student to finish speaking/talking and then
give the correction to the student; and they “sometimes” allow the
student to finish speaking/talking and then give a lecture for all the
students about the grammar error. The survey also contained an
open-ended question on how the English teachers manage the oral
communication strategies used by Omani students. The answers
were grouped into themes using Nvivo and the following were the
suggestions on how to manage the grammatical communication
problems of the Omani leaners: (1) doing a whole class activity which
is doing the correction with the participation of all the students in the
class; (2) noting down the errors of the students for a discussion in
the latter part of the class; (3) doing more conversation practice in
the class; and (4) making plans depending on the gravity of the
mistake. This indicates that the teachers perceived that the students
have difficulties in oral communication and that they are ready to
provide some solutions if given the opportunity.
The best way to teach English grammar to Omani students in
the English Language Centre (ELC). With the perceived grammatical
communication problems of the students, the teachers
recommended five remedies like (1) having separate grammar
classes for each level; (2) integrating grammar and pronunciation in
each subject (reading, listening, writing); (3) allowing the students to
watch videos and other authentic models in grammar and
pronunciation; (4) doing drill lessons; and (5) letting the students
have group activities in the class.
Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. The teachers were
asked on what they do when an Omani student, while having a
conversation with them, shows an action/expression which is
inappropriate in the context of the Omani culture.
The teachers responded that they “sometimes” immediately
tell the Omani student that his/her action or words are improper in
the context of the Omani culture and that they “sometimes” just
allow the student to finish the conversation and will ask the help from
an Omani teacher/lecturer to talk to the student about his/her
inappropriate action or words. They suggested several remedies like
(1) immediately stopping the student from continuing with the
conversation and telling the inappropriateness of his/her action, (2)
talking to the student in private but allowing him/her to finish the
conversation, (3) dealing with the problem depending on the gravity
of the inappropriate action; (4) using gestures for the student to stop
such inappropriate action but without interrupting the conversation,
(5) allowing the student to self-correct by pointing out the
inappropriate action, and (6) increasing the teachers’ awareness and
understanding of Omani culture.
With differing understating of Omani culture, the teachers
were also asked on the best way to teach the Omani students the use
of suitable/appropriate language (in English) and actions/gestures in
accordance with Oman’s culture or social context. They responded
that lessons using appropriate language in accordance with Omani
culture (1) should be included in each subject – reading, listening,
writing, speaking, (2) should be shown to the students through videos
and other authentic materials, (3) should be made through role-plays
inside the classroom, (4) should be first taught to the teachers, (5)
should be learned through a separate subject about Omani culture,
and (6) may not be taught at all since the Omani students are already
aware of their own culture.
Strategic Communication Strategies. On what to do when the
student is unable to continue the conversation with the teacher
because he/she doesn’t know the proper word, or he/she doesn’t
know his/her grammar, or he/she doesn’t know how to pronounce a
word, the teachers answered that (1) they use gestures to prompt
the student to continue with the conversation, (2) they provide word
options or choices for the student to proceed with the conversation,
(3) they allow the student to use technology (like mobile phone
dictionary) to find the appropriate word or phrase, (4) they ask the
support from the other students or his/her peers, and (5) they
request the help from an Omani teacher.
The teachers were also asked on the best way to teach the
Omani students the proper strategy when there is a breakdown in
communication in the English language. A breakdown in English
communication happens when the Omani student is not able to
continue the conversation in English because of (a) the lack of
proficiency (grammar) in the English language; (b) the inability to
pronounce an English word properly; and (c) the lack of a wide range
of vocabulary. The teachers responded that there should be (1)
individual practice for the students in all the classes, (2) immersion in
the use of language, (3) videos and other authentic materials to help
the students deal with communication breakdowns, (4) group
practice for the students like conversation simulations, and (5)
express teaching of communication strategies.
This indicates that the teachers perceive that the students
have difficulties in oral communication and they are ready to provide
some solutions if given the opportunity.
Needs and Difficulties of Omani Students in Expressing Themselves
Grammatical Communication Strategies. This study found
that the students have difficulty in word stress and intonation (Item
1), proper pronunciation (Item 2), grammar and word structure (Item
3), self-correction (Item 4), use of the active voice (Item 5), trying to
talk like a native speaker (Item 6), and use of complex sentences
(Item 8). Since the study cannot make a conclusive finding that the
students’ communication strategies improve as they go to a higherlevel,
the students’ GCSs are likely similar in the other levels which
indicate that there is no progression or movement in the course
content for grammar in each level.
Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. The study
disclosed that the students have problems in saying things according
to the context (like talking to their peers or talking to their teachers);
in using appropriate words, phrases, or idioms according to the
context; in avoiding calling their teachers by their first names; in
gesturing with their fingers pointed together upward to say, “wait”
or “come; ” in consistently putting their right hand in their chest to
show respect; in expecting that another person will not just say a
quick “hi!” or “good morning” when greeting; in saying thank you (or
shaking the hands of the teacher) when leaving the classroom; and in
calling the attention of a person or the teacher using the index finger.
Strategic Communication Strategies. The results reveal that
the students have to improve on several Items. They need to use
pause fillers and hesitation devices less; they should not take too
much time to express what they want to say; they should reduce
thinking first of a sentence they already know in English and then try
to change it to fit the situation; they should avoid thinking of what
they want to say in Arabic and then construct the English sentence;
they should not be afraid from talking in English to other nationalities
even if they do not know the proper words to use in their topic; they
should avoid using an alternative term to express the meaning of the
target lexical item as closely as possible; and they should avoid
translating to English a phrase or a structure literally from the Arabic
structure.
Moreover, the students need to relax more when they feel
anxious/nervous in a conversation or when talking; they need to pay
more attention to the conversational flow; they need to speak more
clearly and loudly to make themselves heard; they need to make
more comprehension checks to ensure the listener understands what
they want to say; they should avoid replacing the original message
with another message because of feeling incapable of executing their
original intent; they should avoid leaving a message unfinished
because of some language difficulty; they should avoid giving up
when they can’t make themselves understood; they should avoid
abandoning the execution of a verbal plan and avoid just saying some
words when they don’t know what to say; they should avoid creating
a new word in English based on their knowledge of morphological
rules; and they should avoid using both English and Arabic in a
conversation or within a sentence.
Some of the reasons why Omani learners experience these
difficulties are they transfer to Arabic every time they have difficulty
in stating their thoughts in English; they barely participate during
class discussions because of some reservations, and they are either
scared of committing errors in full view of their classmates or they
are just shy (Al Hosni, 2014). Usually, they practice English only in the
classroom (Ugla et al., 2013). In agreement to the conclusions of Ugla,
et al. (2013), Mukattash (1983) affirmed that the learners stay
incapable to state themselves easily and proficiently either when
dealing with educational subjects or usual everyday issues.
Proposed Program to Address the Needs and Difficulties of Omani
Students in Expressing Themselves
The researcher found out that the Omani students have
difficulties in proper stress and intonation, proper pronunciation,
correct grammar and word structure, self-correction, use of the
active voice, and use of complex sentences. It was also discovered
that the students used to a great extent their sociolinguistic and
strategic communication strategies. However, there are certain
cultural influences in verbal interaction and strategic strategies that
need to be stressed and improved.
There are many factors to consider to achieve proficiency in
oral communications in English. Chomsky (1965), in his book
“Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,” wrote the traditional skills
required in communication such as “competence (the speakerlistener’s
expertise of the language) and performance (the real use
of language in actual circumstances)”. Hymes (1972) explained
communicative competence as intrinsic language structure
proficiency and the capacity to utilize knowledge in grammatical in
diverse interactive circumstances, consequently adding the
sociolinguistic element into Chomsky’s language interpretation of
competence.
Current hypothetical as well as experimental inquiry about
communicative competence points to the three context of
“communicative competence” by Canale and Swain (1980, 1983),
Bachman and Palmer (1996), and Yule (2014). The academic model
suggested by Canale and Swain initially had “three main elements -
grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. Later,
Canale added discourse competence.”
Yule categorized communicative competence into
grammatical competence (the correct use of words and structures),
“sociolinguistic competence (the capacity to use suitable language),
and strategic competence (the proficiency to manage a message
efficiently and to compensate, through strategies, for some
problems).”
Some of the strategies in teaching communication strategies
are suggested by Maleki (2010) to explain “paraphrase, transfer,
appeal for assistance, and mime and the bottom-up method is the
structure where the strategies are put to use.” Other teaching
strategies can also be adopted from Gallagher-Brett (2001) who
conducted an eight-week task in which coping techniques were
explained to new learners. The students have been taught in diverse
turn-taking expressions, appeals for assistance, clarification and
repetition; greetings and pause fillers. Saeidi & Farshchi (2015)
likewise contributed several ideas in teaching communication
strategies used in their study that included eight modules
distributed in a span of two months (Week 1 to Week 8) which was
initiated for a period of 16 one-hour classes. The learners’ verbal
output was evaluated by means of a sequence of image-based
storytelling activities. Mariani (2010) has also published the book
“Communication Strategies: Learning and Teaching How to Manage
Oral Interaction” that details some strategies in teaching and
managing oral communication strategies. Ogane (1998) also
published the book “Teaching Communication Strategies” that
provides some strategies to teach communication strategies.
For materials that dwell with cultural issues which influence
oral communication, the English Language Centre of Sultan Qaboos
University (2012) prepared a “Guide for the New Teacher” which
includes cultural do’s and don’ts that are applicable for both new
teachers and a reminder for the students. The US Army Training and
Doctrine Command (2006) prepared a handbook for its troops that
states basic information about awareness of Arab culture. It acts as
an essential guide to Arabic customs and culture originally intended
for the business traveler. El Sayad (2018) also prepared “A Cultural
Guide for Business in Oman” that incorporates cultural practices in
communication. There is also a website that outlines cross-cultural
etiquette and understanding in Oman (Culture crossing, 2017). The
program seeks to enlist Omani teachers to teach the influences of
Omani culture in oral communication so they have the necessary
expertise and knowledge about the topic.
Hua et al., (2012) observed that although there are many
arguments of the numerous difficulties of Arab students of English,
there is hardly any emphasis about the methods in resolving the
difficulties or confronting the significance of the enhancement of
the students' deliberate attempt to provide answers to their
interaction difficulties.
The training program should be made while the Omani
learners are in the Foundation Program. Al-Mahrooqi (2012)
recommended the necessity of corrective or rigorous classes in the
foundation course before starting study in higher education.
This also serves to educate the teachers on the various
underlying cultural influences in communication in Oman. The
training program aims to benefit the teachers since Mourssi & Al
Kharosi (2014) studied that in the instruction of the English
language, a few of the major problems are teachers’ training,
designing teaching resources, and context concerns. Al-Shammakhi
& Al-Humaidi (2015) researched that both the male and female
teachers meet similar problems on the need to learn approaches to
allow them to deal with various students. Even in the high school
and elementary levels, Sergon (2011) discovered that the Oman
“Ministry of Education” perceived that the difficulty has to do with
the teachers.
Halliday, et al. (1984) recommended that proficiency in
verbal communication relies on practicing on the models.
Learners have to be aware of communication strategies.
Littlemore (2012) observed that training on coping techniques
improves the capacity to understand the rubrics of the language
sought to be learned and the proper use of the language in diverse
situations. Faucette (2001) suggested that the strategies are
normally presented in relation to actions, like providing commands
or directions as well as giving meanings. Books are not good basis
for the instruction of communication strategies. The teacher has to
have a greater range of activities extending from the popular,
everyday “describe the coffee pot” tasks to the more exciting and
enjoyable, like “games, riddles, dialogue-building, conversation
analysis”, etc. Exercises can reassure and urge the students to utilize
coping techniques. In a study in Hong Kong, Lam (2006) learned that
the class which was given oral communication strategy teaching
(OCST) generally outperformed the comparison class.
Teaching communication strategies could offer learners a
comforting feeling of safety (Dörnyei & Thurrell, 1994). Second,
communication strategies assist the students attain a superior
assessment of their communicative proficiency. Communication
strategies enhance learners’ state communicative self-confidence.
CSs inspire the students. Coping techniques may be considered as a
helpful way to get rid of the reasons of discouragement of the
students. It normally arises when a student, particularly at beginner
stages, has some thoughts in his/her mind to transmit, he/she holds
them suppressed merely for not discerning only a single vocabulary.
This absence of the capacity to remedy for a deficient vocabulary
and thus evading the delivery of the proposed idea can result to the
deterioration of enthusiasm. Remaining conscious of the presence
of a technique like circumlocution and understanding the technique
to use it could boost the students’ self-reliance to continue the
interaction. Through practice, reaching success in giving an idea by
the students may stimulate their enthusiasm and interest to begin
interacting.
The teaching of communication strategies makes the
learners aware of their deficiencies and thereby make adjustments
to better improve their communication. Naithani (2010), wrote that
it can be deduced that instruction concentrated on deliberate
exercise in utilizing communication strategies is to be expected to
develop the students’ interaction while doing practice activities. The
results of the research imply that English language students who
lack metacognitive abilities must study to understand and examine
particular language and sociolinguistic signs to understand and
combine idea to their plan. Kongsom (2009) studied that the overt
instruction of coping techniques elevated the learners’
consciousness of utilizing techniques and encouraged the better
utilization of learned coping techniques of the learners. Thus, CSs
are temporary answers to a difficulty, while studying techniques are
aimed at answering a seeming deficiency in understanding or
proficiency and are thus focused on a lasting answer (Ellis, 2008).
CONCLUSIONS
In light of the findings of this study, the following conclusions
are drawn:
Based on the findings, the researcher concludes the
following regarding the oral communication strategies used by
Omani students:
While the acquisition of language is affected by acculturation
and social or psychological distance, it involves the application of a
complex cognitive skill. Thus, learning a second language commences
from the recognition of structures that increasingly results in
automatization. The concepts learned are then applied to new
situations leading to the gradual mastery of the target language.
If individuals communicate in a language, this indicates that
the people are likewise interrelating with the culture that uses that
language. In learning a second language, it includes learning its
letters, the sentence structure, and the rules of grammar. However,
it also involves the study of the particular traditions and manners of
the community. Hence, in studying a second language, it is
imperative that the tradition of the community where that language
rests be studied since language is highly entrenched in tradition.`
While studying the target language, students regularly meet
difficulties in communication as a result of the absence of language
skills. To convey meaning, learners use coping techniques to
overcome these difficulties. These coping techniques are necessary
to enhance the eloquence of the interlocutor. They can be taught and
very adjustable to the various learning circumstances in or outside
the classroom. Thus, it is worth investing in them because reaching a
superior language proficiency is necessary for daily interaction.
Learners who availed of these strategies turn out to be less
apprehensive and become proficient speakers of the target language
because of the emotional and oral skills that they have learned.
RECOMMENDATIONS
With reference to the findings and conclusions of the study,
the following recommendations are offered:
1. University of Technology and Applied Sciences – Shinas (UTAS-
Shinas) – This study recommends that ShCT will institutionalize
policies that will provide seminars and workshops to all lecturers
in the different departments about the Omani cultural elements
and the strategic communication strategies when
communicating with the students in English.
2. English Language Centre (ELC) – The research recommends that
the ELC, being the provider of the Foundation Program, will
provide an intensive orientation seminar and workshop before
the start of each academic semester for all the fresh intake
students about the proper application of the Omani cultural
elements and the strategic communication strategies when
communicating with the students in English. Similarly, new
lecturers should be provided with an orientation seminar about
the Omani cultural elements and the strategic communication
strategies when communicating with the students in English.
3. English Language Teachers – The researcher recommends that
the English language teachers will keep themselves abreast of
Omani cultural elements and the strategic communication
strategies when communicating with the students in English.
4. Students – The study recommends that the students
appropriately apply the influences of their Omani culture in
English language oral communication according to the context
and the strategic communication strategies when
communicating in English.
5. The Researcher – As the researcher, since the study has provided
insights on the needs and difficulties of the Omani learners in oral
communication, he hopes to be better in communicating with
the students.
6. Future Researchers – The researcher recommends that future
research may be made on a similar topic in Oman and determine
whether the level of proficiency of the students affects their use
of oral communication strategies.
References
Abbad, A. (1988). An Analysis of Communicative Competence
Features in English Language Texts in Yemen Arab Republic.
PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.
Abdul Haq, F. (1982). An Analysis of Syntactic Errors in the
Composition of Jordanian Secondary Students. Unpublished
MA Thesis. Jordan. Yarmouk University.
Al Alawi, R. (2015). Communication Strategies used by Omani EFL
students. Pyrex Journal of English and Literature, 2(1), 001-
011. Retrieved April 19, 2018.
Al hadhrami, M. and Amzat, I. (2012). Improving the Standard of
English Language and Communication Amongst SQU
Students in Oman: Challenges and Suggestions.
Al Hosni, S. (2014). Speaking Difficulties Encountered by Young EFL
Learners. International Journal on Studies in English
Language and Literature (IJSELL).Volume 2, Issue 6,
June2014, PP 22-30ISSN 2347-3126 (Print) & ISSN 2347-3134
Al-Busaidi, K. (1995). English in the labour market in multilingual
Oman with special reference to Omani employees.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Exeter,
England.
Al-Issa, A. (2002). An ideological and discursive analysis of English
language teaching in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland, Australia.
Al-Issa, A. (2006). Language Problems Facing Omani Learners of
English [PDF]. Muscat, Oman: Sultan Qaboos University.
Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2012). A Student Perspective on Low English
Proficiency in Oman. Sultan Qaboos University, Oman.
doi:10.5539/ies.v5n6p263.
URL:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n6p263
Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2016). Omani Graduates’ English-language
Communication Skills in the Workforce: Employees’
Perspectives. International Journal of Applied Linguistics &
English Literature, 5(4).
Al-Aghbari & Al-Mahrooqi (2015). Exploring the Use of English in
Omani Students' Everyday Conversations and its Influence on
their Spoken Arabic. Sultan Qaboos University
Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Tuzlukova, V. (2014). English Communication Skills
and Employability in the Arabian Gulf: The Case of
Oman. PERTANIKA Journals, 22(2), 573-488. Retrieved April
9, 2018.
Al-Mahrooqi, R., Al-Maamari, F., & Denman, C. (2016). An Analysis of
Lexicon in Omani English Language Teaching: Challenges
from Teaching and Learning Perspectives. Sultan Qaboos
University Journal of Arts & Social Sciences.
Al-Shammakhi, F. & Al Humaidi, S. (2015). Challenges Facing EFL
Teachers in Mixed Ability Classes and Strategies Used to
Overcome Them. World Journal of English Language. 5.
10.5430/wjel.v5n3p33.
Al-Siyabi, M. S. (2014). Communication Strategies Employed by
Omani Foundation Year Students. International Journal of
Teaching and Education, 2(3), 1-44.
Al-Sobhi, B. & Preece, A. (2018). Teaching English Speaking Skills to
the Arab Students in the Saudi School in Kuala Lumpur:
Problems and Solutions. International Journal of Education
and Literacy Studies. 6. 1. 10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.1p.1.
Al-Zoubi, Dalal & eid, Mohamad (2014). The Influence of the First
Language (Arabic) on Learning English as a Second Language
in Jordanian Schools, and Its Relation to Educational Policy:
Structural Errors. Sino-US English Teaching. 11. 355-372.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. (1996). Language testing in practice.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological
analysis of second-language use. Blackwell.
Bouchara, A. (2015). The role of religion in shaping politeness in
Moroccan Arabic: The case of the speech act of greeting and
its place in intercultural understanding and
misunderstanding. Journal of Politeness Research. 11.
10.1515/pr-2015-0004.
Brown, H. D. (2007) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching
New York, Pearson Longman Inc.
Brown, D. H. (2000). Principles of language learning & teaching. (4th
ed.). New York: Longman. (pp. 49-58)
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to
communicative language pedagogy. In: C. Jack, Richards &
Richard W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication.
London: Longman.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative
approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied
Linguistics, 1, 1-47.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.
Dörnyei, Z., &Thurrell, S. (1994). Teaching conversational skills i
ntensively:
Course content and rationale. ELT Journal, 48(1), 40-49
El Sayad, H. (2018). Educating Engineering Students in Egypt. III:
Learning From the World of Engineering Education.
Ellis, Rod (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442257-4.
Faerch, C & Kasper, G (1983a) Plans and strategies m foreign
language communication In Faerch, C & Kasper, G (eds )
Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp 20-60)
London Longman
Faucette, P. (2001). A pedagogical perspective on communication
strategies: Benefits of training and an analysis of English
language teaching materials. University of Hawaii Second
Language Studies Paper 19 (2).
Gallagher-Brett, A. (2001). Teaching communication strategies to
beginners. Language Learning Journal. 24. 53-61.
10.1080/09571730185200251.
Guide for New Teachers, Sultan Qaboos University (2012). English
Language Center. Sultan Qaboos University.
Halliday, M., A. McIntosh and Strevens, P. (1972/1984) (8th
impression) 'Learning Foreign Languages. In R. Nasr (ed.),
Teaching and Learning English. Harlow: Longman.
Harrison, W., Prator, C., and Tucker, G. (1975). English Language
Policy Survey of Jordan. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Hua, J.M., et al. (2012). The Familial Context of Adolescent Language
Brokering Within Immigrant Chinese Families in Canada. J
Youth Adolescence 41, 894–906.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9682-2
Hymes, D.H. (1972) “On Communicative Competence” In: J.B. Pride
and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics. Selected Readings.
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Khojastehrad, S. (2012). Hesitation strategies in oral L2 test among
Iranian students-shifted from EFL context to EIL.
International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(3), p. 10-21
Kongsom, T. (2009). The Effects of Teaching Communication
Strategies to Thai Learners of English. University of
Southampton. School of Education.
http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/69653/1.hasCoversheetVersion/
Tiwaporn_Kongsom_24_11_09.pdf
Lam, W. (2006). Gauging the effects of ESL oral communication
strategy teaching: A multi-method approach. Electronic
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 2006, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.
142-157. http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v3n22006/lam.pdf
Littlemore, J. (2012). Cognitive Approaches to Communication
Strategies. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.
DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0144
Liu, D. (1998). Ethnocentrism in TESOL: Teacher education ad the
neglected needs of international TESOL students. ELT
Journal, 52(1), 3-10.
Maleki, A. (2010). Techniques to Teach Communication Strategies.
Journal of Language Teaching and Research. 1.
10.4304/jltr.1.5.640-646.
Mariani, L. (2010). Communication strategies - Learning and teaching
how to manage oral interaction.
Mourssi, A., & Al Kharosi, M. (2014). The benefits and challenges of
implementing Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL) at the Higher College of Technology- Sultanate of
Oman. International Journal of Language Learning and
Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW), 7(4), 272-283. Retrieved
April 6, 2018.
Mukattash, L. (1983). 'The problem of difficulty in foreign language
learning'. In E. Dahiyat, and M. Ibrahim (eds.), Papers from
the First Conference on the Problems of Teaching English
Language and Literature at Arab Universities. Amman-
Jordan: University of Jordan.
Naithani, P. (2010) Challenges Faced by Expatriate Workers in Gulf
Cooperation Council Countries. International Journal of
Business and Management. 5 (1)
Norman, J. (2017). Student’s Self-perceived English Accent and Its
Impact on Their Communicative Competence and Speaking
Confidence.
Ogane, M. (1998). Teaching communication strategies. Retrieved
Feb. 15, 2005, from
http://web28.epnet.com.ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/resultlist.
asp
Praise, S. & Meenakshi, K. (2015). Importance of grammar in
communication. International Journal of Research Studies in
Language Learning. 4. 10.5861/ijrsll.2014.789.
Rabab'ah, G. (2003). Communication and Linguistic Problems Facing
Arab Learners of English. Indian Journal of Applied
Linguistics.
Rababah, G. (2005). Communication problems facing Arab learners of
English. Journal of Language and Learning, 3 (1), 180–197.
Rabab'ah, G. (2014). Communication problems facing Arab learners
of English. Journal of Language and Learning Vol. 3 No 1 ISSN
1740 – 4983
Rababah, G., & Bulut, D. (2007). Compensatory strategies in Arabic as
a second language. Poznań Studies in Contemporary
Linguistics, 43 (2), 83–106.
Rababah, G., & Seedhouse, P. (2004). Communication strategies and
message transmission with Arab learners of English in Jordan.
Retrieved 2004, from:
http://www.ecls.ncl.ac.uk/publish/Volume1/GhalebandSee
dhouse/ halebandSeedhouse.htm
Rieger, C. (Ed.) (2003). Disfulency in spontaneous speech workshop,
5-8 September 2003, Göteborg University, Sweden.
Stockholm: Gothenburg.
Saeidi, M. & Farshchi, E. (2015). The Effect of Communication
Strategy Teaching on EFL Learners’ Oral Production in
Content-based Courses. Theory and Practice in Language
Studies. 5. 71. 10.17507/tpls.0501.09.
Saussure, F. de, 2002. Écrits de linguistique générale. (ed.) S. Bouquet
et R. Engler. Paris : Gallimard.
Sergon, V. (2011). Playing the Blame Game: English Education in
Omani Government Schools. Independent Study Project (ISP)
Collection.
http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1132
Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious communication strategies in
interlanguage: A progress report. On Tesol, 77(194-203).
Teng, H. (2011). Communication strategy use of EFL college students.
In A. Stewart (Ed.), JALT2010 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo:
JALT.
Tukinoff, W.J. (1985). Applying significant bilingual instructional
features in the classroom. Rosslyn, Virginia: InterAmerica
Research Associates.
UKEssays. (November 2018). Arabic Language Interference In
Learning English Language English Language Essay. Retrieved
from
https://www.ukessays.com/essays/englishlanguage/arabic-language-interference-in-learning-englishlanguage-english-language-essay.php?vref=1
Ugla, et. al. (2013). Study of the Communication Strategies Used By
Iraqi EFL Students at Tertiary Level. International Journal of
Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE). 2.
10.11591/ijere.v2i1.1812.
Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice of theory.
Cambridge, England: CUP.
US Army Training and Doctrine Command, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.
(2006). Arab Cultural Awareness: Office of the Deputy of Staff
for Intelligence
Wahba, E. (1998). 'Teaching Pronunciation-Why?'. Language
Teaching Forum. Vol. 36, No.3:32.
Yule, G. (2014). The Study of Language. 5 th Edition.
IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD) ACTIVITIES AT
QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY: BASIS FOR A
UNIFIED GAD PROGRAM
Emma Daynos Aspiras
Doctor of Philosophy in Education
Major in Educational Management
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to determine the extent of implementation of GAD
activities of Quirino State University. The research used a mixed method employing
both quantitative and qualitative approach. Questionnaires were administered to
collect quantitative data, while qualitative data were gathered from the interviews
and focus group discussion. As to implementation, GAD activities in all the campuses
along instruction, research, extension, and auxiliary and enterprise development are
greatly implemented except in Campus A along auxiliary and enterprise development
which is moderately implemented. Moreover, the following themes are the best
practices of the university in integrating GAD policies and guidelines as follows: along
instruction, practices of neutral gender teaching, usage of gender sensitive and fair
language, elimination of examples on gender stereotyping, revision of syllabi
integrating gender, conduct and promote gender-related activities for students,
avoidance of gender discrimination; along research, collaboration of faculty-student
in conducting gender-related research, motivation to conduct gender-related
research, attendance to trainings/ seminars on gender-related research; along
extension, integration of awareness on gender in extension activities, empowerment
for women to participate in extension activities, facilitation of gender-responsive
extension activities; along auxiliary and enterprise development, empowerment for
students to do entrepreneurial activities, assistance to students in identifying sellable
products, collaboration to develop products for profit. On the other hand, hindering
factors in the implementation were identified, namely: along instruction, limited
gender-related seminars/trainings, low level of gender awareness, limited genderrelated
activities for students, insufficient instructional materials on gender, lack of
funds for gender-related activities; along research, less passion on gender-related
research, limited time allotted for research, limited seminars on gender-related
researches; along extension, less participation in extension activities, lack of funds to
sustain extended services, practices of stereotyping in rural communities; along
auxiliary and enterprise development, lack of resource and financial support, nonsustainability
of entrepreneurial activities. In conclusion, unified program
emphasizing extensive implementation of GAD activities could be of great help in
realizing the vision and mission of the institution towards the ambition to be a
“gender-responsive university”.
Keywords: Extension, Instruction, Research, Gender and Development, Quirino State
University
INTRODUCTION
The world flocks with ideas about gender and these ideas are
so conventional that were taken for granted. It is always present in
conversations, humors, and conflicts; and there is a need to explain
everything from different views. Gender is embedded in institutions,
actions, beliefs, and desires that it appears to be completely common
and natural. Gender is not something an individual is born with and
not something people have, but something people do (West and
Zimmerman, 1987) and something people perform (Butler, 1990).
Understanding the truth behind these gender views is one of the
tasks of academic experts.
Eveline & Bacchi (2006) suggest that gender mainstreaming
models should incorporate views of gender. Practices on
fundamental beliefs about gender should be viewed from a new
viewpoint. As mentioned by Chow (2003), study of gender aimed at
promoting transformative research in studying social change
associated with the process of globalization.
Firstly, gender refers to the tasks and roles of men and
women that are shaped in the family, society and culture (UNESCO,
2004). According to Ginet (2011), gender is experienced in practices
along varied cultures and principles as reflected beyond genetic
organization. It discloses women’s relegation or men’s authority in
society. Such relegation can be reformed because gender is not
biologically identified (UNESCO, 2004).
Secondly, gender mainstreaming is one of the major
strategies in teaching and informing various divisions of the society
on the need to identify and respect rights of women and men. As
mentioned by Gurung (2008), the Commission on the Status of
Women (CSW) in March 2003, a resolution was adopted concerning
the mainstreaming of a gender perspective into all policies and
programs of the United Nations System. Research has shown that
investments in education facilitate the achievement of most other
development goals including sustainable growth (USAID, 2005).
In the Philippines, strategies on gender mainstreaming seek
to introduce and institutionalize gender equality and gender
responsiveness and sensitivity in the various aspects of Philippine
higher education. The guidelines shall apply to Commission on Higher
Education (CHED), both Central and Regional Offices, and to all HEIs,
private and public. In terms of scope, the guidelines include enabling
mechanisms that CHED and HEIs shall establish, such as the GAD
Focal Point System or GFPS (CMO no. 01, series 2015), and the
integration of the principles of gender equality in the different
functions of higher education (Gender Action, 2009). This principle of
equality between men and women is protected in the Philippine
Constitution (1987 Philippine Constitution, Article II, Section 14). The
Women in Development and Nation Building Act or Republic Act
No.7192, enacted in 1992, reiterates this principle of gender equality
and directs all government departments and agencies to “review and
revise all their regulations to remove gender bias therein.” (Section
2). Additionally, the Magna Carta of Women (MCW) or Republic Act
No.9710, is the local translation of the provisions of the Convention
on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW), particularly in defining gender discrimination, state
obligations, substantive equality, and temporary special measures.
Relatedly, member countries of the United Nations
implemented the universal charter of the 2030 agenda for
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to include economic, social
and environment scopes. Goal 5 is gender equality of Gender and
Development (GAD) program with a series of gender advocacies
(Esquivel & Sweetman, 2016). These expand progress and
productivity outcomes in the society and deliver women
representatives in decision making (The World Bank, 2012).
According to Moser, & Moser, (2010, to achieve gender equality,
gender mainstreaming should be prioritized as the mechanism. It is
a strategy to promote gender equality, which has received
considerable attention worldwide (Caglar, 2013).
It is at this perspective that Quirino State University (QSU), a
six-year old university, is trying to establish gender-responsive
activities through participation in GAD programs/activities as
mandated by CHED and PCW. As a young university, the institution is
very committed in the realization of its vision and mission through
the implementation of gender-responsive activities in the mandated
functions.
Based from a study conducted at Quirino State University,
Aspiras et al. (2017), one of the important factors to consider in
engendering instruction is faculty gender-sensitive motivation and
attitude. The point is, GAD culture in any academic institution needs
to be established which could eventually motivate the faculty
members to plan and implement gender-responsive activities in their
mandated functions. The result of this study is definitely a basis of
proposing a unified GAD program of Quirino State University.
Therefore, it is on these premises that the present study was
conceptualized.
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to determine the extent of implementation of
Gender and Development (GAD) activities at Quirino State University.
More specifically, the study aimed to address the following
questions:
1. What is the campus profile of the university according to the
following:
1.1. GAD Focal Point System (GFPS),
1.2. GAD Resource Center/Infrastructure,
1.3. GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs (StuFAPs),
1.4. GAD Planning and Budgeting,
1.5. GAD Database, and
1.6. GAD Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women
Empowerment?
2. What is the profile of the participants according to the following:
2.1. Faculty
2.1.1. Gender,
2.1.2. Age,
2.1.3. Civil Status,
2.1.4. Plantilla Position,
2.1.5. Administrative Designation,
2.1.6. Educational Qualification, and
2.1.7. Years in the Services?
2.2. Administrative staff
2.2.1. Gender,
2.2.2. Age,
2.2.3. Civil Status,
2.2.4. Plantilla Position,
2.2.5. Educational Qualification, and
2.2.6. Years in the Services?
2.3. Students
2.3.1. Gender,
2.3.2. Age,
2.3.3. Civil Status,
2.3.4. Course, and
2.3.5. Year Level?
3. What is the extent of implementation of GAD activities of the
three campuses with respect to its mandated functions:
3.1. Instruction,
3.2. Research,
3.3. Extension, and
3.4. Auxiliary and Enterprise Development?
4. Is there significant difference on the assessment of the three
groups of participants on the extent of implementation of GAD
activities in their respective campuses along the GAD mandated
functions?
5. What are the best practices of the university in integrating GAD
policies and guidelines in their defined functions?
6. What are the hindering factors in the implementation of GAD
activities as experienced by the participants along the four-fold
functions of the university?
7. What are the participants’ suggested plan of actions in the
implementation of GAD activities in the university?
8. What unified GAD program can be proposed for Quirino State
University?
Research Design
METHODOLOGY
This study used a mixed-method employing both
quantitative and qualitative approaches to collect and analyze the
data. Thus, the study used the descriptive survey design.
Participants of the Study
The participants of this study are composed of faculty,
administrative staff and students of the three campuses of QSU.
Instrumentation
Checklist. This is the list of information contained in the first
part of the questionnaire specifically the profile of the participants.
Documentary Data. A validation of data through cross
verification was undertaken in this study. Thus, the profile of the
faculty and administrative staff were verified using the documents
from the Human Resource Department.
Semi-structured Questionnaire. The questionnaire consists
of structured items describing the campuses’ and participants’
profile; and the extent to which gender-responsive activities are
implemented.
Interview Guide. This is a list of guide questions used during
the face to face interview with the participants to elicit information.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide. The participants were
selected from the different groups consisting of selected faculty,
administrative staff, and students. The discussions were recorded
which were used in the affirmation of the data stipulated in the filledup
questionnaire by the participants.
Data Gathering Procedure
Several steps were followed in the conduct of the study.
Thus, Ethics Review Committee protocol was undertaken. The
researcher secured permission from the university president; got the
list of participants; coordinated with the deans/program chairs
regarding the participation of their faculty and students; conducted
documentary analysis basing from the checklist, survey
questionnaire, interview, and FGD; and lastly, the data gathered
were consolidated, analyzed, and interpreted.
Data Analysis
The following are the data analysis tools used in the analysis
of data:
Scale ratings. This was used to present the data on the
campus profile.
Rating
Descriptive Value
1 not present
2 present
3 present and fully functioning
4 present and efficiently functioning
Frequency count and percentage. This was used in the
tabulation of the campus and participants’ profile.
Mean. This was used to present data on the extent of
implementation of GAD activities of the university.
To interpret the means, the given scale was used:
Score Range
Descriptive Interpretation
3.25-4.00 Very great extent
2.50-3.24 Great extent
1.75-2.49 Moderate extent
1.00-1.74 Little extent
T-test for Independent Samples / Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA). This was used to determine whether a significant
difference exists on the implementation of GAD.
Thematic Analysis and Narrative Analysis. This was used to
analyze interview responses as well as the participants’ responses in
the conduct of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Profile of the Three Campuses of the University
1.1 GAD Focal Point System
In the three campuses, it shows that there is an
organizational structure of the GFPS of the university and it reveals
that they are all efficiently functioning. The GAD focal person of
Campus B has a designation as director and functions efficiently while
the GAD focal person of Campus A and Campus C do not have
designation as dean/program chair or director but as coordinators
instead.
As such, based from PCW MC 2011-01, the GFPS is a
mechanism established to ensure, guide, coordinate, and monitor
the development, implementation, review and updating GAD plans
and GAD-related programs, activities and projects (CMO, no. 1, series
2015).
1.2 GAD Resource Center / Infrastructure
It shows that there is a separate GAD Office in Campus B and
Campus C that is efficiently functioning and a fully functioning GAD
Office in Campus A. Further, there is breastfeeding area per college,
campus women’s information desk and mini library / reading area per
college that are fully functioning in the three campuses.
Indeed, it is important to recognize the importance of these
infrastructures in the transmission of GAD information and services
delivery. These provisions are mandates in the Magna Carta of
Women (MCW) or Republic Act No. 9710 particularly in defining
gender discrimination, state obligations, substantive equality and
special measures.
1.3 GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs StuFAPs) of the Three
Campuses
In Campus A and C, it shows that most of the beneficiaries
avail the Congressional Financial Assistance; and in Campus B, most
of the beneficiaries avail of the Student Grant.
This financial assistance is a grant from the provincial
government which provides financial help and support to poor but
deserving students.
1.4 GAD Plan and Budget (GPB) of the Three Campuses
The data show that 2,085,146.00 or 29.61 percent of Campus
A; 915,441.00 or 39.26 percent of Campus B; and 531,370.00 or
26.48 percent of Campus C were utilized from the total budget
allocated of the previous year.
As stated in Section 1, Part XII of CMO No. 1, s.2015 that the
amount to be allocated for the implementation of GAD programs,
plans and activities is at least five percent (5%) of the institution’s
total annual budget appropriation.
1.5 GAD Sex-Disaggregated Data of the Three Campuses
In Campus A, the programs are categorized as to graduate
studies, undergraduate level and special students; in Campus B and
C, the programs are categorized as to baccalaureate degree and nondegree.
Further, in Campus A, there are 1,333 female and 802 male
students with a total of 2,135. In Campus B, there are 649 female and
591 male students with a total of 1,240. Further, in Campus C, there
are 231 female and 161 male students with a total of 392.
Thus, as a provision from Section 2, Part XIII of CMO, No. 01,
Series 2015, HEIs shall maintain and update a GAD database of
utmost information quality and integrity. This database shall be used
to inform the agency’s policy development, implementation and
monitoring functions; and its regulations of HEIs.
1.6 Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women Empowerment
In the three campuses, it indicates that each campus has
Committee on Decorum Investigation (CODI) and all the campuses
have seminars/forums on Sexual Harassment, Violence Against
Women and Children (VAWC), women’s empowerment, teenage
pregnancy, child abuse, and bullying that are efficiently functioning.
The provisions in the CMO governed the creation of the Committee
on Decorum and Investigation (CODI) in all public and private HEIs, to
include the procedures in the investigation of sexual harassment and
other related sexual offenses in HEIs, in compliance with the anti-
Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 7877), the Civil
Service Commission (CSC) Memorandum Circular No. 17,
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) Administrative Order
No. 250, The Anti-Rape Law of 1997 (Republic Act No. 8353) and the
Rape Victim Assistance Law of 1998 (Republic Act No. 8505). The said
procedures shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence but by
those governing administrative cases.
2. Profile of the Participants
2.1 Faculty
2.1.1 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Gender
In Campus A, there are 30 or 30.90 percent males and 67 or
66.70 percent females. Also, in Campus B, there are 16 or 32 percent
males and 34 or 68 percent females and in Campus C there are 9 or
33.30 percent males and 18 or 66.70 percent females.
2.1.2 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Age
In Campus A, most of the participants belong to age bracket
26-30; in Campus B, most of them are in the age bracket 20-25; and
in Campus C, most of them are in the age bracket 26-30.Generally,
most of the participants are in the age bracket 20-30 which indicates
that they are relatively young.
2.1.3 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Civil Status
In Campus A, there are 30 or 30.90 percent who are single
and 67 or 69.10 percent who are married. In Campus B, 19 or 38
percent are single and 31 or 62 percent are married. In addition,
Campus C has 5 or 18.50 percent who are single and 22 or 81.50
percent are married.
2.1.4 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Plantilla
Position
In Campus A, B, and C, most of the participants are Instructor
1 with a frequency of 60 or 61.90 percent, 21 or 42 percent, and 10
or 37 percent, respectively.
2.1.5 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Administrative
Designation
In Campus A,B, and C most of them have no administrative
designation with a frequency of 76 or 78.40 percent, 42 or 84
percent, and 16 or 59.30 percent, respectively.
2.1.6 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Educational
Qualification
In Campus A, most of the participants have taken master’s
units with a frequency of 42 or 43.30 percent; in Campus B, most of
them have master’s units with a frequency of 22 or 44 percent; and
in Campus C, most of them have master’s degree with a frequency of
9 or 33.30 percent.
2.1.7 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Years of Service
In Campus A and B, majority of the participants stayed in the
service for 1-5 years with a frequency of 80 or 82.50 percent and 31
or 62 percent, respectively; and in Campus C, most of them worked
for 6-10 years with a frequency of 9 or 33.30 percent.
2.2.Administrative Staff
2.2.1 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Gender
In Campus A, there are 14 or 43.80 percent male and 18 or
56.30 percent female; in Campus B, there are 7 or 23.30 percent male
and 23 or 76.70 percent female; and in Campus C, there are 9 or 60
percent male and 6 or 40 percent female.
2.2.2 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Age
In Campus A and C, most of the participants belong to age
bracket 46-50 with a frequency of 13 or 40.60 percent and 7 or 46.70
percent, respectively; in Campus B, most of them are in the age
bracket 20-25 or 5 or 16.70 percent.
2.2.3 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Civil Status
In Campus A, there are 5 or 15.60 percent who are single and
27 or 84.40 percent who are married; in Campus B, 5 or 16.70 percent
are single and 25 or 83.30 percent are married; and in Campus C
there is 1 or 6.70 percent single participant and 14 or 93.30 percent
are married.
2.2.4 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Plantilla Position
In Campus A, most of the participants are Administrative
Assistant with a frequency of 11 or 34.40 percent; in Campus B and
C, most of them are Administrative Aide with frequencies of 14 or
46.70 percent and 6 or 40 percent, respectively.
2.2.5 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Educational Qualification
In Campus A and C, most of the participants have taken
Master’s Units with frequencies of 14 or 43.80 percent and 5 or 33.30
percent, respectively; and in Campus B, most of the participants
have bachelor’s degree with a frequency of 19 or 63.30 percent.
2.2.6 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to
Years of Service
In Campus A and B , most of the participants stayed in the
service for 1-5 years with frequencies of 11 or 34.40 percent and 9 or
30 percent, respectively; and in Campus C there are 5 or 33.30
percent who worked for 11-15 years. In general, most of the
administrative staff participants in Campus A and B have been serving
the institution for at least 5 years while for Campus C most of them
are in the service for at least 15 years.
2.3 Students
2.3.1 Distribution of Student Participants According to gender
In Campus A, there are 73 or 35.10 percent males and 134 or
64.40 percent females; in Campus B, there are 82 or 43.40 percent
males and 107 or 56.60 percent females and in Campus C there are
27 or 50 percent males and females, respectively.
2.3.2 Distribution of Student Participants According to Age
In Campus A, B, and C, majority of the participants belong to
age bracket 20-22 with frequencies of 151 or 72.60 percent, 161 or
85.20 percent, and 37 or 68.50 percent, respectively.
2.3.3.Distribution of Student Participants According to Civil Status
In Campus A, there are 200 or 96.20 percent who are single
and 8 or 3.80 percent are married; in Campus B, 179 or 94.70 percent
are single and 10 or 5.30 percent are married; and Campus C has 38
or 70.40 percent single and 16 or 29.60 percent married.
2.3.4 Distribution of Student Participants According to Course
In Campus A, most of the student participants are taking
Bachelor of Science in Criminology (BSCrim) with a frequency of 40 or
19.20 percent; in Campus B, most of them are enrolled in Bachelor of
Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE) with frequency of 40 or 21.20
percent; and in in Campus C, majority of them are enrolled in
Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSE)with a frequency of 30 or
55.60 percent.
2.3.5 Distribution of Student Participants According to Year Level
In Campus A, and B, majority of the participants are 4th year
students with frequencies of 152 or 73.10 percent, and 157 or 83.10
percent, respectively; in Campus C, only 9 or 16.70 percent are 4th
year students.
3. Extent of implementation of GAD Activities of the Three
Campuses with Respect to Instruction, Research, Extension, and
Auxiliary and Enterprise Development.
In Campus A, it indicates that faculty and studentparticipants
assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities
in all areas to a “great extent” showing category means of 2.83 and
2.75, respectively. The administrative staff participants assessed the
extent of implementation to a moderate extent showing a category
mean of 2.38. The general means in all areas reflect that the three
groups of participants assessed the extent of implementation to a
great extent except for Auxiliary and Enterprise Development
Services which was implemented to a moderate extent. Thus, the
overall mean reflects that the GAD activities in all areas were
implemented to a great extent.
In Campus B, it indicates that faculty and administrative staff
participants assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities
in all areas to a “great extent” showing category means of 2.93 and
2.73, respectively. Moreover, the student participants assessed the
extent of implementation to a great extent except for Auxiliary and
Enterprise Development Services which was implemented to a
moderate extent and showing a category mean of 2.68. The general
means in all areas reflect that the three groups of participants
assessed the extent of implementation to a great extent. Thus, the
overall mean reflects that the GAD activities in all areas were
implemented to a great extent.
In Campus C, it indicates that faculty participants assessed
the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all areas to a great
extent except in Auxiliary and Enterprise Development Services
which was implemented to a moderate extent and showing a
category means of 2.76. The administrative staff and studentparticipants
assessed the extent of implementation to a “great
extent” showing category mean of 2.77 and 2.96, respectively. The
general means in all areas reflect that the three groups of participants
assessed the extent of implementation to a great extent. Thus, the
overall mean reflects that the GAD activities in all areas were
implemented to a great extent.
4. Significant Difference on the Assessment of the Three Groups of
Participants on the Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities
in Their Respective Campuses along the GAD Mandated
Functions.
In Campus A, data show that along Instruction, Research,
Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development, the F-values
are 14.20, 6.86, 12.52, and 9.12, respectively with all P-values of 0.00.
It shows that there is a significant difference on the assessment of
the three groups of participants on the extent of implementation of
GAD activities in all areas in Campus A.
Generally, it implies that faculty participants of Campus A
assessed the GAD activities along instruction, research, and
extension higher than the other groups of participants. In the area of
auxiliary and enterprise development, the student-participants have
higher assessment than the other groups. It implies that
administrative staff-participants generally assessed the extent of
implementation of GAD activities in all the areas lower than the
faculty and student-participants.
In Campus B, data show that along Instruction, Research,
Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development (AED) , the F-
values are 17.04, 4.69, 8.66, and 2.96 with P-values of 0.00, 0.01,
0.00, and 0.06, respectively. It reflects that there is a significant
difference on the assessment of the three groups of participants on
the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all areas except in
AED.
Thus, the result implies that faculty participants of Campus B
assessed the GAD activities along instruction, research, and
extension higher than the other groups of participants.
It implies that administrative staff-participants generally
assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities for
instruction and research lower than the faculty and studentparticipants.
On the other hand, along extension area, studentparticipants
generally have lower assessment in the implementation
than the faculty and administrative staff-participants.
In Campus C, data show that along Instruction, Research,
Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development (AED), the F-
values are 1.52, 4.90, 0.69, and 0.68 with P-values of 0.22, 0.01, 0.50,
and 0.51, respectively. It reflects that there is a significant difference
on the assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent
of implementation of GAD activities for research. Further, the table
reveals that in other areas, assessment of the participants do not
differ.
Thus, it shows that student participants of Campus C
assessed the GAD activities along research higher than the other
groups of participants. Along research area, the data show that
faculty group’s assessment is significantly different with the student
group’s assessment in the extent of implementation of GAD
activities. It implies that faculty participants generally assessed the
extent of implementation of GAD activities for research lower than
the student participants.
5. Best Practices of the University in Integrating GAD Policies and
Guidelines in Their Defined Functions.
The general themes that were identified are reflected in the
table below.
Instruction
Themes
Campus
A
Campus
B
Campus
C
F % F % F %
Theme #1. Practices of neutral gender teaching
Theme #2. Usage of gender sensitive and fair
3
3
15.00
15.00
5
5
25.00
25.00
2
4
10.00
20.00
language
Theme #3. Elimination of examples on gender 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
stereotyping
Theme #4. Revision of syllabi integrating gender 2 10.00 1 5.00 2 10.00
Theme #5. Conduct and promote gender related 4 20.00 5 25.00 2 10.00
activities for students
Theme #6. Avoidance of gender discrimination 1 5.00 1 5.00 2 10.00
Research
Theme #1.Collaboration of faculty-student in
conducting gender related research
Theme #2. Motivation to conduct gender -
related research
Theme #3. Attendance to trainings/ seminars on
gender related research
Extension
Theme #1. Integration of awareness on gender in
extension activities
Theme #2. Empowerment for women to
participate in extension activities
Theme #3. Facilitation of gender-responsive
extension activities
Auxiliary and Enterprise Development
Theme #1. Empowerment for students to do
entrepreneurial activities
Theme #2. Assistance to students in identifying
sellable products
(Note: Twenty interviewees per campus)
2 10.00 1 5.00 -
5 25.00 6 30.00 2 10.00
1 5.00 1 5.00 -
1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00
1 5.00 4 20.00 1 5.00
3 15.00 2 10.00 2 10.00
2 10.00 3 15.00 1 5.00
1 5.00 4 20.00 1 5.00
6. Hindering Factors in the Implementation of GAD Activities as
Experienced by the Participants along the Four Fold Functions of
the University.
table.
The general themes that were identified are reflected in the
Instruction
Themes
Campus
A
Campus
B
Campus
C
F % F % F %
Theme #1. Limited gender-related 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
seminars/trainings
Theme #2. Low level of gender awareness 3 15.00 2 10.00 1 5.00
Theme #3. Limited gender - related activities for 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
students
Theme #4. Insufficient instructional materials 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
on gender
Theme #5. Lack of funds for gender related 1 5.00 2 10.00 2 10.00
activities
Research
Theme #1. Less passion on gender related 2 10.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
research
Theme #2. Limited time allotted for research 3 15.00 3 15.00 2 10.00
Theme #3. Limited seminars on gender related 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
researches
Extension
Theme #1. Less participation in extension 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
activities
Theme #2. Lack of funds to sustain extended 2 10.00 2 10.00 2 10.00
services
Theme #3. Practices of stereotyping in rural 1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00
communities
Auxiliary and Enterprise development
Theme #1 Lack of resource and financial support 1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00
Theme #2. Non-sustainability of 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
entrepreneurial activities
(Note: Twenty interviewees per campus)
7. Participants’ Suggested Plan of Actions in the Implementation of
GAD Activities in the University
Themes Campus A Campus
B
Campus
C
F % F % F %
Theme #1. More gender related 1 5.00 1 5.00 - -
seminars/trainings in the mandated functions
Theme #2. Increase level of gender awareness 2 - -
Theme #3. Conduct of consistent gender related 2 2 1 5.00
activities
Theme #4. Provision of instructional materials - 1 5.00 1 5.00
on gender and other infrastructure
Theme #5. Implementation of GAD program 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00
(Note: Twenty interviewees per campus)
8. Proposed unified GAD program for Quirino State University
Rationale
The objective of any institution can be achieved through a
comprehensive program and activities aligned with its vision and
mission. Based on the result of the present study, it shows the
strengths and weaknesses in the implementation of GAD activities in
the different functions of the university. Thus, as the proponent of
the study, the researcher assumed and recommended the QSU
unified GAD program to be initiated to instill to all stakeholders the
perspectives of gender.
Moreover, the proposed GAD program coincides with the
CHED Memorandum Order No. 1, s. 2015, required by the Philippine
Commission on Women (PCW) and the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED). Further, this program presents those areas which
need to be addressed for a priority concern.
Hence, executing the proposed unified program will be the
responsibility of the three GAD Focal Persons in the three campuses
in coordination with other related offices of the university.
Further, the main objective of the program is to establish and
implement gender-responsive activities stipulated in this program by
the university. Thus, undertakings in the proposed program is
expected to be implemented for the purpose of creating a more
effective way of developing gender-responsive culture in the
university.
Performance
Indicator
Responsible Office
Year round Number of
activities where
Allocated
salary of
1. Usage of gender fair
term/language
To integrate
gender sensitive
Limited approach
in the integration
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of Instruction
Office
gender fair term/
language is being
personnel
during the
during class
discussion
and fair
language and
of gender sensitive
and fair language.
3. Extension
• Research Office
• Extension Office
integrated.
activity.
2. Usage of gender fair
term/language in
core messages
in the mandated
• Administration
the
conceptualization of
functions of the
university.
research papers
3. Usage of gender fair
term/language
during conduct of
extension activities
1. Conduct of
Number of
conducted
1. 1 st semester
2. 1 st semester
Attribution
of 5% of the
To mainstream
gender in all
Lack of gender
mainstreaming.
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of Instruction
Office
Gender
Sensitivity
activities
3. Year round
4. Year round
total budget
of the
functions of the
university.
3. Extension
4. Auxiliary and
• Research Office
• Extension Office
Training (GST) to
students
university in
all areas.
Enterprise
Development
• Auxiliary and
Enterprise
2. Conduct of
gender- related
Development Office
• Administration
capacity building
along research
3. Conduct of
gender analysis in
the communities
4. Identification of
gender-related
income generating
projects
Distribution of GAD
Number of
instructional
Start of every
semester
P200,000.00
as reflected
To provide
additional
1. Instruction Limited genderresponsive
• Dean of
Instruction Office
instructional materials
like flyers, booklets,
materials
distributed.
in the PPMP
of the three
genderresponsive
instructional
materials.
• Administration
video presentations etc.
campuses.
instructional
materials.
Year round Number of GAD
forums conducted.
Allotted
P50,000.00
To increase
awareness
Low awareness on
gender issues and
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of
Instruction Office
• Conduct of
gender related
per activity
in the three
among students
and faculty and
concerns.
3. Extension
4. Auxiliary and
forum in all areas
(MCW).
• Research Office
• Extension Office
campuses.
staff on all
gender
Enterprise
Development
• Gender sensitivity
• Sexual
• Auxiliary and
Enterprise
concerns and
issues.
Harassment
• Teen-age
Development
Office
pregnancy
• Bullying campaign
• Administration
• Reproductive Health
and other concerns
Number of Social
Research
At least
P5,000.00
Conduct of social
researches on GAD in all
To raise number
of gender
1. Research Limited gender
related research.
• Research Office
• Extension Office
conducted.
per
approved
colleges of the
university.
related
researches.
• Administration
research
proposal
depending
on the
GAD Area Gender Issue GAD Objectives GAD Activity Budget Time Frame
Start of 1 st
semester
in the three
campuses.
and faculty and
staff on all
4. Auxiliary and
Enterprise
(MCW).
• Gender sensitivity
• Extension Office
• Auxiliary and
gender
concerns and
Development
• Sexual
Harassment
Enterprise
Development
issues.
Office
• Administration
• Teen-age
pregnancy
• Bullying campaign
• Reproductive Health
and other concerns
Conduct of social
Number of Social
Research
At least
P5,000.00
To raise number
of gender
1. Research Limited gender
related research.
• Research Office
• Extension Office
researches on GAD in all
colleges of the
conducted.
per
approved
related
researches.
• Administration
university.
research
proposal
depending
on the
nature of
study.
Number of policies
revised and
Start of first
semester
Allocated
salary of
Review and revise
existing faculty and
To establish
gender related
Need to integrate
gender related
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of
Instruction Office
integrated in the
manuals.
personnel
during the
student manual to be
presented and for
policies in the
faculty and
policies in the
student and faculty
3. Extension
1. Auxiliary and
• Research Office
• Extension Office
activity.
approval by the Board
of Regents.
student
manuals.
manual.
Enterprise
Development
• Administration
Number of
trainings/seminars
Dates depend
on the
P 2,000.00
registration
Continuing
trainings/seminars on
To capacitate
GFPS to lead
Limited capacities
of Gender Focal
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of
Instruction Office
attended per year.
training/seminar
invitation.
and P800.00
travel
GAD.
gender
mainstreaming
Point System
(GFPS) to advance
3. Extension
4. Auxiliary and
• Research Office
• Extension Office
expense per
day.
activities of the
university.
gender
mainstreaming
Enterprise
Development
• Administration
Number of
Additional comfort
Start of first
semester
Attribution
of 5% of the
Construction of
additional comfort
To construct/
repair comfort
1. Administration Limited number of
comfort rooms for
• Administration
rooms; Repair of
old comfort rooms.
total budget
of the
rooms and repair of
existing ones.
rooms in the
different
increasing
enrolees/students
university.
colleges.
in the university
and for
LGBTs/PWDs.
Low awareness on
Number of
seminars
Dates depend
on the seminar
P 2,000.00
registration
Attendance to seminar
on GAD budget
To attend
seminar on GAD
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Dean of
Instruction Office
budget attribution
attended.
invitation.
and P800.00
travel
attribution.
planning and
budgeting
3. Extension
4. Auxiliary and
• Research Office
• Extension Office
expense per
day.
Enterprise
Development
• Administration
Number of GAD
Office staff
Start of first
semester.
P550.00 per
day (subject
Designation for GAD
staff.
To designate
one permanent
No permanent GAD
Office staff
1. Instruction
2. Research
• Administration
to
3. Extension
Start of 1 st
semester
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Findings
1. Campus profile of the university
1.1 GAD Focal Point System (GFPS)
The university has an organizational structure of the GFPS
and it reveals that they are all efficiently functioning.
1.2 GAD Resource center/infrastructure
In Campus B and Campus C, there is a separate GAD Office
that is efficiently functioning and a fully functioning GAD Office in
Campus A.
1.3 GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs (StuFAPs)
Most of the beneficiaries availed the Congressional Financial
Assistance and Student Grant of the university.
1.4 GAD Planning and Budgeting
The data show that the university utilized the allocated GAD
budget.
1.5 GAD sex-disaggregated database
The result shows that there are more female than male
students in the three campuses.
1.6 GAD Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women
Empowerment
The university has Committee on Decorum Investigation
(CODI) which is efficiently functioning.
2. Profile of the participants
2.1 Faculty
2.1.1 Gender
In all the campuses, majority of the faculty-participants are
female.
2.1.2 Age
Faculty participants of Campus A and B belong to age range
20-30 and in Campus C, there is almost equal frequency of their ages.
2.1.3 Civil Status
In all the campuses, majority of the faculty participants are
married.
2.1.4 Plantilla Position
In all the campuses, most of the participants are Instructor 1.
2.1.5 Administrative Designation
Majority of the faculty participants in all the campuses are
full-time faculty and have no administrative designation.
2.1.6 Educational Qualification
Majority of the faculty participants in Campus A and B have
Master’s Units and in Campus C, majority have Master’s Degree.
2.1.7 Years in the Service
The data imply that most of the participants in the three
campuses have been serving as faculty for at most 10 years.
2.2 Administrative staff
2.2.1 Gender
2.2.2 Age
Most of the administrative staff-participants are female.
The administrative staff-participants of the three campuses
are within the age range 46-50.
2.2.3 Civil Status
In all the campuses, majority of the administrative staffparticipants
are married.
2.2.4 Plantilla Position
In all the campuses, most of the administrative staffparticipants
are under the general administration service.
2.2.5 Educational Qualification
Most of the administrative staff-participants in Campus A
and C enrolled or pursued their post graduate studies while most of
the administrative staff-participants of Campus B have bachelor’s
degree.
2.2.6 Years in the Service
In all the campuses, most of the administrative staffparticipants
are in the category of young group of employees in the
service.
2.3 Students
2.3.1 Gender
In Campus A and Campus B, majority of the participants are
female and an equal distribution among gender groups is reflected in
Campus C.
2.3.2 Age
The student-participants of the three campuses are within
the age range 20-22 as most of them are graduating students.
2.3.3 Civil Status
2.3.4 Course
Majority of the student-participants are single.
Most of the student-participants in Campus A are enrolled in
BSCrim, while in Campus B most of them are taking up BSCE and in
Campus C, most of the participants are taking up BSE.
2.3.5 Year Level
In all the campuses, majority of the student-participants are in their
fourth year.
3. Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities of the Three Campuses
with respect to its Mandated Functions
The extent of implementation of the GAD activities for
Instruction, Research, and Extension in all the campuses is at great
extent. However, along Auxiliary and Enterprise Development in
Campus A is at moderate extent while in Campus B and C, the
implementation is rated at great extent.
4. Significant Difference on the Assessment of the Three Groups of
Participants on the Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities in
their Respective Campuses along the GAD Mandated Functions
In Campus A, there is a significant difference on the
assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent of
implementation of GAD activities in all areas. In Campus B, there is a
significant difference on the assessment of the three groups of
participants on the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all
areas except AED. For Campus C, there is a significant difference on
the assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent of
implementation of GAD activities for Research.
5. Best Practices of the University in Integrating GAD Policies and
Guidelines in their Defined Functions
5.1 Instruction
5.1.1. Practices of neutral gender teaching;
5.1.2. Usage of gender sensitive and fair language;
5.1.3. Elimination of examples on gender stereotyping;
5.1.4. Revision of syllabi integrating gender;
5.1.5. Conduct and promote gender related activities for
students; and
5.1.6. Avoidance of gender discrimination.
5.2 Research
5.2.1. Collaboration of faculty-student in conducting genderrelated
research;
5.2.2. Motivation to conduct gender related research; and
5.2.3. Attendance to trainings/ seminars on gender related
research.
5.3 Extension
5.3.1. Integration of awareness on gender in extension activities;
5.3.2. Empowerment for women to participate in extension
activities; and
5.3.3. Facilitation of gender-responsive extension activities.
5.4 Auxiliary and Enterprise Development
5.4.1. Empowerment for students to do entrepreneurial
activities;
5.4.2. Assistance to students in identifying and sellable products;
and
5.4.3. Collaboration to develop products for profit.
6. Hindering Factors in the Implementation of GAD Activities as
Experienced by the Participants along the Four Fold Functions of
the University
6.1 Instruction
6.1.1. Limited gender related seminars/trainings;
6.1.2. Low level of gender awareness;
6.1.3. Limited gender related activities for students;
6.1.4. Insufficient instructional materials on gender; and
6.1.5. Lack of funds for gender related activities.
6.2 Research
6.2.1. Less passion on gender related research;
6.2.2. Limited time allotted for research; and
6.2.3. Limited seminars on gender related researches.
6.3 Extension
6.3.1. Less participation in extension activities;
6.3.2. Lack of funds to sustain extended services; and
6.3.3. Practices of stereotyping in rural communities.
6.4 Auxiliary and Enterprise Development
6.4.1. Lack of Resources and financial support
6.4.2. Non-sustainability of entrepreneurial activities
7. Participants’ Suggested Plan of Actions in the Implementation of
GAD Activities in the University
7.1. More gender related seminars/trainings in the mandated
functions;
7.2. Increase level of gender awareness;
7.3. Conduct of consistent gender related activities;
7.4. Provision of instructional materials on gender and other
infrastructure; and
7.5. Implementation of GAD program.
8. Unified GAD program for Quirino State University
A unified GAD program was conceptualized and proposed
based on the result of the present study. The main focus of the
program is to enhance the implementation of GAD activities in the
university.
CONCLUSION
This study focuses on the extent of implementation of GAD
activities along the four-fold functions of the university. The data
gathering process in the present study and the data on the extent of
implementation of the GAD activities have provided valuable
insights. The results also show existence and non-existence of some
of the aspects of the GFPS and GAD infrastructure. On the other
hand, profile of the participants reflects an impact in the extent of
implementation of GAD activities which shows significant differences
in their assessment. Further, best practices are reflected which
motivate some of the participants in implementing the activities. On
the other hand, some hindering factors affect their performance in
the implementation of GAD activities. Thus, these factors/problems
are considered as serious issues that the university must address.
Therefore, the university should consider mechanisms to
change the views of the participants towards the implementation of
GAD activities. Unified program emphasizing extensive
implementation of GAD activities could be of great help in realizing
the vision and mission of the institution towards the ambition to be
a “gender-responsive university”.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are grounded from the
results of the study.
1. It is recommended that GAD focal person should request for a
GAD Office staff in Campus A and C to assist in the
implementation of GAD activities.
2. The GAD focal person should request for the attendance of
middle to top management on GAD–related seminars more
specifically on GAD budget attribution.
3. The dean/program chair per college should initiate a request for
construction of comfort rooms for LGBTs/PWDs per college in the
three campuses.
4. The administration should support equal opportunity on
attendance to gender-related trainings/seminars of faculty and
staff in all areas to increase their level of gender awareness.
5. Educational qualification of faculty should be upgraded through
the approval of scholarship grants from the administration.
6. The GAD department should initiate gender mainstreaming in all
the defined functions of the university. Monitoring and
evaluation of such should be conducted by GAD executive
committee.
7. The dean/program chair in collaboration of the librarian should
request for the provision of additional gender-responsive
instructional materials to be used in the implementation of GAD
activities.
8. The GAD department should strongly initiate the implementation
of the proposed unified GAD program in the three campuses.
References
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of
identity. New York and London. Routledge.
CHED Memorandum Order No. 01, (2015). Establishing the policies
and guidelines on gender and development in the
commission on higher education and higher education
institutions (HEIs).CHED.
Chow, E. (2003). Gender matters: Studying globalization and social
change in the 21st century. Retrieved from:
https://doi.org/10.1177/02685809030183001
Commission on Higher Education Memorandum Circular No. 17, s.
2013. Qualification standards for faculty positions/ranks in
State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and Local Colleges and
Universities (LCUs).MOA CSC-CHED page 2.
Esquivel, V. & Sweetman, C. (2016). Gender And The Sustainable
Development
Goals.United
Nations.https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13
552074.2016.1153318
Eveline, J. & Bacchi, C. (2006). What Are We Mainstreaming When
We Mainstream Gender?. Pages 496-512.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14616740500284417
Ginet, S. ( 2011). Gender, sexuality and meaning. Oxford University
Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-518780-9; 978-0-19-518781-6.
Gurung, B. (2008). Assessing the gender mainstreaming strategy for
the project: promoting sustainable agriculture in Borno state
(PROSAB). Pp 28. ISBN 978-131- 330-7. IITA Carolyn House,
UK.
UNESCO. (2014). Improving measurement of gender equality in stem.
Stem and gender advancement. Gender and Sciences.
Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and
society, 1:125–151
DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE HEALTHY AGING PROGRAM FOR
ELDERLY WITH COGNITIVE DECLINE
Gracia Herni Pertiwi
Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing Science
ABSTRACT
Cognitive decline is a major health and social problem that occurs in an increasingly
aging population, worldwide. There is no program for the elderly to stimulate the
cognitive decline and routine to do every week. This study aims to develop and
evaluate the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP) for the elderly with cognitive decline.
HAP is a package of cognitive stimulation activities that is done every day. The HAP
activities consisted of three activities, namely: walking for 10 minutes, regular health
check, and cognitive stimulation activities. The implementation used several tools
and booklet. The tools were the cognitive questioners, Smart-watch, Digital
sphygmomanometer, and stopwatch/ watch. The validity- reliability with Cronbach's
Alpha is 0.835 and all items are valid. The study used the descriptive mixed method,
specifically the embedded design which begins with interview regarding issues and
problems among the elderly at the Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda and literature
syntheses to develop a HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP). Then, HAP was implemented
and evaluated through a quantitative study using the Quasi-Experimental approach,
adopting the nonequivalent control-group design. The qualitative data were
collected through self-reports regarding elderly issues and recommendations. The
research participants included (1) Participants who can speak, write and read well in
Bahasa Indonesia; (2) Those who can do calculation; (3) Participants should have no
respiratory complications.; (4) Participants with age ≥ 60 years old; (5) No limitation
for mobility or physical exercise; (8) Those who have a mild and moderate cognitive
decline level as measured by RUDAS; (6) Participants must be resident in Puskesmas
Pasundan Samarinda area.; (10) Participants who have a blood pressure below
150/90 mmHg at the time of initial assessment; and (11) Those who are willing to
participate in the study. Data analysis used a t-test. The salient results were the level
of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure (P-value 0.047) were
significantly decreased by the 6th week’s HAP; the heart rates were significantly
decreased (P-value 0.042); the steps have positively significant increase after 6-
weeks implemented (p-value <0.05); and there was significant increase in the
cognitive level (p-value <0.05). However, the respiratory rate was not significantly
decreased (P- value 0.0907). In conclusion, the implementation of HAP is an effective
program for the elderly who have cognitive decline. It is recommended that the
implementation of HAP activities in the elderly cadres in the Puskesmas area should
be continued to prevent rapid cognitive decline among the elderly.
Keywords: Development, evaluation, HEALTHY AGING Program, elderly, cognitive
decline.
INTRODUCTION
Global population of persons aged 60 years or more has increased
twice since 1980. The number of elderly people has grown twofold
worldwide until 2017, which is 382 million elderly to 962 million. The
number of older adults is expected to grow twofold again by 2050
and is projected to reach almost 2.1 billion. Older populations in
developing regions grow much faster than in developed regions
according to the United Nations (UN) (2017). As a result, developing
regions are home to a growing portion of the older population in the
world. Globally, the elderly population is predicted to continually
increase. Asia, in 2015, has entered the era of aging population
because the population of those aged 60 years and over (elderly
population) exceeded seven (7) per cent. A country is said to have an
old structure if it has an elderly population above seven (7) per cent
(Infodatin, 2017).
The aging process tends to reduce the physical condition,
wherein they will experience difficulties in carrying out daily activities
and lose their normal functions (Milanovic, et al., 2013). Aging causes
gradual changes in organisms, which cause loss of function,
weakness, disease, and death. One of the most feared aspects of
increasing age is cognitive decline. Cognitive decline or damage is a
major health and social problem that occurs in an increasingly aging
population, worldwide.
Cognitive changes related to aging vary greatly between
individuals. In the 7th decade of life, people commonly experienced
a decrease in processing speed and working memory (Deutchki,
2017). In some cases, cognitive problems worsen over time (Galvin &
Sadowsky, 2012; McPerson & Schoespoester, 2012 cited in Boustani,
et al., 2003).
The decline in mental function related to age is verbal,
numerical and general knowledge abilities. While other mental
abilities, such as aspects of memory, executive function, and
processing speed decline from middle age onwards or even earlier.
All mental abilities called “fluids” are very important for
doing daily activities, living independently and living a fulfilling life
(Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009 cited in Deary,
et al., 2009)
World Health Organization (WHO) 2018 stated that cognitive
decline occurs among people aged above 65 years. As a result, they
must do physical activity according to their conditions and abilities,
such as physical activities during their leisure time and transportation
(walking or cycling). William & Kemper (2010 cited in Pertiwi & Lorica,
2019) reported that “the highest activity level resulted in a 20% risk
reduction for cognitive decline”. Lack of physical activity influences
incidents of cognitive damage (Etgen, et al., 2010).
The proportion of the data on the physical activity of all ages
in East Kalimantan was 64.3% which is in the low category (Infodatin,
2015). The Physical activity is in the low category because of a lack
of knowledge about the benefits of physical activity, how much and
what type of physical activity should be done especially for the
elderly (Riskesdas, 2018).
An effective approach to help older people achieve health
and activity is very necessary. The Puskesmas Pasundan in Samarinda
is currently providing a Health Program for elderly activity. The
elderly Health program has activities for the elderly to experience
spiritual, social and health services in the form of promotive and
preventive efforts and treatment. The activities programs for the
elderly in Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda-East Kalimantan are a
routine elderly program. They are conducted once a month, including
elderly exercise, counseling about health and carrying out physical
activities. But it is necessary to improve the exercises every day, to
maintain a regular daily physical activity.
According to the researcher’s observation in Puskesmas
Pasundan Samarinda, the elderly have a routine activity every month,
such as an elderly gym and healthy examination activity once a
month. The elderly gym is done for 30 – 45 minutes. They also are
involved in other activities such as health promotion education. In
Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda provides a clinical health facility and
health staff (Doctors and nurses) to give health services for the
elderly, such as to check the elderly’s condition, give health
counseling and dispense medicine as their problem diseases.
All of the program activities in Puskesmas Pasundan
Samarinda is already done by the elderly, but these activities still
need improvement, because activities for the elderly need to
consider the conditions and abilities in following the gymnastic
movements. Also, the amount of physical exercise that the elderly
have done in one week is only for 30 to 45 minutes per month.
According to WHO (2019a), “older adults should do at least 150
minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout
the week or do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic
physical activity throughout the week or an equivalent combination
of moderate and vigorous-intensity activity to improve
cardiorespiratory and cognitive decline”. The researcher also
observed the activities type for preventing of elderly cognitive
decline in Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. There are stimulation
activities for the elderly, but the activity is not specific for cognitive
decline and are routinely done every week.
Nurses play an important role in increasing the activity
among the elderly by providing creative and fun physical training by
combining several activities at once in their home. This physical
training which involves cognitive stimulation and physical exercises
can delay cognitive decline.
The researcher, being a nurse, can facilitate the health
program for the elderly. Thus, this study seeks to improve the
physical activities of the elderly targets through the intervention and
implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program. It is packaged to
stimulate the cognition of the elderly through the improvement of
the physical activity and Individual Cognitive Stimulation for sixweeks
to decrease cognitive decline among the elderly.
Conceptual Framework
The concept of healthy aging was adopted and studied
throughout the world (Hansen-Kyle, 2005; Hung, 2010 cited in
Manasatchakun, et al., 2018). Thanakwang, et al. (2012 cited in
Manasatchakun, et al., 2018) believe that healthy aging is a complex
concept that involves many dimensions and is related to physical,
mental, and social. Literature also shows that healthy aging is
facilitated not only by the elderly themselves but also by the family
and culture (Hung, 2010; Bryant, et al., 2001 cited in Manasatchakun
et al., 2018). The term healthy aging is associated with satisfying old
age maintenance (Bartlett & Peel, 2005; Gardner, 2006 cited in Valer,
et al., 2015). Healthy aging requires the achievement of positive
health outcomes, maintaining well-being throughout one's life, and
preventing long-term health conditions (Hung, 2010; Bryant, et al.,
2001 cited in Manasatchakun, et al., 2018).
The concept of healthy aging is not only limited to being free
from disease, but it is considered as a process of adaptation to
changes that occur along with individual lives, which allow the elderly
to maintain their physical, mental and social well-being. Roy (2009
cited in Alligood, 2017) argues that the ability of the human system
to adapt positively to a change depends on the focal stimulus and
the level of individual adaptation.
Roy’s model describes individuals as bio-psycho-social beings
who interact continuously with environmental changes. He stressed
that the environment consists of all conditions and influences that
surround and influence the development behavior of one’s adaptive
system. In particular, the environment can be interpreted as internal
and external stimuli that influence the development and behavior of
an individual. Stimulation from the environment can be categorized
into focal, contextual, and residual categories. Roy contends that a
person’s response to environmental stimuli is channeled through
coping physiological mechanisms (Regulator and Cognators).
Regulatory subsystems are major coping processes that involve
neural, neuro, chemical, and endocrine systems. Stimuli from the
internal and external environment (or through sensing) are
channeled automatically in the form of appropriate and automatic
behavior, occurring without realizing it. While the cognator
subsystem is a coping process that involves four emotive cognitive
channels: perceptual and information processing, learning,
judgment, and emotion. Stimuli, inputs to adaptive systems, are seen
as various stressors that force the need for change. The behavior
identified at the output is an adaptive response, that is, a response
to increases in integrity in terms of the goals of the human system.
Whereas, the ineffective response is a response that does not
contribute to the integrity of the human system, if the response is
ineffective, the adaptation goal is threatened, which leads to a
negative response.
Adaptive responses are those that promote human system
integrity in terms of survival, growth, mastery, the transformation of
individuals and the environment. Stimulation, entering into an
adaptive system, is seen as a variety of stressors that force the need
for change. If the response is ineffective the goal of adaptation is
threatened, which leads to a negative response. Conversely, if the
response is effective then the adaptation goal leads to a positive
response.
HEALTHY AGING is a health promotion intervention for the
elderly who lives at Puskesmas to delay cognitive decline based on
Roy’s Model (2009 cited in Alligood, 2017). This model illustrates
various aspects of human attitudes that interact with the surrounding
environment so that the elderly remains healthy.
Paradigm of the Study
The elderly with mild and moderate cognitive decline need
help from nurses and health workers to help prevent and delay the
development of cognitive decline. The HEALTHY AGING program will
provide a series of activities that can increase the activities of the
elderly, not only physical but also social.
Figure 1
Paradigm of the Study
1) The input includes the collected information based on
needs of the elderly which includes the physical activity which can be
a risk factor for decreased cognitive function at the age of 55 and
above. Mild and moderate cognitive decline scores were determined
by the participants. The physiological parameters include BP, RR, &
HR has been gathered. Increasing Blood pressure was also
contributory to cognitive decline. Physical exercise was measured in
terms of the number of steps. These regular activities were
introduced to the two groups of participants 2) The process includes
the problems that occur in the elderly in Indonesia especially the
elderly who live at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. They were
identified from the needs assessment done. Later, this program was
implemented and evaluated by the researcher. 3) For the output, the
researcher developed a HEALTHY AGING Program that aims to delay
cognitive decline through stimulation activities, physical exercise,
and checking of health regularly. These activities were based on the
Indonesian Ministry of Health (2017) that states that chronic diseases
such as heart disease, stroke and diabetes, and lack of physical
activity are risk factors that can affect the decline in cognitive
function. The researcher developed an initial form of the HEALTHY
AGING Program according to the literature syntheses that related to
activities of cognitive stimulate for the elderly. The researcher
prepared guidelines and manuals which evaluated the feasibility of
supporting devices. The researchers modified the program from
Spector (2005) and Sipollo (2019) to align with of the elderly culture
or background, 4) outcomes in this part, the researcher conducted
field tests to determine the effectiveness of HEALTHY AGING. The
result of this test is an evaluation of the implementation of the
HEALTHY AGING Program. This program is expected to delay
cognitive decline in the elderly, to monitor the physiological
parameters such as blood pressure, respiratory rate, Heart Rate to
remain stable, and improve physical exercise by doing physical
exercise. The HEALTHY AGING program is designed and packaged to
prevent and delay the development of cognitive decline or improve
cognitive in the elderly.
Statement of the Problem
The study aimed to develop and evaluate the HEALTHY
AGING Program to decrease the development of cognitive decline
among the elderly in Samarinda.
Specifically, this study sought answers to the following
questions:
1. What are the identified program needs, issues/problems related
to cognitive decline among the elderly?
2. What cognitive stimulation program can be developed to
address the activity needs/issues and problems of the
participants?
3. What is the level of cognitive decline between the two groups of
participants before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?
4. Is there a significant difference in the level of cognitive decline
between the two groups of participants before the HEALTHY
AGING Program (HAP)?
5. What is the baseline data of the participants before the
intervention with respect to the following parameters:
5.1. Physiological parameters, such as:
5.1.1. Blood Pressure;
5.1.2. Heart Rate;
5.1.3. Respiratory Rate; and
5.2. Physical exercise
5.2.1. Steps?
6. Is there a significant difference in the baseline data of the two
groups before the HEALTHY AGING Program?
7. What is the level of cognitive decline among the two groups of
participants after the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?
8. Is there a significant difference in the level of cognitive decline
after the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?
9. What are the data of the two groups of participants after the
intervention with respect to the following parameters:
9.1. Physiological parameters, such as:
9.1.1. Pressure;
9.1.2. Heart Rate;
9.1.3. Respiratory Rate;
9.2. Physical exercise
9.2.1. Steps?
10. Is there a significant difference in the data of the parameters
after the HEALTHY AGING Program?
11. Is there a significant difference in the level of cognitive decline
before and after the intervention of the experimental groups?
12. What problems were encountered by the participants' in the
implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program?
13. What are the participants’ recommendations to further improve
the HEALTHY AGING Program?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been tested at 0.05 the level
of significance:
1. There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive decline
among the two groups of participants before the implementation
of the HEALTHY AGING program.
2. There is no significant difference in the baseline data of the two
groups of participants before the implementation of HEALTHY
AGING Program.
3. There is no significant difference in cognitive decline among the
two groups of participant after the implementation of the
HEALTHY AGING Program.
4. There is no significant difference in the data of the two groups of
participants after the implementation of HEALTHY AGING
Program.
5. There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive decline
of the experimental groups before and after the intervention.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design, the participants of
the study, the instruments and procedures of data collection, as well
as the statistical test used in analyzing and interpreting the collected
data.
Research Design
This study utilized embedded design as its focus on program
development. The researcher developed the program according to
Brown, Buboltz, & Soper (2006). The initial stage was to develop a
training program and then with a program evaluation. In this study,
the development of the HAP was done through the needs analysis
and the designing of the HAP. The evaluation was done through the
implementation of the program within 6-weeks, where the data were
collected before and after the six weeks implementation.
Literature syntheses and interviews have been done to
describe the needs of the elderly. It is through Literature
synthesis that the HEALTHY AGING program for the delay of cognitive
decline was developed. Second, the program has been implemented
and evaluated using the Quasi-Experimental approach adopting the
nonequivalent control-group design where it involved two groups.
One group received a pretest, experimental treatment, and posttest.
The second group received only pretest and posttest (Leavy, 2017).
The study utilized three instruments: RUDAS (Rowland Universal
Dementia Assessment Scale), “SmartWatch” which was used to
determine the HR and the number of steps, and digital
sphygmomanometer which was used to measure the BP and a watch
or stopwatch which was used to measure the RR. Qualitative data
have also been collected through self-reports regarding the elderly
issues and recommendations following the HEALTHY AGING Program
which has been implemented.
This study has been conducted among the elderly of
Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda City. It was performed for six
weeks from December 2019 to February 2020 excluding the
screening for cognitive decline among the elderly using RUDAS.
Participants of the Study
The researcher utilized purposive sampling. Participants
were not randomly selected since the design was quasiexperimental.
The elderly who experienced cognitive decline at mild
and moderate levels in the Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda has
been identified as study participants. The researcher had the
assessment of the participants in two groups-experimental and
control. The elderly have been screened using RUDAS. The inclusion
and exclusion criteria have been used. The inclusion criteria of the
participants specify the population characteristics that are eligible to
participate (Polit and Beck, 2012) in the study. The inclusion or
eligibility criteria for this study are as follows (1) Participants can
speak, write and read well in Bahasa Indonesia, (2)they can do the
calculation, (3) Participants should be at least a graduate of
elementary school, (4) they should have no respiratory
complications, (5) their age should be ≥60 years old, (6) they must
not have limitation for mobility or physical exercise, (7) they must
only have a mild and moderate cognitive decline level as measured
by RUDAS, (8) participants must be a resident of Puskesmas
Pasundan of Samarinda City, (9) participants should have a blood
pressure below 150/90 mmHg at the time of initial assessment, and
(10) they must be willing to participate in the study.
In the second stage, the following are the inclusion criteria:
1) sixty (60) elderly people who met the criteria have been divided
into the experimental group-thirty and control group-thirty, 2) the
first thirty names entered are classified as the experimental group,
the next thirty names were included in the control group 3) thirty
participants were divided into three groups so that each group has
ten elderly people (maintaining uniformity in the number of
participants in each group, for exercise and cognitive stimulation) in
the experimental group, 4) for the control group remaining, thirty
names of the elderly have been included in the control group. The
control group was not included in the HEALTHY AGING Program.
Participants did not need to be divided into subgroups. But they
continued with the regular activities at the Puskesmas.
Those who were categorized with severe cognitive decline,
moderate and severe hypertensive at the time of study were
excluded in the study as participants. The researcher considered the
total number of patients in the Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda
City for the past three months which is 60 elderly who have mild
hypertensive.
In this study, the total participants who have been included
in this study were sixty (60) elderly. Sixty (60) participants were
divided into thirty (30) participants as a control group, and thirty (30)
participants as an experimental group. The experimental group was
given a cognitive stimulation activity of twelve sessions. Each session
lasts for 20-40 minutes. Each session was conducted two times/
week.
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Elderly-Participants in
Terms of Gender
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 25 41.70
Female 35 58.30
Total 60 100.00
Table 3 shows the frequency and percentage distribution of
elderly-participants in terms of gender. The data reveal that they are
25 (41.7%) males and 35 (58%) females. The data implies that there
are more female than male participants
Table 2
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Elderly-Participants in
Terms of Education
Education Frequency Percentage (%)
Bachelor 4 6.80
Diploma 2 3.30
Elementary School 26 43.30
Junior High School 2 3.30
Senior High School 26 43.30
Total 60 100.00
Table 2 specifies the educational attainment of the
participants. The table shows that there are 26 or 43.30% with
elementary school and Senior High School, educational attainment, 4
or 6.80% received bachelor’s degree and 2 or 3.30% of the
participants have finished Junior High School and Diploma.
Table 3
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Elderly-Participants in
Terms of Age
Age Range Frequency Percentage (%)
60-74 48 80
75-90 12 20
Total 60 100%
Table 3 presents the frequency and percentage distribution
of elderly-participants in terms of age. The data are subdivided into
elderly (60-74 years) and old (75-90 years). The data reveal that the
ages for the elderly are 48 or 80% and old are 12 or 20%. The data
imply that there are more elderly than old participants.
Instrumentation
There were five (5) tools used in the study. The first tool used
was the literature matrix. The literature helped the researcher
identify the needs of the elderly concerning cognitive decline.
Likewise, it assisted the researcher in identifying specific activities for
the development of the program.
For both the needs analysis and program development the
literature matrix had five columns. This has reference, which includes
the author and year of publication, participants including sample, the
purpose of the study, method, and design that used and the result of
the study.
Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS).
This is a scale developed by Rowland, et al. (2004) to minimize the
effects of cultural learning and language diversity on the assessment
of a baseline cognitive performance (Limpawattana, et al., 2012).
The RUDAS tool was translated in Bahasa Indonesia by one
expert who has a health background and the other expert who has a
language background. There was no difference in meaning after two
of the RUDAS Indonesia Version were compared. The instrument has
been tested to 20 participants and it is valid (per item) and reliable
(all items), r table df = 20-2 is 0.444 because all r values are more than
0.444, the construct of each item is declared valid. The result of
Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.835. r table df = 20-2 is 0.444, because of the
Alpha > r table, the questionnaire was declared reliable because all
items were valid, the questionnaire is reliable.
Next, the instrument was retested. A valid and reliable
instrument was used as screening. The researcher trained the
implementer on how to use the RUDAS instrument. To measure the
ability of the implementer with the use of the RUDAS instrument, the
researcher used the observation procedure sheet. The researcher
has directly observed the implementer's ability in assessing the
cognitive level of the elderly by using RUDAS. If the implementers’
ability aligns with the RUDAS procedure, they were involved in the
screening with the researcher to determine cognitive decline among
the elderly at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda.
Physiological Instruments. These are smartwatches which
measured the steps for each day and the heart rate. The heart rate
and the number of steps taken were checked by the research
assistant before and after each activity.
A Digital Sphygmomanometer. It was used for blood pressure
measurement as described in the protocol.
Stop-watch or Watch. It was utilized to measure the time
with the number of respiration within one (1) full minute.
Data Gathering Procedures
Before data collection, approval was obtained from the St.
Paul University Philippines Dean. The development of the literature
review protocol for the needs of the elderly with cognitive decline
and the program to be designed was done and implemented. Then,
the Ethics Review Committee approval was sought and the issuance
of a certificate from the ERC Chair after which the researcher began
data collection from the participants.
The researcher developed the program according to Brown,
et al. (2006). The initial stage is to develop a training program and
then start with program evaluation. In this study, the researcher
developed HAP. The Development of the HEALTHY AGING Program
(HAP) consisted of the design and implementation of cognitive
stimulation activities that have been adopted and modified from a
book titled “Making a Difference” by Spector, et al. (2005). The
design focused on the needs analysis and program development. The
needs were identified by the researcher initially through literature
synthesis. Likewise, the researcher proceeded with the development
of the HEALTHY AGING Program through literature synthesis. Using
Spector, et al. (2005), the workable activities were searched from the
research database and were evaluated both by the researcher and
her adviser. The modifications were made by conducting previous
literature studies to determine cognitive stimulation activities
according to game culture in Indonesia, and the initial activities
combined with the exercise - walking for ten minutes.
HAP is a combination of several cognitive stimulation
activities that Spector's book (2003) referred about cognitive activity
therapy. This cognitive stimulation activity was modified by
incorporating a 10-minute walking activity into cognitive stimulation
activities and games that adapted to Indonesian cultures, such as
Dhakon Games.
After the research ethics committee’s approval, the
researcher proceeded with data collection. The necessary
administrative approval was facilitated through a letter that was
given to the Puskesmas. After this, the participants for the needs
analysis were contacted and informed consent was facilitated by the
researcher. The needs identification was validated by the researcher
through interviews of the nurses and elderly at the Puskesmas. After
the program was finalized, the community participants were
recruited for the implementation and evaluation of the program. The
program was evaluated using the Quasi-Experimental approach,
adopting the nonequivalent control-group design to determine the
effectiveness of the program in preventing cognitive decline among
the elderly.
First, the researcher translated the RUDAS English version
Instrument to Bahasa Indonesia by two different translators. Then
the two translated RUDAS Indonesia Version were compared. When
there was no difference in the meaning and translation, the
instrument was tested to 20 participants. The reliable instrument was
used as screening, to determine cognitive decline among the elderly
at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda.
Second, the researcher asked permission from the Head of
Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda to conduct research at Puskesmas
Pasundan of Samarinda City. After permission was given, the
researcher contacted the nurses and cadre who were involved in the
Puskesmas activity.
Third, the researcher had 1) recruited, and 2) contacted the
implementer for approval and training schedule. Upon agreement of
the implementers, the researcher trained the implementer for two
(2) days. This training was accomplished, so that the implementers
will better implement the interventions to be done, thus, they used
the same procedure in implementing the intervention.
Fourth, the researcher and implementers conducted
recruitment of the participants based on the RUDAS instrument. In
the first stage, they screened all of the elderly population at
Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. In the second stage, the
participants who have mild and moderate cognitive decline were
measured by a digital sphygmomanometer to determine their blood
pressure level. The participants who have blood pressure more than
150 mmHg systole and 90 mmHg diastole were not included. In the
third stage, the participants, who were screened according to the
inclusion criteria to determine the participants, can be involved in the
research experiment. In the fourth stage, informed consent was
facilitated by the researcher. The researcher explained to the
participants about the research objectives, risks, benefits, and
potentials. Assurance about the confidentiality and anonymity of the
information gathered were explained including the participant rights,
and finally, the participants were given a questionnaire so that vital
information about the participants could be extracted. The informed
consent form was given to the elderly who agreed to participate.
After the participants agreed, the implementers started the
intervention.
The fifth was the grouping of the participants into the
experimental and control group. This stage consists of a) sixty (60)
elderly people who met the criteria. They were divided into the
experimental group-thirty (30) and control group-thirty (30); b) thirty
(30) first names were classified as the experimental group. The next
thirty names were included in the control group; c) thirty participants
were divided into three groups so that each group has ten elderly
people (maintaining uniformity in the number of participants in each
group, for exercise and cognitive stimulation) in the experimental
group; and d) for the control group, the remaining thirty names of
the elderly were included in the control group. The control group did
not receive a HEALTHY AGING Program.
Participants did not need to be divided into subgroups. But
they continued with the regular activities at the Puskesmas. The
group consisted of thirty (30) participants each.
The intervention was conducted at one of the Puskesmas
Pasundan in Samarinda for six weeks. The intervention implemented
every day with a total of 20-40 minutes for each participant.
Interventions included cognitive stimulation activities and walking
exercise. The intervention group was given cognitive stimulation
activities of twelve sessions. Each session was conducted two times/
week. Activities were performed on a schedule upon agreement of
the researcher with participants. The activity time was adjusted
according to the participants’ free time so that it does not interfere
with his activities, which was mostly done in the morning/ afternoon
and evening. Participants were considered successful in program
activities if they participated in stimulating activities for twelve
sessions (20 minutes) and did walking exercise every day for ten
minutes. If the participants did not participate in all activities,
namely; cognitive stimulate activities for twelve sessions and exercise
walking for ten minutes (six-weeks), then, they were considered as
failed or dropped out. During the intervention, participants in the
control group did not take any action, except that they continued
with the regular activities at the Puskesmas.
Sixth, the researcher or implementers oriented the
participants on how to use the smart-watch. The smart- watch was
used by the participants before exercise. The participant wore the
smart-watch for ten (10) minutes every day during the exercise. The
implementers recorded the steps and heart rate before and after
exercise.
Seventh, the implementation of the HEALTHY AGING
Program, on the first day, before exercise and cognitive stimulation
were conducted. The researcher and implementers measured blood
pressure and respiratory rate, this assessment determined the
participation of the elderly in the walking exercises. Elderly people
who had blood pressure above 150/90 mmHg and breathing
frequency ≥ 26x / minute were not included in walking exercises.
Only the elderly who had blood pressure and respiratory rate in the
normal category were included in the walking exercises and whose
results were recorded in the daily examination book which includes
BP, RR, HR, and steps. Walking exercises were performed for ten
minutes for five consecutive days each week. During this
intervention, there was no participant who felt fatigued, dyspnea,
and tachycardia. The activities continued with the activities for group
cognitive stimulation that lasted for twenty (20) minutes. Cognitive
stimulation activities consisted of twelve sessions, and two
times/week elderly participants were stimulated with different
activities according to the objectives in each session. At the end of
the session, the elderly participants made a self-report, about their
feelings and experiences after attending a cognitive stimulation
session.
The eighth part is data collection in six weeks. The
implementers assessed the cognitive decline using RUDAS, to
measure BP, RR, Heart rate, and steps of the participants and
evaluate all sessions that were conducted by asking the elderly to
make a self-report on their daily activity book.
Ninth, the researcher determined the average value of each
RUDAS and Physiological Parameters. Finally, the researcher did
calculations, tabulation, analysis of the results of the data.
Data Analysis Tools
The following have been used for data analysis:
Total and Average Scores. These tools were used to measure
cognitive levels, walking exercise, blood pressure, heart rate,
respiratory rate. The following tables were used to interpret the
scores:
Table 4
Average Score and Qualitative Interpretation Using RUDAS (Moyle, et
al., 2017)
Score
Qualitative Interpretation
24-30 No cognitive impairment
18-23 mild impairment
10-17 Moderate impairment
0-9 Severe Impairment
Tabel 5
Average Steps and Qualitative Interpretations, (Tudor-Locke, et al.,
2011)
Score
Qualitative Interpretation
2000-9000 steps/day Healthy Older
1200-8800 steps/day Special Population Average
777-2215 steps/day Special populations elicit a
weighted increase and older
adults
Table 6
Average Steps and Qualitative Interpretations, (Sumner, et al., 2011;
Tudor-Locke, et al., 2011)
Score
Qualitative Interpretation
10-199 steps/10 minutes Incidental Stepping
200 – 399 steps/10 minutes Sporadic Stepping
>390 steps/10 minutes Purposeful Stepping
Table 7
Average Blood Pressure Scores and Qualitative interpretations based
on JNC-8 (Aging Care, 2019)
Blood Pressure
Category
Systolic
mmHg (Upper
Number)
Diastolic
mmHg (Lower
Number)
Normal Less than 120 and Less than 80
Elevated 120-129 and 80
High Blood Pressure 130-139 Or 81-89
(Hypertension) Stage 1
High Blood Pressure 140 or Higher Or 90 or Higher
(Hypertension) Stage 2
Hypertension Crisis Higher than and/ Higher than
(Consult your doctor 180 or 120
immediately)
Jnc-8 (Aging Care, 2019) “issued new hypertension guidelines in
2014 recommending that individuals over age 60 aim for reading
below 150/90 mmHg”. These are not hard and fast rules, though,
because each senior’s health needs are unique”.
Table 8
The Normal Heart Rate for Children Through Well-trained Athletes
(AHA, 2019a)
Age
Heartbeats Per
Minute
Children 10 YEARS and Older, Adults 60-100
(Including seniors)
Well-trained Athletes 40-60
Table 9
The Normal Heart Rate Score and Qualitative Interpretation (AHA,
2019a).
Score
Qualitative Interpretation
60-100 Normal
> 100 Tachycardia
< 60 Bradycardia
Table 10
The Normal Respiratory Rate for Newborn Through Older Adults
(Pearson Education, 2007)
Age
Respiratory Per Minute
Newborn 30-80
3-9 years 20-30
10-15 years 16-22
16-adult 15-20
Adult 12-20
Older adult 15-25
Table 11
The Normal Respiratory Rate Score and Qualitative Interpretation
(Pearson Education, 2007)
Score
Qualitative Interpretation
15 - 25 Normal
> 25 Tachypnea
< 15 Bradypnea
RESULTS
Summary of Findings
The following are the summary of the findings of the study:
1. The Identified Program Needs, Issues/ Problems Related to
Cognitive Decline Among Elderly
The issues, problems, and those that are needed to cognitive
decline are a) the prevalence of hypertension b) lack of regular
physical activities for the elderly, and c) POSYANDU activities are not
specific for cognitive decline.
2. Proposed Cognitive Stimulation Program to Address the Activity
Needs, Issues and Problems of The Participants
HEALTHY AGING Program was accomplished for six weeks to
provide cognitive stimulation for the elderly. The activities involved
were: a) stimulation group activities, consisting of 12 sessions which
were evaluated by RUDAS instrument; b) physical exercise, and
walking activities have been performed out every day for ten minutes
which were evaluated by smart-watch; and c) health checks including
BP, HR, RR and steps every day were measured using evaluation by
Digital Sphygmomanometer and Stopwatch/ watch.
3. The Level of Cognitive Decline in the Two Groups of Participants
Before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)
There is mild impairment of cognitive decline in the majority
of the experimental and control groups before the implementation
of HAP for elderly with cognitive decline.
4. Test for a Significant Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline
Between the Participants in the Experimental and Control Before
the Implementation of The HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)
There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive
decline between the participants in the experimental and control
groups before the implementation of the HAP.
5. The Level of Cognitive Decline in the Two Groups of Participants
Before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)
There is mild impairment of cognitive decline in the majority
of the experimental and control groups before the implementation
of HAP for elderly with cognitive decline.
6. Test for a Significant Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline
Between the Participants in the Experimental and Control Groups
Before the Implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program
(HAP)
There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive
decline between the participants in the experimental and control
groups before the implementation of the HAP.
7. The Baseline Data of the Participants Before the Intervention
Concerning the Following Parameters:
On the baseline data of physiological parameters, the
participants in both the experimental and control groups are in the
hypertension level for systolic blood pressure and are in normal level
in their diastolic blood pressure; have normal heart rate and
respiratory rate; have incidental stepping for steps both for
experimental and control groups before implementation of the HAP.
8. The Difference in the Baseline Data of the Two Groups Before the
HEALTHY AGING Program
There is no significant difference in the level of physiological
parameters for systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure,
heart rate, respiratory rate and steps between the participants in the
experimental and control groups before the implementation of the
HAP.
9. The Baseline Data of the Level of Cognitive Decline Among the
Two Groups of Participants After the HEALTHY AGING Program
(HAP)
Most of the participants in the experimental group have no
impairment of cognitive decline; while the participants of the control
groups are in the mild impairment level after the implementation of
the HAP.
10. The Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline After the HAP
Implementation
There is a significant difference in the level of cognitive
decline among the two groups of participants after the
implementation of the HAP.
11. The Data of the Two Groups of Participants After the Intervention
Concerning the Following Parameters:
On the data of physiological parameters, the participants of
the experimental group are in hypertension levels 2 for systolic blood
pressure level, the normal level in their diastolic blood pressure
level, heart rate and respiratory rate; and have sporadic stepping
after implementation of the HAP. While the control group are in
hypertension in above level 2 in terms of their systolic blood pressure
level, the normal in their diastolic blood pressure level, heart rate,
and respiratory rate; and have incidental stepping after
implementation of the HAP.
12. The Difference in the Data of the Parameters After the HEALTHY
AGING Program Implementation
There is a significant difference in systolic and diastolic blood
pressure levels, heart rate, and steps among the two groups of
participants after the implementation of the HAP, while there is no
significant difference in respiratory rate among the two groups of
participants after implementation of the HAP.
13. The Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline Before and After
the Intervention of the Experimental Groups
There is a significant difference in the level of cognitive
decline of the experimental group before and after implementation
of the HAP.
14. Problems Were Encountered by the Participants in the
Implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program
Problems encountered by the participants in the
implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program were a) natural
condition that influences the HAP activities b) Agreement of time and
c) Ability differences.
15. Participants’ Recommendations to Further Improve the HEALTHY
AGING Program
Participants’ recommendations to further improve the
HEALTHY AGING Program are a) additional physical activities b) more
cognitive stimulation sessions, and c) inclusion of HAP activities that
are the participant’s favorite activities.
CONCLUSION
The primary issue of elderly cognitive decline, the low activity
of the elderly as a risk factor for cognitive decline, and the absence
of a program or group of activities that can improve the cognitive
capabilities of the elderly were the basis of the program developed.
Thus, the program developed that aimed to delay cognitive decline.
It has identified general activities that can be implemented that
focused on H-E-A-L-T-H-Y-A-G- I-N-G.
It is further concluded that the HEALTHY AGING Program is
effective not only in delaying cognitive decline, but it also “brought
back” those with cognitive decline to a normal level.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Considering the results of the study and the conclusion, the
researcher recommends the following:
1. Nurses, Nursing Schools, and Nursing Students can implement
the HEALTHY AGING Program when they practice on gerontology
nursing areas, both at the Elderly Poli of Hospital, Social
community (Panti Tresna Werdha), Puskesmas and Family.
2. The Puskesmas can continue implementing HAP activities in the
elderly in the Puskesmas area by training elderly cadres with this
program. Thus, the cognitive decline among the elderly can be
prevented and improved cognitive levels can be achieved.
3. Health Professionals may train nurses as counselors in hospitals
and health centers. They must receive the appropriate training in
conducting HAP activities and promote the importance of
providing HAP activities to improve cognitive levels among the
elderly.
4. Future Researchers may develop strategies for developing HAP
activities to help the elderly improve their cognitive level.
5. The researcher may present the HAP activities to nurses,
professionals, families, and the elderly and determine to further
develop HAP activities increasingly better.
References
Aging Care. (2019). High blood pressure: Guidelines and treatments
for seniors. Retrieved from
https://www.agingcare.com/articles/high-blood-pressurein-seniors-108019.htm
AHA. (2019a). Target Heart Rates. Retrieved from
http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/PhysicalAc
tivity/FitnessBasics/Target-
HeartRates_UCM_434341_Article.jsp#.XSGleugzbIU)
Brown, F. C., Buboltz Jr, W. C., & Soper, B. (2006). Development and
evaluation of the sleep treatment and education program for
students (STEPS). Journal of American College Health, 54(4),
231-237.
Deary, I. J., Corley, J., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Houlihan, L. M., Marioni,
R. E., … Starr, J. M. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline.
British Medical Bulletin, 92(1), 135–152.
doi:10.1093/bmb/ldp033
Deutchki, I. M. (2017). What’s causing my older patient’s cognitive
decline? The Journal of Family Practice, 66(11), 1-7.
Etgen, T., Sander, D., Huntgeburth, U., Poppert, H., Forstl, H. & Bickel,
H. (2010). Physical activity and incident cognitive impairment
in an elderly person. American Medical Association, 170(2),
186-193.
Infodatin. (2015). Profil Kesehatan Indonesia. Kemenkes RI. Retrieved
from
http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/pusdatin/pr
ofil-kesehatan-indonesia/profil-kesehatan-Indonesia-
2015.pdf
Infodatin. (2017). Data dan informasi profil Kesehatan Indonesia
2017 Kemenkes RI. Retrieved from
http://www.pusdatin.kemkes.go.id/resources/download/pu
sdatin/profil-kesehatan-indonesia/Data-dan-
Informasi_Profil-Kesehatan-Indonesia-2017.pdf
Leavy, P. (2017). Research Design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed
methods, arts-based, and community-based participatory
research approaches. New York: The Guilford Press
Limpawattana, P., Tiamkao, S., Sawanyawisuth, K., & Thinkhamrop,
B. (2012). Can Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment
Scale (RUDAS) Replace Mini-Mental State Examination
(MMSE) for Dementia Screening in a Thai Geriatric
Outpatient Setting?. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease
& Other Dementias®, 27(4), 254–259.
doi:10.1177/1533317512447886
Milanovic, Z., Jorgić, B., Trajković, N., Sporis, Pantelić, S., & James.
(2013). Age-related decrease in physical activity and
functional fitness among elderly men and women. Clinical
Interventions in Aging, 549.doi:10.2147/cia.s44112
Ministry of Health. (2017). Rencana aksi nasional: Pencegahan dan
pengendalian penyakit tidak menular 2015-2019. Retrieved
from
http://p2ptm.kemkes.go.id/uploads/VHcrbkVobjRzUDN3UC
s4eUJ0dVBndz09/2018/10/Buku_Rencana_Aksi_Nasional_2
015_201 9.pdf
Moyle, W., Jones, C., Murfield, J., Draper, B., Beattie, E., Shum, D., …
Mervin, C. M. (2017). Levels of physical activity and sleep
patterns among older people with dementia living in longterm
care facilities: A 24-h snapshot. Maturitas, 102, 62–68.
doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.05.015
Pearson Education. (2007). Normal Respiratory rates for newborns
through older adults. Retrieved from:
https://id.scribd.com/document/258322624/Table-
Respiration-Rate
Pertiwi, G. H & Lorica, J. D. (2019). Physical activity improves the
cognitive function among elderly: an integrated literature
review. The Malaysian Journal of Nursing, 10(3), 38-43.
Polit, D.F. and Beck, C.T. (2012) Nursing Research: Generating and
Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice (9th Ed.).
Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
Riskesdas. (2018). Hasil utama riskesdas 2018. Kementerian
Kesehatan Badan Penelitian dan Pengembengan Kesehatan.
Retrieved
from
http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/infoterkini/materi_rakorpop_2018/Hasil%20Riskesdas%202018.
Spector, A., Thorgrimsen, L., Woods, B & Orrell M. (2005). Making a
difference. London: The Journal for Dementia Care
Tudor-Locke, C., Craig, C. L., Aoyagi, Y., Bell, R. C., Croteau, K. A., De
Bourdeaudhuij, I., … Blair, S. N. (2011). How many steps/day
are enough? For older adults and special populations.
International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical
Activity, 8(1), 80.doi:10.1186/1479-5868-8-80
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
Population Division (2017). World Population Aging 2017-
Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/397). Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/pub
lications/pdf/ageing/WPA2017_Highlights.pdf
WHO. (2018). Ageing and health. Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/detail/ageing-and-health
WHO. (2019a). Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health.
Retrieved
from
https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/pa/en/
MOBILE-BASED EGGPLANT DISEASES RECOGNITION SYSTEM
USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Jake Guabes Maggay
Doctor in Information Technology
ABSTRACT
Agricultural inputs are very important; however, these are not always
available to farmers. This study aimed to develop a mobile-based
eggplant diseases recognition system using image processing
techniques to provide information to the farmers with regard to the
identification of eggplant diseases. Quantitative method using
descriptive survey was used to gather data. Weighted mean was also
used to analyze the rating on the extent of compliance of the system
along with ISO/IEC 25010 Software Quality Standards. Convenience
sampling was employed in selecting the participants. The study
employed Scrum Methodology which takes an iterative approach to
software development. It also utilized different image processing
techniques and adapted the MobilenetV2 framework. The study
found out that farmers encountered issues such as lack of modern
agricultural inputs, capital, labor force, price fluctuations, production
costs, water system, and unsupervised use of chemicals. They also
encountered challenges such as the presence of insect pests and
diseases, natural disaster, drought, and limited access to production
inputs and equipment. Result of the system evaluation using ISO/IEC
25010 Software Quality Standards shows that the system is compliant
to a great extent with overall weighted mean of 4.12. Based on the
findings of the study, the developed mobile application can be of
great help to the farmers in identifying the different eggplant pests
and diseases as well as in providing the necessary management and
control.
Keywords: Convolutional Neural Network, deep learning, image
augmentation, image classification, MobileNetV2
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture plays an important role in the country’s
economy. Based on World Bank data from 1960 to 2016, 21.36
percent was the average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the
Philippines with a maximum of 31.06 percent in 1974 and a minimum
of 9.65 in 2016 (De Guzman, 2018). Asia and the Pacific is
predominated with family farming as a form of agriculture (Sylvester,
2015). Moreover, studies show that Filipino farmers represent the
second poorest sector of the country. As a result, young people are
discouraged to pursue career in agriculture. The farmers’ average age
of 57-59 years old means that they are growing old; and their children
are taking different careers not related to agriculture (De Guzman,
2018). Furthermore, World Bank data show that total number of
employment in agriculture is decreasing from 31.01 percent in 2013
to 25.31 percent in 2018 (WorldBank, 2018). With the present status
of agriculture in the country, there is a need to encourage young
individuals to be involved in crop production to increase and sustain
food security (De Guzman, 2018). In support to this, the Department
of Agriculture (DA) tapped the Department of Education (DepEd) to
revive basic gardening among the elementary school children in both
public and private schools in the entire country. This initiative seeks
to acquaint the young people with agriculture (DA, 2016).
Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is the fifth most
economically important crop after potato, pepper, tomato and
tobacco having a global production around 50 million tons annually,
with a net value of more than US$10 billion a year (2014 data of FAO).
The top five producing countries in 2016 are China (28.4 million tons;
57% of world’s total), India (13.4 million tons; 27% of world’s total),
Egypt (1.2 million tons), Turkey (0.82 million tons), and Iran (0.75
million tons) while Philippines ranked as the tenth eggplant
producing country (0.24 million tons). In Asia and the Mediterranean,
eggplant ranks among the top five most important vegetable crops
(Taher, et al., 2017).
Eggplant (common name) is known as aubergine or brinjal
(English), talong (Tagalog), tarong (Ilocano), or bringhinas (Bisaya)
and is the number one vegetable in the Philippines in terms of
volume and production area (ISAAA, 2018). It covers approximately
22,000 hectares, yielding an average volume of 220,000 metric tons
annually which valued at about PhP2.6 billion (OVPAA-UP, 2016).
Eggplant production in the Philippines in 2011 to 2016 is increasing
with 208,000 metric tons in 2011 to 235,600 metric tons in 2016
(Statista, 2018). The Ilocos Region has the highest percentage of
produced eggplant with 59.8% share during the second quarter of
2018 while CALABARZON has the highest production in the third
quarter with 34.0% share of the country’s total eggplant production.
The Cagayan Valley Region is the second major producer of eggplant
in the country with 8.9% and 11.4% share of the total eggplant
production in the second and third quarter of 2018, respectively
(PSA, 2018).
Some studies show that the general source of information of
farmers is other farmers but for complex and technical matters,
farmers prefer to have first-hand information from experts (Wesely,
et al., 2014). Extension service by the field experts which includes
consultation is one of the ways being done in the Philippines to reach
farmers and share new technologies and information for them to be
engaged in simple farming innovations which later can increase
production. Unfortunately, these field experts cannot always provide
all the information needed by the farmers. Hence, lack of information
to the farmers leads them to revert back to the traditional practice.
This issue on information sharing especially on agricultural problems
can be addressed through the application of Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) (Dar, 2016).
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) has been promoting the use of ICT to improve agricultural
production and to enhance value chains (Sylvester, 2015). Likewise,
the DA is looking forward for Information Technology (IT) innovations
that would provide farmers an access to needed information about
plant pests and diseases. In addition, the Department aims to provide
key infrastructure, facilities, technology, and information that will
raise incomes, productivity, and competitiveness in the countryside
(DA, 2016). This means that there is a need to leverage ICT-mediated
knowledge sharing and extension services in the area of agriculture
(Dar, 2016).
This study aimed to develop a mobile application to help
farmers identify eggplant diseases with proper management using
image processing techniques which is called “Eggplant Doctor”. In
addition, it uses Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to classify the
different diseases that are visible through mobile phones’ camera
(Browne, et al., 2008). Moreover, the mobile application serves as a
tool for the extension service providers in sharing knowledge and
information to the farmers particularly on eggplant diseases and
treatment to increase production. It also provides Good Agricultural
Practices (GAP) for the farmers for sustainable farming. In addition,
it promotes effective information and knowledge transfer which can
improve farm management.
Related Literature
Diseases of Eggplant
The most common and destructive eggplant diseases are
bacterial wilt (Nahar, et al., 2019) and fusarium wilt (DA-RF02, 2017).
Aside from these, there are more diseases such as cercospora leaf
spot (Chowdhury, 1957), damping off (Nahar, et al., 2018),
anthracnose fruit rot (Sun, et al., 2015), verticillium wilt (Hampton, et
al., 1990), phytophthora blight (Pande, et al., 2011), southern blight
(Walliser, 2011; Solberg, 2017), phomopsis blight and fruit rot
(Nahar, et al., 2019), little leaf and mosaic (Solberg, 2017).
Among the mentioned eggplant diseases, only the damping
off and southern blight have symptoms found on stems. Other
diseases can manifest symptoms on leaves and some others can
manifest symptoms on both leaves and fruits. This study focused only
on the detection of eggplant diseases that can be recognized or
detected through leaves and fruits. Therefore, damping off and
southern blight are not included in the study particularly in the
detection of diseases.
It is necessary to identify the exact disease of eggplant to
have proper management and control (Nahar, et al., 2019). In
addition, identifying the diseases and knowing the proper
management and control can prevent the spread of the diseases.
However, non-experts might not be able to identify the diseases
correctly. As a result, the proper management and control cannot be
performed. Hence, a trained or an expert individual should be
responsible to do the identification tasks. This study provides a tool
to help the non-expert individuals in identifying the eggplant
diseases.
Image Processing
This study used different image processing techniques.
Image processing is defined as “every possible action performed on
an image and it can be as simple as cropping an image, increasing
contrast or scaling” (Solberg, 2011). It focuses on digital image which
involved different steps (Li, 2011). Output of the different steps can
be an image or an image attribute. Image acquisition, image
enhancement, image restoration, color image processing, wavelets
and multi-resolution processing, compression, and morphological
processing generally produce image as the output while feature
extraction (El-gayar, 2013), segmentation (Pal, 1993), representation
and description, and object recognition generally produce image
attributes as output (Gonzales, et al., n.d.). Image processing is also
done for storage, transmission, and representation for machine
learning purposes (Verma, et al., 2017). However, this study does not
use all the techniques; it selected the most appropriate technique
that will result to a higher prediction accuracy in detecting eggplant
diseases.
Related Works
In the study of Alamdar, et al. (2011), they reduced the size
of the images into 128 x 128 pixels while Verma, et al. (2017) resized
the images into 200 x 250 pixels during segmentation process to have
better results during experiments and to reduce the running time;
while all images used in the study of Bhange & Hingoliwala (2015)
were resized to 300 x 300 pixels. Also, Sladojevic, et al. (2016) resized
the images to 256 x 256 pixels for the purpose of training. Another
study applied the same preprocessing technique however, they have
reduced images to 16 x 20 sq. cm. which saves 30% of disk storage
space and increased CPU processing speed to 1.4 times (Dey, 2016).
The segmented images were used or feature extraction (Alamdar, et
al., 2011; Verma, et al., 2017).
Sabrol, et al. (2015) used different methods before the
recognition and classification of plant diseases. They acquired images
using digital devices which is similar with the study of Singh, et al.
(2017) and they conducted image pre-processing techniques such as
smoothing, enhancement and filtering. They also conducted color
space conversion, image segmentation using color, thresholding and
Otsu method. After segmentation, they had extracted the color and
texture features of the image. However, there are multiple
classification techniques presented in their study.
In the study of Pujari, et al. (2014), they detected the disease
for analysis at early stage before it damages the whole leaf and
eventually the whole plant. As a result of their study, they have found
that using neuro-kNN (k-Nearest Neuron) as classifier method reveals
a higher accuracy of 91.54% as compared to 84.11% accuracy in using
the ANN.
Another study conducted by Tete, et al. (2017) used
segmentation such as thresholding algorithm, K-means cluster
algorithm and classification technique based on Artificial Neural
Networks particularly the feed forward back propagation algorithms.
In their study, they acquired images using a digital camera which are
in the form of RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) color. After acquiring
images, they performed pre-processing technique such as cropping
to get the interested region, image enhancement to increase the
contrast of the image, and color conversion of RGB to gray images.
However, this study does not convert the images to grayscale
because the RGB which are the three (3) dimensions of an image are
important features of the images for classification. It is also required
in the MobileNetV2 that images should have 224 x 224 x 3 dimension.
Moreover, they also segmented the images through thresholding
(Tete, et al., 2017; Chitradevi & Srimathi, 2014) to segregate objects
by transforming grayscale images into binary images. Likewise, K-
means algorithm was also used in their study to measure distance of
elements. After segmentation, feature extraction using color,
texture, and edges was also used in their study. Lastly, they used ANN
to classify images [35]. Some of the image processing techniques
used in the foregoing literature were also applied and explored in this
study to recognize the different eggplant diseases.
Objectives of the Study
This study aimed to develop a mobile-based eggplant
diseases recognition system using image processing techniques to
provide information and expertise to the farmers with regard to the
recognition of eggplant diseases. Specifically, it aimed to:
1. identify the issues and challenges encountered by the farmers in
farming eggplant;
2. determine the best practices of the farmer participants in
controlling insect pests and diseases;
3. determine the image processing techniques in recognizing
eggplant diseases;
4. develop the features of the application to identify eggplant
diseases;
5. evaluate the extent of compliance of the developed system to the
standards of ISO/IEC 25010 Systems and software Quality
Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) in terms of functional
suitability, performance efficiency, compatibility, usability,
reliability, security, maintainability, and portability; and
6. identify the enhancements that can be done to improve the
developed application.
METHODOLOGY
This study used different steps in the classification of
eggplant diseases which were adopted from the study of Sabrol, et
al. (2015). The first step is image acquisition, followed by preprocessing
of acquired images such as cropping, resizing, and
augmentation, the third step is feature extraction and the last step is
image classification.
During the image acquisition, the researcher captured
diseased eggplant leaves and fruits in the farms using Oppo A37
mobile phone with 8MP camera. A plant pathologist confirmed the
diseases through laboratory tests. All the images had undergone preprocessing
procedures such as cropping to select the most important
area of the images, and resizing the images to 224 x 224 pixels based
on the required dimensions of the image input of the adopted
MobileNetV2. After the images had been resized and enhanced,
image augmentation was also performed to enhance the datasets for
training purposes.
Feature extraction was also performed on images of diseased
leaves and fruits of eggplant to get the prominent features. The
individual pixel of a color image was broken into red, green, and blue
values which were arranged in sequential order. Therefore, the
dimension of the images used in the study was 224 by 224 by 3
matrixes. After extracting the features of the different images of
eggplant leaves and fruits, classification was performed applying the
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based on back propagation algorithm
being implemented in the MobileNetV2 framework.
In the development of the mobile-based system, the study
employed Scrum Methodology (altexsoft.com, n.d.). As mentioned
by Flora, et al. (2013), “this development methodology helps
companies build the right product and empowers teams to
continuously redesign their release to optimize its value throughout
development”. In this methodology, changes in the requirements are
to be expected and welcomed (Haunts, 2015) which was also
happened during the development life cycle of the system.
Additionally, this study adopted the Scrum Methodology wherein
software is incrementally developed, creating different versions
(Hernández, et al., 2016) where work is performed in iterations or
cycle (scrumalliance, n.d.).
As part of the development cycle, product backlog was set
which covers the different features of the system. Planning was the
first step during the system development. As mentioned by Dora &
Dubey (2013), this step aims to know the requirements of the system
based on the needs of the users. During this step, the researcher
conducted an interview with the farmers regarding their knowledge
on eggplant diseases as well as their management and control.
Likewise, the researcher identified and analyzed the requirements of
each feature to be developed. After planning the needs of the
system, system design particularly the system process and interface
were created. During the design phase of the system’s features, the
user-interface of the mobile-based system was also determined as
part of the design (Figure 1).
Figure 1
System Architecture
Upon completion of the design, the development of each
feature started. Dora & Dubey (2013) also mentioned that
development is used to convert the design into code using
programming language while testing is used to evaluate the actual
result and the expected result. In this phase, the researcher
transformed the design into a system’s working feature. Prior to this
activity, images of eggplant leaves and fruits were captured and
processed using different techniques such as cropping, resizing, and
image augmentation.
After performing the different image processing techniques,
the next process was transfer learning using the adopted
MobileNetV2 framework. During the training, combination of
multiple augmented images were used to create different models.
The created models were subjected for prediction accuracy test
which served as the basis in choosing the model for implementation.
Likewise, the chosen model was integrated in the mobile application
during the development of the classifier module. Testing each
module of the mobile application was also performed repeatedly to
ensure that there are no major errors prior to the release of the
Mobile-Based Eggplant Diseases Recognition System.
After the development, system evaluation was conducted.
This study employed a quantitative method using descriptive survey
research design in collecting and analyzing the data associated with
the proposed system along with ISO/IEC 25010 Software Quality
Standards conducted by the ten (10) IT Experts. Likewise, interview
guide was also used to gather the issues and challenges encountered
by the five (5) farmers as well as their best practices in eggplant
farming. Convenience sampling was used in selecting the participants
of study.
Weighted mean was used to analyze the rating of the IT
experts on the extent of compliance of the developed mobile
application in accordance with ISO/IEC 25010 software quality
standards. A 5-point scale was used to measure the compliance of
the developed system ranging from “Very Great Extent” (5) to “Very
Low Extent” (1) as shown in Table 1.
Table 1
The 5-Point Scale and its Descriptive Interpretation and Scale Range
Scale Range Weight Descriptive Interpretation
4.20 – 5.00
3.40 – 4.19
2.60 – 3.39
1.80 – 2.59
1.00 – 1.79
5
4
3
2
1
Very Great Extent
Great Extent
Moderate Extent
Low Extent
Very Low Extent
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Issues and Challenges Encountered by the Farmers
The farmers encountered many issues on eggplant farming
such as lack of modern agricultural inputs which include varietal
selection and the use of recommended and approved chemicals. In
addition, issues such as capital for fertilizers and farm maintenance,
price fluctuations due to environmental calamities, production costs
especially in purchasing for FDA-approved chemicals, water system
during dry season, unavailability of labor force, and lack of knowledge
in the use of chemicals were also encountered by the farmers.
Likewise, farmers encountered challenges such as presence of insect
pests and diseases in the farm, natural disaster which severely
damaged plants, drought which reduces yields, and limited access to
production inputs and equipment because of their geographical
location.
Best Practices of the Farmer-Participants in Controlling Insect
Pests and Diseases
The farmers use fertilizers to provide necessary nutrients for
the plants. They apply fertilizers during transplant, vegetative stage,
and during matured or fruiting stage. They also spray insecticides
such as Solomon, DuPont Lanate SP and DuPont Prevathon to
prevent insect pests in attacking the eggplants one week before
harvesting the fruits. Likewise, they cut shoots of eggplants that are
damaged with shoot borer to prevent the spread of the insects. They
also use Megatonic Foliar Fertilizer by spraying it to the plants to
increase the yield of the plants. This chemical has been tested by the
farmers to increase the number of buds which will produce more
flowers and fruits.
According to the farmers, weed-free eggplant farms produce
more fruits. In removing the weeds, farmers manually uproot weeds
around the plants. However, if the plants are fully grown, farmers
prefer to spray weed killer like ClearOut Plus to control them. Some
of the farmers observed that planting corn as alternative to eggplant
can prevent the occurrence of wilt diseases.
Image Processing Techniques in Recognizing Eggplant Diseases
As mentioned by Chitradevi & Srimathi (2014), there are
various image processing techniques such as image acquisition,
image pre-processing, image enhancement, feature extraction and
image classification. In order to recognize the different diseases of
eggplant, this study performed similar techniques. Image preprocessing
techniques include cropping and resizing of images.
Moreover, image enhancement, applying image augmentation, was
also performed which includes the two label preserving
transformations (Shorten & Khoshgoftaar, 2019) such as flipping and
rotating. Other non-label preserving transformations such as
sharpening, adjustment of brightness, contrast, Gaussian blur, and
saturation were also performed.
This study used a mobile phone’s camera to capture images
of eggplant leaves and fruits that are infected with diseases or
damaged by insects. However, due to the unavailability of the
different diseases and other insects of eggplant, the researcher
collected images from the internet. As a result, 1,710 images were
captured from the farms while 792 images were downloaded from
the internet with a total of 2,465 images.
Pre-processing techniques such as cropping was also
performed to get the desired area of the images and resizing them to
224 x 224 as input size of the MobileNetV2. Aside from these, image
augmentation was also performed to the captured images. The first
two augmentation techniques performed were flipping and rotating.
After flipping and rotating the images, the remaining augmentation
techniques such as adjustment of brightness, contrast, color
saturation, sharpness and Gaussian blur were performed to the
original, flipped and rotated images. After performing all the image
augmentation techniques, the number of images largely increased
from 2,465 to 180,036 images. However, it was found out that
adjustment of contrast, sharpening, and adjustment of saturation of
the datasets does not increase the prediction accuracy of the system
in recognizing eggplant pests and diseases based on the tests
conducted.
Similar with the study of Feng, et al. (2019), this study
adopted the MobileNetV2 model which is considered as the
backbone for feature extraction. Feng, et al. (2019) described
MobileNetV2 as a lightweight deep neural network for mobile
embedded terminals. Meanwhile, this study emphasized the
extraction process of the MobileNetV2 in extracting the features of
each input during the training or “transfer learning” (Lu, 2017)
process using the augmented images. Lu (2017) also mentioned that
the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) has integrated the feature
extraction layers and classifier in a unified Deep Neural Network and
is being implemented in the MobileNetV2.
During the transfer learning process, various models were
created from the combination of the different augmented images. In
addition, experiments were conducted to test the prediction
accuracy of each model using 10 different sample images. Table 2
shows the models with the corresponding datasets used and the
average rank of predictions.
Based on the test, Model 9 obtained the highest rank in
terms of prediction accuracy with an average of 1.1. It was found out
that prediction accuracy increases if more augmentation techniques
will be performed before feeding the images to the MobileNetV2
framework. As an example, when Model 2, 3 and 6 were trained
individually, they only obtained an average of 1.9, 1.7 and 1.9,
respectively, but when they were combined, the prediction accuracy
had increased having an obtained average of 1.4 (Model 8). Multiple
augmentation techniques can be combined, however, the
appearance of the images slightly changed by some techniques such
as contrast enhancement, sharpening, and saturation especially on
the datasets of normal and spider mites-damaged leaves. Based on
the overall result of the prediction accuracy tests, Model 9 was
chosen and used as the model for the Mobile-Based Eggplant
Diseases Recognition System.
Table 2
List of Used Datasets in Each Model
Models Images or Datasets Used Rank
Model 1 Original, Flipped, Rotated 1.8
Model 2 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced 1.9
Model 3 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Contrast-Enhanced 1.7
Model 4 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Sharpened 1.4
Model 5 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Gaussian Blurred 1.4
Model 6 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Saturation-Enhanced 1.9
Model 7 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Sharpened, Gaussian 1.3
Blurred
Model 8 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.4
Contrast-Enhanced, Saturation-Enhanced
Model 9 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.1
Gaussian Blurred
Model Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.3
10
Model
11
Saturation-Enhanced, Sharpened, Gaussian Blurred
Original and All Augmented Images 1.2
The Developed Mobile Application
The main focus of the study is to recognize the different
diseases of eggplant. However, during the conduct of the study, the
diseases are not present in the farms. During the farm visit, the
researcher observed that there are various insects present in the
farms such as shoot and fruit borer, leafhopper, mealybugs, spider
mites, spotted beetles, and flea beetles. Because of the existence of
the different insects, the researcher included the different insects to
be recognized by the mobile application aside from the different
eggplant diseases.
The developed mobile application or “mobile app” or simply
“app” (Inukollu, 2014) has a home screen and contains a menu on the
upper right corner of the screen which is used to display the purpose
of the app and the best practices in farming eggplant. It also contains
a button that will open the mobile phone’s camera (Figure 2).
Meanwhile, the camera icons at the bottom of the screen
initialize the cameras for capturing leaf or leaves and eventually
starts the first step in recognizing eggplant pests and diseases. Upon
pressing the camera icon in the main screen, the mobile phone’s
camera becomes ready to capture image. After the image has been
captured, the user has the option to reject or accept the captured
image. Likewise, the user has the option to crop the desired portion
of the captured image to be used for recognition.
Figure 2. Mobile App’s
Home Screen
Figure 3. Mobile App’s
Classifier
The developed mobile app has the capability to classify image as part
of the process to recognize and predict eggplant pests and diseases.
The mobile app’s classifier extracts the feature of the captured image
and matches the extracted feature to the trained classification
model. The user needs to click the “RECOGNIZE” button to start the
classification process and display the top five (5) predictions (Figure
3).
Figure 4. Top Five
Prediction Sample
Figure 5. Sample Details
of Prediction
The system ranks and displays the top five (5) predictions
from first to fifth rank based on the confidence level of the classifier
(Figure 4). The user may click each prediction to confirm if the
appearance of the infected part of the plant is similar with the sample
images being displayed in the app. Aside from the images, the app
also displays the description of the predicted pest or disease as well
as its management and control (Figure 5).
The Extent of Compliance of the Developed System in Accordance
with ISO/IEC 25010 Systems and software Quality Requirements
and Evaluation (SQuaRE)
The goal of ISO/IEC 25010 is to describe and evaluate
software quality [48]. The developed Mobile Application was
subjected for evaluation by IT Experts using ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE
with various characteristics such as Functional Suitability,
Performance Efficiency, Compatibility, Usability, Reliability, Security,
Maintainability, and Portability. Each characteristic is composed of
multiple sub-characteristics that provide consistent terminology for
specifying, measuring and evaluating system and software product
quality (Flora & Chande, 2013).
Table 3
Overall Extent of Compliance of the Developed Mobile Application in
Accordance with ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE
Criteria Mean Description
Functional Suitability 4.07 Great Extent
Performance Efficiency 4.33 Very Great Extent
Compatibility 4.00 Great Extent
Usability 4.17 Great Extent
Reliability 4.03 Great Extent
Security 4.00 Great Extent
Maintainability 4.18 Great Extent
Portability 4.19 Great Extent
Overall Weighted Mean 4.12 Great Extent
Table 3 shows the overall result of the system evaluation in
compliance with ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE. The result shows that the
system is compliant to a “Great Extent” with respect to ISO/IEC 25010
SQuaRE having an overall weighted mean of 4.12.
Enhancements to Improve the Mobile Application
Based on the evaluation of the system by the IT Experts from
the different institutions or affiliations, the following are the
enhancements that can be done to improve the existing features of
the developed system: (1) There should be more images of eggplant
with diseases as training datasets to improve the prediction accuracy;
(2) A users’ manual should be integrated to guide users in the proper
use of the system especially in cropping the relevant area of the
images for the system to provide more accurate prediction; (3)
Translation of the text to Filipino, Ilocano and other dialects so that
anyone can understand the description of the pests and diseases, and
the recommendations being provided by the system; (4) Aside from
eggplant, other high-value crops may be included; and (5) Version for
iOS Mobile Phone should be developed to address compatibility
issues.
CONCLUSION
Image processing techniques such as cropping, resizing,
adjustment of brightness and blurriness increase the prediction
accuracy in identifying eggplant pests and diseases. Conversely, the
developed mobile application can be of great help to the farmers in
identifying the different eggplant pests and diseases as well as in
providing the necessary management and control. Likewise, the
mobile application could also help the extension service providers in
providing relevant information related to eggplant farming and Good
Agricultural Practices to the farmers. Generally, when the
information provided by the system will be followed and applied by
the farmers, it could help them monitor and manage eggplant farms.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The Department of Agriculture (DA) may consider providing
continuous intervention and monitoring especially on the best
practices of eggplant farming. They may also provide a way to reach
the farmers to disseminate proper, safe and sustainable pest and
disease management practices to eggplant farmers. The farmers may
consider using the mobile application to help monitor and manage
eggplant farms. Aside from the farmers, the app may also be adopted
by individuals who are engaged in backyard gardening. It may also be
adopted by the DA especially for extension service providers. For
future studies, more images of the different insect pests and diseases
could be provided to increase the prediction accuracy of the system.
All other pests and diseases of eggplant may also be included as long
as images are available. Moreover, other high-value crops could also
be integrated into a single mobile application.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The researcher acknowledges Dr. Maria Visitacion N.
Gumabay for her commitment, guidance and for sharing her
expertise in completing this study. Also, the researcher
acknowledges Dr. Val Randolf S. Madrid for sharing his knowledge on
image processing.
References
Alamdar, F., & Keyvanpour, M. (2011). A New Color Feature
Extraction Method Based on QuadHistogram. 2011 3rd
International Conference on Environmental Science and
Information Application Technology (pp. 777-783). Elsevier.
Bhange, M. & Hingoliwala, H. (2015). "Detection of Bacterial Blight on
Pomegranate Leaf," International Journal on Recent and
Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication, vol. 3, no.
6, pp. 3682 - 3685.
Billiauws, I., & Bonjean, K. (2009). Retrieved March 1, 2019, from
Image recognition on an Android mobile phone:
https://iiw.kuleuven.be/onderzoek/eavise/mastertheses/billia
uwsbonjean.pdf
Browne, M., Ghidary, S., & Mayer, N. (2008). Convolutional Neural
Networks for Image Processing with Applications in Mobile
Robotics. Studies in Computational Intelligence (SCI), 83, 327-
345.
Chitradevi, B., & Srimathi, P. (2014). An Overview onImage Processing
Techniques. nternational Journal of Innovative Research in
Computerand Communication Engineering, 2(11), 6466-6472.
Chowdhury, S. (1957). "A Cercospora leaf spot of ramie in Assam,"
Transactions of the British Mycological Society, vol. 40, no. 2, pp.
260-262.
DA. (2016). Philippine Agriculture: Today and the Future! Retrieved
January 27, 2019, from Department of Agriculture:
http://www.da.gov.ph/foundation/
Dar, W. (2016). Applying ICT in Agriculture. Retrieved January 28,
2019, from The Manila Times:
https://www.manilatimes.net/applying-ict-agriculture/301999
DA-RFO2. (2017, Febraury). Eggplant Production Guide. Retrieved
February 5, 2019, from Department of Agriculture - Regional
Field Office 2:
http://rfo02.da.gov.ph/?smd_process_download=1&download
_id=459
De Guzman, S. (2018). Agriculture is dying in the Philippines.
Retrieved January 27, 2019, from PhilStar:
https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2018/06/18/1825542/agric
ulture-dying-philippines
Dey, A. K., Sharma, M., & Mesharam, M. (2016). Image Processing
Based Leaf Rot Disease, Detection of Betel Vine (Piper BetleL.).
International Conference on Computational Modeling and
Security, 748-754.
Dora, S. K., & Dubey, P. (2013). Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC) Analytical Comparison and Survey on Traditional and
Agile Methodology. National Monthly Refereed Journal of
Research in Science & Technology, 22-30.
El-gayar, M., Soliman, H. and Meky, N. (2013). "A comparative study
of image low level feature extraction algorithms," Egyptian
Informatics Journal, vol. 14, pp. 175-181.
Feng, X., Xie, R., Sheng, J., & Zhang, S. (2019). Population Statistics
Algorithm Based on MobileNet. Journal of Physics: Conf.
Series1237 (2019) 022045, 1-7. doi:doi:10.1088/1742-
6596/1237/2/022045
Flora, H., & Chande, S. (2013). A Review and Anaysis on Mobile
Application Development Processes Using Agile Methodologies.
International Journal of Research in Computer Science, 3(4), 9-
18. doi:10.7815/ ijorcs.34.2013.068
Gonzales, R., & Woods, R. (n.d.). Digital Image Processing. USA:
Pearson Education International.
Hampton, R., Wullschleger, S. and Oosterhuis, D. (1990). "Impact of
verticillium wilt on net photosynthesis, respiration and
photorespiration in field-grown cotton (Gossypium hirsutum
L.)," Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, vol. 37, no. 4,
pp. 271-280.
Haunts, S. (2015). Agile Software Development Succinctly.
Morrisville, USA: Syncfusion, Inc.
Hernández, R., Izaguirre, J. A., Mendoza, A., & Escandón, J. M. (2016).
A Practical Approach to the Agile Development of Mobile Apps
in the Classroom. Innovación Educativa, 17(73), 97-114.
Inukollu, V., Keshamoni, D., Kang, T., & Inukollu, M. (2014). Factors
Influencing Quality of Mobile Apps: Role of Mobile App
Development Life Cycle. International Journal of Software
Engineering & Applications (IJSEA), 5(5), 15-34. Retrieved from
https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1410/1410.4537.pdf
ISAAA. (2018). Pocket K No. 48: Bt Eggplant. Retrieved February 9,
2019, from International Service for the Acquisition of Agribiotech
Applications:
https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/48/def
ault.asp
Li, C., Jia, X., Deng, L. and Shi, X. (2011) "Digital image processing
technology applied in level measurement and control system,"
in 2011 International Conference on Advances in Engineering,
China.
Lu, Y. (2017). Transfer Learning for Image Classification. Université de
Lyon, 3. Retrieved from https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-
02065405
Nahar, N., Islam, R., Uddin, M. M., de Jong, P., Struik, P. and Stomph,
T. J. (2018)."Reducing damping-off problems in eggplant
(Solanum melongena L.): A participatory testing of nursery
management in Bangladesh," Crop Protection, vol. 112, pp. 177-
186
Nahar, N., Islam, R., Uddin, M. M., de Jong, P., Struik, P. and Stomph,
T. J. (2019). "Disease management in eggplant (Solanum
melongena L.) nurseries also reduces wilt and fruit rot in
subsequent plantings: A participatory testing in Bangladesh,"
Crop Protection, vol. 120, pp. 113-124.
OVPAA-UP. (2016). A Statement of Support for the Resumption of
Research and Development and Field Testing of Bt Eggplant in
the Philippines Under the New DOST-DA-DENRDOH-DILG Joint
Department Circular No. 1, Series of 2016. Retrieved Febraury
9, 2019, from Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs -
University of the Philippines: http://ovpaa.up.edu.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2016/05/PAASE_Support_Statement_April_2
016A5.pdf
Pal, N. and Pal, S. (1993). "A review on image segmentation
techniques," Pattern Recognition, vol. 26, no. 9, pp. 1277-1294.
Pande, S., Sharma, M., Mangla, U. N., Ghosh, R. and Sundaresan, G.
(2011). "Phytophthora blight of Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp.]: An updating review of biology, pathogenicity and
disease management," Crop Protection, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 951-
957.
PSA. (2018). Major Crops Statistics of the Philippines - Regional and
Provincial. Retrieved February 5, 2019, from Philippine Statistics
Authority:
https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Major%20Vegetables%2
0and%20Rootcrops%20Quarterly%20Bulletin%2C%20April-
June%202018_1.pdf
Pujari, J., Yakkundimath, R., & Byadgi, A. (2014). Image Processing
Based Detection of Fungal Diseases in Plants. International
Conference in Information and Communication Technologies
(pp. 1802-1808). Elsevier.
Sabrol, H., & Kumar, S. (2015). Recent Studies of Image and Soft
Computing Techniques for Plant Disease Recognition and
Classification. International Journal of Computer Applications,
126(1), 44-55.
scrumalliance. (n.d.). OVERVIEW OF THESCRUM FRAMEWORK.
Retrieved May 5, 2019, from Scrum Alliance:
https://www.scrumalliance.org/ScrumRedesignDEVSite/media
/ScrumAllianceMedia/Files%20and%20PDFs/Agile%20Resource
s/S_OverviewofScrumFrame_1.pdf
Shorten, C., & Khoshgoftaar, T. (2019). A survey on Image Data
Augmentation for Deep Learning. Journal of Big Data, 1-48.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-019-0197-0
Singh, V., & Misra, A. (2017). Detection of plant leaf diseases using
image segmentation and soft computing techniques.
INFORMATION PROCESSING IN AGRICULTURE, 41-49.
Sladojevic, S., Arsenovic, M., Anderla, A., Culibrk, D., & Stefanovic, D.
(2016). Deep Neural Networks Based Recognition of Plant
Diseases by Leaf Image Classification. Computational
Intelligence and Neuroscience, 1-11.
Solberg, S., Taher, D., Prohens, J., Chou, Y.-y., Rakha, M., & Wu, T.-h.
(2017). World Vegetable Center Eggplant Collection: Origin,
Composition, Seed Dissemination and Utilization in Breeding.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 8(1484), 1-12.
Statista. (2018). Eggplant production in the Philippines from 2011 to
2016. Retrieved February 9, 2019, from Statista:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/752222/philippineseggplant-production/
Sun, C., Mao, S. L., Zhang, Z. H., Palloix, A., Wang, L. H. and Zhang, B.
X. (2015). "Resistances to anthracnose (Colletotrichum
acutatum) of Capsicum mature green and ripe fruit are
controlled by a major dominant cluster of QTLs on chromosome
P5," Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 181, pp. 81-88.
Sylvester, G. (2015). Success Stories on Information and
Communication Technologies for Agriculture and Rural
Development. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations.
Taher, D., Solberg, S., Prohens, J., Chou, Y.-y., Rakha, M., & Wu, T.-h.
(2017). World Vegetable Center Eggplant Collection: Origin,
Composition, Seed Dissemination and Utilization in Breeding.
Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1-12. Retrieved from doi:
10.3389/fpls.2017.01484
Tete, T., & Kamlu, S. (2017). Plant Disease Detection Using Different
Algorithms. Proceedings of the Second International
Conference on Research in Intelligent and Computing in
Engineering, 10, pp. 103-106. Gopeshwar.
Verma, T., & Dubey, S. (2017). Paddy Disease Recognition using
Image Processing and Radial basis Function Network. Indian
Journal of Science and Technology, 10(46), 1-17.
Walliser, J. (2014). 9 Diseases Killing Your Eggplant. Retrieved April
10, 2019, from Hobby Farms: https://www.hobbyfarms.com/9-
diseases-killing-your-eggplant-4/
Wesely, A., & Faminow, M. (2014, December). Background Paper:
Research and Development and Extension Services in
Agriculture and Food Security. Retrieved January 28, 2019, from
Asian Development Bank:
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/151701/e
wp-425.pdf
WorldBank. (2018). Employment in Agriculture. Retrieved January
27, 2019, from The World Bank:
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?context
ual=default&end=2018&locations=PH&start=2013&view=chart
STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION, HEALTH-SEEKING BEHAVIORS
AMONG MOST-AT-RISK POPULATION AND PERSONS LIVING
WITH HIV/AIDS, AND CARING BEHAVIORS OF
NURSES: BASES FOR TOOL DEVELOPMENT
Janet Alexis A. De Los Santos
Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing Science
ABSTRACT
The study aimed to develop and validate a tool on HIV Stigma and Discrimination and
Health-Seeking Behaviors Among Persons Living with HIV and the Most-at-Risk
Population, and a tool to measure the Nurse behaviors on nurses caring for the highrisk
groups and PLHIV. The study utilized a sequential exploratory mixed-method
design. The qualitative phase utilized phenomenological inquiry on the three groups
where key informants were recruited through purposive sampling. The data
gathering was done through focus group discussion among the PLHIV participants,
and the face-to-face interview was utilized to gather data on the MARP and nurseparticipants.
The study also utilized Aesthetic integration where the participants
were asked of their understanding on the concepts through a draw-and-talk
sequence to triangulate the qualitative results of this study. Data was gathered
through the use of an audio recorder with approval from the research participants.
The transcripts were transcribed and translated into English and analyzed using a
transcendental phenomenological approach. The narratives were returned to the
informants for member checking. Three tools were devised from the narratives of
the three groups. Revisions were made as recommended by the subject matter
experts and selected participants who validated the instruments on its structure and
content. The revised instruments were field-tested using Surveymonkey, which was
sent to emails and social media accounts of qualified participants. The use of
questionnaires was also employed to gather nurse participants' profile. A total of 400
nurses, 100 PLHIV, and 100 MARP is suitable for factor analysis. The three
instruments [HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF) Scale;
Health-Seeking Behaviors of PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (HSB-PHG) Scale; and Nurse
Behaviors towards PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB-PHG) Scale] developed in this
study showed very high validity coefficients. However, the low- reliability coefficient
of the HSB-PHG Scale suggests the need for revisions and rewording of items to
improve the instrument further. The HIV SAD-HF and NB-PHG scales were able to
yield a high-reliability coefficient making these two instruments valid and reliable
measurements to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and the nurse behaviors
towards the PLHIV and high-risk groups.
Keywords: caring behavior, health-seeking behaviors, High- risk groups, HIV stigma,
nurses, PLHIV, tool development
INTRODUCTION
The concept of stigma and discrimination from various
literature illuminates the demoralizing experiences of PLHIV in
different situations including public places, workplaces, schools, and
even in hospitals.
In a public statement of UNAIDS Confronting Discrimination
conveyed how stigma, discrimination, exclusion, and inequality
increase the vulnerability of those who have been living with
HIV/AIDS for many years. With this, the PLHIV’s experience are
limited to access to health care services such as screening and testing,
preventive measures, diagnostic procedures, and other forms of
therapeutic modalities. Due to stigma and fear of discrimination,
many PLHIVs avoid seeking medical assistance, which contributes to
2.4 times more likely to delay treatment until they experience
complications (UNAIDS, 2017b).
A variety of instruments were developed in trying to
contextualize the concept of stigma and discrimination as
experienced by the HIV positive person himself.
Some measurements assess the stigma and discrimination of
the families and carers of a PLHIV, as well as the healthcare team
whose profession is dictated to provide caring and healing for
patients regardless of the contagiousness of their disease. Others
also tried to capture the attitudes and behaviors, particularly
regarding coping and responses, as well as the caring behaviors
nurses have in dealing with a PLHIV.
The cases of HIV-related stigma exist in healthcare settings
continue to cause adverse effects on the health and well-being of a
person with HIV/AIDS. Discrimination as the precursor of stigma may
come in forms of denial of services, misinformation, requiring thirdparty
authorizations for the provision of services, and lack of privacy
and confidentiality compromising the fundamental role of health
workers as patient advocates (Joint United Programme on HIV/AIDS
(UNAIDS), 2017a)
Stigma and discrimination are critical issues affecting the
efforts of the Department of Health (DOH) in the country towards
reducing the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs),
particularly HIV/AIDS. In the country, the most denouncing forms of
stigma and discrimination to a PLHIV are gossiping, verbal and
physical harassment, and exclusion in social activities. Some are
deprived of access to a job, health, and education (Trinidad, et al.,
2011). It was also found how internal stigma associated with shame
and guilt becomes more perturbing to a PLHIV when compared to a
stigma received from others.
Various studies identified the detrimental consequences of
stigma and discrimination (SAD) to the overall quality of life among
PLWHA who experienced discouragement to disclose and seek
medical attention, fear of getting tested for infection, refusal to get
counseling and other health-related services, resulting to poor health
outcomes (Sayles, et al., 2007). Furthermore, the consequences of
lack of disclosure hinder the learning of appropriate health
information and preventive measures, which leads to the widespread
uncontrolled infection predisposing the entire population to the risks
of acquiring HIV.
Eastern Visayas (Region VIII), Philippines was also not spared
with the rising incidence of HIV. Based on the new index released by
the region's Department of Health, a total of 365 persons from the
province tested positive of HIV ever since its first case way back in
1984. However, due to the paucity of evidence within the local
context that highlights the views, thoughts, perceptions, emotions,
and feelings among most-at-risk population and PLHIV, it is
imperative to the nursing profession to continuously embrace the
Nightingale Oath that respects persons’ uniqueness and
distinctiveness with a multiplicity of needs. On the other note, there
is a need for nurses to imbibe quintessential caring attributes in
caring for PLHIV to understand the real- life experiences further and
transcend those realms into more specific essences and meanings.
Paradigm of the Study
Stigma and discrimination are interrelated concepts where
one is existent with the other. The two concepts were assessed from
the two separate groups who can best describe as to how they
interpret the concept based on their experience and understanding.
The first group included the MARP and PLHIV, who were the
recipients of care. The nurses, on the other hand, are the second
group, being care providers.
The MARP and PLHIV were asked of their Health-seeking
behaviors and their assessment of the nurses’ caring behaviors. This
provided a more in-depth understanding of the essentiality of an
effective nurse-patient relationship as experienced by the MARP and
PLHIV. Similarly, the nurses were assessed on their lived experiences
on the concepts of stigma and discrimination among PLHIV and
MARP as well as their caring behaviors towards these groups. The
participants were made to explore if these qualities are existent in
their practice as care providers. The responses of both groups were
consolidated to form an instrument that measures HIV Stigma and
Discrimination among MARP and PLHIV.
Statement of the Problem
This sequential exploratory mixed-method study aimed to
explore the experiences of stigma and discrimination and caring
behaviors of nurses with an end view of developing tool
measurements grounded on the phenomenon of interest. The
following set of research questions was utilized to guide the study to
achieve the envisioned purpose. Specifically, the following questions
were sought:
In the initial phase of the study, particularly on qualitative
exploration, the questions were:
1. How do the most-at-risk population, persons living with HIV/AIDS
and nurses view stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS from the
critical lens?
2. How do the most-at-risk population, persons living with
HIV/AIDS, describe their health-seeking behaviors from the
critical lens?
3. What are the required quintessential caring behaviors of nurses
towards the most-at-risk population and persons living with
HIV/AIDS?
4. What are the themes, categories, and descriptors definitive for
stigma/discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring
behaviors illuminated from the experiences of the most-at-risk
population, PLHIV, and nurses?
5. How do the Most-at-risk population (MARP), persons living with
HIV/AIDS, and nurses portray stigma and discrimination (SAD)
through aesthetic voice?
It is aimed to test the instruments in assessing SAD, Health
seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors. The following research
questions will be addressed in this phase:
1. What are the factors associated with stigma and discrimination,
health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors as identified in
the factor analysis of the instrument data?
2. What are the reliability scores of the instrument?
3. What is the content validity evidence scores of the instrument?
Mixed-Method Research Questions:
The results of the QUAL-QUAN Phase will be presented
through a combination guided by the question below:
1. What is the value of the qualitative component in designing the
Stigma and Discrimination, Health Seeking behaviors, and Caring
behavior instruments using mixed-method design?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study followed an exploratory Mixed-Method approach,
specifically the sequential exploratory by Creswell and Plano Clark
(2011). A mixed-method involves the combination of pre-designed
qualitative and quantitative data collection in a single study carefully
planned by the researcher, ensuring congruence throughout the
research process (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011; Halcomb, et al.,
2009).
The sequential exploratory mixed method design is guided by
logical approaches in the collection, analysis, and integration of both
quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (Creswell and Plano
Clark, 2010). The distinct flow of this study, beginning from the
qualitative inquiry towards a quantitative approach, characterizes
the sequential exploratory design.
The steps that were observed in this design specific to this
study included:
1. Qualitative exploration;
2. Tool development, and
3. Quantitative / Psychometric testing
Qualitative Exploration:
A. Transcendental Phenomenological Inquiry
For qualitative exploration, a transcendental
phenomenological inquiry was used as it views the phenomenon of
ever-changing patterns and mechanisms that transcends overtime to
facilitate an in-depth and critical understanding of the circumstances.
The epoche "requires a new way of looking at things, a way
that requires that we learn to see what stands before our eyes, what
we can distinguish and describe" (Moustakas, 1994). Epoche is a
process where the researcher avoids preconceived biases and
understanding of the phenomenon of interest because the
experiences require new ways of looking at things.
The next stage is the transcendental-phenomenological
reduction, where "a complete description is given of its essential
constituents, variations of perceptions, thoughts, feelings, sounds,
colors, and shapes" (Moustakas, 1994) about the phenomenon of
interest.
The last stage is an imaginative variation that aims "to grasp
the fundamental essences of experience" (Moustakas, 1994). In this
stage, the researchers and participants profess a unifying synthesis
that represents the phenomenon as a form of "textural-structural
synthesis of meanings and essences of the phenomenon or
experience being investigated" (Moustakas, 1994).
B. Aesthetic Integration: Aesthetic Voice (AV)
Aesthetic integration in this research is the mixing of an
actual illustration (aesthetic expression) and the explanation of the
artist behind his creative work.
Aesthetic expression + explanation = Aesthetic voice
The aesthetic voice (AV) session is a method of gathering
data on a topic of interest. The participants, through their art
outputs, conveyed their understanding and creative expressions
through a drawing, painting, or a caricature presenting their aesthetic
expressions to give meaning to the concepts of interest.
The phenomenon of interest of the researcher – stigma and
discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors of
nurses using those selected approaches can offer a sense of direction
and clarity on specific definitive statements towards the
development of tools to measure the phenomenon under
investigation.
Participants of the Study
Description of the Sample Population
There were three qualitative samples used in Phase I of this
study. Sixteen (16) PLHIVs, five from the MARPs: Key Population -
MSM, and 17 Filipino registered nurses, or a total of 37 participants
all in all.
Sampling Technique for Phase 1
Purposive sampling was the method of sampling employed
in Phase 1 of this study. This is best defined as the deliberate
collection of data from selected sources to answer research
objectives (Gentles, et al., 2015). The sampling technique employed
in the qualitative portions was based on the selected methodological
approach, where sample size calculation is not necessary.
Hence, the selection of interview participants was done
purposefully using an intensity strategy. The target sample size is
n=15 for MARP and PLHIV and n=15 for nurses. This decision to target
this sample size is consistent with Creswell's (2013) sample size
recommendation.
Qualitative Research Locale
The study was conducted in the Eastern Visayas (Region VIII),
Philippines. The Eastern Visayas Region is composed of the Islands
Leyte, Samar and Biliran.
Instrumentation
In this part of the study, the researcher served as the main
instrument for data gathering. It was her role to conduct the
interview and the FGDs to the participants. The transcendental
phenomenological inquiry was used by the researcher to analyze the
collected data.
There were two interview instruments devised for exclusive
use for nurses and the MARP/PLHIV groups. The first interview
instrument was used during the interview with nurses. The following
concepts were covered, including experiences, thoughts, feelings,
and views on stigma and discrimination and caring behaviors towards
the MARP and PLHIV. On the other hand, the interview guide for the
MARP/PLHIV included questions on experiences, thoughts, feelings,
and views on stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS, and healthseeking
behaviors. The questionnaires were crafted using openended
questions to gather the necessary data and, at the same time,
allow for additional probing to gather additional information for
enhancement, depth, and significance. The researcher provided art
materials for the AV session.
Data Gathering Procedures
1. After the study has been reviewed and approved by the SPUP
dissertation committee, the researcher submitted the paper for
institutional approval by the SPUP Graduate School Dean.
2. After securing the approval from the graduate school dean, the
issuance of an endorsement from an ethics review board (ERB)
was applied by the researcher. As soon as clearance from the ERB
was received, the researcher proceeded to the three HIV
treatment hubs (Eastern Visayas Regional Medical Center,
Hilongos District Hospital and Ormoc City Health Office) and
personally discussed with the administration the intention to
conduct the research and conferred its importance, thus,
received an administrative clearance.
3. However, upon discussion, it appeared that the Ormoc City
Health Office and Hilongos District Hospital as HIV treatment
hubs are not qualified for this study primarily because the in
charge of testing and handling of patients is not a nurse but a
physician. The researcher decided to focus the collection for
nurse-participants in Eastern Visayas Regional Medical Center
(an HIV treatment hub) and added Divine Word Hospital. Divine
Word Hospital is the largest private tertiary teaching and training
hospital in Region VIII and could also care for patients with HIV
and AIDS.
4. The researcher was requested by both private and government
hospitals to present a capstone proposal of the research
highlighting the purpose, objectives, and the data gathering
procedure of the study. The forum was held in the nursing service
office with the nursing administrators as the audience. The
researcher was granted a clearance to conduct the study in their
respective nursing units after intensive discussion with the
nursing heads. A subsequent endorsement was forwarded to
their respective Institutional Review Board (IRB) for a thorough
ethical review, which the researcher was subjected to present
and propose in front of the board for questions that required
immediate answers.
5. After discussion with the IRBs of the hospital was done, the
researcher proceeded to data collection soon after receiving the
permit to conduct the study.
6. Before every session, the researcher underwent a bracketing
process to avoid preconceived ideas, misconceptions,
misunderstandings, and biases about the phenomenon of
interest that will be discussed with the participants. The
researcher wrote down in a specific journal, the inferences,
feelings, thoughts, and psycho- emotive references. This process
refers to epoche, as suggested by Moustakas (1994).
7. The researcher prepared three sets of Participant Information
Sheets, which were provided to the nurse, PLHIV, and MARP
groups. The information sheet was presented to all participants
of this study to certify that their participation is voluntary and
that they were informed of the details of the study and their roles
and expectations. The participants were informed that an audio
recorder would be used during the interview to facilitate the data
recording.
For nurses, the researcher approached each key informant
individually. The researcher oriented the selected participants with
the study and obtained their approval to join as an informant. Using
the semi-structured questionnaire, the researcher asked questions
on the nurses' lived experience in caring for a PLHIV and MARP. They
were asked how they perceive the concepts of stigma discrimination
and their caring behaviors toward a MARP/PLHIV.
For MARP participants, both the individual and group MARP
sessions started with securing informed consent. Each of them was
informed on what the study is about, and the voluntary role they will
do as a participant.
For PLHIVs, the researcher, with the help of the support
group leaders, gathered their members in a conference room in one
of the beach resorts in Tacloban. The researcher had a preliminary
discussion with the leaders regarding the intention and purpose of
the study. The researcher emphasized the need for PLHIV volunteers
who are willing to discuss their lived experience of stigma and
discrimination in the health care setting and if these leaders can
recruit their members who will agree to participate. On the day of
the scheduled FGD, the researcher introduced herself and discussed
to the group the intention and purpose of the study. Informed
consent was secured after the participants have unanimously
understood and agreed to participate in the FGD.
Data Analysis
The transcriptions underwent the reading and rereading
process to identify embossed patterns that emerged from the data
relevant to the concept of stigma, discrimination, health-seeking
behaviors, and caring behaviors. Each transcribed data was
coded/indexed and named according to the corresponding concept.
The researcher used an eclectic coding method with a repertoire of
values and emotions codes.
The codes were grouped and clustered into one, along with
the other narratives sharing the same thought or meaning. The
researcher reviewed the similarities and dissimilarities of the
codes/transcripts and selected the highly relevant codes and
categorized them into sections or themes. The themes were then
analyzed in terms of their interconnections between and among the
other concepts in this study. Qualitative content and thematic
analysis were the appropriate approaches in analyzing the qualitative
data that were gathered in this study because it used a systematic
process of coding, finding meaning, and thematization in order to
describe a concept in a social context (Alhojailan and Ibrahim, 2012;
Vaismoradi, et al., 2013).
A variation was performed by initiating the analysis with
overarching themes to facilitate a thematic, and cohesive description
of the participants' lived experiences. This strategy was also useful
for item development of the instruments/tools to measure the
concepts Stigma and Discrimination, Health-Seeking behaviors, and
Caring behaviors, which are the ultimate purpose of this study.
Using the output from the interviews and AV, the researcher
illuminated the individual textual-structural analysis of each lived
experience of a participant. The imaginative variation through the
textual-structural synthesis of the essences and meanings was
utilized to described the lived experiences of the nurses, MARP, and
PLHIV.
In conducting qualitative research, it is imperative to adhere
to the quality criteria set in conducting qualitative research, which
includes (1) Credibility, (2) Transferability, (3) Dependability, (4)
Confirmability, and (5) Reflexivity (Korstjens and Moser, 2017). In
doing this, the researcher ensured that all participants in the study
are the most qualified to provide credible information in order to
strengthen the confidence and credibility or trustworthiness of the
results.
Triangulation through the use of Aesthetic Voice as another
methodological approach in enhancing data collection hastened the
trustworthiness of this research. Furthermore, credibility is ensured
because the participants scored the validity of the developed
instrument. Transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the
data were achieved by ensuring the richness of data through
saturation following the acceptable standards of data analysis
without the bias from the researcher.
Taking down of own reflexive notes relevant to the
encounter with the interviewees and thoughts during the process of
data gathering was a means to maintain self-awareness of the
researcher, which minimized biases and wrong interpretation of the
gathered data.
Tool Development
The preliminary qualitative products of phase 1 were
integrated into the tool development or instrument building phase of
the study. Specifically, the tool development consisted of two steps:
1) the transcripts and other qualitative findings were utilized as a
guide in the item development of the instruments to assess stigma
and discrimination, health-seeking behaviors of the PLHIV and MARP,
and the caring behaviors of nurses towards the MARP and PLHIV, and
2) pilot testing of the tools.
Face and Content Validity of the Instruments
The researcher lifted transcripts from the overarching
themes of the participants’ interview results and utilized them as
items for tool development. The researcher meticulously selected
the embossed transcripts and removed those with similar content
and meaning so that unique items were added to the list on the tool
being developed. The researcher was able to develop three tools,
namely: (1) HIV Stigma and Discrimination in health facilities (HIV
SAD-HF) Questionnaire; (2) Health-seeking behaviors among PLHIV
and high-risk groups (HSB-PHG) Questionnaire; and (3) Caring
behaviors of nurses among PLHIV and high-risk groups (CBN-PHG)
Questionnaire.
The initial instruments were validated by participant
volunteers, experts in the field of instrument development, and
nursing experts, particularly those with backgrounds on HIV and AIDS
and Caring.
The analysis for Content Validity Index (CVI) was performed
by using a checklist where the participants can indicate their level of
agreement or disagreement using a three-point scoring on the
relevance of entries in the newly formulated HIV SAD-HF
Questionnaire; (2)HSB-PHG Questionnaire, and the (3) CBN-PHG
Questionnaire. They were made to validate by agreeing or
disagreeing with the entries provided in the tool using a 3-point scale
on the relevance and criticality of each statement found in the
proposed instrument.
Psychometric Testing
Data Gathering Procedure for Quantitative Phase
The quantitative data collection consisted of the following
procedure: 1) recruit a larger sample of different individuals
(MARP/PLHIV and Nurses caring for MARP and PLHIV), and 2)
administer the instrument. The researcher followed the five
responses per item guideline consistent for factorial analysis (De
Vellis, 2012). Gutterman (2015) suggests that if the tool produces 34
Likert-type response items, the minimum target sample size of 170
responses must be allowed for adequate analysis (Gutterman, 2015).
For this study, the researcher was able to yield more than the
targeted number of samples.
1. Recruitment and Sampling of Participants for Quantitative Phase.
To facilitate the recruitment of large samples, the researcher
opted to conduct the survey via Surveymonkey. A snowball
method of participant selection was done for the three groups.
Details on the recruitment per group are discussed as follow:
Nurses. The recruitment of nurses was done in different
strategies. Initially, the researcher approached her nurse friends to
answer the online link, which afterward was forwarded to other
nurses in their workstations.
MARP and PLHIV. The use of random sampling to get the
participants among the MARP and PLHIV groups is not possible
because they are socially closeted. Snowballing was the best method
to arrive at the desired number of participants in this study.
SurveyMonkey application was the method of choice to facilitate the
collection. The online link to the questionnaire was forwarded to the
different HIV support groups, HIV treatment hubs, and other similar
advocacy groups visible online. Using her Facebook and Twitter
accounts, the researcher personally asked permission from
individuals who have disclosed as HIV+ or into MSM and other risky
sexual behaviors to participate in the study. The researcher also
asked referrals from the participants from their social circle.
Aside from their consent to participate, the researcher set
several inclusion criteria for both MARP and PLHIV. The inclusion
criteria set for the MARP include: (1) of legal age; (2)has a history or
on current high-risk sexual practice such as unprotected sex, multiple
sex partners, transactional sex, or use of injectable prohibited drugs;
(3) has a history of consultations with a health care facility related to
complaints of reproductive or sexual health. The inclusion criteria for
PLHIV are: (1) of legal age, (2) diagnosed as HIV+ through HIV testing.
The PLHIV support groups operating in the country were contacted
and oriented with the study. The researcher requested the group for
assistance in reaching to their members to participate in filling out
the online questionnaire
Data Analysis for Quantitative Phase
The Stata version 15 software was used to facilitate the
quantitative analysis of the instrument measurement model. Analysis
of the measurement model consisted of three procedures:
A. Descriptive statistics. Using frequency and percentage was used
for the validity attributes of the tools.
A.1. Face Validity
As defined, face validity is the characteristic of an instrument
to be relevant and fit for the targeted population. It involves the
critical review of a particular instrument. (Arafat et al.,2016).
In this study, the researcher returned to the participants
(MARP AND PLHIV) and presented the final tool for their comments,
especially on the relevancy, clarity, and appropriateness of the item
included in the tool. Based on the response received by the
researcher, the general instructions and all items included in the
devised tool were understandable, hence, demonstrating
appropriate face validity.
In order to achieve a concrete face validity of the devised
instrument, the researcher returned to the participants and opted to
consult from the panel of subject matter experts (SME) personally
and via email. The tools were forwarded to experts in the field of
nursing science, caring behaviors, HIV/AIDS care, research
instrumentation, statistics, and the English language.
The experts were asked to comment on the structure and
organization of the instrument, as well as the appropriateness of item
statements included in the tool.
A.2. Content Validity
Content validity was used to assess the content validity of the
instruments: (1) HIV Stigma and Discrimination in health facilities
(HIV SAD-HF) Questionnaire; (2) Health-seeking behaviors among
PLHIV and high-risk groups (HSB-PHG) Questionnaire; and (3) Caring
behaviors of nurses towards PLHIV and high-risk groups (CBN-PHG)
Questionnaire. The experts were asked to evaluate each item of the
instrument using the following scale:
1 - not representative: may be deleted
2 - somewhat representative: may be included
3 - entirely representative: must be included
The Content Validity Index of items (I-CVI) and Content
Validity Index of the scale (S-CVI) were computed respectively,
guided by the protocol observed by Rodrigues, Adachi, Beattie, and
MacDermid (2017). The I-CVI was computed by determining the
number of experts who scored 3 (entirely representative: must be
included) on an item divided by the total number of experts. The I-
CVI was scored following the standard where the values range from
0 to 1. An I-CVI > 0.79, the item is considered relevant. For values
between 0.70 and 0.79, the item needs revisions and will be revised
on its second version, and if the value is below 0.70, the item is
eliminated. The S-CVI was computed following the Average S-CVI
computation. This is performed by summing up the I-CVI, divided by
the total number of items. A value of S-CVI (Ave) of ≥ 0.9 indicates
excellent content validity.
B. Factor Analysis
The researcher referred to two separate tests to determine
the adequacy of the samples before Factor analysis. The Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test of sphericity were utilized
to assess the appropriateness. The KMO test ranges from 0-10. All
indices greater than five is considered acceptable. Bartlett's test with
a significance of (p<.05) is considered adequate for factor analysis.
C. Internal consistency reliability evaluation using coefficient alpha
(Cronbach, 1951)
The scales HIV SAD-HF, HSB-PHG, and CBN-PHG underwent a
reliability test. The researcher set a standard of acceptability of the
scale using the value coefficient of 0.8. A more detailed explanation
of the analysis was presented in the results section of this paper.
Mixed-Method Integration
The results on both quantitative and qualitative phases
underwent final merging integration through a joint display (Fetters
et al., 2013) to determine congruence and divergence of both results.
A. Qualitative Findings
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Composite Textural-Structural Description of PLHIV lived experience
of Stigma and Discrimination
Persons living with HIV hold a variety of experiences where
their profound feelings towards themselves, towards others, and life
are deeply rooted. One of the challenges common to a newly
diagnosed PLHIV is their body's response to the ARV medication. The
ordeal of physical reactions and other undesirable side effects, which
include lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting, itchiness,
hypersensitive skin reactions, and behavioral changes are reported.
The multitude of feelings toward themselves includes feelings of
regret on the risky behaviors they did on their younger self. Most of
the PLHIVs interviewed were aware of their risks of getting infected
because of unprotected sex with multiple partners met through
online dating sites and other transactional sex opportunities that are
readily available. However, some were plain "victims of love,"
engaging in unprotected sex with their partner who hid their HIV
status from them.
The reality of being a newly diagnosed PLHIV is a complicated
process of self-acceptance. Initially, there is a surge of complex
negative feelings towards self, such as self-stigma, denial, misery,
anguish, hate, self-loathing, self-pity, discouragement, helplessness,
hopelessness, isolation, confusion, hate, vengeance, torment, and
may lead to suicidal ideation. This will be followed by their feelings
towards others, with them being the core of sorrow. Worrying on
how others (family, friends, and community) might think of them is
where feelings on the fear of rejection and abandonment set in.
A multitude of feelings is experienced by a PLHIV when
relating to others. Most of them felt stigmatized at the time they
were diagnosed as HIV+ while admitted to the hospital. Apart from
self-stigma, they felt demoralized by some of the behaviors and
attitudes of their care providers. Some have even experienced
gender discrimination.
There are several ways a PLHIV copes with his new life.
Health-seeking behaviors such as submitting for a health check-up in
a health facility, self-medication; information-seeking through
internet research and reading of articles related to HIV; asking from
a friend who has the knowledge, and consulting a doctor are few of
their activities.
Self-forgiveness is the key to the formation of the different
coping behaviors in a PLHIV. Some PLHIVs were able to achieve selfforgiveness
before receiving the acceptance of their family. However,
most of them gained the forgiveness and understanding of their
families before their self-acceptance. Family serves as a motivation
and a source of strength in redeeming their self-worth.
Based on the narratives of the PLHIV participants, the
researcher was able to draw the key manifestations and root causes
of their self-stigma. The root causes are (1) Lack of support, (2) Selfcondemnation,
and (3) Disease process. The three (3) key
manifestations are lifted from the influence of these three sources. It
is believed that the interaction of these three sources results in the
manifestations of self- stigma.
There are five structures identified in the lived experience of
a PLHIV. They include the structure of causality, time, self, and others.
The structure of causality pertains to the different sources of
stigma and discrimination. Generally, stigma can be retracted from
the environment and the self. The self can be a source of stigma.
Anxiety and fear of rejection or anticipatory grief-preconceived
rejection are the root causes of self-stigma. On the other hand, the
environment where the PLHIV socialized may refer to their friends,
neighbors, and even their own families. Unfortunately, the Philippine
culture today does not still understand HIV. Perhaps this situation is
because of the stigma that connotes sexual promiscuity in HIV as a
disease.
The structure of bodily concern pertains to the bodily
responses to the course of the disease and the ARV therapy. Most of
the PLHIV were diagnosed late, which was why most were diagnosed
during hospitalization when they have already manifested the
presence of opportunistic infections.
Most of the PLHIVs are conscious of their health. As HIV
patients, they are prone to acquiring infections, which is why they
need to maintain optimum health condition. This condition may
include adherence to ARV treatment, exercise, a healthy diet,
multivitamin supplementation, and refusing alcohol, smoke, and
other vices and stress-inducing activities.
It also appears that being gay (especially overt) can be a
source of discrimination. Most of the PLHIVs (gay) experienced being
presumed as an HIV+ patient even before testing positive.
The structure of time pertains to the process of acceptance.
Most of the PLHIVs find it hard to reach this phase because of the lack
of support system. This process is especially true when they are still
experiencing physical weakness because of their body's response to
their illness and their therapy.
However, it is noteworthy how a PLHIV starts to believe in
themselves and regain self-reliance upon reaching good health. Selflove
leads to self-acceptance, and self-acceptance leads to the
acceptance of others.
The structure of the self is multifaceted. Common to PLHIV is
self-stigma. They blame themselves and considers HIV as a
punishment for their bad behaviors. They isolate themselves as a
means of protection out of fear of being tagged as a person with HIV.
Being able to resolve trust issues with own self and others is the main
ingredient towards readiness for acceptance and moving on. The self
must be able to take courage to adjust to a new life. The self must be
able to gain enough motivation and strength in picking up himself,
realizing, living, and believing.
The structure of others refers to the different persons
involved in a PLHIVs social circle. This may include their support
system - family, friends, and their neighborhood; their employer;
their school; and the health care team (the hospital staff, doctors,
and nurses). This structure may have two different effects on a PLHIV.
Either a source of discrimination or a means of motivation. Most of
the experiences point that the structure of others is a source of
stigma, rejection, and discrimination.
From these structures, the researcher was able to find the
meaning and essence of the participants' experience of HIV stigma
and discrimination. Ultimately, a PLHIV yearns for acceptance. In
order to reach the goal of acceptance, a PLHIV must be able to
achieve a task per structure.
The dictates of culture, norms, and religion may be factors of
reluctance, yet these are necessary towards the achievement of selfforgiveness
and acceptance. Second, is the structure of time, which
pertains to the waiting period until full recuperation of mind, body,
and spirit is achieved. Third, is the structure of the self, referring to
the individuals' motivation. Self-efficacy is essential to be developed
by a PLHIV. There must be willingness to move on, and by doing so, it
requires the desire to help and uplift himself. Another structure is
bodily concern. It pertains to the individual's behaviors to reach
optimum health and well-being. To do this, a PLHIV must be able to
achieve appropriate health-seeking behaviors and maintain a healthy
lifestyle.
A PLHIV must be able to resolve issues relating to gender and
sexuality through self-confidence and by practicing moral
uprightness. Furthermore, the last is the structure of others. This
refers to the greatest extent of society. Institutionalizing social justice
through equitability leads to acceptance.
Composite Textural-Structural Description of the MARPs' Lived
Experience of Stigma and Discrimination
The lived experience of the MARP (Key population: MSM) on
stigma and discrimination is rooted in their self-awareness of the risk
of having the disease. This negative impact may be due to the risky
sexual behaviors which are done in the past, that have predisposed
them to the possibility of acquiring the virus. Sexual behaviors,
especially the unprotected multiple sex encounters and infidelity are
the common basis of the risks.
Negative feelings are widespread, especially when ruled with
a conscience in times of bodily weakness and sickness. They are guilt
feelings, self-blame, feeling disturbed, and anxiety before knowing
their HIV status. It is also prevalent among MARP to feel afraid of a
positive result with the thought that they may be rejected by their
families, friends, and the community. This fear is a common reason
hindering a high-risk person from submitting for an HIV test.
Remarkably, the majority of the MARP are eager to submit for testing
because of the desire to know their status.
The health sector-related concerns are divided into two
opposite behaviors - caring and stigmatizing. Pre-testing counseling
was deemed helpful by the MARP. Communicating with them during
the extraction process aids in making them feel more relaxed, less
tense, and provides a sense of hope, mainly that they are guided on
what to do if in case the results will reveal positive. However,
negative behaviors such as gender discrimination, lack of privacy, and
breach of confidentiality, and lack of caring approach also exist in the
health care providers.
From the narratives shared by the MARP participants, the
researcher was able to identify two responses to risk awareness of a
MARP. The MARP's feelings and behaviors rely on his initial
perception of the risks. If he continues to deny his risks, chances are
that his behaviors will be in discord. It means that, he persists doing
high-risk behaviors until such time there will be a run of conscience,
making him feel uneasy. These feelings primarily may come in the
form of guilt and paranoia.
The common structures found in the lived experience of a
MARP are structures of the self, time, and others.
The structure of self pertains to the different sexual
behaviors that have made them susceptible to acquiring the virus.
Self- awareness of the chances or possibly having the virus served as
the driving force of a MARP to submit for a check, especially when he
is accompanied by a friend. This finding is unique because the
motivation was derived from a friend and not from a family member.
A multitude of negative feelings was likewise taking control
of the self, especially before and during the actual testing. Feelings
transcend from self-doubt, self-blame, anxiety, discouragement,
paranoia until they are told of a negative result. Only then, when
feelings of relief sets in. The structure of time pertains to how the
present society becomes lax and lenient to sexual promiscuity. The
influence of social media and access to the internet has transformed
connectivity much more comfortable with a potential sex partner
right at the fingertips.
The structure of others pertains to the people that MARP
interacts with. This structure includes their family and friends and the
health care workers. Based on the experience of the MARP, these
people can be a source of motivation or a source of stigma and
discrimination.
Composite Textural-Structural Description of Nurses’ Behaviors in
Caring for High-Risk Patients and PLHIV
The majority of nurses during their lived experience in caring
for persons with HIV were brimming with different feelings and
behavior. A dichotomy between positive feelings and negative
feelings can be seen in their interaction with their clients. The
positive feelings and behaviors include the feelings of fulfillment,
empathy, trust, concern, respect, open-mindedness, enthusiasm,
humor, compassion, excitement, sensitivity, self-care, connecting,
seeking guidance, mentoring, and the development of the clinical
eye. On the other hand, negative feelings felt by the nurses include
stigma, fear, anxiety, self-doubt, hesitation, refusing to care, lack of
confidence to care, misinterpretation, non-disclosure, gender bias,
unsatisfied nursing role, paternalism, and exhaustion.
The nurses value these feelings as part of their adjustment
process to the work role they are in. They are aware of how and why
reactions of stigma and discrimination may take over their feelings
initially. Along the course of their care and interactions with these
clients, they have realized how their caring behaviors evolved from
negative to positive.
Their lived experience of confronting conflicting feelings
while working with PLHIV made them realize the essentiality of
nursing as a profession of caring. By reorienting them back to their
oath, that is to take care of patients regardless of disease conditions,
nurses were able to realize the importance of their roles in reducing
HIV stigma and discrimination in the workplace. The breadth of the
narratives provided by the nurses was able to provide a picture of
what transpires in the thoughts, views, attitudes, and behaviors of
nurses as they portray their roles as care providers.
There are six structures evident in the lived experience of HIV
stigma among nurses caring for patients with HIV. The structure of
causality for their caring behaviors has been identified by the nurses
in their lived experience in caring for PLHIVs, which includes several
facets. They are preconceived feelings (Stigma) towards HIV, which
may result in outward manifestations of discrimination towards the
person. The misconceptions may be a result of the lack of experience
in caring and feelings of inadequacies that leads to fear. Nurses have
identified how their behaviors are reciprocated by their patients
accordingly.
Several nurses have linked the lack of full disclosures of HIV
status as one of the causes of their stigma to their patients. They
believed full disclosures are helpful in the success of the patientnurse
working relationship. When feelings of apprehension are
minimized, nurses are better able to prepare themselves on the
approach they will utilize in caring for the patient and their family.
This situation could only happen if the patient has fully disclosed his
HIV status to the health care team.
Time and Space structures were ubiquitous in the lived
experience of nurses. These structures relate to the amount of
experience and interactions they made with a PLHIV. Nurses believe
that their behaviors toward a PLHIV are a result of their preparedness
in caring for them. The more prepared they are, the more competent
they feel, and the better caring behaviors they provide. It is related
to the structure of ‘self’.
The structure of relation to self includes two aspects of the
lived experience of nurses. First, this structure relates to their
confidence and competency to care. Another facet found from the
nurses’ lived experience is on how they put a value on nursing as a
profession.
The structure of relation to others has several facets. These
facets are identified as another ground of the nurses' behaviors
based on their lived experience. The first facet is the health care
workers. Health workers interact not only with the team but more
importantly with the patient. Second are the patients’ families who,
at times, may be considered as a hindrance, especially when they are
uninformed of their family members’ HIV status. The third facet is the
colleagues. Co-nurses are crucial to the success of the care team.
Through mentoring and teamwork, senior nurses offer guidance to
their junior nurses by boosting their confidence. Moreover, all nurses
agree on the importance of open communication, mentoring, and
teamwork in the delivery of patient care.
Another structure is the bodily concern which is a typical
structure found in the lived experience of these nurses. Most of these
nurses had an initial intense fear of blood, secretions, and
communicable infections from HIV/AIDS patients. They are
concerned about being infected with the virus and rationalize this
behavior as a precautionary safety measure in acquiring the disease.
In addition, the structure of materiality on the use of PPE may
sometimes be excessive, especially among the first encounters.
However, there is a noticeable change when they have been used to
caring for these types of patients which is usually observed during
their third encounter and onwards.
Views on stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS from the critical
lens of MARP, PLHIV and Nurses
The conducted interviews and focus group discussions with
the three groups facilitated the collection of the qualitative data,
which were analyzed using transcendental phenomenological
reduction.
In answer to this question, the groups view HIV/AIDS stigma
and discrimination as:
MARP
The lived experience of stigma and discrimination among the
MARP sector is one filled with self-directed negative feelings and
association of their gender toward HIV. The awareness of their risk is
the deciding factor for a MARP to subject for HIV screening and
testing. A MARP needs to go through the process of self-admission
(through Self) that they are at risk and resolve their self-stigma (on
the risk of a possible contraction of HIV) before the testing. For
MARPS, they consider friends rather than family as their confidant
during this period of uncertainty while submitting themselves for an
HIV test.
The surge of negative emotions occurs during the actual
submission for testing and this negativity includes feelings of guilt,
self-blame, anxiety, shame, fear of rejection, and even paranoia.
Intersecting on this period are the feelings derived from the
environment. A MARP who tested negative or non-reactive to the HIV
tests remarkably develops positive attitudes in heeding the call to be
advocates on the promotion of HIV screening and safe sexual
practices to combat the incidence of the disease.
PLHIV
The lived experience of stigma and discrimination of a person
living with HIV is one filled with negative emotions and hard life’s
lessons. The complexity of negative feelings being experienced is
because of a variety of sources where stigma can be culled - the self,
family, friends, society, school, workplaces, and even in health care
settings. These sources can be considered as either an inducer or a
deterrent to the experience of stigma.
The sources of stigma are intertwined with the process of
coping. For a PLHIV to cope well with his/her illness, a well- defined
support system must be present. Coping may be a convoluted
process but rather an essentiality that must be experienced by a
person living with HIV as he/she goes through the process of selfforgiveness
and self-acceptance.
Nurses
The lived experience of nurses in caring for suspected and
confirmed HIV+ patients is filled with a multitude of positive and
negative feelings sourced from the self, from the HIV+ patient,
patients’ family, and with the health care team.
Nurses believe that this negative feeling toward PLHIVs is an
initial reaction and is also temporary. Nurses believe that exposure
and having hands-on opportunity to care (Time and Space) for them
contribute in building up their confidence and reducing their stigma.
Moreover, nurses can understand that their stigma towards these
patients is due to their pre- conceived thoughts and feelings towards
HIV, most especially if they have no experience in seeing and caring
for one.
Nonetheless, once a nurse can resolve his/her initial negative
feelings, a surge of positive feelings take over. Besides, a nurse
becomes more open-minded, fulfilled, and he/she develops the
quintessential caring behavior and amiable attitude towards this
sector.
Health-seeking behaviors from the critical lens of MARP and PLHIVs
MARP
A MARP considers health-seeking behavior as their response
in times when they are in doubt with their bodies. Their awareness
of high-risk sexual behaviors makes a MARP feel that a body ailment
is related to HIV. The health-seeking behavior for a MARP is a means
of coping in trying to cure or at least reduce a physical illness
‘perceived as HIV’. Initially, denial (as a destructive health behavior)
is evident for a MARP before health-seeking behaviors.
PLHIV
For a PLHIV, health-seeking behavior is achieved after
destructive health behaviors. It is prevalent for a PLHIV to have a
history of denying the need for medical attention. He/she neglects
his/her body and continues with his/her usual high-risk routines until
such time his/her body can no longer fight the infection.
Remarkably, there is a change in health-seeking behavior
after being diagnosed as a PLHIV. This person shows eagerness in
keeping himself to become healthy physically, mentally, and
spiritually, and complies with his/her therapies.
The quintessential caring behaviors of nurses towards the most-atrisk
populations and persons living with HIV
The quintessential caring behaviors towards most-at-risk
population and persons living with HIV/AIDS are the following:
Altruism. It refers to the act of selflessness. This may also
refer to the act of being sensitive and taking the risk for the patient.
Compassion. It refers to the act of showing kindness and
thoughtfulness to a suffering person. These are acts related to
listening, supporting, empathizing, and showing concern to patients.
Confidence. It refers to a disposition to act with credence and
being certain to perform a task.
Connecting. It refers to an act that initiates communication
with another. These acts are related to reaching out to patients,
forming friendships, creating connections, and communicating.
Generosity. it refers to the willingness to offer help and
support. It also refers to the act of sharing.
Humor. It refers to the ability to make things amusing. It
entails removing oneself away from stressful situation.
Mentoring. It refers to teaching a younger colleague on how
to go about a situation. It entails offering guidance on performing
tasks or procedures where a colleague is not deemed competent.
Nondiscrimination. It refers to the act of impartial, unbiased,
and non-prejudiced approach to a patient.
Presence. It refers to the act of offering the self to the patient
which includes being there for the patient, and showing interest or
engagement.
Professional Competence. It refers to the ability to perform a
task or duties with ease and quality. It may refer to the application of
learning, composure, competence, teamwork, and professionalism.
Self-Preservation. It refers to the act of protecting the self
into something that poses a threat or harm. It may refer to
mindfulness, taking caution, and caring for the self.
Themes, categories, and descriptors definitive for stigma,
discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors
illuminated from the experiences of the most-at-risk population,
PLHIV, and Nurses
In answer to this research question, the researcher opted to
present the findings using a table to present organized data. The
table presents the themes, categories and description of Stigma and
Discrimination as defined by the PLHIV and MARP, followed by the
health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors of nurses.
Table 1
Summary of Themes, Categories, and Description of the Key Variables
of the Study
Stigma and Discrimination (PLHIV)
Themes Categories Description
Negative
Facets
Sources of
Coping
Discrimination in the
Family
Discrimination in the
Society
Intense Negative Feelings
(Self)
High-Risk Behaviors
Spirituality (God)
This negative facet is the most
dominant form of discrimination
experienced by the PLHIVs. They
are acts of disownment,
ostracization, rejection, and
violence from their family
members.
The social discrimination includes
the deprivation of the right to
education, reduced employment
opportunities, gossips, lost
friendships, breach of
confidentiality, and bullying, which
may not only be experienced by
the PLHIV but may often include
their family members and relatives
to experience the same.
It is the multitude of feelings
experienced by a PLHIV. The
feeling comes in the form of denial,
misery, regret, hurt, fear of
rejection and abandonment,
neglecting self, feeling crazy, selfblame,
hopelessness, stigma,
losing confidence, depression,
dispiritedness, self- loathing,
disheartenment, worthlessness,
hate, vengeance, mistrust,
dejection, battling alone, isolation
and suicidal ideation.
PLHIVs believe their HIV is a result
of their high-risk behaviors in the
past, as most of them engaged in
unprotected and multiple sex
partners.
In the absence of their family, the
participants consider God as their
ultimate source of hope and
strength.
Health Care
System
Needs *
(*illuminated
through the
AV)
Family
Friends
Co-PLHIVs
Self
Health Care Personnel
Health Facility
Protection of human
rights, Openmindedness
of other
people, Love, Help,
Unity, Equality, Respect,
Nonjudgement,
Acceptance
Nondiscriminatory
treatment
PLHIVs consider their family as
their source of strength and
motivation to fight their illness and
continue living life.
These people are the source of
strength of PLHIVs most especially
when they have been disowned by
their family, or in cases where they
find it hard to confide to them.
Friends represent the second
family.
PLHIVs draw strength, motivation,
and coping from their PLHIV
community. A Co- PLHIV inspires
each other in one goal - to live a
healthy and longer life.
It takes self-forgiveness and selfacceptance
to cope with illnesses
and everyday challenges.
This system refers to the effect of
health care personnel’s negative or
positive attitudes and behaviors in
decreasing HIV’s stigma and
discrimination.
It pertains to the structure, and
protocols observed in the health
care facility that is deemed as a
threat or an area of concern
among the PLHIVs and the MARP.
They include the lack of proper
system in the management of HIV
cases and on maintaining respect
for the patient’s privacy and
confidentiality.
They refer to the needs of PLHIVs
which they perceived and felt that
have been taken away from them
after learning they are HIV+.
Table 2
Summary of Themes, categories, and Description of the Key Variables
of the Study
Stigma and Discrimination
(MARP)
Themes Categories Description
Awareness of
the risk of HIV
Negative
feelings
Health-Seeking
behavior
Health-sector
related issues
Positive feeling
Suggested
strategies to
improve HIV
case finding
unhealthy sexual behaviors
anxiety, nervousness, fear
of rejection, paranoia,
hesitation, doubt,
incognizance, regret, and
self- stigma.
self-medication, seeking
medical attention, selfcaring,
internet search, and
natural remedies
intention of health
personnel
Health Facility
Encouragement,
willingness, confidence,
self- awareness, relief, and
hope.
advocacy, marriage
counseling, public
awareness, family- focused
care, containing the
disease, separate care
These behaviors include highrisk
behaviors such as multiple
sex partners, inconsistent use
of condoms, infidelity, Menhaving-sex
with men, multiple
oral sex partners, and
vindictive behaviors.
These feelings refer to the
variety of negative feelings a
MARP undergoes before and
during the actual submission
for HIV testing
They are the health-seeking
behaviors exhibited by a MARP
in response to a health- related
concern or issue, particularly
those that are
reproductive/sexual healthrelated.
The MARP identified caring
behaviors and attitudes of
health care personnel.
However, there are
stigmatizing behaviors which
they were able to note on their
experience.
The MARP identified several
hospitals or facility policies and
structures that are
stigmatizing.
They are the positive feelings
experienced by MARPs after
knowing they are non- reactive
of HIV.
They are the identified
strategies of the MARP which
are believed to increase the
uptake of HIV screening and
testing.
Reasons for
risky sexual
behavior*
(*illuminated
through the AV)
Doing good*
(*illuminated
through the AV)
team, discreet area of
testing, and training on
handling confidentiality for
health personnel.
Alcohol intoxication, Drug
use, Money, Sexual
promiscuity Lack of
knowledge
on HIV
Giving hope, Developing a
sense of purpose, Advocacy
talks
They are the identified reasons
for the risky sexual behavior of
a MARP
They refer to the intention to
do good of MARP, after finding
out their HIV status. They are
willing to share their
experience with others who
are afraid to get tested.
Table 3
Summary of Themes, Categories, and Description of the Key Variables
of the Study
Health-Seeking Behaviors
(PLHIV & MARP)
Themes Categories Description
Adaptive
healthseeking
behaviors
Self-empowerment
They include boosting health, exercise,
healthy diet, and following treatment
regimen (taking prescribed medications)
Seeking medical
intervention
This behavior refers to the willingness of
the PLHIVs and MARPs in submitting for
a regular check-up especially when they
are feeling ill.
Seeking-God
It refers to relying on spirituality and
believing on miracles.
Self-Medication
It refers to the intake of herbal-based
products, and multiple doses of vitamins.
Information
seeking
It pertains to reading, internet search,
and watching features on HIV.
Joining Learning
Group Sessions
(PLHIV)
(mental health)
Denial
Neglecting Self
Self-isolation
This behavior refers to having a person
they can relate with who shares the
same experience. It also pertains to
maintaining communication with peers.
It is a destructive behavior that refers to
denying a physical ailment, or the need
to seek medical help.
It refers to the act of doing nothing to
alleviate a physical condition requiring
medical attention
It pertains to the act of hiding in isolation
despite physical ailment out of fear of
being found out with a dreadful disease
Table 4
Summary of Themes, Categories, and Description of the Key Variables
of the Study
Nurse Behaviors
Quintessential
Behaviors
Altruism
Compassion
Confidence
Connecting
This behavior refers to the act
of selflessness. This may also
refer to the act of being
sensitive and taking the risk for
the patient.
It refers to the act of showing
kindness and thoughtfulness
to a suffering person. These
are acts related to listening,
supporting, empathizing, and
showing concern to patients.
It pertains to a disposition to
act with credence and to
being certain to perform a
task.
It refers to an act that
initiates communication with
Generosity
Humor
Mentoring
Nondiscrimination
Presence
Professional Competence
Self-Preservation
Gossiping
another. These acts are
related to reaching out to
patients, forming friendships,
creating connection and
communicating
It is the willingness to offer
help and support or the act of
sharing.
It is the ability to make things
amusing. It entails the wit to
remove oneself away from
stressful situations.
It is teaching a younger
colleague on how to go about
a situation. It entails offering
guidance on performing tasks
or procedures where a
colleague
is incompetent to do.
It is the act of impartial,
unbiased, and non-prejudiced
approach to a patient.
It is the act of offering self to
the patient. This includes
being there for the patient,
showing an interest or
engagement.
It pertain to the ability to
perform a task or duties with
ease and quality. This may
refer to the application of
learning, composure,
competence, teamwork, and
professionalism.
It is to the act of protecting
the self into something that
poses a threat or harm. This
may refer to mindfulness,
taking caution, and caring for
the self.
It relates to the act of
habitual revealing personal or
sensational facts about
others. It includes gender
discrimination, backbiting,
Excessive use of PPE
Refusing
Detachment
Discrimination
Nurse’s oath to care and to
Cure, Educator, Holistic
approach, Family- centered,
Community involvement,
Vanguards of health care,
Personal growth
Professional growth
and breach of confidentiality.
It refers to the unnecessary
use of excessive PPE in caring
for patients with HIV/AIDS.
This behavior refers to the act
of expressing oneself as
unwilling to accept. The codes
included in this section are
refusing to care and
hesitation.
It refers to the act of
disinterest, indifference, and
lack of commitment.
It pertains to behaviors that
display selective care,
bullying, anxiety, fear, and
enacted stigma.
They are the roles and
responsibilities nurses believe
they are tasked to do when
caring for their HIV+ patients.
HIV/AIDS Stigma and Discrimination through the MARP, PLHIV and
Nurses aesthetic voice
MARP
The MARP expressed their aesthetic voices explaining their
risk of contracting HIV. The MARP is predisposed to HIV because of
risky behaviors such as engaging in careless sexual activity. While
most of these behaviors may be intentional or unintentional
predisposition such as a sheer lack of knowledge on HIV transmission,
prevention, and treatment can be a cause.
In addition, the MARP experienced gender discrimination
such as being bullied, gossiped, being called a slut or worse being
judged a sinner and that HIV is his/her punishment.
PLHIV
As expressed in the PLHIV’s aesthetic voices, there speaks a
being diagnosed with HIV and the stigma and discrimination attached
to it.
The PLHIV longs for love, acceptance, and respect from
people around him/her and even with his/her peers (co-PLHIVs).
They expressed their need for unity, open-mindedness, especially on
matters that relate to equality and the protection of their rights.
A PLHIV’s feeling evolves from denial, stigma, discrimination,
fear, self-blame, and isolation. However, remarkably, characteristics
of resilience and determination to live become evident after being
able to adapt and cope with their condition. PLHIV’s coping can be
derived from a variety of sources. Most of them take their strength
from God. The family, friends, and support group of a PLHIV play a
vital role in enhancing the coping mechanism of a PLHIV. Besides,
they can accept and forgive themselves if they are aware that they
are loved and accepted. Using their experience of stigma and
discrimination, they get as an inspiration to uphold themselves with
a sense of responsibility.
Nurses
As expressed in their aesthetic voices, the nurses can
understand what a patient with HIV goes through from the physical,
mental, and social challenges after being diagnosed with HIV. They
believe they have an essential role in the formation and achievement
of relevant nursing care that is centered on HIV patients.
The first theme identified was the roles and responsibilities
in HIV Care. Nurses consider their role as carers, which was solidified
as they took their oath as a professional nurse. Nurses are aware of
their essential roles in educating society to avoid discrimination and
remove the stigma of the disease from the PLHIV and HIV.
Nurses also described themselves as vanguards of health
care who provide not only physical but also holistic caring approach.
The most typical qualities in HIV care, which were described
frequently by the nurses, were coded as nondiscriminatory,
accepting, understanding, and connecting. Other qualities were
described as compassion, role model, and advocacy.
B. Quantitative Findings
Validity and Reliability of the devised instruments
1. Nurse Behaviors towards PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB- PHG)
Scale
The developed tool is composed of 17 items that were lifted
from the narratives of the nurses who had hands-on caring
experience with a PLHIV. The tool was face validated by a panel of
international and local subject matter experts and was found to be
relevant, coherent, and appropriate on the construct it intends to
measure.
The Item-Content Validity Index (I-CVI) ranges between 0.80-
1.00, which indicates that the items were very relevant. Further,
upon assessment of the Scale Content Validity Index [Average](S-
CVI), it revealed a 0.95 score, which suggested very high scale validity.
The developed tool revealed five factors after the Exploratory Factor
Analysis. The five constructs are (1) Stigma, (2) Sincerity, (3) Saving,
(4) Sensitivity, and (5) Self-Preservation. The scale has a highreliability
score of α= 0.71.
From a total of 17 items, the tool has the highest possible
score of 85 (using a 5-point Likert Scale) and the lowest score of 17.
The developed tool used following range and the descriptive
interpretation to interpret the scores extracted.
17-39: Undesirable / Stigmatizing behavior
40-62: Mediocre behavior
63-85: Appropriate / Caring behavior
2. Health-Seeking Behavior of PLHIV and High-Risk Group (HSB-
PHG) Scale
The developed scale is composed of 10 items based on the
narratives derived from the interview with MARPs and PLHIVs on
their health-seeking behaviors.
The tool was face validated by five (5) of the participants and
minor revisions were suggested. The participants commented that
the tool is precise in terms of item wording, relevant, and
comprehensive. In terms of its content validity, the developed tool
has an I-CVI score ranging between 0.80-1.00, which suggests that
items are very relevant. The S-CVI score is 0.98, which reveals very
high scale validity.
There were five factors extracted after the Exploratory Factor
Analysis. These are (1) Self-Medication, (2) Seeking information, (3)
Self-concealment, (4) Seeking Medical Attention, and (5) Seeking
Divine Intervention. When assessed with its psychometric properties,
results revealed that a low reliability score of α= 0.57. This suggests a
careful revision of the scale and item rewording or rephrasing.
3. HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF)
Scale
The HIV SAD-HF Scale is composed of 11 items that were
based on the narratives of the care receivers (MARP and PLHIV) and
the care providers (Nurses).
The developed tool was evaluated by participant MARP,
PLHIV, Nurses, and 1 complete Subject Matter Experts in research
instrumentation. The participants expressed that the tool is
appropriate, relevant, and coherent on the construct it intends to
measure.
The tool was examined according to its content validity using
the I-CVI and S-CVI analysis. The results revealed that the I-CVI score
between the range of 0.70-1.00 indicates that the items are relevant.
On the other hand, the S-CVI yields a score of 0.94, which indicates
that the scale is valid.
The psychometric properties of the scale were tested into
two different groups. When the developed tool was tested with the
MARP and PLHIVs, there were two factors that were extracted
following exploratory Factor Analysis. These are the (1) Health Care
Worker and (2) Health Facility. The Cronbach alpha of the scale
presented a very high reliability score of α= 0.91.
The scale is composed of 11 items or the highest possible
score of 55 (using a 5-point Likert Scale). The range and descriptive
interpretation proposed for this scale were:
11-25: low presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
26-40: moderate presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
41-55: high presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
When the developed HIV SAD-HF Scale was tested with
Nurse participants, still there were two factors that were extracted
following the factor analysis. It also yields a high reliability score of α
= 0.88. The main difference however, was on the poor loading of item
no. 9 (health workers use PPE excessively in caring for persons with
HIV) to any of the factors although correlated with Factor 2 (Health
Facility). Because of this non-congruence of the item on its correlated
factor and its initial poor loading to any of the factors, it was
suggested to remove the item so that the items will only have a total
of 10 items.
The suggested scoring scheme for this shall be done using a
5-point Likert scale. The tool will have a total of 50 points as the
highest possible score. The range and descriptive interpretation was
finalized to:
10-22: low presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
23-36: moderate presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
37-50: high presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory
factors in the health facility
Qualitative-Quantitative Findings
The value of the qualitative component in designing the
instruments using mixed-method design relies on the fact that the
items included in the devised tool were organic on the experience of
the participants. Following this premise, it makes the instrument a
legitimate and authentic instrument on the construct it intends to
measure.
Aside from the in-depth interview with the informants, the
use of another data gathering method - aesthetic voice strengthened
and complemented the credibility of the results of this study. As the
participants were made to draw their understanding of the target
concepts, it added more value to the item transcripts that were
generated in formulating the assessment scales. A person’s drawing
or any creative work adds new and insightful ideas on the patient's
perceptions, beliefs, and experiences that may not have been
expressed during the actual face to face interview. It illuminates an
additional understanding beyond those that were verbally expressed
by the person, especially if the topic being discussed is sensitive or a
taboo health experience (Gameiro, Guevarra, Refaie, and Payson,
2018).
CONCLUSION
Despite the decreasing global course of HIV cases, the
Philippines veer otherwise, as evidently seen on its epidemiological
trends of HIV in the country. Although the Philippines is trying its best
to be proactive in curbing the increasing prevalence through the
formulation of programs as a countermeasure, this has afforded a
meager significant change to the increasing cases of HIV in the
country.
A breadth of literature has pointed on stigma and
discrimination as the root cause of a persons’ destructive or
maladaptive health behaviors and non-disclosure of their HIV status.
The high-risk groups prefer not to submit for testing results out of
fear of discrimination, and the lack of education leads to the
continuation of sexually high-risk behaviors, transmitting the virus to
another; hence, the increase of HIV incidence.
HIV stigma and discrimination are the real issues that exist in
health situations. This study provided a picture of the texture and
structures of the lived experiences of nurses who were caring for
patients with HIV. Likewise, the results of this study provided a
deeper understanding of the lived experiences of stigma and
discrimination among the high-risk group and persons living with HIV.
Generally, the experience of stigma and discrimination have not
hindered but instead ignited a burning passion for coping, survival,
and advocacy to make changes happen. Regardless of the negative
disposition as an effect of the negative experience, the PLHIV and
high-risk groups have still accounted their experience of stigma and
discrimination during consultations in health facilities such as
hospitals or health units in their locality. To address this, an
assessment instrument is formulated based on actual experiences of
the care recipients (MARP and PLHIV) and the care providers
(nurses).
The three instruments [HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the
Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF) Scale; Health-Seeking Behaviors of PLHIV
and High-Risk Groups (HSB-PHG) Scale; and Nurse Behaviors towards
PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB-PHG) Scale] developed in this study
showed very high validity scores. However, the low reliability
coefficient of the HSB- PHG Scale implied the need for revisions and
rewording of items to improve the instrument further.
The HIV SAD-HF and NB-PHG scales were able to yield a high
reliability coefficient making these two instruments valid and reliable
measurements to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and the nurse
behaviors towards the PLHIV and high-risk groups.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To those who wish to replicate or extend the findings of this
study, future researchers may take note of these recommendations
for further research based on data, limitations, and methodology.
1. Recommendations to the Researchers
The low reliability coefficient of the HSB-PHG Scale suggests
the need for revisions and rewording of items to improve the
instrument further. The researcher of this study recommends that
future researchers assess the patients who are already in an
advanced stage of HIV, particularly those who are diagnosed as AIDS.
Assessing this group will provide a clearer picture of the presence of
HIV stigma and discrimination in the health facility since AIDS
patients are in-patients who require a more sophisticated or
intensive nursing care.
If the future researcher is interested only among PLHIVs, it is
recommended to capture not only the gays, or bisexuals as
participants. Including female PLHIV will provide another dimension
not included in this study.
Recommendations based on methodology
Integrating Aesthetic Voice as the methodology helps
illuminate thoughts and experiences not expressed during the faceto-face
interview. The researcher recommends the use of this
methodology. However, it will be more helpful, especially in the
results if the majority, if not all of their interviewed participants join
in this session. In doing so, the researcher will have more entries to
analyze, which may provide more quality on the concept they wish to
assess.
Future researchers are also recommended to utilize other
aesthetic means or creative outputs to integrate into their qualitative
assessment. This will allow a different way of expressing the
experience of a phenomenon.
It is also recommended for future researchers to utilize the
validated tool to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and nurse
behaviors in their respective hospital facilities. It is hoped that these
instruments effectively address issues related to HIV stigma and
discrimination between the care recipients and care providers.
Since this study is limited to EFA, the assessment of construct
validity (CFA) of these instruments is also recommended. Future
researchers are encouraged to enhance this instrument by improving
on its validity and reliability coefficients.
2. Recommendation to the Nursing Education
The researcher likewise recommends the findings of this
study to be utilized by the nursing profession particularly on the
importance of reproductive and sexual health education which is a
backbone towards the mitigation and control of the HIV prevalence
in the country. The life lessons shared by both the MARP and PLHIV
will provide an insight on the importance of safe and responsible
sexual practices Similarly, the experiences shared the nurses caring
for this group will inspire nurse aspirants to not fear HIV as a disease
of their patients.
3. Recommendation to the Nursing Practice
The researcher would like to recommend the findings of this
study to the Nursing practice. Learning from the experience of stigma
and discrimination from PLHIV and MARPS proves the fact that there
is a need to improve in terms of dealings with this sector. The findings
of this study may be utilized by the nursing practice to improve their
services without bias, and discrimination to any patient regardless of
their disease condition.
4. Recommendation to the PLHIV Community
The researcher would like to recommend this study to the
PLHIV community especially to the newly diagnosed ones. By reading
the qualitative aspect of this study, they may be provided with an
insight on how other PLHIVs have coped, survived and continued
living life despite their HIV status. May the narratives serve as an
inspiration for them to not give up and go on living a healthy and
productive life.
References
Alhojailan, M. I., & Ibrahim, M. (2012). Thematic analysis: A critical
review of its process and evaluation. WEI International
European Academic Conference Proceedings, 1(2011), 8–21.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X02239569
Creswell, J. W. L., & Clark, V. P. (2010). Choosing a mixed methods
design. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research,
53–106. https://doi.org/1412927927
Department of Health - Epidemiology Bureau. (2018). June 2018
Report. HIV / AIDS & ART Registry of the Philippines.
Department of Health Regional Office VIII. (2018). HIV/AIDS Cases:
Current Situation in Eastern Visayas and Leyte. Tacloban City.
Gentles, S. J., Charles, C., & Ploeg, J. (2015). Sampling in qualitative
research: Insights from an overview of the methods
literature. The Qualitative Report, 20(11), 1772– 1789.
https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950589.n885
Halcomb, E. J., Andrew, S., & Brannen, J. (2009). Introduction to
mixed methods research for nursing and the health sciences.
Mixed Methods Research for Nursing and the Health
Sciences, 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444316490.ch1
Sayles, J. N., Ryan, G. W., Silver, J. S., Sarkisian, C. A., & Cunningham,
W. E. (2007). Experiences of social stigma and implications
for healthcare among a diverse population of HIV positive
adults. Journal of Urban Health, 84(6), 814–828.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9220-4
Trinidad, A., Quinto, D. J., & Naldoza, R. R. (2011). The experiences of
external and internal stigma of HIV positive Filipinos.
Philippine Population Review, 10(1), 49–69.
UNAIDS. (2017). Confronting discrimination. Overcoming HIVrelated
stigma and discrimination in health-care settings and
beyond.
UNAIDS. (2017). Ending AIDS Progress towards the 90-90-90 targets.
Vaismoradi, M., Turunen, H., & Bondas, T. (2013). Content analysis
and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a
qualitative descriptive study. Nursing and Health Sciences,
15(3), 398–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12048
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES AND VALUE
FORMATION OF THE SISTERS OF ST. PAUL OF
CHARTRES IN THAILAND
Sr. Anchulee Intiya, SPC
Master of Arts in Education, Major in School Leadership
ABSTRACT
In Thailand, the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres are members of the
Catholic education system. They are essential in building and
developing human resources according to the philosophy and
direction of Catholic education in the society that is continuously
changing. Therefore, the SPC Congregation has a significant role in
developing the Sisters ready to receive changes both with the position
responsibility, along with the purpose of leadership in education. The
value formation of the Congregation supplements and motivates the
Sisters in recognizing the role of being leaders and followers. The
findings of the study had shown that age, nature of work, years in the
religious life, and years in the ministry could, directly and indirectly,
influence the practice of the transformational leadership style of the
Sisters. As educators, leaders, and administrators of institutions, they
are ready to change. They influence others to change by holding on
the value formation of the SPC Sisters. The Sisters have to continue
enhancing their practice of transformational leadership and deepen
their values through the implementation of the proposed action plan.
The SPC Superior and administrators should continue supporting the
young Sisters to live-out their Paulinian identity and mission, charism,
and responsibility through regular seminars, dialogues, encounters,
and retreats.
Keywords: transformational leadership, value formation SPC
Congregation, SPC Sisters, Paulinian identity and
mission, charism and responsibility
INTRODUCTION
Father Louis Chauvet founded the Sisters of St. Paul of
Chartres (SPC), France, in 1696. He gathered a group of young farm
women, who devoted themselves to looking after the poor, teaching
children to read and write, and nursing the sick, under the instruction
and training of Marie-Anne de Tilly. The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres
came to work in Thailand in 1898 through the invitation of Bishop
Jean-Louis Vey of Siam (Thailand). They served at St. Louis Hospital,
Bangkok. Over time, they took on educational and training works for
youth, social welfare, and services. The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres
began to open the first school in 1905, namely, Assumption Convent
School. The first school is an essential first step in the education of
the Sisters of Chartres in Thailand. The Sisters continue to move
forward until today, to bring the good news of Christ to the Thai
people just like St. Paul, Patron of the Congregation (Information
Technology Department of SPC, Thailand, 2019).
The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres have been working in
Thailand for more than 120 years. At present, there are 226 Sisters
assigned in 36 schools in 11 dioceses in the 20 provinces and Lao
People’s Democratic Republic. There are 22 schools and one
Vocational School for the Disabled, Sikeud belonging to the Sisters of
St. Paul of Chartres, while there are 15 schools and one college which
belong to the Diocese and administered by the SPC Sisters. There are
4,169 teachers and 66,466 students in these schools (SPC Sisters,
Thailand, 2018). The SPC Sisters are also working in two archdiocesan
hospitals, an orphanage for children infected with AIDS, a daycare
center, and a home for the aged as well as a particular school for
tribal minorities. For more than 120 years, the Sisters of St. Paul of
Chartres in Thailand have provided good cooperation between the
Thai government and the Catholic Church. Also, education in schools
is provided according to the ideals of the Congregation. The Thai
Ministry of Education also provides formal acknowledgment of the
quality of teaching in these schools of the Congregation. Moreover,
many of the schools of the Congregation have also received awards
from the Ministry of Education (Phewkling, 1995).
Likewise, the Sisters have multiple roles in their position as
leaders. They lead the members of the community and the school
members as a family of Jesus (Sr. Inigo Joachim, SSA, 2018). For this
reason, the proponent is motivated to conduct the study to
determine the leadership style and value formation of the Sisters in
the different SPC Schools and diverse workplaces of Thailand.
Statement of the Problem
This study aims to determine the transformational leadership
style and value formation of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres, Thai
Province.
More specifically, the study sought to answer the following
questions:
1. What is the profile of the participants in terms of:
1.1. age;
1.2. nature of work;
1.3. number of years in the religious life; and
1.4. number of years in the ministry?
2. What is the level of practice of the transformational leadership
style of the participants in terms of the following?
2.1. Charisma;
2.2. Social;
2.3. Vision;
2.4. Transactional;
2.5. Delegation; and
2.6. Execution?
3. Is there a significant difference in the practice of the
transformational leadership style of the participants when
grouped according to their profile variables?
4. What is the extent of practice of the values formed during the
formation years of the participants as assessed by themselves?
5. Is there a significant difference in the extent of practice of the
values formed during the formation years of the participants
when grouped according to their profile variables?
6. Is there a significant relationship between the extent of practice
of the transformational leadership style and the extent of
practice of the values formed during the formation years of the
participants?
7. What factors affect the transformational leadership style of the
participants?
8. What are the challenges faced by the participants in practicing
their transformational leadership style and living-out their
values?
9. What plan of action can be proposed to enhance the practice of
the transformational leadership style and value formation of the
participants?
Significance of the Study
The result of the study would be deemed beneficial to the
following sectors/groups:
Soeurs. The result of the study would create awareness and
possible ways to enhance their transformational leadership style and
value formation.
SPC Superior/Administrators. This study would serve as a
basis for policy formulation to enhance the leadership style and value
formation of the Sisters.
Stakeholders. The result of the study would benefit the
stakeholders as this would provide information and possible ways to
support the Sisters in the practice of transformative leadership and
values.
Researcher. The result of the study would provide
information and possible ways to enhance her leadership style and
value formation to be of help in the SPC School, where she belongs.
Future Researchers. The findings of the study would serve as
a reference for future researchers who are interested in conducting
further studies on identifying the transformational leadership style
and value formation of the sisters and administrators of the different
SPC Schools of the SPC Congregation.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
This study focused on the transformational leadership style
and value formation, including the factors that affect the leadership
style and value formation of the participants. It looked into the
challenges faced by the participants on their leadership style and
value formation.
The participants of the study were limited to the Sisters who
finished their temporary vows with one year to five years and
perpetual profession for 15 years from the different SPC Schools of
Thailand such as St. Joseph Convent School, Assumption Convent
Bangrak School, Assumption Convent Silom School, Santa Cruz
Convent School, St. Francis Xavier School, St. Paul Nong Khai School,
St. Joseph Tharae School, Assumption Convent Lamnarai School,
Assumption Convent Lop Buri School, St. Joseph Nakhon Sawan
School, St. Joseph Mae Ramad School, St. Joseph Mae Chaem School,
St. Joseph Phetahaburi School, and St. Joseph Koh Samui. Schools
belonging to the Diocese are as follows: Pramarnda Nijjanukroh
School, St. Joseph Upatham School, Marie Witthaya School, Phaathra
Witthaya School, Silravee School, and Santivitthaya School. Sisters
from the different SPC workplaces of Thailand: Louis Chauvet Center;
Glory of Chartres House, Porndaensuang, Madonna Nursery, Xavier
Learning Center, Novitiate, St. Louis Hospital, and St. Mary Hospital.
The scope is limited to the profile of the participants such as age,
nature of work (Education, Pastoral, Health Ministry), number of
years in their religious life , and number of years in the ministry.
Moreover, this study was conducted in the different SPC
Schools and different SPC workplaces (Clinic, Nurseries, Hospitals,
Learning Centers, and SPC Convents) of Thailand.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study utilized the descriptive survey method. The study
aimed to determine the relationship between transformational
leadership style and value formation of the participants, particularly
in the SPC Schools, Hospitals, and in the different SPC workplaces in
Thailand.
Participants of the Study
The participants in this study were the total population of
Sisters of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (SPC) Congragation in
Thailand.
Table 1
Participants of the study
WORKPLACES
Frequency
Percentage
(%)
School 33 63.50
Hospital 9 17.30
SPC Convents and other
Workplaces
10 19.20
TOTAL 52 100.00
The table shows that there are 52 participants in the study.
The Sisters from the schools in Thailand have the highest number of
participants, followed by 10 Sisters from the SPC Convent and other
workplaces and 9 Sisters from the hospitals.
Instrumentation
This study made use of the questionnaire to gather
information about the participants. The questionnaire, which was
adopted from two different researches on transformational
leadership style and value formation, was utilized. Some parts of the
questionnaire were modified to suit the needs of the study.
Moreover, the questionnaire was subdivided into five parts.
The first part contains the profile of the participants. The second part
deals with the transformational leadership style which was adopted
from the study of Clark, D.R. (2011). It dealt explicitly with measuring
the level of transformational leadership style among individual
Sisters. The instrument used a four-point Rensis Likert Scale to assess
Sisters’ level of transformational leadership style. The third part was
crafted based on the Book of Life of the SPC Sisters. Five (5) SPUP
Sisters and teachers validated the questionnaire. It used a four-point
Rensis Likert Scale to assess Sisters’ level of values practiced. It has
three sections, namely: section one-identity and mission, section
two-charism and section three-responsibility. The fourth part deals
with the challenges faced by the Sisters in the practice of their
transformational leadership style and on how to deepen their value
formation. The fifth part deals with the recommendations to enhance
the transformational leadership practice and value formation of the
Sisters of SPC Congregation in Thailand.
Data Gathering Procedures
In gathering the data for this study, the researcher had
undertaken the following procedures:
First, to ensure compliance with ethical standards, the study
was reviewed by the members of the Ethics Review Committee.
Second, the researcher sought a letter of permission from
the Provincial Superior of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres in Thailand
and their respective Superiors, for the conduct of the survey among
the Sisters in the SPC Congregation of Thailand.
Third, the researcher requested permission and confirmation
from the participants for the conduct of the study. Informed consent
was given to the Sisters.
Fourth, the questionnaires were administered to the
participants.
Lastly, the responses of the participants in the questionnaire
were recorded for statistical treatment.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data were organized, analyzed, and
interpreted using the following statistical tools:
Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution. This was used
to determine the profile of the participants.
Mean or Standard Deviation. This was used to determine the
transformational leadership style and the value formation of the
participants in the SPC Schools in the different SPC workplaces. The
scale below was utilized to interpret the means:
Table 2
Scale of Interpretation
Mean Range
Qualitative
Description of
Transformational
Leadership style
Qualitative
Description Value
Formation of
Sisters
1.25 4.00 Very High Very Great Extent
2.50 – 3.24 High Great Extent
1.75 – 2.49 Moderate Moderate Extent
1.00 – 1.74 Low Low Extent
Chi-Square. This was used to test the significant difference in
the transformational leadership style of the participants when
grouped according to their profile variables and the significant
difference in the value formation when grouped according to their
profile variables. Also, this was used to test the relationship between
the transformational leadership style and value formation of the
Sisters of Thailand.
Thematic Analysis. This was used to determine the factors
that affect the transformational leadership style, value formation of
the participants, and challenges faced by them in their practice of
transformational leadership and in living-out their values.
I. Profile of the Participants
1.1 Age
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Most of the participants are within the middle age range.
1.2 Nature of work
Majority of the participants are assigned in the education
ministry. This is reflective of the roles of the Sisters in training the
young through their teaching mission. In Thailand, there are 36
schools/institutions, two hospitals, and six SPC convents and other
workplaces that are directly managed/supervised by the Sisters of St.
Paul of Chartres.
1.3 The number of Years in the Religious Life
The highest percentages of the participants who have been
in the religious life are within 6-10 years, and 16 years and above.
1.4 Number of Years in the Ministry
Most of the participants are still young in the ministry.
II. Level of Competency of the Participants on Transformational
Leadership Along the Different Domains
2.1 Charisma Domain
The participants have a high level of competency on
transformational leadership along the charisma domain.
2.2 Social Domain
The participants have a very high level of competency on
transformational leadership along the social domain.
2.3 Vision Domain
The participants have a “very high” level of competency on
transformational leadership along the vision domain.
2.4 Transactional Domain
The participants have a high level of competency in
transformational leadership along the transactional domain.
2.5 Delegation Domain
The participants have a high level of competency in
transformational leadership, along the delegation domain.
2.6 Execution Domain
The participants have a high level of competency on
transformational leadership, along the execution domain.
III. Computed Chi-Square Values for the Significant Difference in the
Level of Competency on Transformational Leadership Style of the
Participants When Grouped According to Their Profile Variables
3.1 Charisma Domain
There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along 'charisma'
domain when they are grouped according to age, nature of work,
years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.
3.2 Social Domain
There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along the ‘social’
domain when they are grouped according to age, nature of work,
years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.
3.3 Vision Domain
There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along the 'vision'
domain when they are grouped according to such variables.
3.4 Transactional Domain
There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along the
'transactional' domain when they are grouped according to the
different profile variables.
3.5 Delegation Domain
There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along the
‘delegation’ domain when they are grouped according to age, nature
of work, years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.
3.6 Execution Domain
f. There is no significant difference in the level of competency
of the participants on transformational leadership along the
'execution' domain when they are grouped according to age, nature
of work, and years in the ministry, respectively. However, when the
participants are grouped according to years in religious life, they
significantly differ in their level of competency.
IV. Extent of Practice of the Values Formed During the Formation
Years of the Sisters of Thailand as Assessed by Themselves
4.1 Identity and Mission
The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of
‘identity and mission’ values formed during the formation years.
4.2 Charism
The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of
‘charism’ value formed during the formation years.
4.3 Responsibility
The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of the
value of ‘responsibility’ formed during the formation years.
V. Comparative Analysis of the Participants' Extent of Practice of the
Values Formed During Their Formation Years in the Convent When
Grouped According to Their Profile Variables
5.1 Identity and Mission
There is no significant difference observed on the
participants' extent of practice of 'identity and mission' values
acquired during their formation years in the religious life when they
are grouped according to age, nature of work, number of years in the
religious life and years in the ministry.
5.2 Charism
There is no significant difference in the participants' extent
of practice of the 'charism' value, acquired during their formation
years in the convent when they are grouped according to age, nature
of work, years in the religious life and years in the ministry.
5.3 Responsibility
There is no significant difference in the participants' extent
of practice of the values of ‘responsibility’ acquired during their
formation years in the religious life when they are grouped according
to age, nature of work, years in the religious life, and years in the
ministry.
VI. Test of Relationship Between Participants’ Extent of Practice of
Transformational Leadership and Values Formed During the
Formation Years
6.1 Identity and Mission and Level of Competency on
Transformational Leadership
There is a significant relationship between the participants’
extent of practice of the ‘identity and mission’ values and their level
of competency on transformational leadership concerning social and
delegation domains. On the other hand, the participants’ extent of
practice of the ‘identity and mission’ values and their level of
competency on transformational leadership along charisma, vision,
transactional, and execution domains are significantly related.
6.2 Charism and Level of Competency on Transformational Leadership
The participants’ extent of practice of the ‘charism’ values is
not significantly related to their level of competency on
transformational leadership along charism, social, delegation, and
execution domains. However, the participants’ extent of practice of
the ‘charism’ values is significantly related to their level of
competency on transformational leadership along vision and
transactional domains.
6.3 Responsibility and Level of Competency on Transformational
Leadership
There is no significant relationship between the participants’
extent of practice of the ‘responsibility’ values and their level of
competency on transformational leadership along ‘charisma’,
‘social’, ‘vision’, ‘transactional’ and ‘delegation’ domains. On the
other hand, there is a significant relationship between the
participants’ extent of practice of the ‘responsibility’ values and their
level of competency on transformational leadership along execution
domain.
VII. Factors That Affect the Transformational Leadership Style of the
Sisters in Thailand
The participants considered the following factors which
affect their transformational leadership style: (1) Idealized Influence:
(2) Individual Consideration; (3) Intellectual Stimulation; and (4)
Inspirational Motivation. The factors were ranked accordingly.
VIII. Challenges Faced by the Sisters in Practicing Their
Transformational Leadership Style and in Living-out Their Values
The participants noted the following challenges in practicing
their transformational leadership style and living-out their values: (1)
Social/Emotional/Spiritual Skills; (2) Leadership Skills; and (3)
Media/Technology Literacy Skills. The challenges were ranked
accordingly.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, the following were
derived.
The first and most essential purpose of Consecrated Life is to
be committed God-seekers, a deeper immersion into the world as
radical disciples of Jesus, and a call to live in communion with others
and to build communities of freedom, fellowship and justice. As a
process of formation in the Congregation, the Sisters’ age, nature of
work, years in the religious life, and years in the ministry can, directly
and indirectly, influence the practice of their commitment as a
religious leader, who has been touched and transformed by the Spirit
of God. Hence, SPC Sisters are meant to be effective catalysts of those
values which carry deep meaning for all people, irrespective of time
or culture. The role of the SPC Sisters in the religious communities is
to live those deepest values and to radiate them, to bring them into
life.
Transformational leadership is a style of leadership that
transforms follower attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, to a higher
realm of motivation where the leader inspires followers to be
motivated over time.
The value formation of the congregation supplements and
motivates the Sisters in recognizing the role of being leaders and
followers. As an educator, as a leader and an administrator of
institutions, they are ready to change. They influence others to
change by holding the value formation of the SPC Sisters.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusions made, the following
are recommended:
1. The SPC Congregation in Thailand should continue enhancing the
practice of transformational leadership and deepen the values of
the Sisters through the implementation of the proposed action
plan.
2. The SPC Superior and administrators should continue supporting
the young Sisters to live-out their Paulinian identity and mission,
charism, and responsibility through regular seminars, dialogues,
encounters, and retreats.
3. The researcher may be given a chance to disseminate the findings
of her study to the SPC Congregation in Thailand.
4. The future researchers may consider conducting other relevant
researches on transformational leadership style and value
formation in the different SPC Schools of the SPC Congregation.
References
Berkovich, I. (2016). School leaders and transformational leadership
theory: time to part ways? Journal of Educational
Administration, 54(5), 609-622.
Bhekanan, K., SPC (2012). Strategies for developing transformational
leadership of mid-level school administrators under the
Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres in Thailand (Doctoral
dissertation, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand).
Clark, D.R. (2015). Transformational leadership durvey. Retrieved
from
http://nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/transformational_surv
ey.html
DiFranza, A. (2019). Transformational leadership: How to inspire
innovation in the workplace. Northeastern University.
Information Technology Department of SPC - Thailand (2019) St. Paul
of Chartres History in Thailand.
Joachim, I., SSA, (2018). Renewed Consecrated Life for the New
Evangelization with Sr. Inigo Joachim, SSA.
Montuori, A. & Donnelly, G. (2017). Transformative leadership.
Handbook of Personal and Organizational Transformation. J.
Neal (ed.). DOI10.1007/978-3-319 29587-9_59-1
Okçu, V. (2014). Relation between secondary school administrators'
transformational and transactional leadership style and skills
to diversity management in the school. Educational Sciences:
Theory & Practice, 14(6), 2162-2174.
Pher, W. (2015). Transformative leadership: English education
instructor at Cavite State University.
https://www.slideshare.net/wpampo/transformativeleadership
Phewklieng, S. (1995). The development of education provided by
the Sister of St. Paul De Chartres in Thailand: A historical
analysis. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.
Reed, R. E. (2013). Transformational Leadership Analysis of the Band
Director of a Christian School: A Case Study (Doctoral
dissertation, Tennessee Temple University)
Saint Paul of Chartres (n.d.). The Book of Life: Sisters of Saint Paul of
Chartres.
Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (1991).The Spirituality of Educational
Management of SPC Sisters, p. 13-15; 19: Bangkok;
Assumption Printery. Sister of Saint Paul of Chartres (2018).
School statistics for the academic year 2017–2018.
RECORDS MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING SYSTEM OF
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY, LAL-LO CAMPUS
Vicky B. Agcaoili
Master in Information Technology
ABSTRACT
Data are very important to be managed and preserved in an
institution because they are the institutional memories which serve
as evidences of the institution’s activity. Cagayan State University at
Lal-lo (CSUL) is one of the academic institutions that need to manage
data records efficiently and effectively to monitor its performances in
instruction, research, and extension. Without an efficient and
appropriate system, such records are put into the risk of being
misplaced, damaged, or lost. This study focused on the assessment of
the current practices and services of managing and monitoring
records in the MIS Office which served as a basis in developing the
Records Management and Monitoring System of Cagayan State
University Lal-lo Campus. The researcher made use of SCRUM
methodology as a guide in the development of the software. The
participants of this study were the IT experts employed in the CSUL,
Office Heads, faculty, and staff. Results showed that the participants
agreed that the MIS Office has been performing practices and services
in collecting and recording of data, as well as in generating reports.
However, they strongly disagreed that the MIS Office has been
sharing/disseminating the data it consolidated. The developed
system was found to be compliant to a “great extent” by the
participants. The result also revealed that there is no significant
difference between the assessment of IT experts and userparticipants.
Considering the findings of this study, the newly
developed system would greatly benefit the different offices of the
CSUL in terms of records management.
Keywords: electronic records management system, hybrid system,
management information system, record management,
record monitoring
INTRODUCTION
Managing and preserving data are very important in an
institution like the Cagayan State University Lal-lo Campus because
the data served as institutional memories, which function as
evidences of the institution’s activities and of its contributions to
academia and the wider community. In addition, to monitor the
performance of the institution and to make necessary interventions
on how to improve the performance of the institution, data gathered
and consolidated must be well disseminated to all employees.
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Memorandum
Order (CMO) No.45 series of 2016, mandated all its offices to collect,
collate, store and disseminate data and information needed by the
public and stakeholders to make informed choices and decisions. The
CHED needs higher education institutions’ data/information as bases
for formulating policies on instruction, research, and extension as
well as for monitoring the higher education sector’s progress.
Like any other universities, Cagayan State University at Lal-lo
(CSUL) has its campus Management Information System (MIS)
coordinator who manages and monitors all records of the campus.
The MIS coordinator is also responsible in preparing and submitting
the reports needed by CHED to comply with the CMO No. 45 s. 2016.
According to Rogers (2017), data sitting dormant in a school’s
MIS are worthless unless reported on in a manner that gives
interesting insights and helps put interventions in place to improve
teaching and learning. CSU Lal-lo is now equipped with an established
Wi-Fi connection and this technology made the researcher thought
of the Records Management and Monitoring System that could be
implemented online to help the MIS Coordinator collect and prepare
his reports and to serve as a tool for sharing information among
offices and stakeholders of the Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.
Basic information obtained from the reports of the different offices
can be accessible to all the stakeholders of CSU Lal-lo who are
utilizing the system. Moreover, the developed Records Management
and Monitoring System will make the records in the MIS office useful
to all the stakeholders of the Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.
Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework
This section shows and identifies the conceptual structure
used by the researcher as a framework for the development of the
Records Management and Monitoring System of CSUL.
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework
Develop abstract
Specification
YES
Stable Version
Build/Develop
the application
NO
Application
Adequate?
Evaluate the
application
The first phase includes developed abstract specification
where the researcher created a concept of the application based on
the data gathered from the focus group discussion, document
analysis and survey questionnaires. After creating the concept or
flow of the system, the researcher moved to the second phase where
she started to develop all the modules of the application. After the
development of all the modules, the researcher proceeded in the
third phase, which is the evaluation of the application. The
researcher presented the developed application to the target users
for them to evaluate. The target users gave their comments and
feedback on the system. The researcher used the users’ comments
and feedback to enhance the developed application. The last phase,
which is the stable version, became possible when the target users
gave their satisfactory feedback.
Statement of the Problem
This study aimed to create a Records Management and
Monitoring System of Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.
Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following
questions:
1. What is the assessment of the participants on the current
practices and services of the MIS Office?
2. What system can be developed to address the problems and
issues encountered in the existing system?
3. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of compliance
of the developed system as assessed by the IT experts and user
participants?
Research Design
METHODOLOGY
The study made use of the descriptive survey and research
systems development to describe the assessment of the participants
to the practices and services of the MIS Office, and the software
quality characteristics of the developed Records Management and
Monitoring System in order to enhance the MIS Office practices and
services at CSUL.
The researcher also utilized the SCRUM methodology in
developing the Records Management and Monitoring System of
Cagayan State University, Lal-lo Campus.
Participants of the Study
In order to obtain information on the practices and services
of the MIS Office and the problems encountered by the different
offices in managing records, the researcher gathered data from the
faculty, staff and IT Experts of CSUL who were chosen purposively.
Research Instruments
Internet Research was used to gather relevant literature and
studies that were necessary in the development of the system.
Survey questionnaires were used by the researcher to gather
information on the practices and services of the MIS. Document
Analysis Form was also used to analyzed the documents that are
being managed in the MIS Office and Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
was conducted to validate and support results of survey
questionnaires.
Data Collection Procedure
The following procedures were considered in order to pursue
the objectives of the study.
1. The researcher sought the approval of Dr. Ricardo B. Casauay, the
Campus Executive Officer.
2. The researcher distributed the informed consent to the heads of
the different offices and other participants to let them know
what the study is all about and for them to anticipate the nature
of their participation in the study.
3. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in the CICS
Multimedia Room while the proposed system was under
development.
4. Survey questionnaires were floated to determine the assessment
of the participants and their problems encountered in the
practices and services of MIS Office.
Data Analysis
The data that were obtained by the researcher were tallied
and organized for their analysis and interpretation. The study used
frequency count and percentage distribution in analyzing the
responses of the participants regarding the problems and issues they
encountered in the current practices of managing and monitoring
reports in the MIS Office. Moreover, the study utilized the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software in employing T-Test as
the tool in analyzing the significant difference between the
assessment of IT Experts and other participants on the extent of
compliance of the proposed system based on the ISO 25010 Software
Quality Standards.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Assessment of the User-participants on the Current Practices and
Services of the MIS Office
On collection and recording of data, the participants agreed
that the MIS Office has been performing practices and services in
terms of collecting and recording of data as assessed by them with
an overall weighted mean score of 3.07 with a descriptive
interpretation of “Agree”. This means that the MIS Office of the
campus collects data but not able to get updated data from the
different offices since it collects data of the past semester at the start
of the coming semester. This finding is consistent with the finding of
Aldarbesti and Saxena (2014) stating that it is not enough to arrange
only resources but their timely acquisition, utilization and monitoring
are also essential.
In terms of generation of reports, the participants agreed
that the MIS Office could generate reports as reflected in the overall
weighted mean assessment of 3.15 with a descriptive interpretation
of “Agree”. This means that the MIS Office can generate reports
based on the data available in its computer but cannot generate
reports using new and updated data.
With respect to sharing/dissemination of information, the
participants strongly disagreed that the MIS office performs its
functions in terms of sharing/ disseminating information that it gets
from the consolidated reports of the different offices of the campus
as shown in the overall weighted mean assessment of 2.58 with a
descriptive interpretation of “Strongly Disagree”. This finding is
consistent with the study of Gregg (2013) as cited by Gumarang
(2018) in her study titled, “Assessment of Records Management
Practices: Basis for a Proposed Integrated Management Information
System”, that one of the challenges of paper-based records
management is accessibility of hard copy files and limited access to it
because of its single location.
Problems and Issues Encountered by the Participants in the Existing
System
The participants’ common problems and issues on the
current practices and services of the MIS Office includes viewing the
updated status of the campus in its enrollment, instruction, research
and extension performances and the absence of feedback
mechanism in the MIS office. Other issues also emerged such as
inability to immediately retrieve reports submitted and difficulty of
requesting or updating reports to the MIS Office. These findings are
consistent with the findings of Caluza (2017) in his study titled,
“Development of Electronic Document Archive Management System
(EDAMS): A Case Study of a University Registrar in the Philippines”,
that the office of records management is facing issues such as
misclassification, misplacement and security of document, difficulty
in monitoring, and difficulty in document retrieval.
Proposed System that can be Developed to Address the Problems
and Issues Encountered in the Practices and Services of MIS Office
Most of the participants encountered problems on the
current practices and services of the MIS Office specifically on
viewing the updated status of the campus in its enrollment,
instruction, research and extension performances. Thus, the creation
of the new system Records Management and Monitoring System of
Cagayan State University, Lal-lo Campus has been developed to
address the problems and issues in the current practices and services
of MIS Office.
Compliance of the Developed System to ISO 25010
The proposed Records Management and Monitoring System
was assessed by the IT experts and user-participants as compliant to
a “very great extent” in terms of performance efficiency, usability,
security, maintainability and portability with category means of 4.26,
4.22, 4.22, 4.34, 4.23, respectively, while great extent in terms of
fundamental suitability, compatibility, and reliability, with category
means of 4.10, 3.71 and 4.06, respectively.
Differences Between the Assessment of IT Experts and Userparticipants
in Compliance of the Developed System to ISO 25010
The test of significant differences between the assessment of
IT experts and user-participants in the compliance of the developed
system to ISO 25010 showed insignificant differences in all the
attributes. This implies that the assessments of IT experts and userparticipants
are comparable in all the attributes of the ISO 25010
Software Quality Standards.
Enhancements to be Done to Enhance the Developed Records
Management and Monitoring System
The participants recommended that the system should
produce list of users/offices who always comply in accomplishing the
reports needed by the MIS Office. According to them, this is a good
feedback mechanism that will motivate the users to always update
their data in the system so that they can immediately generate their
reports from the system and submit them promptly to the MIS Office.
The participants also recommended the inclusion of e-signatures that
can be replaced when there is a change in the signatories of particular
reports. They further recommended the use of smart phones to
access the developed system using the internet.
CONCLUSION
From the above findings, the researcher concluded that the
proposed Records Management and Monitoring System will certainly
hasten and improve the practices and services of the MIS Office in
managing and monitoring records. The developed system will be
accessed online by the different offices in recording and submission
of data to the MIS office. It can also easily generate reports
automatically from the data sets being managed and monitored by
the different offices.
RECOMMEDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, the
following recommendations are offered:
The CSUL administration may consider the implementation
of the developed Records Management and Monitoring System in
order to facilitate the services of MIS Office and to ensure better
processes and services of records management in all the offices of
the Cagayan State University Lal-lo.
The office of MIS may collaborate with the researcher on the
conduct of the orientation/ training on the use of the said system
before its deployment.
The administration may consider boosting its internet
connectivity to ensure that users of the system will fully maximize the
features and benefits of the developed system.
Future researchers may conduct parallel studies and may
consider recommendations provided by the participants on the
enhancement of the developed system.
References
Aldarbesti, H., & Saxena, J.-P. (2014). Management information
system for education. IOSR-JRME: Journal of Research and
Method in Education, 4, 36-44. Retrieved from
http://www.iosrjournals.org/
Caluza, L. (2017). Development of electronic document archive
management system (EDAMS): A case study of a university
registrar in the Philippines. International Journal of Digital
Information and Wireless Communications, 7, 106-17. doi:
10.17781/P002280.
Gumarang, S. (2018). Assessment of records management practices:
Basis for a proposed integrated management information
system.
Rogers, C. (2017). Management Information System and School
Development. Retrieved from
https://edtechnology.co.uk/Article/managementinformation-
systems-and-school-development
CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTION
IN EFL CLASSES
Zheng Weizheng
Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric and Linguistics
ABSTRACT
This research aimed to investigate on teacher talk in the
conversational interaction between teacher and student in EFL
classroom in higher institution, by comparing the teacher talk in
English majors’ classes and non-English majors’ classes, focusing on
types of question, strategies of questioning and feedback, time of
teacher/student talk, and interaction patterns. By using the method
of descriptive research of discourse analysis. Findings show that (1)
Teachers of English majors utilized more referential questions than
those of non-English majors, teachers of non-English majors hardly
used referential questions, instead, they used much more display
questions. (2) Teachers of English majors used more prompting and
probing in the text analysis than those of non-English majors. (3)
Teachers of English majors employed more recast, while teachers of
non-English majors hardly use recast. Teachers of English majors used
more elicitation. (4) English majors’ average talk time is longer than
non-English majors. (5) Six variations of IRF were found: IRInRnF,
IRFRnFn, IRFR, IR, IFRF and IF. Patterns of IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, appeared
more frequently in classrooms of English majors than non-English
majors. Results contribute to teachers’ training program to promote
the classroom interaction.
Keywords: Teacher Talk, Conversational Interaction, EFL Class, Type
of Question, Questioning Strategy, Feedback Strategy
INTRODUCTION
In most of the Chinese classrooms, students are used to
keeping silent, they are shy to express themselves, many of the
students even have difficulty in expressing what they want to say
(Zhaohong Xue and Yonghui Tang, 2019;Qin Liu,2019;Qingsong
Liu, Kaihong Liao, 2019;Hongyang Zhang, 2018). Such situation is
not conducive to the development of communicative competence,
not to mention the cultivation of students’ autonomy, creative and
critical thinking.
Interaction is a key in language development, and it is
significant in language learning and teaching (Long, 1985; Swain,
1995; Gass, 1997; Ellis, 2015). It promotes students’ language
acquisition and enhances language proficiency due to the
conversational and linguistic modification that happen in classroom
discourse which supply students with the necessary comprehensible
input (Long, 1985). Only when the students actively engage
themselves in the conversational interaction in class can they
successfully develop their language competence. So, teacher should
try to construct a learning environment and organize learning
activities to facilitate the effective conversational interaction
centered on sharing and meaning negotiation (Rivers, 1987).
Teachers should transform their role in language learning classroom
and provide students with opportunities to use target language
(Littlewood, 2014).
In language learning classroom, teacher talk serves at least
two functions in class: (1) input of the target language, and (2)
impetus of classroom interaction which enhances students’
understanding of the input and their participating in the learning
activities (Ellis, 2015). Teacher talk offers researchers the vision on
how the teaching and learning process is organized, developed and
influenced by the teacher. Teacher-dominated classroom interaction
does not necessarily result in passive, receptive learning. Much rely
on the factors such as the content of teacher talk, the way of its
delivery and the extent of its engaging students in target language
use will influence the effective learning greatly (Leung, 2005).
Teacher talk in teacher-dominated classroom interaction can engage
students into language use.
This research aimed to investigate on teacher talk in the
structure of conversational interaction (Initiation-responsefeedback/fellow-up)
between teacher and students in EFL high
institution classroom, by comparing the teacher talk in English
majors’ classes and non-English majors’ classes, focusing on types of
question, strategies of questioning and feedback, time of
teacher/student talk.
Theoretical Framework
It has been widely accepted that input, interaction and
output are fundamental in language acquisition and learning. These
three components are integrated by teachers to facilitate learners’
target language competency in language learning classroom.
According to Krashen’s (1985) input hypothesis, exposure to
the comprehensible target language is fundamental for language
acquisition. In classroom, teacher should make students exposed to
comprehensible input by written or oral materials. Swain (1993)
claimed comprehensible input alone is not enough for language
acquisition until it is associated with interaction. Long (1985)
proposes interaction hypothesis which shows that learners’ language
proficiency is enhanced by interpersonal interaction. Swain (1985)
proposes output hypothesis. She claims that comprehensible input
and interaction are fundamental to language acquisition, but
comprehensible input alone is not enough for language learning and
acquisition if language learners do not have enough chances for
output because interaction exchanges are in connection with both
comprehensible input and comprehensible output. Comprehensible
output is one of the main sources for comprehensible input.
According to Swain, the best way to test the level of language
is to use the language in output, because only through this way may
learners modify the prior utterances or try other new forms. She
realizes that output is a part of learning mechanism. Swain (1995)
posits that output motivates learners to transfer their focus from
processing for comprehension such as semantic processing and
strategic processing to the complete grammatical processing for
output. This shows that output is also fundamental in learners’
development of syntax and morphology.
Conceptual Framework
Data in this study will be analyzed based on the following
framework related to teacher talk.
Long & Sato (1983) investigated the role of questions in ESL
classroom. They classify teacher questions into two categories:
echoic and epistemic question. Echoic question is the question used
to require a repetition of the information or to verify whether the
utterance has been comprehended, which facilitates mutual
understanding. It includes confirmation checks, comprehension
checks and clarification requests. Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of
question is showed in Table 1. In this study, types of question are
identified and analyzed based on Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of
question.
Table 1
Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of question
Category Type of Question Example
Echoic Comprehension
checks
Get me?, Are you clear? ,
Alright?
Clarification
requests
Confirmation
checks
What do you mean by...? Do you
mean...?
What? What did you say just
now?
Case1: S: I’ve already finished.
T: Already finished?
Case2: S: ...woman doctors....
T: Woman ?
Epistemic Referential Why are you interested in
dancing?
Display
Who set up the community?
Expressive (teacher spots a student watching
cellphone in class ) What are you
doing? Could you please answer
the question?
Rhetorical It’s interesting, isn’t it?
Why did I say like that? Because...
As for questioning strategies to develop the interaction and
elicit more students’ output, Yang, et al. (2005) claim that Socratic
mode of questioning probe high-level thinking which means using
questioning strategies such as clarification and probing questions.
Cruickshank et al. (2009) identified three questioning strategies:
Probing, directing and rewording. Huiyu Liu (2010) classifies
questioning strategy into four types after classroom observation:
Self-explanation, probing, prompting and repetition. Hu Qingqiu
(2012a) argued that there are six questioning strategies including
probing, chaining, repetition, simplification, rephrasing and
decomposition. Matra (2014) investigated teacher questioning in
classroom interaction and proposed the following questioning
techniques: (1) Repeating and rephrasing. (2) Prompting and probing.
Ding Xiaoyue (2015) identifies four questioning strategies: probing,
prompting, repeating, redirecting. Hao Yang (2017)suggests three
questioning techniques: phrasing, directing and probing. So, to
summarize the literature above, some of the strategies mentioned
have the similar meaning, for example, decomposition and phrasing,
directing and redirecting. Some of them have inclusion relationship,
for instance, rewording can be rephrasing, simplification,
decomposition or phrasing. Generally speaking, in the follow-up
move, the main questioning strategies which have been mentioned
in the literature above are as follows: clarification, probing,
prompting, chaining, directing (or redirecting), rewording (eg.,
rephrasing, simplification, decomposition or phrasing), repetition
and so on. In this study, questioning strategies are identified and
analyzed based on questioning strategies summarized above.
In language learning interaction, language teachers tend to
use various strategies to give feedback in order to support and
facilitate student’s learning. Basing on Lyster’s classification of
corrective feedback and the effect on language acquisition, Ellis
(2009) identifies seven corrective feedback strategies: Recast, explicit
correction, repetition, clarification request, metalinguistic
explanation, elicitation and paralinguistic signal. The strategies of
written corrective feedback include direct, indirect, and
metalinguistic feedback. Oral corrective feedback strategies consist
of recast, explicit correction, repetition, clarification request,
elicitation and paralinguistic signal. Besides, Ellis develops two cases
of oral feedback: Input-providing and output-prompting corrective
feedback. Input-providing can take two forms: recast (implicit) and
explicit correction (explicit); While out-prompting can take four
forms: repetition (implicit), clarification (implicit), elicitation
(explicit), and Paralinguistic signal (explicit). Ellis’s taxonomy of
feedback strategies is shown in Table 2. In this study, feedback
strategies are identified and analyzed based on Rod Ellis’s taxonomy
below.
Table 2
Ellis (2009)’s taxonomy of feedback strategies
Inputproviding
Outputprompting
Strategies Features Examples
Recasts Implicit S: She want buy some
books
T: Yes, she wants to
buy some books.
Explicit Explicit S: They goed there
correction
yesterday.
T: No, not goed, it
should be “went”.
Repetitions Implicit S: They goed there
yesterday.
T: They goed ?
Clarification
requests
Implicit
S: Lily found a good
job.
T: What ?
Metalinguistic
feedback
Explicit
S: Both of them have
passed the exam.
T: Did I mention that?
This answer is not
comprehensive.
Elicitation Explicit L: The girl will leave if
it will not rain.
T: The girl will leave if
it...?
Classroom talk is the main component of classroom
discourse, including teacher talk and student in classroom. Teacher
and student talk is decided by classroom discourse. Student talk
serves at least the following functions: (1) To promotes language
learning because it’s beneficial to students’ reconstructing new
linguistic forms in social settings; (2) Students expand their ideas by
creating relationship between previous and new knowledge/
information; (3) It enhances students’ comprehension, critical
thinking, and achievement (Piazza, et al., 2015). The more student
talks, the more beneficial the classroom environment is (Sedova, K.
et al., 2019).
However, researches have shown that teachers dominate
classroom talk (Bautista, 2017; Apaydin & Aydemir, 2018;
Norboevitch, 2019; Sedova, et al., 2019). Apaydin and Aydemir
(2018) found that teacher in class of high-achieving students spared
more than fifty percent of the time talking, while teacher in
comparatively low-level class spent eighty percent in talking. This
study investigates on the average amount of teacher/student talk in
English classes of both English majors and non-English majors.
Interaction structures
Different choices in the third move result in different
teaching activities, which lead to the variation of IRF
pattern/sequence. Yue-e Li & Hongya Fan (2002) find the
conversational interaction structure follows the pattern of: (1) IRFR.
After the teacher gives feedback on student’s wrong answer,
students usually imitate/repeat the correct answer provided by the
teacher. (2)IR[I1R1(I2R2)]F. Teacher doesn’t give feedback on
student’s response immediately, instead, she/he initiates another
question to make the student answer. (3) IR1F1 /R2F2. One or more
students’ response after teacher initiates the question. At this time,
if the teacher doesn’t shift the topic, it is likely that more students
will give the answers, then the teacher has to give the feedback again.
Sinclair and Coulthard (2013) identify five types of bound exchange:
(1) IRIbRF. In this structure, teacher initiates the same or a rephrased
question after receiving no answer by employing the strategies such
as prompt, nomination, clue and other acts. (2) IRF(Ib)RF. After
getting an incorrect answer, teacher can stay with the same student
by guiding him to the right answer or move on to another student.
(3) IRF(Ib)RF(Ib)RF. In this case, the teacher doesn’t offer evaluation
until two or three answers are given. In this case, teacher re-initiates
by nomination and F move contains no evaluation. (4) IRIbR. This
structure happens when the teacher gives the whole or a group a
direction or instruction and one student fails/is reluctant to follow. In
this bound exchange, Ib is realized by using nomination, prompt, or a
clue. (5) IRIbRF. Teacher doesn’t give feedback on student’s
response, instead, teacher initiates again, after they have heard but
need a repeated answer for other reasons. In this study, variations of
IRF are identified and analyzed based on these variations below.
Table 3
Coding Scheme for Interaction patterns
Code Descriptive Example Move
IRF Teacher gives the
feedback soon after
the students’ response
to the question
initiated by the
teacher.
IRI n R n F
Teacher doesn’t give
feedback on student’s
response immediately,
TA: Result. What’s I
your question?
S: The last one. R
TA: Yeah, yeah, the F
last one.
TB: Do you know
anything about this
novel?
I
IRFR n F n
instead, she initiates
another question to
make the same
student answer, or ask
another student to
answer the original
question.
One or more students’
response after teacher
initiates the question.
IRFR It happens when
student adds more
information after
teacher gives the
feedback on students’
response to the
question initiated by
the teacher.
Ss: Dickens, Charles R
Dickens.
TB: Anything about I
it?
Ss: London and Paris. R
TB: Yes, London and F
Paris.
TB: Once again I
Sydney Carton, Why?
S: If I were her. I, I -- R
TB: If I were her, F
who?
S: Sydney Carton. R
TB: Sydney Carton. F
TE: Does anyone tell I
us the differences?
S: The westerners’ R
relationship is simple,
but for Chinese, it’s
too complicated.
TE: Very complicated. F
Statement of the Problem
The current research aimed to explore teacher talk in the
teacher-student conversational interaction in a higher education
institution’s EFL classrooms. Specifically, it sought answers to the
following questions:
1. What types of questions do teachers ask during classroom
interaction?
2. What types of questioning strategies do the teacher-participants
use in the follow-up move?
3. What types of strategies do the teacher-participants use when
giving feedback to students?
4. What is the average talk time of the teacher/ students in the
conversational interaction?
5. What types of interaction structure happen during the studentteacher
interaction in the classroom?
6. What teacher training program could be proposed to promote
classroom interaction in EFL classroom?
Research Design
METHODOLOGY
The design of the current study is descriptive research design
in order to gain deeper insight on how the teachers employ their talk
to promote students’ target language use in the conversational
interaction in EFL classroom discourse. According to Shona
McCombes (2019), McNabb, Connie (2008) and Shuttleworth,
Martyn (2008), the purpose of descriptive research is to
systematically describe an existing phenomenon involving who,
where, when, what, how instead of why or to describe “what exists”
regarding variables in a certain discourse. Descriptive research design
may employ quantitative approach to investigate the variables. This
type of research is proper when the study attempts to identify the
characteristics, frequencies, tendency, relationship, types and so on
by observing the participants in a comparatively natural and
unchanged natural discourse. Descriptive research design is used in
the current study in order to identify and describe the formal and
functional features of teacher talk in the interaction in EFL classroom,
focusing on the types and frequencies of questions, questioning and
feedback strategies in IRF sequence.
Participants
There are two types of participants in the study: 1.Teacherparticipants.
The following are the inclusion criteria for the teacherparticipants:
(1) They are EFL teachers for 10-20 years, their ages
ranging from thirty to forty-five. (2) They belong to the Foreign
Language School in the university, three are members of College
English Teaching Department, teaching non-English majors, three are
those who teach English majors. (3) They are able to express
themselves in English. (4) They agree to be part of the research
voluntarily and sign the informed consent form. 2.Studentparticipants.
(1) They are students from the six teacher-participants’
teaching classes, respectively. (2) They are at least 17 years old. (3)
They agree to be the participants.
Data Collection
Data in this research were collected from the actual videorecordings.
The current research chose to record the teaching in the
Intensive Reading Course, because non-English specialized college
students at all levels are only provided with two English learning
courses: Intensive Reading Course and Listening and Speaking
Course, both of which are the compulsory courses with uniform
syllabi, textbooks, teaching plan and final exams. Meanwhile, for
English majors, Intensive Reading Course is the basic compulsory
course.
Intensive Reading Course is designed to develop the college
students’ English competence through teacher’s instruction of
grammar, vocabulary, and text comprehension by using the text as
carrier (Xiaoli Ji & Jian Gong, 2017). It can reflect the typical English
learning classroom organization in higher institutions in China.
With the permission of the participants and relevant
administrative departments, the whole teaching processes of six
teachers were video recorded to reflect what have occurred in the
classroom of Intensive Reading Course. Altogether six sessions
involving 240 minutes in EFL classroom teaching are recorded and
transcribed by the researcher and three English teachers who have
worked in the same university for at least 10 years, which supplies
comparatively naturally occurring data from conversational
interaction between teachers and students in EFL classroom
discourse.
Data Analysis
In the data analysis, these six teachers are referred to as
Teacher A, B, C, D, E, F. Teacher A, B, C are teacher participants who
teach English majors, while Teacher D, E, F are teachers of non-
English majors. Analysis and interpretations of the video transcripts
and extracts are validated by at least 3 specialists/experts in the field.
The video-recordings are transcribed based on Jefferson’s (1984)
transcription notation for discourse analysis and the classroom.
Table 4
Notations adapted in transcription
Symbol Meaning Example
? Rising intonation S: Some food.
TC: Some food?
::: Extension of an
utterance
TB: All of them were written
by:::
TB&AS: Women.
(text) Correction or Note TB:(Looking around the
classroom), OK, you please.
Uh Hesitation or silence S: Uh ---
... Expressions which
can’t be heard.
TC: Do you know what is
Bosun?
S: It’s ...
The video-recordings are coded, categorized, analyzed,
interpreted based on Sinclair & Coulthard's IRF model (1975). In the
research, the components such as types of question and their
percentage, questioning and feedback strategies and their
frequencies, teacher/student talk time are identified and analyzed.
Meanwhile, in the data analysis, teacher talk in English majors and
non-English majors will be compared from the aspects mentioned
above.
Table 5 is the basic framework as a guidance for teacher talk
observation and analysis. In Sinclair and Coulthard’s model of
teacher’s initiation-students’ response-teacher’s feedback, teacher
talk lies in the first move “initiation” and the last “move”. In initiation
move, types of question will be identified and analyzed based on
Long and Sato’s classification of questions. In the feedback/follow-up
move, questioning strategies will be identified and analyzed based on
the researcher’s own summary; The feedback strategies will be
identified and analyzed based on Ellis (2009)’s taxonomy.
Table 5
Framework of teacher talk
Initiation Types of
questions
Echoic
Followup
move
in IRF
Questioning
strategies
Feedback
strategies
Epistemic
There is
response
No/
Incorrect/
Incomplete
response
Correct
response
No/
Incorrect/
Incomplete
response
Comprehension checks
Clarification requests
Confirmation checks
Referential question
Display question
Expressive question
Rhetorical question
Clarification
Chaining
Prompting
Probing
Rewording
Repetition
Redirecting
Acknowledgment/Praise
Comment
Encouragement
Recast
Explicit correction
Repetition
Clarification request
Metalinguistic
explanation
Elicitation
Paralinguistic signal
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this research, six teacher participants’ Intensive Reading
classes were recorded and transcribed on the basis of the conceptual
framework and the research design. In the following analysis, TA, TB
and TC belong to the group who teach English majors, while TD, TE
and TF are of the group who teach non-English majors. Teachers of
the same group have the same topic in classes, but they have
different focuses and teaching methods. Data analysis covers the
conversational interaction components such as frequency of types of
questions teachers initiated, frequency of questioning strategies
teachers used, frequency of feedback strategies, average talk time of
the teachers & students, and the interaction patterns.
Question 1: Types of Questions Asked by Teachers
Table 6
Types of Questions Asked by Teachers
Table 6 shows the specific use of types of questions in the
classes of both English majors and non-English majors and the
frequency of these questions. In this table, CC1 is Comprehension
Check, CC2 is Clarification Request, St means subtotal, RQ1 is
Referential Question, DQ is Display Questions, EQ is Expressive
Question, RQ2 represents Rhetorical Question. F is short for
frequency, % means percentage.
As for the teachers of English majors, in Table 6, TA totally
utilized 16 questions, and she used more epistemic questions than
echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she used clarification the
most frequently. Of all the epistemic questions, TA used display
question the most frequently. This may be because her teaching
tasking was focused on the use of words and expressions and most
of her questions were to tell students to translate the English
sentences or vice versa, which was to test students’ previous
knowledge with low-level thinking. TB used 40 epistemic questions,
which were more than her echoic question. Of all the echoic
questions, she used confirmation checks the most frequently; Of all
the epistemic type, she used referential question the most frequently
(23 times), which was followed by display question (17 times). This
may be because her teaching task was focused on the understanding
of text theme and needed higher level thinking. TC totally used 69
questions, which were more than TA or TB. She also asked more
epistemic questions than echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she
used confirmation checks the most frequently. This may be because
TC also emphasized on the comprehension of text theme which
needed higher level thinking. Overall, data of teachers of English
majors in table 6 shows that: (1) Teachers of English majors used
more epistemic questions than echoic questions. (2) Of the echoic
questions, all of the three teachers of English majors used more
confirmation checks than any other echoic questions; while of the
epistemic questions, all of the three used display question and
referential question more frequently than any other question types.
This may be because the teaching tasks of English majors focused
more on comprehension of text theme and development students’
higher level thinking.
As for the teachers of non-English majors, TD used more
epistemic questions than echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she
only used 3 confirmation checks. Of all the 37 epistemic questions,
she used display question the most frequently, 37 times. This may be
because TD focused on reading skill and the semantic and syntactic
understanding of the sentences in the text. TE totally asked 65
questions, more than TD and TF. She used more epistemic questions
than echoic ones. Of all the echoic questions, she used confirmation
checks the most frequently. Of all the epistemic questions, her
display question took the highest proportion. This may be because TE
focused more on the writing skills in the text and used more display
questions to check students’ comprehension on the author’s using
comparison and contrast to develop the text, which was
characterized by finding evidences in the text to support the points.
TF also asked more epistemic questions than echoic type. Of her 48
epistemic questions, TF asked 31 display questions which occupied
the highest proportion. On the whole, findings were: (1) Teachers of
non-English majors used more epistemic questions than echoic type.
Of all the echoic questions, confirmation checks were employed
more frequently than comprehension checks and clarification
requests. Of all the epistemic questions, display question was used
the most frequently. This result is similar to the investigation of Inan
and Fidan (2013) that majority of the teacher-initiated questions
were epistemic questions, most of which were display questions; Of
all the echoic questions, confirmation checks were the most
common. It is also in line with the investigation of Long and Sato
(1983) that teachers asked more epistemic than echoic questions in
class; Teachers asked more display questions compared to referential
questions. (2) Teachers of non-English majors rarely used expressive
question in EFL classes. This maybe because in Chinese EFL
classroom, teachers knew the importance of the relationship
between teacher and students and tried to avoid using expressive
question to create the harmonious learning environment in the
classroom.
To compare the two groups -- teachers of English and non-
English majors. It can be seen that (1) Both groups used more
epistemic questions than echoic type. Of the echoic questions, both
groups tended to use more confirmation checks than any other
echoic type. Of all the epistemic questions, both groups used more
display questions than any other types of questions. This result is
similar to the investigation of Inan and Fidan (2013) that majority of
the teacher-initiated questions were epistemic questions, most of
which were display questions; Of all the echoic questions,
confirmation checks were the most common. It is also in line with the
investigation of Long and Sato (1983) that teachers asked more
epistemic than echoic questions in class; Teachers asked more
display questions compared to referential questions. (2) Both groups
rarely used expressive question in classes. This maybe because in
Chinese EFL classroom, teachers knew the importance of the
relationship between teacher and students and tried to avoid using
expressive question to create the harmonious learning environment
in the classroom. This is in line with the investigation of Yanfen, L. &
Yuqin, Z. (2010) that both teacher and students prefer
encouragement or appreciation in EFL classroom. Expressive
question sometimes arouse students’ negative emotions and
teachers tend to avoid using it to discourage students’ interest or
confidence in English learning. (3)Teachers of non-English majors
used a little more epistemic questions than those of English majors
did. Teachers of English majors utilized more referential questions
than those of non-English majors did, while teachers of non-English
used more display questions. This maybe because learning task of
English majors was more focused on the understanding of text theme
and needed higher level thinking, while non-English majors were
focused on reading or writing skills and the semantic and syntactic
understanding of the sentences in the text.
To observe the recordings, the followings can be found: (1)
More epistemic questions were used by both groups to develop
interaction and epistemic questions which induced more student talk
in classroom. That is, epistemic questions involved students in more
language use, and students can talk more, while echoic question only
made the students say “yes” or ”no”. This backs up the view of Long
& Sato (1983): epistemic questions such as referential question,
display question, expressive question and rhetorical question,
especially referential question and display question, help students
elicit new information and acquire the information. Meanwhile, all
the teacher-participants used echoic question to promote
understanding between teacher and students during interaction,
which supports the position of Long & Sato (1983) that echoic
question helps enhance understanding between teacher and
student. (2) Compared to the classes of non-English majors, more
referential questions were used in classes of English majors, and
referential question induced more student talk. In the classes where
there were more referential questions, students were more actively
engaged in language use and could respond fluently and creatively
without using the original expressions in the current text. This
supports the views of the researchers such as Long & Sato (1983), Hu
Qingqiu (2012a) that referential question not only makes classroom
more interactive and promotes students’ critical thinking and deep
understanding, but also generates more complicated and nearnatural
speech. (3) Compared with the teachers of English majors,
teachers of non-English majors hardly used referential question, they
employed more display questions instead, and the interaction in non-
English majors’ classrooms were also active, which is in line with the
observation of Wright (2016) that displayed question can lead to
more interactive communication between lower level students and
teacher, compared to referential question. However, non-English
majors comparatively talked much less, sometimes, their answers are
only “yes” or “no”.
According to Wright (2016), display question is used to check
students' previous knowledge and factual information elicitation
with low-level thinking, which helps students provide imitative
answers. So, Both display and referential questions are crucial to
language learning and acquisition. Long & Sato (1983) found that in
natural language environment, there are more referential questions
than display questions, and referential question helps create real
language environment in language learning class. Abhakorn (2014)
proposed that the real communicative classroom interaction was
characterized by using more referential questions instead of display
questions. In addition, according to Boyd (2015), responsive and
responsible use of questions initiated by teacher can guide and elicit
more student talk, and induce diverse characteristics of student talk.
So, teacher should be able to get familiar with types of questions,
Flexibly use them by using different forms of speech.
Question 2: Questioning Strategies Utilized by Teachers
Table 7
Questioning Strategies Utilized by Teachers
Table 7 is about questioning strategies used by the teachers.
In this table, the letter “f” means “frequency” and the symbol “%”
represents “percentage”. Of the three teachers of English majors,
table 7 shows that TA totally used 3 types of questioning strategies
including clarification, prompting and redirecting, of which she used
clarification the most frequently. This perhaps because her teaching
focus was translation of the new words, expressions and sentences
which was comparatively simpler and changeless. TB used all the
types of questioning strategies. Of all her strategies, she used probing
the most frequently, then followed by clarification. TC totally utilized
strategies 41 times, that means her questioning strategies are the
most of all. Of all the strategies, she used clarification the most
frequently, which was followed by probing. That maybe because their
learning tasks were more difficult and needed higher level thinking,
so both TB and TC needed probing to guide students to understand
the theme of the text. Overall, data of the teachers of English majors
show that (1) Clarification was the most widely used by the teachers.
Meanwhile, chaining was rarely used by them. This maybe because
teachers paid much importance to the understanding between
students and themselves, due to students’ lower level English
competency, they had to use clarification to confirm whether they
had understood each other. (2) Teachers who used the questioning
strategies most frequently tended to use more questioning strategies
including prompting, probing, rewording and clarification. This
maybe because (1) they had better English competency; (2) they
were more flexible in using questioning strategies; (3) their teaching
tasks were more complicated and difficult, and needed students’
higher level thinking.
As for the teachers of non-English majors, TD used the fewest
questioning strategies, only 5 times, of which, 4 were clarification and
one was repetition. TE used questioning strategy the most frequently
of all the three, she didn’t use chaining. Of all her 40 strategies, she
used clarification the most frequently, then followed by rewording
and probing. This maybe because (1) TE’s teaching tasks were more
difficult than that of TD and TF, (2) TE’s English competence was
much better than others; (3) TE’s was flexible in using questioning
strategies. Overall, As for the teachers of non-English majors, we can
find: (1) Of all the questioning strategies, clarification was the most
widely and frequently used by all the teachers of non-English majors,
which can be inferred that clarification was the most common
strategy. (2) Teachers who used more questioning strategies tended
to use more questioning strategies including prompting, probing,
rewording and clarification.
To compare the two groups, the following can be found: (1)
Of all the questioning strategies, only clarification was used by both
of the groups of teachers, which could be inferred that clarification
was the most common strategy of all questioning strategies. (2)
Teachers who used the questioning strategies most frequently
tended to use more questioning strategies such as prompting,
probing, rewording and clarification. English teachers used
prompting and probing frequently perhaps because they wanted to
help students induce correct answers.
Looking into the recordings collected, it’s obvious that
questioning strategies were usually used in follow-up moves by
teachers to promote interaction and students’ comprehension. The
specific findings of the transcription are: (1) Clarification is the most
frequently used questioning strategy. (2) In both groups, teachers
who used more questioning strategies such as prompting, probing,
rewording and clarification elicited more student talk, and these
teachers tended to be good at switching between different kinds of
questioning strategies, especially prompting, probing and
clarification. Also, the quality of the student talk in their teaching
classes was higher. This supports Hardman’s (2020) investigation that
teacher talk involving follow-up moves facilitates students’
engagement in expressing themselves. Teacher’ using questioning
strategies are so significant for language teaching and learning in
classroom because they are beneficial to interaction development
and elicit students’ output, especially in the cases when students give
no response to teacher’s question. Hao Yang (2017) claims that When
students give no response, or have difficulty in giving an answer,
teacher should consider whether the question has multiple answers
or the question is too general and should phrase the question into
specific questions to promote students’ deep thinking or output, or
redirect the initial question to the next student so that students’ face
or self-esteem are kept. So, teachers of both English majors or non-
English majors should use more questioning strategies and choose
proper questioning strategies according to the classroom discourse.
(3) The researcher also found that compared to the teachers of non-
English majors, teachers of English majors used comparatively more
prompting and probing during the text analysis, which is because
they focused more on the deep understanding of the text theme, and
most of the answers couldn’t be found in the textbook. So, students
had to organize the words and expressions on their own. While the
teachers who taught non-English majors relatively used fewer
questioning strategy of prompting and probing, which is because
they emphasized more reading skills such as scanning and skimming
which are used to test students’ semantic and syntactical
comprehension of the text. This finding in agreement with Matra’s
(2014) investigation that prompting and probing benefit students a
lot in answering higher-level questions which need more clues in
formulating their responses. It’s in line with Huiyu Liu (2010)’s claim
that prompting and probing can not only guides students to provide
more complete and sufficient answer, but also promotes students’
critical thinking.
Question 3: Feedback Strategies Utilized by Teachers
Table 8
Feedback Strategies Utilized by Teachers
Table 8 is about the frequency of feedback strategies utilized
by teacher participants. In terms of teachers of English majors, in
Table 8, TA used all types of feedback strategies, she totally used
them 30 times. Of all these strategies, she used the acknowledgment
the most frequently, and then followed by repetition. TB used
feedback strategy for 54 times. Of all the strategies, she utilized
repetition the most frequently, then followed by acknowledgment,
and then by recast. TC used feedback strategy for 53 times. Of all the
strategies, she utilized clarification the most frequently, Then
followed by recast, 11 times, and then by acknowledgment. On a
whole, Table 8 shows that: (1) Acknowledgment was the most widely
used feedback, very few of the teacher-participants used feedback of
explicit correction, only Teacher A used explicit correction twice. It
can be inferred that teachers tended to give acknowledgment or
praise after students answered the questions. (2) All of them used
feedback strategies of acknowledgment, repetition and clarification
request. This may be because paid much attention to the
understanding between students and themselves. (3) To observe the
transcription of English majors’ class, it could be found that the more
frequent feedback strategies teacher used; the more students talked.
for example, TB and TC used comparatively more feedback strategies
such as acknowledgement, recast, repetition and elicitation, and
their students were engaged more in language output activities. This
may be because learning tasks were more difficult in the classes of
TB and TC, they needed various strategies to promote students’
higher level thinking.
As for the teachers of non-English majors, in Table 8, TD used
feedback strategy for 36 times. She used repetition the most
frequently, which was followed by acknowledgment. TE was the one
who used feedback strategy the most frequently, 57 times. She didn’t
use explicit correction. Of all the feedback, she used
acknowledgment the most frequently, which was followed by
clarification strategy, 17 times, then by repetition. TF used the fewest
feedback strategy. Of all her feedback strategies, she used repetition
the most frequently, then followed by acknowledgement. She did not
use any recast. Overall, table 8 shows: All of the teachers of non-
English majors used feedback strategies of acknowledgement,
repetition and clarification, meanwhile, acknowledgement and
repetition were the most frequently used by them. None of them
used explicit correction. This perhaps because teachers of non-
English recognized the importance of positive feedback and used
positive feedback such as acknowledgement/praise and repetition to
encourage students to participate in language use activities.
According to the recordings, the researcher found (1) students
tended to be more active and output more creative language in the
classrooms where metalinguistic signal and elicitation were used. For
example, students in the classrooms of TE and TF more engaged in
language use and generate more creative interlanguage. (2) Compare
to Teacher E and Teacher F, Teacher D used more pre-modified
questions and were not able to use the questioning strategies
flexibly. Her students talked more than Teacher F’s students did, but
they answered most of Teacher D's questions by reading the original
expressions in the textbook rather than using creative language. This
may be because TD and TE focused more on reading skill or writing
skill, while TF focused on explanation of difficult sentences of the
text. So students in classes of TD and TE could directly find the
answers in the text.
To compare the two groups -- teachers of English and non-
English majors, Table 8 shows: (1) In the classrooms of both groups,
feedback strategies of acknowledgement, repetition and clarification
request were the most widely used feedback, especially
acknowledgment, repetition. Teacher didn’t use or seldom used
explicit correction. This perhaps because teachers in EFL classrooms
have recognized the importance of positive feedback and used
positive feedback such as acknowledgment/praise and repetition to
encourage students to participate in language use activities. (2)
Teachers of English majors employed more feedback strategy of
recast, while teachers of non-English majors seldom used recast or
did not use recast. This may be because learning tasks of English
majors were more difficult than those of non-English majors,
teachers needed cast to improve students’ confidence and
enthusiasm in English learning. (3) Teachers of English majors used
more elicitation than those of non-English majors. This may be also
because learning tasks of English majors were more difficult than
those of non-English majors, teachers needed elicitation to guide
students’ higher level thinking and induce more student talk.
To observe the videos and transcripts, the researcher found:
(1) acknowledgment and repetition were the most widely used
feedback strategies in the classrooms of both teachers of English and
non-English majors. Nearly all of the teacher participants managed to
integrate praise or acknowledgement with the feedback strategies
such as repetition, clarification request, metalinguistic signal or
elicitation. This can be inferred that all the teachers managed to
make good use of positive feedback like praise or acknowledgement
to stimulate students’ interest, cultivate students’ confidence and
encourage them to engage in target language output by establishing
harmonious relationship between teacher and students. This
supports Ellis’s conclusion (2009) that positive such as
acknowledgment/praise (e.g., “yes”, “good”, “well done”,
“Excellent”) validates students’ correct answer as well as enhances
their confidence and motivation of continuous learning and
improvement. It also backs up the view that teachers’ positive
feedback is powerful in inspiring students’ motivation and interest,
boosting students’ confidence in language use activities and
developing their target language skills (Nunan, 1991; Noviana and
Ardi, 2015; Hao Yang, 2017). (2) Feedback strategies of
acknowledgment, repetition and clarification request were used by
all of the teachers. That is, all of the teacher-participants tended to
use implicit feedback in conversational interaction between teacher
and students. This phenomenon support the conclusion of
researchers such as Korn, et al. (2014), Q Huang (2014), Jia Cui (2014),
Q Huang (2014), and Jingjiao Chen (2018) that, due to the influence
of Chinese culture of face-maintenance, teachers try to use different
kinds of feedback strategies to prevent students from being too shy
to express themselves in English class, or keeping silent for fear of
making errors or mistakes, in order to keep students’ facemaintenance
or self-esteem and encourage them to keep on
participating in learning activities in class. Although implicit feedback
has the advantages mentioned above, it is worth mentioning that
explicit feedback also enhances language competence. For example,
Long (1996) and Ellis (2009) prove that explicit feedback such as
metalinguistic feedback, explicit correction and elicitation promote
the flow of conversational interaction in classroom and contribute to
students’ implicit knowledge development by making students notice
the gap between their utterances and the target language. Language
acquisition happens when students get explicit feedback on their
efforts to express themselves. (3) Compered with teachers of non-
English majors, teachers of English majors used more feedback
strategy of recast, while teachers of non-English majors used fewer.
This is not in agreement with Lyster and Ranta’s conclusion (1997)
that recasting was the most widely employed strategy by a large
margin. But, in the classrooms of English majors, the researcher
found that the more the students talked, the more frequently their
teacher used the feedback of recast and elicitation. This is in
accordance with Ellis (2009)’s conclusion that corrective feedback of
recast helps teacher provide students with correct modification of
their previous errors which increases comprehensible input, while
feedback of elicitation facilitates students modifying their own errors
and their generating more output.
Generally speaking, corrective feedback such as explicit
correction, recast, elicitation, metalinguistic cues, clarification and
repetition are beneficial to language teaching and learning in
classroom. According to VanPatten (2003), corrective feedback
assists students to notice the errors and establish form-meaning
connections by meaning negotiation, which promotes language
acquisition. Moreover, Ellis (2009) claims that the goal of corrective
feedback is to make students aware of the difference between the
target language and his own level of foreign language, by using the
direct/explicit or indirect/ implicit corrective feedback. Thus, through
corrective feedback, students can increase the awareness of selfcorrection
which promotes students’ reconstruction of the target
language system. Therefore, in EFL classroom, teachers should use
various strategies to give feedback to support and facilitate students’
learning.
Question 4: Average talk Time of Teachers and Students
Table 9
Talk Time of Teachers and Students
Table 9 is about Student talk time, teacher talk time and the
silence time in the classes. As for classes of English majors, Table 9
shows that teacher talk is dominant in the classes of English majors.
Of all these teachers of English majors, students of TB and TC talked
much more than those of TA, separately taking up 32.9% and 34.6%
of the classroom talk. TA’s talk time occupied over 90% of the
classroom talk. To exam the transcriptions, the researcher found that
(1) students of TB and TC talked much more. This may be because the
talk of TB and TC was involved in the follow-up moves, and they were
more flexible in using types of questions, questioning strategies and
feedback strategies, their student talked more than TA’s, too.
Compared to TA, both of TB and TC used more various types of
questions, and they used more epistemic questions especially display
question and referential question. This may be because teaching
tasks of TB and TC were more complicated than TA. Meanwhile, they
employed more questioning strategies, especially probing and
prompting. Both TB and TC used more feedback strategies than TA,
especially they used more acknowledgement and recast. The
researcher also found that the English competency and proficiency of
TB and TC is much better than that of TA, and the pace (the speed of
the class) of TB’s and TC’s class was faster than that of TA. Students
in these two classes were more active too. Meanwhile, teacher A’s
teaching tasks were related to explanation of the new expressions
and the leading-in activities of the text, and most of the learning tasks
were to translate the English expressions and sentences. The learning
tasks of TB and TC were relevant to the understanding of the theme,
which may be the reason why Teacher B and C used more display and
referential question that Teacher A. What’s more, the researcher also
found the quality and the quantity of the students in both TB and TC
are better those in TA.
As for classes of non-English majors, Table 9 shows that
teacher talk of non-English majors took up a large proportion of the
classroom talk. Students in TE’s class talked more than those of TD
and TF. This may be because talk of TE was more involved in followup
move such as using more types of questions, more strategies of
questioning and feedback compared to classes of TD and TF.
According to the transcriptions, teaching tasks of all the three non-
English major classes were similar -- Text analysis. Teacher E used
more various types of questions (e.g., The total of the questions used
by TE is 65, while TD and TC are 40 and 53 separately.), specially used
more display questions than the other two (The total of the display
questions utilized by TE is 46). Meanwhile, TE used more questioning
strategies than the other two. As for the feedback strategies, TE also
used more.
To compare the classes of English and non-English majors.
Table 9 shows (1) the average talk time of English majors is 9.30
minutes, which occupied 27.65% of the classroom talk, the average
talk time of their teacher is 24.33 minutes, which took up 72.35% of
the classroom talk; The average talk time of non-English majors is
3.93 minutes, which was 12.93% of the classroom talk, the average
talk time of their teacher is 26.47 minutes, its percentage was
87.07%. Average talk time of English majors were longer than that of
the non-English majors, accordingly, the average talk time of the
teachers of non-English majors was longer than that of the teachers
of English majors. That may be because teachers of English majors
focused more on understanding of the text theme while teachers of
non-English majors focused more on writing skill of reading skill in
text analysis. (2) It’s obvious that it was the teacher who dominated
a higher portion of the talk in EFL classes of both English and non-
English major regardless of different teachers, different students,
different themes and different teaching procedures, Talk time of
both groups of teachers far exceeded that of students, accounting for
over two-thirds of the classroom talk. This is in line with the findings
of the researches (Bautista, 2017; Apaydin and Aydemir, 2018;
Norboevitch, 2019; Sedova, et al., 2019) that talk time of teacher far
exceeded that of student in EFL classroom, accounting for over twothirds
of the classroom talk. This may be because of Chinese
classroom culture that teachers tend to spread knowledge and
information and students tend to accept them without questioning.
To examine the recordings, the researcher found: (1) Even in IRF
cycle, the teacher dominated the interaction talk, which is agreed
with Jingfen Xu’s (2015) observation. The teachers (TA, TD and TF)
whose talk time far exceeded that of students used more closed
/displayed questions, while those (TB, TC and TE) whose classes had
longer student talk time used more open/ referential questions or
used more questioning strategies such as prompting and probing.
This is in line with Hardman’s (2020) investigation that teacher’s talk
involving open questions and follow-up moves facilitates students’
engagement in expressing themselves; (2) Compared to non-English
majors, English majors took up larger proportion of the interaction
talk, and their talk are much more fluent. So, it can be explained that
student talk time was influenced by their English competence; It can
also be explained that student talk time is greatly affected by
teacher’s competence such as the language competence and the
flexibility of using the question types and transferring the questioning
strategies. This backs up Ellis (2015)’s view that teacher talk is the
impetus of student talk which promotes student’s participating in the
language output.
According to Piazza et al.(2015), student talk can not only
expand their ideas by creating relationship between previous and
new knowledge, but also enhance students’ comprehension, critical
thinking, and achievement. The more the student talk is, the more
the student participates in language use. The more the student
engages in language output, the faster student acquires the
language(Ellis; 2015). So, student talk time should be increased and
improved while teacher talk time should be relatively minimized. To
achieve this, besides improving their own speech quality, teacher
should try to do the followings: (1) To provide appropriate ground
rules which support student talk. Ground rules promote students’
evaluating the evidences, using them for their thinking, creating
meaning and sharing them with others (Mercer, 2002). For example,
all the students should actively take part in language use activities
and their engagement in language use in class should be evaluated;
Students should prepare for the lesson and its theme before class so
that they know what to say and how to say in class; To respect and
encourage the speakers instead of laughing at them when they make
mistakes or errors, etc. (2) To use more higher order questions like
referential questions and questioning strategies such as prompting
and probing. (3) To spare time giving ear to students’ expressions.
Question 5: Interaction patterns in EFL class
Table 10
Interaction patterns in the EFL classes
Table 10 is about the patterns of interaction in the EFL
classrooms of the teacher participants. As for classes of English
majors, in table 10, three patterns including IRF, IRInRnF and IFRF
appeared in TA’s class. IRE appeared the most frequently. Of all the
classes of English majors, interaction pattern in TB’s class can be
observed the most frequently. In her class, there were totally 4
patterns including IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn and IRFR. In TC’s class, IRF
also appeared the most frequently, which was followed by the
pattern of IRInRnF (9 times), then followed by IRFRnFn, then by IRFR.
Overall, in classes of English majors, there were five types of
interaction patterns in the classrooms of English majors, including
IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IRFR and IFRF. This indicated that teachers of
English majors tended to provide feedback after students provided
feedback. Of all the patterns, IRF is the dominant patterns. And IRF,
IRInRnF appeared the most frequently, and the pattern of IR did not
appear. That’s perhaps because all of these three teachers knew the
importance of tended to give the feedback after students provided
the answers. Meanwhile, IFRF rarely appeared, this means that
usually after the teacher gave feedback, students did not continue
the utterances any more. This may be because to the students,
teacher meant authority, students tended to accept the feedback
given by their teachers.
As for the classes of non-English major, five interaction
patterns appeared, they were: IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR, IFRF. In TD’s
class, totally 22 times of interaction pattern can be observed, which
includes two types of patterns: IRF and IRInRnF. IRF appeared 21
times. In TE’s class, five types of interaction patterns appeared such
as IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR, IFRF. IRF appeared the most frequently.
Then was followed by IRFRnFn and IFRF. IR appeared only once.
Overall, there were five types of interaction patterns in the
classrooms of English majors, including IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR and
IFRF. Among all the patterns, IRF appeared the most frequently. IR
was seldom used by teachers of non-English majors. That means that
all of these three teachers tended to provide the feedback on
students’ responses. Meanwhile, IFRF only appeared in TE’s
classroom, which indicated that some of the students of TE had the
motivation to talk more after receiving the feedback from their
teacher.
To compare the classes of English and non-English majors.
Table 10 showed that (1) it’s obvious that IRF was the dominant
interaction pattern, and IRF appeared more frequently in classes of
non-English majors than that did in classes of English majors. (2)
During the classes of text analysis, patterns such as IRInRnF, IRFRnFn,
IRFR appeared more frequently in classroom of English majors than
in that of non-English majors. That is to say there were more turns
appearing in the patterns, which may be because teachers of non-
English majors used more display questions to test students’
understanding of the sentences instead of the theme, students could
comparatively easily find the answers in the textbook (e.g., TD and
TE), thus, the pattern is simpler. On the other hand, interaction
patterns were more various and had more turns in classes of English
majors, this may be because teachers of English majors used more
referential questions, and their teaching tasks focused more on the
understanding of the text theme instead of the surface
understanding of the sentences during the text analysis. To examine
the transcriptions, it could be found that teacher talk was dominant.
That is, teacher dominated the patterns of interaction between
teacher ans student. This position is in line with the conclusion of
Jingfen Xu(2015), Junhonh Guo (2015) and Behtash and Azarnia
(2015) that in the interaction pattern in EFL classroom, even in IRF
cycle, teacher dominated the classroom talk. (2) IRF is the most
ubiquitous interaction pattern in the recorded EFL classes, and of all
the variations of IRF, IRInRnF is the most common variation. That
means that teachers tended to provide feedback on students’
response in the traditional EFL classrooms, which showed that these
teachers realized the importance of feedback. This is in line with Zhu
Xiaomei’s (2008) finding that IRF can often be found in the traditional
teacher-centered classroom teaching. (3) In the classrooms of English
majors, there were more variations of IRF, and patterns such as
IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IRFR appeared more frequently. The researcher
also found that the more frequently these patterns appeared, or the
more turns the variation embraced, the more the students were
engaged in creative language output. This phenomenon backs up the
position of Cullen (2002) that when teacher replaces the last move
with a follow-up question or feedback move, students will be more
motivated to perpetuate the language interaction, which contributes
to student’s higher thinking and more target language use.
Although IRF has its limitations, teachers can enrich the last
move of IRF and use follow-up move to extend the sequence until
they get satisfying responses. These variations of IRF facilitate the
open dialogic interaction in class.
CONCLUSION
Teacher talk serves as input of the target language as well as
impetus of classroom interaction which enhances students’
comprehension of the input and their participation in the language
use activities. Students’ language learning and acquisition much rely
on the content of teacher talk and the way of its delivery and the
extent of its engaging students in target language use. In order for
engaging students to express themselves in target language as much
as possible, besides increasing their English competency, teachers of
both English majors and non-English majors should be flexible in the
use of question types, especially referential and display question, the
use of questioning strategies especially prompting and probing, and
the feedback strategies, especially recast, elicitation and
metalinguistic feedback.
RECOMMENDATION
Although teachers dominate the EFL classroom talk, the
researcher proposes that teachers can be trained to improve their
talk and have control of learning activities in EFL classroom to
increase the quantity and the quality of the student talk.
In the training program, the following points should be paid
attention: (1) To equip teachers with necessary theories or
conceptions relevant to language learning and acquisition; to make
them understand these theories so that they know how important
teacher talk is, how input, interaction and output promote language
learning and acquisition, how to develop interaction in language
teaching according to students’ language level and teaching content,
what types of questions, questioning strategies, feedback are and
what their functions are, etc. (2) Teachers should be trained to
flexibly use various types of question (especially referential and
display question), questioning strategies (especially prompting and
probing, and the feedback strategies (especially recast, elicitation
and metalinguistic feedback), and above all, teachers should be
trained to improve their proficiency and flexibility of using English,
if possible, teachers should observe the effective teaching as much
as possible. (3) Teachers should be trained to do researches related
to language learning and teaching, thus they can reflect on and
modify their own teaching.
References
Boyd, M. P. (2015). Relations between teacher questioning and
student talk in one elementary ELL classroom. Journal of
Literacy Research, 47(3), 370-404.
Coulthard, M. (2014). An introduction to discourse analysis.
Routledge.
Ellis, R. (1995). Modified oral input and the acquisition of word
meanings. Applied Linguistics, 16(4),409-441.
Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition 2nd
Edition-Oxford applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2
Journal, 1(1).
Hongyang Zhang (2018). Analysis and reflection on silence in English
classes for Non-English majors in colleges and universities,
Overseas English. 24(22):48-52.
Leung, F. K. S. (2005). Some characteristics of East Asian mathematics
classrooms based on data from the TIMSS 1999 video study.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 60(2), 199-215.
Littlewood, W. (2014). Communication-oriented language teaching:
Where are we now? Where do we go from here?. Language
Teaching, 47(3), 349-362.
Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second
language acquisition. In Handbook of second language
acquisition, 2, 413-468.
Long, M.H. (1985) Input and second language acquisition theory. In
S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds.), Input and second language
acquisition (pp. 377-393). Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.
Long, M.H.(1990). The least a second language acquisition theory
needs to explain. Tesol Quarterly, 24(4), 649-666.
Lyster, R., Saito, K. & Sato, M. (2013). Oral corrective feedback in
second language classrooms. Language Teaching, 46(1):1-40.
Qin Liu (2019). Self-efficacy theory and college English class cilence,
Journal of Zhaotong College, 12(6)28-22
Qingqiu Hu (2012). Research on modified feedback in communicative
language teaching, Journal of Changsha Railway Institute
(Social Science Edition),12(1), 10-14
Qingqiu Hu (2012). A study on the interaction characteristics
between teachers and students in communicative English
class, Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.
12(3), 17-22
Qingsong Liu & Kaihong Liao (2019). The learning promoting effect of
question-asking discourse in college English classroom: From
the perspective of interaction and collaboration, Foreign
Languages and Literature, 12(3)21-26
Sinclair and Coulthard (1992) “Toward in analysis in discourse.” In
Coulthard, M. (ed). Advances in spoken discourse analysis.
London: Routledge. 1- 34.
Sinclair, J. & Coulthard, M. (2013). Towards an analysis of discourse.
In Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 7-40).
Routledge.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of
comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its
development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second
language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing
aren’t enough. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 158–
164.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language
learning. In G.Cook & B.Seidlhofer (Eds.),Principle and
practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honor of H.G.
Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
VanPatten, B.(2003). From input to output: A teacher's guide to
second language acquisition. McGraw-Hill.
Wright, B. M. (2016). Display and referential questions: Effects on
student responses. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 15(4),
160-189.
Yanfen, L. & Yuqin, Z. (2010). A study of teacher talk in interactions in
English classes. Chinese journal of applied linguistics,
33(2),76-86.
Yule G. (2016). The study of language. Cambridge university press.
Zhaohong Xue & Yonghui Tang (2019). A study on the influencing
factors of English classroom silence in Chinese universities
based on grounded theory, Journal of Heilongjiang Institute
of Technology (Comprehensive Edition).