Graduate School Research Journal Vol XVIII No 1 (Body)(edited)

© Copyright 2020

St. Paul University Philippines

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced

in any form or by any means without the

written permission of the authors and


ISSN NO. 2012-2551

Published by

CENTER FOR PLANNING, RESEARCH,

INNOVATIONS, AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES


Tuguegarao City, Cagayan Valley 3500

EDITORIAL BOARD

JESUS B. PIZARRO, DPA

Editor-in-Chief

INICIA C. BANSIG, PhD

SR. MA. ADELINA J. PORTILLO, SPC

Consultants

AGRIPINA B. MARIBBAY, PhD

CHARITO M. GUILLERMO, DBM

ANUNCIACION T. TALOSIG, DNS

PILAR B. ACORDA, DME

MARIFEL GRACE C. KUMMER, DIT

Publication Advisory Board

LITA A. JOSE

Managing Editor

CHRISTIAN JADE G. RUAM

Layout Artist and Encoder

CONTENTS

1 OMANI STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES: BASIS

FOR A PROPOSED COMMUNICATION ENHANCEMENT

TRAINING PROGRAM

Aldrin L. Apolonio

Doctor of Philosophy in Rhetoric and Linguistics

39 IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD)

ACTIVITIES AT QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY: BASIS FOR A

UNIFIED GAD PROGRAM

Emma Daynos Aspiras

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Major in Educational Management

72 DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE HEALTHY AGING

PROGRAM FOR ELDERLY WITH COGNITIVE DECLINE

Gracia Herni Pertiwi

Doctor of Philosophy in Nursing Science

103 MOBILE-BASED EGGPLANT DISEASES RECOGNITION

SYSTEM USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

Jake Guabes Maggay

Doctor in Information Technology

128 STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION, HEALTH-SEEKING

BEHAVIORS AMONG MOST-AT-RISK POPULATION AND

PERSONS LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS, AND CARING

BEHAVIORS OF NURSES: BASES FOR TOOL DEVELOPMENT

Janet Alexis A. De Los Santos


175 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES AND VALUE

FORMATION OF THE SISTERS OF ST. PAUL OF CHARTRES IN

THAILAND

Sr. Anchulee Intiya, SPC

Master of Arts in Education Major in School Leadership

192 RECORDS MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING SYSTEM OF

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY, LAL-LO CAMPUS

Vicky B. Agcaoili

Master in Information Technology

202 CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTION IN EFL CLASSES

Zheng Weizheng


OMANI STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES: BASIS FOR A

PROPOSED COMMUNICATION ENHANCEMENT

TRAINING PROGRAM

Aldrin L. Apolonio


ABSTRACT

The study determined the oral communication techniques of

Omani learners. It utilized a mixed-method type of research which was

conducted in one of the University of Technology and Applied Sciences

(UTASs) in North Al Batinah Governorate, Sultanate of Oman. The

research used two questionnaires. For the quantitative data, the first

questionnaire is a modified, researcher-made, and Likert scale survey

that consists of strategies for coping with oral communication problems

based on Yule’s (2014) definition of communicative competence and

divided into Part I - Grammatical Communication Strategies with eight

questions; Part II - Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies with 35

questions; and Part III - Strategic Communication Strategies” with 32

questions. For qualitative data, the second is an open-ended

questionnaire that consists of six parts. The participants of the study

were the Foundation and Post-Foundation students and all the teachers

or lecturers. The questionnaires were distributed online through

Microsoft forms. The study found that the students used to a moderate

extent the grammatical communication strategies and used to a great

extent both sociolinguistic and strategic communication strategies.

Based on the difficulties and needs of the students, the researcher

recommends the creation of a proposed communication enhancement

training program for the students in all the three aspects – grammatical

communication strategies, sociolinguistic communication, and strategic

communication strategies.

Keywords: oral communication, communication strategies, grammatical

communication strategies, sociolinguistic communication

strategies, strategic communication strategies, Oman

INTRODUCTION

Communication strategies started with Chomsky (1965) in

his book “Aspects of the Theory of Syntax” where he wrote the

traditional skills required in communication such as “competence

(the speaker-listener’s expertise of the language) and “performance”

(the real use of language in actual circumstances)”.

“Competence” refers to the knowledge of the language (nonverbal

communication) while “performance” relates to the “use” of

the language (oral communication).

Hymes (1972) added that communicative competence as

intrinsic language structure proficiency and the capacity to utilize

knowledge in grammatical in diverse interactive circumstances,

consequently adding the sociolinguistic element into Chomsky’s

language interpretation of competence.

Currently, communicative competence points to the three

context of “communicative competence” by Canale and Swain (1980,

1983), Bachman and Palmer (1996), and Yule (2014). The academic

model suggested by Canale and Swain initially had “three main

elements - grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence.

Later, Canale added discourse competence.”

Yule (2014) categorized communicative competence into

grammatical competence (the correct use of words and structures),

“sociolinguistic competence (the capacity to use suitable language),

and strategic competence (the proficiency to manage a message

efficiently and to compensate, through strategies, for some

problems).”

Competence in oral communication, however, involves not

only the proficiency in grammar but also knowledge of culture and

coping strategies. According to Brown (2007), "a language is a part of

a culture and a culture is a part of a language; the two are intricately

interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the

significance of either language or culture." Likewise, sociolinguistics

cannot be separated from culture since it involves the relationship

between language and society (Yule, 2014). Strategic competence is

using oral and written techniques in communication to remedy

interaction failures because of inconsistences in performance or

because of deficient proficiency (cited in Brown, 2000).

Proficiency in oral communication is important in Oman since

the English language is an essential mode of communication in Omani

workstations, particularly in non-government sectors, with the

multicultural character of expatriate workers (Al-Mahrooqi &

Tuzlukova, 2014). English is a requirement to obtain a desk job (Al-

Issa, 2002).

English is also the mode of teaching is English in all the

government and private colleges, universities, or post-secondary

institutions in the Sultanate (Al-Busaidi, 1995). Likewise, according to

Al-Issa (2002), English is a valuable instrument for economic

revolution and is given political, economic, legislative, and

government attention which finds its standing on the public

perception. The knowledge of English also happens to be the

foundation for the nation’s progress (Wiley, 1996) so its use is

founded for purposes of transition. In fact, the knowledge of English

has been deemed to be a vital mechanism to speed up Omanization

(Al-Issa, 2002) – the methodical and slow procedure where the

foreign worker is changed by a citizen (Al-Busaidi, 1995).

In Arab countries, the learners of the English language face

difficulties in oral and written communication (Abdul Haq (1982),

Harrison, et al. (1975), Abbad (1988), & Wahba (1998).

Arab learners who are studying English meet several

difficulties in accomplishing correctness and eloquence in English. A

problem met by learners of English from the Arab region is their

inadequate ability in the English language (Rabab'ah, 2003). They

consider it a challenge in grasping the basics of the English language

and then fail to express their intended message to others. Their range

of semantic and grammatical resources is inadequate in articulating

their thoughts. As a result, they utilize different techniques to

surmount difficulties in communication when they have problems in

the language sought to be learned. Their goal to communicate

effectively can be achieved with linguistic or non-linguistic strategies

like imitating the sound, using bodily gestures, utilizing pause fillers,

creating novel words, rephrasing, or code-switching. CSs have been

considered as different kinds of techniques to improve

communication and to avoid communication problems.

The outcome of the research of Al-Shammakhi & Al-Humaidi

(2015) also demonstrated that both the male and female teachers

meet similar problems on the need to learn teaching approaches.

Knowledge of structure is the basis of interaction that assists

in grasping the idea and the objective of the communication (Praise,

Meenakshi, 2015). Thus, the results suggest that while the Omani

learners effectively use vocabulary that is familiar to them, they

cannot successfully communicate using correct grammar.

The facts establish that oral communication in the English

language is essential in school and in workplaces in Oman. However,

Omani learners have a difficulty in verbal interaction. There is then a

need to find out the existing level of oral communication of Omani

learners and provide mitigating measures to improve their speaking

skill.

In Japan, Nakatani (2006) published an “Oral Communication

Strategy Inventory (OCSI)” utilized in assessing the speaking

techniques used by Japanese students. It consisted of eight elements

as follows: “(1) Speaking Social Affective; (2) Fluency-Oriented: (3)

Negotiation for Meaning while Speaking; (4) Accuracy-Oriented; (5)

Message Reduction and Alteration; (6) Nonverbal Strategies While

Speaking; (7) Message Abandonment; and (8) Attempt to Think in

English.”

While some researchers cast doubt on the benefits of explicit

teaching of communication strategies, Dörnyei & Thurrell (1994)

found that the teaching communication strategies could offer

learners a comforting feeling of safety. Littlemore (2012) also

observed that training on coping techniques improves the capacity to

understand the rubrics of the language sought to be learned and the

proper use of the language in diverse situations.

While there is a broad study about communication strategies

on native and non-native English language students, not many

inquiries have been conducted about students in the Arab region or

on Arab learners utilizing the English language (Rababah, 2005;

Rababah and Seedhouse, 2004, Rababah and Bulut, 2007).

In Oman, there were two studies that researched only in one

aspect of oral communication. The first is a study by Al Alawi (2015)

about the strategic communication strategies used by 60 Omani

students using the communication strategy taxonomy by Tarone

(1977, cited in Bialystok in 1990). He found that the students’

aptitude affected the utilization of CSs, with better students that

utilized approximation and circumlocution, but least skillful students

utilized avoidance techniques and first language-based

methodologies. The second research was conducted by Al-Siyabi

(2014) who studied the strategic communication strategies

employed by three boys and two girls at the Foundation level. She

utilized the taxonomy of Faerch and Kasper (1983a) and discovered

that although the students did not receive adequate training in

applying the strategies, they were implementing some

communication strategies.

However, there is a gap in these studies that the present

study sought to fill. First, the two studies only researched about the

strategic coping techniques of Omani students but did not study the

grammatical and sociolinguistic communication strategies. Second,

the researches only studied the students’ perspective or assessment

of their strategic communication strategies. Third, these studies did

not provide any intervention measures on the communication

difficulties of the students. Fourth, the population of these studies

was only limited and could not make any conclusive generalization to

apply to the whole population.

This study was then conducted to find out the level of oral

communication of Omani learners in three categories (grammatical,

sociolinguistic, and strategic) which were not studied by earlier

studies about oral communication in Oman. The findings became the

basis to formulate a proposed communication enhancement training

program to improve the oral communication of Omani learners.

Additionally, this study investigated how the English teachers

managed the oral communication strategies used by Omani students

and whether the assessments of the teachers and the students were

similar. Mourssi & Al Kharosi (2014) studied that some of the

problems in improving the learners’ oral communication are

teachers’ training, designing teaching resources, and context

concerns.

Statement of the Problem

The present study aimed to assess the oral communication

strategies of Omani learners in the Sultanate of Oman.

Specifically, sought answers to the following problems:

1. To what extent do the Omani learners use the oral

communication strategies as assessed by the teacher and

student-participants in terms of:

1.1. Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCSs)

1.2. Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies (SoCSs)

1.3. Strategic Communication Strategies (StCSs)

2. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of the

teacher-and student-participants on the extent of use of the

oral communication strategies by Omani learners in terms of:

2.1. GCSs

2.2. SoCSs

2.3. StCSs

3. How do the English teachers manage the oral communication

strategies used by Omani students?

4. What are the needs and difficulties of Omani students in

expressing themselves?

5. What program can be proposed to address the needs and

difficulties of Omani students in expressing themselves?

Research Design

METHODOLOGY

The research utilized the mixed methods technique which

involved gathering together the quantitative and qualitative

information and merged the two varieties of information. The

fundamental idea of this kind of research is that the fusion of

qualitative and quantitative methods gives a better and

comprehensive appreciation of a study as compared to only one

method (Creswell, 2014). This entailed the gathering and analysis of

the qualitative (open-ended) and quantitative (closed-ended)

information to answer the questions of the study.

Mixed technique of study was selected for its capacity to

extract from a qualitative and quantitative study and reduce the

constraints of the two methods. It was the best method since the

researcher could retrieve the quantitative and qualitative

information.

Specifically, this involved the explanatory sequential mixedapproach

strategy. It included two-stages of gathering the

information in which the researcher gathered quantitative

information in the initial stage, investigated the outcomes, and then

utilized the outcomes to organize the second, qualitative stage. It

involved gathering information from the questionnaire in the initial

stage, evaluating the information, and then subsequently assessing

the qualitative open-ended survey (Creswell, 2018).

Participants of the Study

The participants of the study were the Foundation and Post-

Foundation students and all the teachers or lecturers. The size of the

population was obtained through a confidence level of 95% with a

5% margin of error.

The participants were from similar cultural and language

backgrounds. Their naïve language is Arabic, and it is the official

language in Oman. The English language is the primary means of

teaching at universities and colleges. The Foundation program has

five different levels: Level 1, Level 2, Level 3, Level 4, and Post-

Foundation. They were completely informed of the objectives of the

study and their prerogatives as participants.

The participants were 46 teachers or lecturers of the ELC of

different nationalities and 675 students of the Foundation and Post-

Foundation Programs

Instrumentation

The study used both the quantitative and qualitative method

of inquiry. As such, this utilized two types of questionnaires in

gathering data. For the quantitative aspect, the first questionnaire is

a modified, researcher-made, and Likert scale survey questionnaire

for both the teachers and the students. It consists of strategies for

dealing with verbal interaction difficulties based on Yule’s (2014)

definition and discussion of communicative competence. The

questionnaire is split into three sections. Part I consists of the

Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCS) with eight statements;

Part II is the Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies (SoCSs) with 35

statements; and Part III is the Strategic Communication Strategies

(StCSs) with 32 statements. It is modified since some of the questions

were taken from previous oral communication strategies inventories.

The researcher incorporated questions especially on the

sociolinguistic aspect from insights gathered from the Oman

“Ministry of Culture and Heritage”, the Oman “Ministry of Tourism”,

and from journals published by the “Sultan Qaboos University”, the

premier university in the country. The proficiencies evolved into a

Likert-type survey that required the teachers and the learners to

relate the rate with which they utilized particular techniques in verbal

interaction.

For the qualitative aspect, the second questionnaire for the

teachers consisted of six parts. Part I contained the question on what

would the teachers do when a student has difficulty in grammar or in

pronunciation while speaking/talking to them; Part 2 is a question on

what would the teachers do when an Omani student, while having a

conversation with them, shows an action/expression which is

inappropriate in the context of the Omani culture; Part 3 is a question

on what would the teachers do if a student is unable to continue the

conversation with them because he/she doesn’t know the proper

word, or he/she doesn’t know his grammar, or he/she doesn’t know

how to pronounce the word; Part 4 asked the teachers the best way

to teach English grammar to Omani students in the English Language

Centre (ELC); Part 5 is a question on the best way to teach the Omani

students the use of suitable/appropriate language (in English) and

actions/gestures in accordance with Oman’s culture or social context;

and Part 6 asked the teachers the best way to teach the Omani

students the proper strategy when there is a breakdown in

communication in the English language. The following were the

coding used in this study:

4.20 – 5.00 always used to a very great extent

3.40 – 4.19 often used to a great extent

2.60 – 3.39 sometimes used to a moderate extent

1.80 – 2.59 seldom used to a limited extent

1.00 – 1.79 never used to a very limited extent

Data Gathering Procedure

After the proposal defense, the researcher submitted the

proposed study to the Ethics Research Committee (ERC) of St. Paul

University Philippines (SPUP), Tuguegarao. When it was cleared from

the ERC, the researcher then obtained permission from the Head of

Center (HoC) of the English Language Center (ELC) to conduct the

study. Subsequently, the researcher conducted the study through the

online distribution of the questionnaire.

Pre-test or Pilot test. The questionnaire was pilot tested for

both the teachers (10) and the students (20) in an online format

(Microsoft forms). Since the questionnaire was distributed online and

since the participation is merely voluntary, the informed consent was

incorporated in the introduction of the questionnaire that the

participants have freely consented to participate in the survey when

they answered the questionnaire. The data were collected through

the following procedure:

1. The teachers’ survey questionnaire was encoded into the

Microsoft forms. The specific parameters were set like only

those in the organization could answer the questionnaire and

the participants could only answer once.

2. The students’ survey questionnaire was first transcribed into

Arabic and checked by an Omani teacher for accuracy. Then

the translated (Arabic) version of the survey questionnaire

was given to another independent translator (who has no

knowledge of or contact with the original text) and translated

it back into the English language. It was then encoded into

the Microsoft forms with the explicit requirement that only

students in the institution could answer and that they could

only answer once.

3. The participants (teachers and students) were then given two

weeks to answer the questionnaire.

4. The result obtained was then exported to excel from the

Microsoft forms. After the data were extracted from the

Microsoft forms, the survey questionnaire was deactivated

and deleted from the system for security reasons. The

Microsoft Office used is registered and maintained by the

college so the data could be accessed by the information

technology administrators.

Data Analysis

In analyzing the results, the following steps were followed:

The answers of the participants – teachers and students –

were exported to excel from the Microsoft forms.

Weighted Mean or Average. This was used to describe the

extent of use of the oral communication strategies of the Omani

learners or students in terms of GCSs, SoCSs, and StCSs with the

following verbal interpretation of the scores:

4.20 – 5.00 always used to a very great extent

3.40 – 4.19 often used to a great extent

2.60 – 3.40 sometimes used to a moderate extent

1.80 – 2.59 seldom used to a limited extent

1.00 – 1.79 never used to a very limited extent

Test for Independent Samples. This was used to test for the

significant difference on the assessment of the teachers and the

students on the extent of use of the oral communication strategies

by the Omani learners in terms of GCSs, SoCSs, and StCSs.

Thematic Analysis. To answer the third and fourth problem

statements, the researcher used thematic analysis of the answers of

the teachers in an open-ended questionnaire.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Teachers’ and Students’ Assessment on the Extent of Use of the Oral

Communication Strategies by the Omani learners in Terms of

Grammatical Communication Strategies (GCSs), Sociolinguistic

Communication Strategies (SoCSs), and Strategic Communication

Strategies (StCSs)

1.1 Grammatical Communication Strategies

The grammatical communication strategy used to a great

extent by the students is they “often” (Item 7) use words that are

familiar to them. This indicates that when the students are taught

certain vocabulary, they use them confidently because they

understand their meanings and usage.

Al-Mahrooqi, et. al. (2015) observed that Omani learners

most frequently used academic terms relevant to their courses. Thus,

the teaching of vocabulary related to the courses of the students

emerges as effective in improving oral communication. Teng (2011)

also said that the technique that learners frequently utilize is to use

vocabulary which are recognizable to them.

The least-used GCSs by the students or used to a moderate

extent are difficulty in word stress and intonation (Item 1), proper

pronunciation (Item 2), grammar and word structure (Item 3), selfcorrection

(Item 4), use of the active voice (Item 5), and use of

complex sentences (Item 8). Al-Issa (2005) had the same observation

when he mentioned that Omani students are deficient in how to use

the structure and form of the language (grammatical competence).

Mukattash (1983) also stated that the difficulties that Arab learners

of English like university students persist to make are simple mistakes

in pronunciation, spelling, morphology, and syntax.

Al-Issa (2006) wrote that when students in Oman leave high

school, they largely face difficulties with using English

communicatively. They do not have grammatical proficiency,

discourse competence, sociolinguistic aptitude, and strategic

competence. Al Hosni (2014) also narrated that one of the several

reasons that cause the problem in speaking is the Omani learners’

grammatical difficulties. Sergon (2011) also found that the Omani

students still labor with English. Moreover, Mukattash (1983) stated

that Omani college learners persist to do certain simple mistakes in

enunciation, spelling, morphology, and syntax.

Knowledge of structure is the basis of interaction that assists

in grasping the idea and the objective of the communication (Praise,

Meenakshi, 2015). Thus, the results suggest that while the Omani

learners effectively use vocabulary that is familiar to them, they

cannot successfully communicate using correct grammar. This finding

highlights the importance of implicitly teaching grammar and

structure.

Interestingly, the students “sometimes” try to talk like a

native speaker. Norman (2017) in her research deduced that the

learners appear to believe that possessing a native-like pronunciation

is misunderstood and that being understood is favored more than

their supposed English pronunciation. Among Arab students, Siddiqui

(2016) found that the emphasis on fluency versus accuracy proved

inadequate in reaching the needed proficiency for second language

learners of English. This signifies that for non-native speakers, the

goal is effective communication and not to achieve native-like

pronunciation. Liu (1998) discusses that a brilliant use of the English

language does not refer to native-like enunciation.

Overall, the extent of use by the students of the GCSs is

described as “sometimes” which denotes that the students have a

deficiency in using their grammatical communication strategies since

they are using them only to a moderate extent.

1.2 Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies

Since there is an absolute relation between sociolinguistics

and culture (Saussure, 2002), the findings indicate that since the

students used to a great and very great extent the majority of the

sociolinguistic communication strategies, they are then fully aware of

the influence of their Omani culture in oral communication.

The life and culture in Oman are principally regulated by

religion since Islam is the state religion and that Shari'a is the source

of legislation. Hence, the study found that most of the sociolinguistic

communication strategies that were used to a great extent by the

students were in respect to their religion like saying “Prophet

Mohammad, May Peace be Upon Him” or “Inshaallah” and

“Assalamu Alaikum.” Arabs tend to demonstrate respect when

addressing each other by utilizing sacred terms and offering spiritual

compliments. This reflects their strong faith and the weight they

ascribe to the Qur’an and particularly to the issue of the future and

fate in Islam (Bouchara, 2015).

Aside from religious influences, the other Items relate to

cultural practices that play an important role in effective

communication. For instance, shaking the hands using only the right

hand is important since, in many Arab nations affected by Arab

culture, the left arm is believed to be dirty and is not involved in

public socialization (U.S Army Training…, 2006). Other cultural

practices include not asking about the wife of an Omani in a

conversation and boys and girls do not mix together when talking to

the teacher.

The findings reveal that the least-used sociolinguistic

communication strategy relates to the practice of Omani learners in

inappropriately applying their culture to other cultures. Islam does

not recognize any castes (Ansari, 1960) so the Arab people respect

social equality and they do not follow usual politeness in other

cultures like using “sir, madam” even for superiors. For instance, it is

a practice that in other cultures the students address their teachers

as “sir, madam” or “Mister ____, Miss ____.” But the research

revealed that the students “sometimes” (mean of 3.20) call their

teachers by their first names. The Omani learners also used a gesture

to a moderate extent with their fingers pointed together upward to

say, “wait” or “come” but other cultures may find this insulting. They

also “sometimes” change their way of saying things according to the

context (like talking to their peers or talking to their teachers). As

discovered by Al-Mahrooqi (2016), Omani learners are struggling in

interacting in English with individuals from various socio-cultural

circumstances.

The research likewise found that there is an effect of the

Arabic language in the learners’ oral communication. Arabic imparts

an idea like English but conveys it in a distinctive manner which

results in the learners shifting their understanding from Arabic into

English. This explains why the leaners utilize the structure of Arabic if

they convert to English. Such variances in the form of the two

languages produce difficulties in converting to English (Al-Zoubi, Dalal

& eid, Mohamad, 2014). Because of this difference in sentence

structure, the study found that the Omani learners have problems in

using appropriate words, phrases, or idioms according to the context.

Overall, the extent of use by the students of the SoCCs is

described as “often” which means that Omani learners are using to a

great extent their sociolinguistic communication strategies.

1.3. Strategic Communication Strategies

The study finds that the Omani learners try to a great extent

to prevent communication breakdown by having the courage to

participate in the conversation. Since there is an inadequate practice

of English language outside the classroom (Al hadhrami & Amzat,

2012), the Omani learners often attempt to provide a polite reaction

to the hearer and keenly urge themselves to say their ideas to the

tutors. Likewise, they often take some period to say their ideas. It is

also discovered that the Omani learners use to a great extent the

clarification request or they reiterate their ideas until the hearer

comprehends. The study discovered that Omani learners use

circumlocution to a great extent – they elucidate or reword the

intended message. As an example: if a student is not familiar with the

term corkscrew, he/she substitutes it by stating “the object used to

open a bottle.” This indicates that Omani learners are keen on

communicating in English using basic strategies to get their message

across.

However, the study also found that many of the students use

pause fillers to a great extent when they are not able to reflect on

what to say. Khojastehrad (2012) explained that a limited number of

the interlocutors express themselves effortlessly devoid of some kind

of breaks, reluctances, vocabulary, and sounds. Reluctance can show

panic, hesitancy, doubt, or stammering, in oral communication.

Rieger (2003) found that intermediate learners or novices are

inclined to abandon their reluctance breaks that produce a very

faltering speech. Thus, this indicates that there is a need to increase

the awareness of the Omani learners of the fillers if they are reluctant

in using the English language.

Many of the Omani learners also initially consider to a great

extent a statement they presently understand in English and

afterwards attempt to modify it to suit the circumstances. They

reflect on what they need to express in Arabic and subsequently

creäte statement in English or translate to English a phrase or a

structure literally from the Arabic structure. Arabic has more words

and word-combinations as compared to English thus it obstructs the

study of the English language (UKEssays, 2018). Hence, Arab learners

may be confused by the lack of patterns in English in Arabic that could

permit them to differentiate “nouns from verbs or adjectives”, etc.

As a consequence, the dominance of intrasentential code-switching

in which English words are often inserted into the middle of Arabic

sentences (Al-Mahrooqi & Al Aghbari, 2015). This implies that there

is a need to explicitly teach grammar and structure to Omani leaners.

As Ur (1996) contended, studying sentence structure and instruction

in many diverse circumstances are often what the learners request.

Due to their less proficiency in grammar, the study found that Omani

learners often shorten their ideas and utilize easy terms and utilize

signs when they couldn’t articulate their ideas.

The research likewise discovered that the Omani learners’

limited learning of words causes a communication breakdown so

they often illustrate or reword the planned message. As an example,

when a student is not familiar with the term corkscrew, he/she

substitutes it by stating “the object used to open the bottle.” Also,

they use another word to say the idea of the intended word as nearly

as possible. As an example, “ship” for “sailboat” or “pipe” for “water

tube.” This indicates that the Omani learners have difficulty in using

the proper vocabulary. The same conclusion was found by Al-

Mahrooqi, et al. (2016) that there are irregularities in learning words

such that vocabularies are not presented at appropriate stages.

Overall, while the extent of use by the students of the StCSs

is described as “often,” there are certain areas in grammar and

vocabulary that should be improved.

The inability to continue the conversation of Omani leaners

could be understood since English is not generally conversed or

utilized in day-to-day conversations (Saeed Al-Sobhi, & Preece, 2018).

This was also observed by Rabab'ah (2003) who said that a few of the

difficulties met by Arab students of English is their inadequate ability

in the English language. Al-Issa (2005) mentioned that Omani learner

are deficient in interrelating (sociolinguistic competence), and how

to get their meaning across effectively to others, particularly when

there are problems in the communication process (strategic

competence). In a similar study, there is really a problem in oral

communication for Omani learners as researched by Al-Mahrooqi &

Tuzlukova (2014) who discovered that college students of Sultan

Qaboos University (SQU) in Oman were only moderately prepared in

terms of all the skills including oral communication. The study found

that the Omani learners abandon a conversation and Al Hosni (2014)

revealed that Omani students exert effort to discover a suitable

vocabulary when trying to speak in English, which indicates their

deficient vocabulary so they have difficulty in developing sentences

when they try to articulate their ideas. Arab English language

students face difficulties in both oral and written communication

(Abdul Haq, 1982). Rabab'ah (2014) also noticed that another

significant part of the problem that Arab English language students

encounter is speaking. Arab students consider it hard to speak easily

in the language sought be learned.

The least-used strategic communication strategies reveal the

items that the student needs to improve on. For example, the

students sometimes try to relax when they feel anxious/nervous in a

conversation or when talking and they sometimes try to speak clearly

and loudly to make themselves heard. This indicates the lack of

motivation and confidence of Omani learners to communicate in

English. Al-Mahrooqi (2012) found that the Omani learners do not

have the motivation and confidence because they do not like English

and they see it adversely so they give no importance to it. Students

consider English unimportant and they are unaware of its

importance. They fail to give importance in it. In their view, it has no

significance like the other courses. Moreover, this absence of

motivation showed that they sometimes give more attentiveness to

the dialogue.

As previously found in the present study, the Omani learners

were found to be deficient in grammar and vocabulary which causes

a communication breakdown. For instance, the students substitute

the intended idea with a new idea since they are unable to

accomplish the intended message and they abandon an idea

incomplete due to certain linguistic problems. Also, they stop if they

couldn’t clearly express themselves and they leave the

implementation of an oral communication and merely state certain

terms if they couldn’t express what is in their minds. Moreover, they

create a new word in English like “vegetarianist” for vegetarian.

Furthermore, the Omani learners’ deficiency in grammar and

vocabulary makes them do code-switching by using both English and

Arabic in a conversation or within a sentence. For example, the

students would say, “I want to go to hamam.” (“hamam” is Arabic for

bathroom). Tukinoff (1985) perceived in Omani English language

schools that understanding and speaking in English is an obstacle for

Omani students. Thus, the students are often noticed to utilize the

interchange of Arabic, the native language, and English, the language

sought to be learned, i.e., code-switching in Omani schools.

Overall, the extent of use of the students of the StCSs is

described as “often.” The result, however, discloses that the extent

of the students’ use of strategic communication strategies also

reveals some of their inadequacies.

Test of Significant Difference in the Mean Assessment of the

Teacher and Student Participants on the Students’ Extent of Use of

the Oral Communication Strategies

Grammatical Communication Strategies. Since p < .882 is

greater than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is

accepted and conclude that there is no significant difference in the

assessment by the teachers and the students on the extent of

students’ use of the GCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the students

are united in their assessment of the grammatical communication

strategies of the students. This unity of assessment signifies that the

result is conclusive.

Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. Since p < .755 is

greater than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is

accepted and conclude that there is no significant difference in the

assessment of the teachers and the students on the extent of the

students’ use of the SoCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the

students are united in their assessment of the sociolinguistic

communication strategies of the students. This unity of assessment

signifies that the result is conclusive.

Strategic Communication Strategies. Since p < .010 is less

than the significance level α = 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected

and conclude that there is a significant difference in the assessment

of the teachers and the students on the extent of the students’ use

of the StCSs. Statistically, the teachers and the students differ in their

assessment of the strategic communication strategies of the

students. This difference in the assessment signifies that there is a

need to look into the context of the study to determine the exact

result.

Ways English Teachers Manage the Oral Communication Strategies

Used by Omani Students

The teachers answered that they “seldom” immediately stop

the student in speaking/talking and then give the correction; they

“sometimes” allow the student to finish speaking/talking and then

give the correction to the student; and they “sometimes” allow the

student to finish speaking/talking and then give a lecture for all the

students about the grammar error. The survey also contained an

open-ended question on how the English teachers manage the oral

communication strategies used by Omani students. The answers

were grouped into themes using Nvivo and the following were the

suggestions on how to manage the grammatical communication

problems of the Omani leaners: (1) doing a whole class activity which

is doing the correction with the participation of all the students in the

class; (2) noting down the errors of the students for a discussion in

the latter part of the class; (3) doing more conversation practice in

the class; and (4) making plans depending on the gravity of the

mistake. This indicates that the teachers perceived that the students

have difficulties in oral communication and that they are ready to

provide some solutions if given the opportunity.

The best way to teach English grammar to Omani students in

the English Language Centre (ELC). With the perceived grammatical

communication problems of the students, the teachers

recommended five remedies like (1) having separate grammar

classes for each level; (2) integrating grammar and pronunciation in

each subject (reading, listening, writing); (3) allowing the students to

watch videos and other authentic models in grammar and

pronunciation; (4) doing drill lessons; and (5) letting the students

have group activities in the class.

Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. The teachers were

asked on what they do when an Omani student, while having a

conversation with them, shows an action/expression which is

inappropriate in the context of the Omani culture.

The teachers responded that they “sometimes” immediately

tell the Omani student that his/her action or words are improper in

the context of the Omani culture and that they “sometimes” just

allow the student to finish the conversation and will ask the help from

an Omani teacher/lecturer to talk to the student about his/her

inappropriate action or words. They suggested several remedies like

(1) immediately stopping the student from continuing with the

conversation and telling the inappropriateness of his/her action, (2)

talking to the student in private but allowing him/her to finish the

conversation, (3) dealing with the problem depending on the gravity

of the inappropriate action; (4) using gestures for the student to stop

such inappropriate action but without interrupting the conversation,

(5) allowing the student to self-correct by pointing out the

inappropriate action, and (6) increasing the teachers’ awareness and

understanding of Omani culture.

With differing understating of Omani culture, the teachers

were also asked on the best way to teach the Omani students the use

of suitable/appropriate language (in English) and actions/gestures in

accordance with Oman’s culture or social context. They responded

that lessons using appropriate language in accordance with Omani

culture (1) should be included in each subject – reading, listening,

writing, speaking, (2) should be shown to the students through videos

and other authentic materials, (3) should be made through role-plays

inside the classroom, (4) should be first taught to the teachers, (5)

should be learned through a separate subject about Omani culture,

and (6) may not be taught at all since the Omani students are already

aware of their own culture.

Strategic Communication Strategies. On what to do when the

student is unable to continue the conversation with the teacher

because he/she doesn’t know the proper word, or he/she doesn’t

know his/her grammar, or he/she doesn’t know how to pronounce a

word, the teachers answered that (1) they use gestures to prompt

the student to continue with the conversation, (2) they provide word

options or choices for the student to proceed with the conversation,

(3) they allow the student to use technology (like mobile phone

dictionary) to find the appropriate word or phrase, (4) they ask the

support from the other students or his/her peers, and (5) they

request the help from an Omani teacher.

The teachers were also asked on the best way to teach the

Omani students the proper strategy when there is a breakdown in

communication in the English language. A breakdown in English

communication happens when the Omani student is not able to

continue the conversation in English because of (a) the lack of

proficiency (grammar) in the English language; (b) the inability to

pronounce an English word properly; and (c) the lack of a wide range

of vocabulary. The teachers responded that there should be (1)

individual practice for the students in all the classes, (2) immersion in

the use of language, (3) videos and other authentic materials to help

the students deal with communication breakdowns, (4) group

practice for the students like conversation simulations, and (5)

express teaching of communication strategies.

This indicates that the teachers perceive that the students

have difficulties in oral communication and they are ready to provide

some solutions if given the opportunity.

Needs and Difficulties of Omani Students in Expressing Themselves

Grammatical Communication Strategies. This study found

that the students have difficulty in word stress and intonation (Item

1), proper pronunciation (Item 2), grammar and word structure (Item

3), self-correction (Item 4), use of the active voice (Item 5), trying to

talk like a native speaker (Item 6), and use of complex sentences

(Item 8). Since the study cannot make a conclusive finding that the

students’ communication strategies improve as they go to a higherlevel,

the students’ GCSs are likely similar in the other levels which

indicate that there is no progression or movement in the course

content for grammar in each level.

Sociolinguistic Communication Strategies. The study

disclosed that the students have problems in saying things according

to the context (like talking to their peers or talking to their teachers);

in using appropriate words, phrases, or idioms according to the

context; in avoiding calling their teachers by their first names; in

gesturing with their fingers pointed together upward to say, “wait”

or “come; ” in consistently putting their right hand in their chest to

show respect; in expecting that another person will not just say a

quick “hi!” or “good morning” when greeting; in saying thank you (or

shaking the hands of the teacher) when leaving the classroom; and in

calling the attention of a person or the teacher using the index finger.

Strategic Communication Strategies. The results reveal that

the students have to improve on several Items. They need to use

pause fillers and hesitation devices less; they should not take too

much time to express what they want to say; they should reduce

thinking first of a sentence they already know in English and then try

to change it to fit the situation; they should avoid thinking of what

they want to say in Arabic and then construct the English sentence;

they should not be afraid from talking in English to other nationalities

even if they do not know the proper words to use in their topic; they

should avoid using an alternative term to express the meaning of the

target lexical item as closely as possible; and they should avoid

translating to English a phrase or a structure literally from the Arabic

structure.

Moreover, the students need to relax more when they feel

anxious/nervous in a conversation or when talking; they need to pay

more attention to the conversational flow; they need to speak more

clearly and loudly to make themselves heard; they need to make

more comprehension checks to ensure the listener understands what

they want to say; they should avoid replacing the original message

with another message because of feeling incapable of executing their

original intent; they should avoid leaving a message unfinished

because of some language difficulty; they should avoid giving up

when they can’t make themselves understood; they should avoid

abandoning the execution of a verbal plan and avoid just saying some

words when they don’t know what to say; they should avoid creating

a new word in English based on their knowledge of morphological

rules; and they should avoid using both English and Arabic in a

conversation or within a sentence.

Some of the reasons why Omani learners experience these

difficulties are they transfer to Arabic every time they have difficulty

in stating their thoughts in English; they barely participate during

class discussions because of some reservations, and they are either

scared of committing errors in full view of their classmates or they

are just shy (Al Hosni, 2014). Usually, they practice English only in the

classroom (Ugla et al., 2013). In agreement to the conclusions of Ugla,

et al. (2013), Mukattash (1983) affirmed that the learners stay

incapable to state themselves easily and proficiently either when

dealing with educational subjects or usual everyday issues.

Proposed Program to Address the Needs and Difficulties of Omani

Students in Expressing Themselves

The researcher found out that the Omani students have

difficulties in proper stress and intonation, proper pronunciation,

correct grammar and word structure, self-correction, use of the

active voice, and use of complex sentences. It was also discovered

that the students used to a great extent their sociolinguistic and

strategic communication strategies. However, there are certain

cultural influences in verbal interaction and strategic strategies that

need to be stressed and improved.

There are many factors to consider to achieve proficiency in

oral communications in English. Chomsky (1965), in his book

“Aspects of the Theory of Syntax,” wrote the traditional skills

required in communication such as “competence (the speakerlistener’s

expertise of the language) and performance (the real use

of language in actual circumstances)”. Hymes (1972) explained

communicative competence as intrinsic language structure

proficiency and the capacity to utilize knowledge in grammatical in

diverse interactive circumstances, consequently adding the

sociolinguistic element into Chomsky’s language interpretation of

competence.

Current hypothetical as well as experimental inquiry about

communicative competence points to the three context of

“communicative competence” by Canale and Swain (1980, 1983),

Bachman and Palmer (1996), and Yule (2014). The academic model

suggested by Canale and Swain initially had “three main elements -

grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence. Later,

Canale added discourse competence.”

Yule categorized communicative competence into

grammatical competence (the correct use of words and structures),

“sociolinguistic competence (the capacity to use suitable language),

and strategic competence (the proficiency to manage a message

efficiently and to compensate, through strategies, for some

problems).”

Some of the strategies in teaching communication strategies

are suggested by Maleki (2010) to explain “paraphrase, transfer,

appeal for assistance, and mime and the bottom-up method is the

structure where the strategies are put to use.” Other teaching

strategies can also be adopted from Gallagher-Brett (2001) who

conducted an eight-week task in which coping techniques were

explained to new learners. The students have been taught in diverse

turn-taking expressions, appeals for assistance, clarification and

repetition; greetings and pause fillers. Saeidi & Farshchi (2015)

likewise contributed several ideas in teaching communication

strategies used in their study that included eight modules

distributed in a span of two months (Week 1 to Week 8) which was

initiated for a period of 16 one-hour classes. The learners’ verbal

output was evaluated by means of a sequence of image-based

storytelling activities. Mariani (2010) has also published the book

“Communication Strategies: Learning and Teaching How to Manage

Oral Interaction” that details some strategies in teaching and

managing oral communication strategies. Ogane (1998) also

published the book “Teaching Communication Strategies” that

provides some strategies to teach communication strategies.

For materials that dwell with cultural issues which influence

oral communication, the English Language Centre of Sultan Qaboos

University (2012) prepared a “Guide for the New Teacher” which

includes cultural do’s and don’ts that are applicable for both new

teachers and a reminder for the students. The US Army Training and

Doctrine Command (2006) prepared a handbook for its troops that

states basic information about awareness of Arab culture. It acts as

an essential guide to Arabic customs and culture originally intended

for the business traveler. El Sayad (2018) also prepared “A Cultural

Guide for Business in Oman” that incorporates cultural practices in

communication. There is also a website that outlines cross-cultural

etiquette and understanding in Oman (Culture crossing, 2017). The

program seeks to enlist Omani teachers to teach the influences of

Omani culture in oral communication so they have the necessary

expertise and knowledge about the topic.

Hua et al., (2012) observed that although there are many

arguments of the numerous difficulties of Arab students of English,

there is hardly any emphasis about the methods in resolving the

difficulties or confronting the significance of the enhancement of

the students' deliberate attempt to provide answers to their

interaction difficulties.

The training program should be made while the Omani

learners are in the Foundation Program. Al-Mahrooqi (2012)

recommended the necessity of corrective or rigorous classes in the

foundation course before starting study in higher education.

This also serves to educate the teachers on the various

underlying cultural influences in communication in Oman. The

training program aims to benefit the teachers since Mourssi & Al

Kharosi (2014) studied that in the instruction of the English

language, a few of the major problems are teachers’ training,

designing teaching resources, and context concerns. Al-Shammakhi

& Al-Humaidi (2015) researched that both the male and female

teachers meet similar problems on the need to learn approaches to

allow them to deal with various students. Even in the high school

and elementary levels, Sergon (2011) discovered that the Oman

“Ministry of Education” perceived that the difficulty has to do with

the teachers.

Halliday, et al. (1984) recommended that proficiency in

verbal communication relies on practicing on the models.

Learners have to be aware of communication strategies.

Littlemore (2012) observed that training on coping techniques

improves the capacity to understand the rubrics of the language

sought to be learned and the proper use of the language in diverse

situations. Faucette (2001) suggested that the strategies are

normally presented in relation to actions, like providing commands

or directions as well as giving meanings. Books are not good basis

for the instruction of communication strategies. The teacher has to

have a greater range of activities extending from the popular,

everyday “describe the coffee pot” tasks to the more exciting and

enjoyable, like “games, riddles, dialogue-building, conversation

analysis”, etc. Exercises can reassure and urge the students to utilize

coping techniques. In a study in Hong Kong, Lam (2006) learned that

the class which was given oral communication strategy teaching

(OCST) generally outperformed the comparison class.

Teaching communication strategies could offer learners a

comforting feeling of safety (Dörnyei & Thurrell, 1994). Second,

communication strategies assist the students attain a superior

assessment of their communicative proficiency. Communication

strategies enhance learners’ state communicative self-confidence.

CSs inspire the students. Coping techniques may be considered as a

helpful way to get rid of the reasons of discouragement of the

students. It normally arises when a student, particularly at beginner

stages, has some thoughts in his/her mind to transmit, he/she holds

them suppressed merely for not discerning only a single vocabulary.

This absence of the capacity to remedy for a deficient vocabulary

and thus evading the delivery of the proposed idea can result to the

deterioration of enthusiasm. Remaining conscious of the presence

of a technique like circumlocution and understanding the technique

to use it could boost the students’ self-reliance to continue the

interaction. Through practice, reaching success in giving an idea by

the students may stimulate their enthusiasm and interest to begin

interacting.

The teaching of communication strategies makes the

learners aware of their deficiencies and thereby make adjustments

to better improve their communication. Naithani (2010), wrote that

it can be deduced that instruction concentrated on deliberate

exercise in utilizing communication strategies is to be expected to

develop the students’ interaction while doing practice activities. The

results of the research imply that English language students who

lack metacognitive abilities must study to understand and examine

particular language and sociolinguistic signs to understand and

combine idea to their plan. Kongsom (2009) studied that the overt

instruction of coping techniques elevated the learners’

consciousness of utilizing techniques and encouraged the better

utilization of learned coping techniques of the learners. Thus, CSs

are temporary answers to a difficulty, while studying techniques are

aimed at answering a seeming deficiency in understanding or

proficiency and are thus focused on a lasting answer (Ellis, 2008).

CONCLUSIONS

In light of the findings of this study, the following conclusions

are drawn:

Based on the findings, the researcher concludes the

following regarding the oral communication strategies used by

Omani students:

While the acquisition of language is affected by acculturation

and social or psychological distance, it involves the application of a

complex cognitive skill. Thus, learning a second language commences

from the recognition of structures that increasingly results in

automatization. The concepts learned are then applied to new

situations leading to the gradual mastery of the target language.

If individuals communicate in a language, this indicates that

the people are likewise interrelating with the culture that uses that

language. In learning a second language, it includes learning its

letters, the sentence structure, and the rules of grammar. However,

it also involves the study of the particular traditions and manners of

the community. Hence, in studying a second language, it is

imperative that the tradition of the community where that language

rests be studied since language is highly entrenched in tradition.`

While studying the target language, students regularly meet

difficulties in communication as a result of the absence of language

skills. To convey meaning, learners use coping techniques to

overcome these difficulties. These coping techniques are necessary

to enhance the eloquence of the interlocutor. They can be taught and

very adjustable to the various learning circumstances in or outside

the classroom. Thus, it is worth investing in them because reaching a

superior language proficiency is necessary for daily interaction.

Learners who availed of these strategies turn out to be less

apprehensive and become proficient speakers of the target language

because of the emotional and oral skills that they have learned.

RECOMMENDATIONS

With reference to the findings and conclusions of the study,

the following recommendations are offered:

1. University of Technology and Applied Sciences – Shinas (UTAS-

Shinas) – This study recommends that ShCT will institutionalize

policies that will provide seminars and workshops to all lecturers

in the different departments about the Omani cultural elements

and the strategic communication strategies when

communicating with the students in English.

2. English Language Centre (ELC) – The research recommends that

the ELC, being the provider of the Foundation Program, will

provide an intensive orientation seminar and workshop before

the start of each academic semester for all the fresh intake

students about the proper application of the Omani cultural

elements and the strategic communication strategies when

communicating with the students in English. Similarly, new

lecturers should be provided with an orientation seminar about

the Omani cultural elements and the strategic communication

strategies when communicating with the students in English.

3. English Language Teachers – The researcher recommends that

the English language teachers will keep themselves abreast of

Omani cultural elements and the strategic communication

strategies when communicating with the students in English.

4. Students – The study recommends that the students

appropriately apply the influences of their Omani culture in

English language oral communication according to the context

and the strategic communication strategies when

communicating in English.

5. The Researcher – As the researcher, since the study has provided

insights on the needs and difficulties of the Omani learners in oral

communication, he hopes to be better in communicating with

the students.

6. Future Researchers – The researcher recommends that future

research may be made on a similar topic in Oman and determine

whether the level of proficiency of the students affects their use

of oral communication strategies.

References

Abbad, A. (1988). An Analysis of Communicative Competence

Features in English Language Texts in Yemen Arab Republic.

PhD Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign.

Abdul Haq, F. (1982). An Analysis of Syntactic Errors in the

Composition of Jordanian Secondary Students. Unpublished

MA Thesis. Jordan. Yarmouk University.

Al Alawi, R. (2015). Communication Strategies used by Omani EFL

students. Pyrex Journal of English and Literature, 2(1), 001-

011. Retrieved April 19, 2018.

Al hadhrami, M. and Amzat, I. (2012). Improving the Standard of

English Language and Communication Amongst SQU

Students in Oman: Challenges and Suggestions.

Al Hosni, S. (2014). Speaking Difficulties Encountered by Young EFL

Learners. International Journal on Studies in English

Language and Literature (IJSELL).Volume 2, Issue 6,

June2014, PP 22-30ISSN 2347-3126 (Print) & ISSN 2347-3134

Al-Busaidi, K. (1995). English in the labour market in multilingual

Oman with special reference to Omani employees.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Exeter,

England.

Al-Issa, A. (2002). An ideological and discursive analysis of English

language teaching in the Sultanate of Oman. Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, University of Queensland, Australia.

Al-Issa, A. (2006). Language Problems Facing Omani Learners of

English [PDF]. Muscat, Oman: Sultan Qaboos University.

Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2012). A Student Perspective on Low English

Proficiency in Oman. Sultan Qaboos University, Oman.

doi:10.5539/ies.v5n6p263.

URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v5n6p263

Al-Mahrooqi, R. (2016). Omani Graduates’ English-language

Communication Skills in the Workforce: Employees’

Perspectives. International Journal of Applied Linguistics &

English Literature, 5(4).

Al-Aghbari & Al-Mahrooqi (2015). Exploring the Use of English in

Omani Students' Everyday Conversations and its Influence on

their Spoken Arabic. Sultan Qaboos University

Al-Mahrooqi, R., & Tuzlukova, V. (2014). English Communication Skills

and Employability in the Arabian Gulf: The Case of

Oman. PERTANIKA Journals, 22(2), 573-488. Retrieved April

9, 2018.

Al-Mahrooqi, R., Al-Maamari, F., & Denman, C. (2016). An Analysis of

Lexicon in Omani English Language Teaching: Challenges

from Teaching and Learning Perspectives. Sultan Qaboos

University Journal of Arts & Social Sciences.

Al-Shammakhi, F. & Al Humaidi, S. (2015). Challenges Facing EFL

Teachers in Mixed Ability Classes and Strategies Used to

Overcome Them. World Journal of English Language. 5.

10.5430/wjel.v5n3p33.

Al-Siyabi, M. S. (2014). Communication Strategies Employed by

Omani Foundation Year Students. International Journal of

Teaching and Education, 2(3), 1-44.

Al-Sobhi, B. & Preece, A. (2018). Teaching English Speaking Skills to

the Arab Students in the Saudi School in Kuala Lumpur:

Problems and Solutions. International Journal of Education

and Literacy Studies. 6. 1. 10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.1p.1.

Al-Zoubi, Dalal & eid, Mohamad (2014). The Influence of the First

Language (Arabic) on Learning English as a Second Language

in Jordanian Schools, and Its Relation to Educational Policy:

Structural Errors. Sino-US English Teaching. 11. 355-372.

Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. (1996). Language testing in practice.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies: A psychological

analysis of second-language use. Blackwell.

Bouchara, A. (2015). The role of religion in shaping politeness in

Moroccan Arabic: The case of the speech act of greeting and

its place in intercultural understanding and

misunderstanding. Journal of Politeness Research. 11.

10.1515/pr-2015-0004.

Brown, H. D. (2007) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching

New York, Pearson Longman Inc.

Brown, D. H. (2000). Principles of language learning & teaching. (4th

ed.). New York: Longman. (pp. 49-58)

Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to

communicative language pedagogy. In: C. Jack, Richards &

Richard W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication.

London: Longman.

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative

approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied

Linguistics, 1, 1-47.

Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.

Dörnyei, Z., &Thurrell, S. (1994). Teaching conversational skills i

ntensively:

Course content and rationale. ELT Journal, 48(1), 40-49

El Sayad, H. (2018). Educating Engineering Students in Egypt. III:

Learning From the World of Engineering Education.

Ellis, Rod (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford,

UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-442257-4.

Faerch, C & Kasper, G (1983a) Plans and strategies m foreign

language communication In Faerch, C & Kasper, G (eds )

Strategies in Interlanguage Communication (pp 20-60)

London Longman

Faucette, P. (2001). A pedagogical perspective on communication

strategies: Benefits of training and an analysis of English

language teaching materials. University of Hawaii Second

Language Studies Paper 19 (2).

Gallagher-Brett, A. (2001). Teaching communication strategies to

beginners. Language Learning Journal. 24. 53-61.

10.1080/09571730185200251.

Guide for New Teachers, Sultan Qaboos University (2012). English

Language Center. Sultan Qaboos University.

Halliday, M., A. McIntosh and Strevens, P. (1972/1984) (8th

impression) 'Learning Foreign Languages. In R. Nasr (ed.),

Teaching and Learning English. Harlow: Longman.

Harrison, W., Prator, C., and Tucker, G. (1975). English Language

Policy Survey of Jordan. Arlington, Va: Center for Applied

Linguistics.

Hua, J.M., et al. (2012). The Familial Context of Adolescent Language

Brokering Within Immigrant Chinese Families in Canada. J

Youth Adolescence 41, 894–906.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9682-2

Hymes, D.H. (1972) “On Communicative Competence” In: J.B. Pride

and J. Holmes (eds) Sociolinguistics. Selected Readings.

Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Khojastehrad, S. (2012). Hesitation strategies in oral L2 test among

Iranian students-shifted from EFL context to EIL.

International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(3), p. 10-21

Kongsom, T. (2009). The Effects of Teaching Communication

Strategies to Thai Learners of English. University of

Southampton. School of Education.

http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/69653/1.hasCoversheetVersion/

Tiwaporn_Kongsom_24_11_09.pdf

Lam, W. (2006). Gauging the effects of ESL oral communication

strategy teaching: A multi-method approach. Electronic

Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 2006, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.

142-157. http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v3n22006/lam.pdf

Littlemore, J. (2012). Cognitive Approaches to Communication

Strategies. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics.

DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0144

Liu, D. (1998). Ethnocentrism in TESOL: Teacher education ad the

neglected needs of international TESOL students. ELT

Journal, 52(1), 3-10.

Maleki, A. (2010). Techniques to Teach Communication Strategies.

Journal of Language Teaching and Research. 1.

10.4304/jltr.1.5.640-646.

Mariani, L. (2010). Communication strategies - Learning and teaching

how to manage oral interaction.

Mourssi, A., & Al Kharosi, M. (2014). The benefits and challenges of

implementing Content and Language Integrated Learning

(CLIL) at the Higher College of Technology- Sultanate of

Oman. International Journal of Language Learning and

Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW), 7(4), 272-283. Retrieved

April 6, 2018.

Mukattash, L. (1983). 'The problem of difficulty in foreign language

learning'. In E. Dahiyat, and M. Ibrahim (eds.), Papers from

the First Conference on the Problems of Teaching English

Language and Literature at Arab Universities. Amman-

Jordan: University of Jordan.

Naithani, P. (2010) Challenges Faced by Expatriate Workers in Gulf

Cooperation Council Countries. International Journal of

Business and Management. 5 (1)

Norman, J. (2017). Student’s Self-perceived English Accent and Its

Impact on Their Communicative Competence and Speaking

Confidence.

Ogane, M. (1998). Teaching communication strategies. Retrieved

Feb. 15, 2005, from

http://web28.epnet.com.ezproxy.tamu.edu:2048/resultlist.

asp

Praise, S. & Meenakshi, K. (2015). Importance of grammar in

communication. International Journal of Research Studies in

Language Learning. 4. 10.5861/ijrsll.2014.789.

Rabab'ah, G. (2003). Communication and Linguistic Problems Facing

Arab Learners of English. Indian Journal of Applied

Linguistics.

Rababah, G. (2005). Communication problems facing Arab learners of

English. Journal of Language and Learning, 3 (1), 180–197.

Rabab'ah, G. (2014). Communication problems facing Arab learners

of English. Journal of Language and Learning Vol. 3 No 1 ISSN

1740 – 4983

Rababah, G., & Bulut, D. (2007). Compensatory strategies in Arabic as

a second language. Poznań Studies in Contemporary

Linguistics, 43 (2), 83–106.

Rababah, G., & Seedhouse, P. (2004). Communication strategies and

message transmission with Arab learners of English in Jordan.

Retrieved 2004, from:

http://www.ecls.ncl.ac.uk/publish/Volume1/GhalebandSee

dhouse/ halebandSeedhouse.htm

Rieger, C. (Ed.) (2003). Disfulency in spontaneous speech workshop,

5-8 September 2003, Göteborg University, Sweden.

Stockholm: Gothenburg.

Saeidi, M. & Farshchi, E. (2015). The Effect of Communication

Strategy Teaching on EFL Learners’ Oral Production in

Content-based Courses. Theory and Practice in Language

Studies. 5. 71. 10.17507/tpls.0501.09.

Saussure, F. de, 2002. Écrits de linguistique générale. (ed.) S. Bouquet

et R. Engler. Paris : Gallimard.

Sergon, V. (2011). Playing the Blame Game: English Education in

Omani Government Schools. Independent Study Project (ISP)

Collection.

http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1132

Tarone, E. (1977). Conscious communication strategies in

interlanguage: A progress report. On Tesol, 77(194-203).

Teng, H. (2011). Communication strategy use of EFL college students.

In A. Stewart (Ed.), JALT2010 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo:

JALT.

Tukinoff, W.J. (1985). Applying significant bilingual instructional

features in the classroom. Rosslyn, Virginia: InterAmerica

Research Associates.

UKEssays. (November 2018). Arabic Language Interference In

Learning English Language English Language Essay. Retrieved

from

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/englishlanguage/arabic-language-interference-in-learning-englishlanguage-english-language-essay.php?vref=1

Ugla, et. al. (2013). Study of the Communication Strategies Used By

Iraqi EFL Students at Tertiary Level. International Journal of

Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE). 2.

10.11591/ijere.v2i1.1812.

Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice of theory.

Cambridge, England: CUP.

US Army Training and Doctrine Command, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.

(2006). Arab Cultural Awareness: Office of the Deputy of Staff

for Intelligence

Wahba, E. (1998). 'Teaching Pronunciation-Why?'. Language

Teaching Forum. Vol. 36, No.3:32.

Yule, G. (2014). The Study of Language. 5 th Edition.

IMPLEMENTATION OF GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD) ACTIVITIES AT

QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY: BASIS FOR A

UNIFIED GAD PROGRAM

Emma Daynos Aspiras

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Major in Educational Management

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to determine the extent of implementation of GAD

activities of Quirino State University. The research used a mixed method employing

both quantitative and qualitative approach. Questionnaires were administered to

collect quantitative data, while qualitative data were gathered from the interviews

and focus group discussion. As to implementation, GAD activities in all the campuses

along instruction, research, extension, and auxiliary and enterprise development are

greatly implemented except in Campus A along auxiliary and enterprise development

which is moderately implemented. Moreover, the following themes are the best

practices of the university in integrating GAD policies and guidelines as follows: along

instruction, practices of neutral gender teaching, usage of gender sensitive and fair

language, elimination of examples on gender stereotyping, revision of syllabi

integrating gender, conduct and promote gender-related activities for students,

avoidance of gender discrimination; along research, collaboration of faculty-student

in conducting gender-related research, motivation to conduct gender-related

research, attendance to trainings/ seminars on gender-related research; along

extension, integration of awareness on gender in extension activities, empowerment

for women to participate in extension activities, facilitation of gender-responsive

extension activities; along auxiliary and enterprise development, empowerment for

students to do entrepreneurial activities, assistance to students in identifying sellable

products, collaboration to develop products for profit. On the other hand, hindering

factors in the implementation were identified, namely: along instruction, limited

gender-related seminars/trainings, low level of gender awareness, limited genderrelated

activities for students, insufficient instructional materials on gender, lack of

funds for gender-related activities; along research, less passion on gender-related

research, limited time allotted for research, limited seminars on gender-related

researches; along extension, less participation in extension activities, lack of funds to

sustain extended services, practices of stereotyping in rural communities; along

auxiliary and enterprise development, lack of resource and financial support, nonsustainability

of entrepreneurial activities. In conclusion, unified program

emphasizing extensive implementation of GAD activities could be of great help in

realizing the vision and mission of the institution towards the ambition to be a

“gender-responsive university”.

Keywords: Extension, Instruction, Research, Gender and Development, Quirino State

University

INTRODUCTION

The world flocks with ideas about gender and these ideas are

so conventional that were taken for granted. It is always present in

conversations, humors, and conflicts; and there is a need to explain

everything from different views. Gender is embedded in institutions,

actions, beliefs, and desires that it appears to be completely common

and natural. Gender is not something an individual is born with and

not something people have, but something people do (West and

Zimmerman, 1987) and something people perform (Butler, 1990).

Understanding the truth behind these gender views is one of the

tasks of academic experts.

Eveline & Bacchi (2006) suggest that gender mainstreaming

models should incorporate views of gender. Practices on

fundamental beliefs about gender should be viewed from a new

viewpoint. As mentioned by Chow (2003), study of gender aimed at

promoting transformative research in studying social change

associated with the process of globalization.

Firstly, gender refers to the tasks and roles of men and

women that are shaped in the family, society and culture (UNESCO,

2004). According to Ginet (2011), gender is experienced in practices

along varied cultures and principles as reflected beyond genetic

organization. It discloses women’s relegation or men’s authority in

society. Such relegation can be reformed because gender is not

biologically identified (UNESCO, 2004).

Secondly, gender mainstreaming is one of the major

strategies in teaching and informing various divisions of the society

on the need to identify and respect rights of women and men. As

mentioned by Gurung (2008), the Commission on the Status of

Women (CSW) in March 2003, a resolution was adopted concerning

the mainstreaming of a gender perspective into all policies and

programs of the United Nations System. Research has shown that

investments in education facilitate the achievement of most other

development goals including sustainable growth (USAID, 2005).

In the Philippines, strategies on gender mainstreaming seek

to introduce and institutionalize gender equality and gender

responsiveness and sensitivity in the various aspects of Philippine

higher education. The guidelines shall apply to Commission on Higher

Education (CHED), both Central and Regional Offices, and to all HEIs,

private and public. In terms of scope, the guidelines include enabling

mechanisms that CHED and HEIs shall establish, such as the GAD

Focal Point System or GFPS (CMO no. 01, series 2015), and the

integration of the principles of gender equality in the different

functions of higher education (Gender Action, 2009). This principle of

equality between men and women is protected in the Philippine

Constitution (1987 Philippine Constitution, Article II, Section 14). The

Women in Development and Nation Building Act or Republic Act

No.7192, enacted in 1992, reiterates this principle of gender equality

and directs all government departments and agencies to “review and

revise all their regulations to remove gender bias therein.” (Section

2). Additionally, the Magna Carta of Women (MCW) or Republic Act

No.9710, is the local translation of the provisions of the Convention

on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women

(CEDAW), particularly in defining gender discrimination, state

obligations, substantive equality, and temporary special measures.

Relatedly, member countries of the United Nations

implemented the universal charter of the 2030 agenda for

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to include economic, social

and environment scopes. Goal 5 is gender equality of Gender and

Development (GAD) program with a series of gender advocacies

(Esquivel & Sweetman, 2016). These expand progress and

productivity outcomes in the society and deliver women

representatives in decision making (The World Bank, 2012).

According to Moser, & Moser, (2010, to achieve gender equality,

gender mainstreaming should be prioritized as the mechanism. It is

a strategy to promote gender equality, which has received

considerable attention worldwide (Caglar, 2013).

It is at this perspective that Quirino State University (QSU), a

six-year old university, is trying to establish gender-responsive

activities through participation in GAD programs/activities as

mandated by CHED and PCW. As a young university, the institution is

very committed in the realization of its vision and mission through

the implementation of gender-responsive activities in the mandated

functions.

Based from a study conducted at Quirino State University,

Aspiras et al. (2017), one of the important factors to consider in

engendering instruction is faculty gender-sensitive motivation and

attitude. The point is, GAD culture in any academic institution needs

to be established which could eventually motivate the faculty

members to plan and implement gender-responsive activities in their

mandated functions. The result of this study is definitely a basis of

proposing a unified GAD program of Quirino State University.

Therefore, it is on these premises that the present study was

conceptualized.


This study aimed to determine the extent of implementation of

Gender and Development (GAD) activities at Quirino State University.

More specifically, the study aimed to address the following

questions:

1. What is the campus profile of the university according to the

following:

1.1. GAD Focal Point System (GFPS),

1.2. GAD Resource Center/Infrastructure,

1.3. GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs (StuFAPs),

1.4. GAD Planning and Budgeting,

1.5. GAD Database, and

1.6. GAD Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women

Empowerment?

2. What is the profile of the participants according to the following:

2.1. Faculty

2.1.1. Gender,

2.1.2. Age,

2.1.3. Civil Status,

2.1.4. Plantilla Position,

2.1.5. Administrative Designation,

2.1.6. Educational Qualification, and

2.1.7. Years in the Services?

2.2. Administrative staff

2.2.1. Gender,

2.2.2. Age,


2.2.4. Plantilla Position,

2.2.5. Educational Qualification, and

2.2.6. Years in the Services?

2.3. Students

2.3.1. Gender,

2.3.2. Age,


2.3.4. Course, and

2.3.5. Year Level?

3. What is the extent of implementation of GAD activities of the

three campuses with respect to its mandated functions:

3.1. Instruction,

3.2. Research,

3.3. Extension, and

3.4. Auxiliary and Enterprise Development?

4. Is there significant difference on the assessment of the three

groups of participants on the extent of implementation of GAD

activities in their respective campuses along the GAD mandated

functions?

5. What are the best practices of the university in integrating GAD

policies and guidelines in their defined functions?

6. What are the hindering factors in the implementation of GAD

activities as experienced by the participants along the four-fold

functions of the university?

7. What are the participants’ suggested plan of actions in the

implementation of GAD activities in the university?

8. What unified GAD program can be proposed for Quirino State

University?

Research Design

METHODOLOGY

This study used a mixed-method employing both

quantitative and qualitative approaches to collect and analyze the

data. Thus, the study used the descriptive survey design.


The participants of this study are composed of faculty,

administrative staff and students of the three campuses of QSU.

Instrumentation

Checklist. This is the list of information contained in the first

part of the questionnaire specifically the profile of the participants.

Documentary Data. A validation of data through cross

verification was undertaken in this study. Thus, the profile of the

faculty and administrative staff were verified using the documents

from the Human Resource Department.

Semi-structured Questionnaire. The questionnaire consists

of structured items describing the campuses’ and participants’

profile; and the extent to which gender-responsive activities are

implemented.

Interview Guide. This is a list of guide questions used during

the face to face interview with the participants to elicit information.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide. The participants were

selected from the different groups consisting of selected faculty,

administrative staff, and students. The discussions were recorded

which were used in the affirmation of the data stipulated in the filledup

questionnaire by the participants.

Data Gathering Procedure

Several steps were followed in the conduct of the study.

Thus, Ethics Review Committee protocol was undertaken. The

researcher secured permission from the university president; got the

list of participants; coordinated with the deans/program chairs

regarding the participation of their faculty and students; conducted

documentary analysis basing from the checklist, survey

questionnaire, interview, and FGD; and lastly, the data gathered

were consolidated, analyzed, and interpreted.

Data Analysis

The following are the data analysis tools used in the analysis

of data:

Scale ratings. This was used to present the data on the

campus profile.

Rating

Descriptive Value

1 not present

2 present

3 present and fully functioning

4 present and efficiently functioning

Frequency count and percentage. This was used in the

tabulation of the campus and participants’ profile.

Mean. This was used to present data on the extent of

implementation of GAD activities of the university.

To interpret the means, the given scale was used:

Score Range

Descriptive Interpretation

3.25-4.00 Very great extent

2.50-3.24 Great extent

1.75-2.49 Moderate extent

1.00-1.74 Little extent

T-test for Independent Samples / Analysis of Variance

(ANOVA). This was used to determine whether a significant

difference exists on the implementation of GAD.

Thematic Analysis and Narrative Analysis. This was used to

analyze interview responses as well as the participants’ responses in

the conduct of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).


1. Profile of the Three Campuses of the University

1.1 GAD Focal Point System

In the three campuses, it shows that there is an

organizational structure of the GFPS of the university and it reveals

that they are all efficiently functioning. The GAD focal person of

Campus B has a designation as director and functions efficiently while

the GAD focal person of Campus A and Campus C do not have

designation as dean/program chair or director but as coordinators

instead.

As such, based from PCW MC 2011-01, the GFPS is a

mechanism established to ensure, guide, coordinate, and monitor

the development, implementation, review and updating GAD plans

and GAD-related programs, activities and projects (CMO, no. 1, series

2015).

1.2 GAD Resource Center / Infrastructure

It shows that there is a separate GAD Office in Campus B and

Campus C that is efficiently functioning and a fully functioning GAD

Office in Campus A. Further, there is breastfeeding area per college,

campus women’s information desk and mini library / reading area per

college that are fully functioning in the three campuses.

Indeed, it is important to recognize the importance of these

infrastructures in the transmission of GAD information and services

delivery. These provisions are mandates in the Magna Carta of

Women (MCW) or Republic Act No. 9710 particularly in defining

gender discrimination, state obligations, substantive equality and

special measures.

1.3 GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs StuFAPs) of the Three

Campuses

In Campus A and C, it shows that most of the beneficiaries

avail the Congressional Financial Assistance; and in Campus B, most

of the beneficiaries avail of the Student Grant.

This financial assistance is a grant from the provincial

government which provides financial help and support to poor but

deserving students.

1.4 GAD Plan and Budget (GPB) of the Three Campuses

The data show that 2,085,146.00 or 29.61 percent of Campus

A; 915,441.00 or 39.26 percent of Campus B; and 531,370.00 or

26.48 percent of Campus C were utilized from the total budget

allocated of the previous year.

As stated in Section 1, Part XII of CMO No. 1, s.2015 that the

amount to be allocated for the implementation of GAD programs,

plans and activities is at least five percent (5%) of the institution’s

total annual budget appropriation.

1.5 GAD Sex-Disaggregated Data of the Three Campuses

In Campus A, the programs are categorized as to graduate

studies, undergraduate level and special students; in Campus B and

C, the programs are categorized as to baccalaureate degree and nondegree.

Further, in Campus A, there are 1,333 female and 802 male

students with a total of 2,135. In Campus B, there are 649 female and

591 male students with a total of 1,240. Further, in Campus C, there

are 231 female and 161 male students with a total of 392.

Thus, as a provision from Section 2, Part XIII of CMO, No. 01,

Series 2015, HEIs shall maintain and update a GAD database of

utmost information quality and integrity. This database shall be used

to inform the agency’s policy development, implementation and

monitoring functions; and its regulations of HEIs.

1.6 Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women Empowerment

In the three campuses, it indicates that each campus has

Committee on Decorum Investigation (CODI) and all the campuses

have seminars/forums on Sexual Harassment, Violence Against

Women and Children (VAWC), women’s empowerment, teenage

pregnancy, child abuse, and bullying that are efficiently functioning.

The provisions in the CMO governed the creation of the Committee

on Decorum and Investigation (CODI) in all public and private HEIs, to

include the procedures in the investigation of sexual harassment and

other related sexual offenses in HEIs, in compliance with the anti-

Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (Republic Act No. 7877), the Civil

Service Commission (CSC) Memorandum Circular No. 17,

Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) Administrative Order

No. 250, The Anti-Rape Law of 1997 (Republic Act No. 8353) and the

Rape Victim Assistance Law of 1998 (Republic Act No. 8505). The said

procedures shall not be bound by technical rules of evidence but by

those governing administrative cases.

2. Profile of the Participants

2.1 Faculty

2.1.1 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Gender

In Campus A, there are 30 or 30.90 percent males and 67 or

66.70 percent females. Also, in Campus B, there are 16 or 32 percent

males and 34 or 68 percent females and in Campus C there are 9 or

33.30 percent males and 18 or 66.70 percent females.

2.1.2 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Age

In Campus A, most of the participants belong to age bracket

26-30; in Campus B, most of them are in the age bracket 20-25; and

in Campus C, most of them are in the age bracket 26-30.Generally,

most of the participants are in the age bracket 20-30 which indicates

that they are relatively young.

2.1.3 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Civil Status

In Campus A, there are 30 or 30.90 percent who are single

and 67 or 69.10 percent who are married. In Campus B, 19 or 38

percent are single and 31 or 62 percent are married. In addition,

Campus C has 5 or 18.50 percent who are single and 22 or 81.50

percent are married.

2.1.4 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Plantilla

Position

In Campus A, B, and C, most of the participants are Instructor

1 with a frequency of 60 or 61.90 percent, 21 or 42 percent, and 10

or 37 percent, respectively.

2.1.5 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Administrative

Designation

In Campus A,B, and C most of them have no administrative

designation with a frequency of 76 or 78.40 percent, 42 or 84

percent, and 16 or 59.30 percent, respectively.

2.1.6 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Educational

Qualification

In Campus A, most of the participants have taken master’s

units with a frequency of 42 or 43.30 percent; in Campus B, most of

them have master’s units with a frequency of 22 or 44 percent; and

in Campus C, most of them have master’s degree with a frequency of

9 or 33.30 percent.

2.1.7 Distribution of Faculty Participants According to Years of Service

In Campus A and B, majority of the participants stayed in the

service for 1-5 years with a frequency of 80 or 82.50 percent and 31

or 62 percent, respectively; and in Campus C, most of them worked

for 6-10 years with a frequency of 9 or 33.30 percent.

2.2.Administrative Staff

2.2.1 Distribution of Administrative Staff Participants According to

Gender

In Campus A, there are 14 or 43.80 percent male and 18 or

56.30 percent female; in Campus B, there are 7 or 23.30 percent male

and 23 or 76.70 percent female; and in Campus C, there are 9 or 60

percent male and 6 or 40 percent female.


Age

In Campus A and C, most of the participants belong to age

bracket 46-50 with a frequency of 13 or 40.60 percent and 7 or 46.70

percent, respectively; in Campus B, most of them are in the age

bracket 20-25 or 5 or 16.70 percent.


Civil Status

In Campus A, there are 5 or 15.60 percent who are single and

27 or 84.40 percent who are married; in Campus B, 5 or 16.70 percent

are single and 25 or 83.30 percent are married; and in Campus C

there is 1 or 6.70 percent single participant and 14 or 93.30 percent

are married.


Plantilla Position

In Campus A, most of the participants are Administrative

Assistant with a frequency of 11 or 34.40 percent; in Campus B and

C, most of them are Administrative Aide with frequencies of 14 or

46.70 percent and 6 or 40 percent, respectively.


Educational Qualification

In Campus A and C, most of the participants have taken

Master’s Units with frequencies of 14 or 43.80 percent and 5 or 33.30

percent, respectively; and in Campus B, most of the participants

have bachelor’s degree with a frequency of 19 or 63.30 percent.


Years of Service

In Campus A and B , most of the participants stayed in the

service for 1-5 years with frequencies of 11 or 34.40 percent and 9 or

30 percent, respectively; and in Campus C there are 5 or 33.30

percent who worked for 11-15 years. In general, most of the

administrative staff participants in Campus A and B have been serving

the institution for at least 5 years while for Campus C most of them

are in the service for at least 15 years.

2.3 Students

2.3.1 Distribution of Student Participants According to gender

In Campus A, there are 73 or 35.10 percent males and 134 or

64.40 percent females; in Campus B, there are 82 or 43.40 percent

males and 107 or 56.60 percent females and in Campus C there are

27 or 50 percent males and females, respectively.

2.3.2 Distribution of Student Participants According to Age

In Campus A, B, and C, majority of the participants belong to

age bracket 20-22 with frequencies of 151 or 72.60 percent, 161 or

85.20 percent, and 37 or 68.50 percent, respectively.

2.3.3.Distribution of Student Participants According to Civil Status

In Campus A, there are 200 or 96.20 percent who are single

and 8 or 3.80 percent are married; in Campus B, 179 or 94.70 percent

are single and 10 or 5.30 percent are married; and Campus C has 38

or 70.40 percent single and 16 or 29.60 percent married.

2.3.4 Distribution of Student Participants According to Course

In Campus A, most of the student participants are taking

Bachelor of Science in Criminology (BSCrim) with a frequency of 40 or

19.20 percent; in Campus B, most of them are enrolled in Bachelor of

Science in Civil Engineering (BSCE) with frequency of 40 or 21.20

percent; and in in Campus C, majority of them are enrolled in

Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSE)with a frequency of 30 or

55.60 percent.

2.3.5 Distribution of Student Participants According to Year Level

In Campus A, and B, majority of the participants are 4th year

students with frequencies of 152 or 73.10 percent, and 157 or 83.10

percent, respectively; in Campus C, only 9 or 16.70 percent are 4th

year students.

3. Extent of implementation of GAD Activities of the Three

Campuses with Respect to Instruction, Research, Extension, and

Auxiliary and Enterprise Development.

In Campus A, it indicates that faculty and studentparticipants

assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities

in all areas to a “great extent” showing category means of 2.83 and

2.75, respectively. The administrative staff participants assessed the

extent of implementation to a moderate extent showing a category

mean of 2.38. The general means in all areas reflect that the three

groups of participants assessed the extent of implementation to a

great extent except for Auxiliary and Enterprise Development

Services which was implemented to a moderate extent. Thus, the

overall mean reflects that the GAD activities in all areas were

implemented to a great extent.

In Campus B, it indicates that faculty and administrative staff

participants assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities

in all areas to a “great extent” showing category means of 2.93 and

2.73, respectively. Moreover, the student participants assessed the

extent of implementation to a great extent except for Auxiliary and

Enterprise Development Services which was implemented to a

moderate extent and showing a category mean of 2.68. The general

means in all areas reflect that the three groups of participants

assessed the extent of implementation to a great extent. Thus, the



In Campus C, it indicates that faculty participants assessed

the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all areas to a great

extent except in Auxiliary and Enterprise Development Services

which was implemented to a moderate extent and showing a

category means of 2.76. The administrative staff and studentparticipants

assessed the extent of implementation to a “great

extent” showing category mean of 2.77 and 2.96, respectively. The

general means in all areas reflect that the three groups of participants

assessed the extent of implementation to a great extent. Thus, the



4. Significant Difference on the Assessment of the Three Groups of

Participants on the Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities

in Their Respective Campuses along the GAD Mandated

Functions.

In Campus A, data show that along Instruction, Research,

Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development, the F-values

are 14.20, 6.86, 12.52, and 9.12, respectively with all P-values of 0.00.

It shows that there is a significant difference on the assessment of

the three groups of participants on the extent of implementation of

GAD activities in all areas in Campus A.

Generally, it implies that faculty participants of Campus A

assessed the GAD activities along instruction, research, and

extension higher than the other groups of participants. In the area of

auxiliary and enterprise development, the student-participants have

higher assessment than the other groups. It implies that

administrative staff-participants generally assessed the extent of

implementation of GAD activities in all the areas lower than the

faculty and student-participants.

In Campus B, data show that along Instruction, Research,

Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development (AED) , the F-

values are 17.04, 4.69, 8.66, and 2.96 with P-values of 0.00, 0.01,

0.00, and 0.06, respectively. It reflects that there is a significant

difference on the assessment of the three groups of participants on

the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all areas except in

AED.

Thus, the result implies that faculty participants of Campus B

assessed the GAD activities along instruction, research, and

extension higher than the other groups of participants.

It implies that administrative staff-participants generally

assessed the extent of implementation of GAD activities for

instruction and research lower than the faculty and studentparticipants.

On the other hand, along extension area, studentparticipants

generally have lower assessment in the implementation

than the faculty and administrative staff-participants.

In Campus C, data show that along Instruction, Research,

Extension, and Auxiliary and Enterprise Development (AED), the F-

values are 1.52, 4.90, 0.69, and 0.68 with P-values of 0.22, 0.01, 0.50,

and 0.51, respectively. It reflects that there is a significant difference

on the assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent

of implementation of GAD activities for research. Further, the table

reveals that in other areas, assessment of the participants do not

differ.

Thus, it shows that student participants of Campus C

assessed the GAD activities along research higher than the other

groups of participants. Along research area, the data show that

faculty group’s assessment is significantly different with the student

group’s assessment in the extent of implementation of GAD

activities. It implies that faculty participants generally assessed the

extent of implementation of GAD activities for research lower than

the student participants.

5. Best Practices of the University in Integrating GAD Policies and

Guidelines in Their Defined Functions.

The general themes that were identified are reflected in the

table below.

Instruction

Themes

Campus

A

Campus

B

Campus

C

F % F % F %

Theme #1. Practices of neutral gender teaching

Theme #2. Usage of gender sensitive and fair

3

3

15.00

15.00

5

5

25.00

25.00

2

4

10.00

20.00

language

Theme #3. Elimination of examples on gender 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

stereotyping

Theme #4. Revision of syllabi integrating gender 2 10.00 1 5.00 2 10.00

Theme #5. Conduct and promote gender related 4 20.00 5 25.00 2 10.00

activities for students

Theme #6. Avoidance of gender discrimination 1 5.00 1 5.00 2 10.00

Research

Theme #1.Collaboration of faculty-student in

conducting gender related research

Theme #2. Motivation to conduct gender -

related research

Theme #3. Attendance to trainings/ seminars on

gender related research

Extension

Theme #1. Integration of awareness on gender in

extension activities

Theme #2. Empowerment for women to

participate in extension activities

Theme #3. Facilitation of gender-responsive


Auxiliary and Enterprise Development

Theme #1. Empowerment for students to do

entrepreneurial activities

Theme #2. Assistance to students in identifying

sellable products

(Note: Twenty interviewees per campus)

2 10.00 1 5.00 -

5 25.00 6 30.00 2 10.00

1 5.00 1 5.00 -

1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00

1 5.00 4 20.00 1 5.00

3 15.00 2 10.00 2 10.00

2 10.00 3 15.00 1 5.00

1 5.00 4 20.00 1 5.00

6. Hindering Factors in the Implementation of GAD Activities as

Experienced by the Participants along the Four Fold Functions of

the University.

table.

The general themes that were identified are reflected in the

Instruction

Themes

Campus

A

Campus

B

Campus

C

F % F % F %

Theme #1. Limited gender-related 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

seminars/trainings

Theme #2. Low level of gender awareness 3 15.00 2 10.00 1 5.00

Theme #3. Limited gender - related activities for 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

students

Theme #4. Insufficient instructional materials 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

on gender

Theme #5. Lack of funds for gender related 1 5.00 2 10.00 2 10.00

activities

Research

Theme #1. Less passion on gender related 2 10.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

research

Theme #2. Limited time allotted for research 3 15.00 3 15.00 2 10.00

Theme #3. Limited seminars on gender related 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

researches

Extension

Theme #1. Less participation in extension 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

activities

Theme #2. Lack of funds to sustain extended 2 10.00 2 10.00 2 10.00

services

Theme #3. Practices of stereotyping in rural 1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00

communities

Auxiliary and Enterprise development

Theme #1 Lack of resource and financial support 1 5.00 2 10.00 1 5.00

Theme #2. Non-sustainability of 3 15.00 1 5.00 1 5.00

entrepreneurial activities


7. Participants’ Suggested Plan of Actions in the Implementation of

GAD Activities in the University

Themes Campus A Campus

B

Campus

C

F % F % F %

Theme #1. More gender related 1 5.00 1 5.00 - -

seminars/trainings in the mandated functions

Theme #2. Increase level of gender awareness 2 - -

Theme #3. Conduct of consistent gender related 2 2 1 5.00

activities

Theme #4. Provision of instructional materials - 1 5.00 1 5.00

on gender and other infrastructure

Theme #5. Implementation of GAD program 1 5.00 1 5.00 1 5.00


8. Proposed unified GAD program for Quirino State University

Rationale

The objective of any institution can be achieved through a

comprehensive program and activities aligned with its vision and

mission. Based on the result of the present study, it shows the

strengths and weaknesses in the implementation of GAD activities in

the different functions of the university. Thus, as the proponent of

the study, the researcher assumed and recommended the QSU

unified GAD program to be initiated to instill to all stakeholders the

perspectives of gender.

Moreover, the proposed GAD program coincides with the

CHED Memorandum Order No. 1, s. 2015, required by the Philippine

Commission on Women (PCW) and the Commission on Higher

Education (CHED). Further, this program presents those areas which

need to be addressed for a priority concern.

Hence, executing the proposed unified program will be the

responsibility of the three GAD Focal Persons in the three campuses

in coordination with other related offices of the university.

Further, the main objective of the program is to establish and

implement gender-responsive activities stipulated in this program by

the university. Thus, undertakings in the proposed program is

expected to be implemented for the purpose of creating a more

effective way of developing gender-responsive culture in the

university.

Performance

Indicator

Responsible Office

Year round Number of

activities where

Allocated

salary of

1. Usage of gender fair

term/language

To integrate

gender sensitive

Limited approach

in the integration

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of Instruction

Office

gender fair term/

language is being

personnel

during the

during class

discussion

and fair

language and

of gender sensitive

and fair language.

3. Extension

• Research Office

• Extension Office

integrated.

activity.


term/language in

core messages

in the mandated

• Administration

the

conceptualization of

functions of the

university.

research papers


term/language

during conduct of


1. Conduct of

Number of

conducted

1. 1 st semester

2. 1 st semester

Attribution

of 5% of the

To mainstream

gender in all

Lack of gender

mainstreaming.

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of Instruction

Office

Gender

Sensitivity

activities

3. Year round

4. Year round

total budget

of the

functions of the

university.

3. Extension

4. Auxiliary and

• Research Office


Training (GST) to

students

university in

all areas.

Enterprise

Development

• Auxiliary and

Enterprise

2. Conduct of

gender- related

Development Office

• Administration

capacity building

along research

3. Conduct of

gender analysis in

the communities

4. Identification of

gender-related

income generating

projects

Distribution of GAD

Number of

instructional

Start of every

semester

P200,000.00

as reflected

To provide

additional

1. Instruction Limited genderresponsive

• Dean of

Instruction Office

instructional materials

like flyers, booklets,

materials

distributed.

in the PPMP

of the three

genderresponsive

instructional

materials.

• Administration

video presentations etc.

campuses.

instructional

materials.

Year round Number of GAD

forums conducted.

Allotted

P50,000.00

To increase

awareness

Low awareness on

gender issues and

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of

Instruction Office

• Conduct of

gender related

per activity

in the three

among students

and faculty and

concerns.

3. Extension

4. Auxiliary and

forum in all areas

(MCW).

• Research Office


campuses.

staff on all

gender

Enterprise

Development

• Gender sensitivity

• Sexual

• Auxiliary and

Enterprise

concerns and

issues.

Harassment

• Teen-age

Development

Office

pregnancy

• Bullying campaign

• Administration

• Reproductive Health

and other concerns

Number of Social

Research

At least

P5,000.00

Conduct of social

researches on GAD in all

To raise number

of gender

1. Research Limited gender

related research.

• Research Office


conducted.

per

approved

colleges of the

university.

related

researches.

• Administration

research

proposal

depending

on the

GAD Area Gender Issue GAD Objectives GAD Activity Budget Time Frame

Start of 1 st

semester

in the three

campuses.

and faculty and

staff on all

4. Auxiliary and

Enterprise

(MCW).

• Gender sensitivity


• Auxiliary and

gender

concerns and

Development

• Sexual

Harassment

Enterprise

Development

issues.

Office

• Administration

• Teen-age

pregnancy

• Bullying campaign

• Reproductive Health

and other concerns

Conduct of social

Number of Social

Research

At least

P5,000.00

To raise number

of gender

1. Research Limited gender

related research.

• Research Office


researches on GAD in all

colleges of the

conducted.

per

approved

related

researches.

• Administration

university.

research

proposal

depending

on the

nature of

study.

Number of policies

revised and

Start of first

semester

Allocated

salary of

Review and revise

existing faculty and

To establish

gender related

Need to integrate

gender related

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of

Instruction Office

integrated in the

manuals.

personnel

during the

student manual to be

presented and for

policies in the

faculty and

policies in the

student and faculty

3. Extension

1. Auxiliary and

• Research Office


activity.

approval by the Board

of Regents.

student

manuals.

manual.

Enterprise

Development

• Administration

Number of

trainings/seminars

Dates depend

on the

P 2,000.00

registration

Continuing

trainings/seminars on

To capacitate

GFPS to lead

Limited capacities

of Gender Focal

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of

Instruction Office

attended per year.

training/seminar

invitation.

and P800.00

travel

GAD.

gender

mainstreaming

Point System

(GFPS) to advance

3. Extension

4. Auxiliary and

• Research Office


expense per

day.

activities of the

university.

gender

mainstreaming

Enterprise

Development

• Administration

Number of

Additional comfort

Start of first

semester

Attribution

of 5% of the

Construction of

additional comfort

To construct/

repair comfort

1. Administration Limited number of

comfort rooms for

• Administration

rooms; Repair of

old comfort rooms.

total budget

of the

rooms and repair of

existing ones.

rooms in the

different

increasing

enrolees/students

university.

colleges.

in the university

and for

LGBTs/PWDs.

Low awareness on

Number of

seminars

Dates depend

on the seminar

P 2,000.00

registration

Attendance to seminar

on GAD budget

To attend

seminar on GAD

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Dean of

Instruction Office

budget attribution

attended.

invitation.

and P800.00

travel

attribution.

planning and

budgeting

3. Extension

4. Auxiliary and

• Research Office


expense per

day.

Enterprise

Development

• Administration

Number of GAD

Office staff

Start of first

semester.

P550.00 per

day (subject

Designation for GAD

staff.

To designate

one permanent

No permanent GAD

Office staff

1. Instruction

2. Research

• Administration

to

3. Extension

Start of 1 st

semester

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of Findings

1. Campus profile of the university

1.1 GAD Focal Point System (GFPS)

The university has an organizational structure of the GFPS

and it reveals that they are all efficiently functioning.

1.2 GAD Resource center/infrastructure

In Campus B and Campus C, there is a separate GAD Office

that is efficiently functioning and a fully functioning GAD Office in

Campus A.

1.3 GAD Student Financial Assistance Programs (StuFAPs)

Most of the beneficiaries availed the Congressional Financial

Assistance and Student Grant of the university.

1.4 GAD Planning and Budgeting

The data show that the university utilized the allocated GAD

budget.

1.5 GAD sex-disaggregated database

The result shows that there are more female than male

students in the three campuses.

1.6 GAD Compliance with Laws and Issuances on Women

Empowerment

The university has Committee on Decorum Investigation

(CODI) which is efficiently functioning.

2. Profile of the participants

2.1 Faculty

2.1.1 Gender

In all the campuses, majority of the faculty-participants are

female.

2.1.2 Age

Faculty participants of Campus A and B belong to age range

20-30 and in Campus C, there is almost equal frequency of their ages.

2.1.3 Civil Status

In all the campuses, majority of the faculty participants are

married.

2.1.4 Plantilla Position

In all the campuses, most of the participants are Instructor 1.

2.1.5 Administrative Designation

Majority of the faculty participants in all the campuses are

full-time faculty and have no administrative designation.

2.1.6 Educational Qualification

Majority of the faculty participants in Campus A and B have

Master’s Units and in Campus C, majority have Master’s Degree.

2.1.7 Years in the Service

The data imply that most of the participants in the three

campuses have been serving as faculty for at most 10 years.

2.2 Administrative staff

2.2.1 Gender

2.2.2 Age

Most of the administrative staff-participants are female.

The administrative staff-participants of the three campuses

are within the age range 46-50.

2.2.3 Civil Status

In all the campuses, majority of the administrative staffparticipants

are married.

2.2.4 Plantilla Position

In all the campuses, most of the administrative staffparticipants

are under the general administration service.

2.2.5 Educational Qualification

Most of the administrative staff-participants in Campus A

and C enrolled or pursued their post graduate studies while most of

the administrative staff-participants of Campus B have bachelor’s

degree.

2.2.6 Years in the Service

In all the campuses, most of the administrative staffparticipants

are in the category of young group of employees in the

service.

2.3 Students

2.3.1 Gender

In Campus A and Campus B, majority of the participants are

female and an equal distribution among gender groups is reflected in

Campus C.

2.3.2 Age

The student-participants of the three campuses are within

the age range 20-22 as most of them are graduating students.

2.3.3 Civil Status

2.3.4 Course

Majority of the student-participants are single.

Most of the student-participants in Campus A are enrolled in

BSCrim, while in Campus B most of them are taking up BSCE and in

Campus C, most of the participants are taking up BSE.

2.3.5 Year Level

In all the campuses, majority of the student-participants are in their

fourth year.

3. Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities of the Three Campuses

with respect to its Mandated Functions

The extent of implementation of the GAD activities for

Instruction, Research, and Extension in all the campuses is at great

extent. However, along Auxiliary and Enterprise Development in

Campus A is at moderate extent while in Campus B and C, the

implementation is rated at great extent.

4. Significant Difference on the Assessment of the Three Groups of

Participants on the Extent of Implementation of GAD Activities in

their Respective Campuses along the GAD Mandated Functions

In Campus A, there is a significant difference on the

assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent of

implementation of GAD activities in all areas. In Campus B, there is a

significant difference on the assessment of the three groups of

participants on the extent of implementation of GAD activities in all

areas except AED. For Campus C, there is a significant difference on

the assessment of the three groups of participants on the extent of

implementation of GAD activities for Research.

5. Best Practices of the University in Integrating GAD Policies and

Guidelines in their Defined Functions

5.1 Instruction

5.1.1. Practices of neutral gender teaching;

5.1.2. Usage of gender sensitive and fair language;

5.1.3. Elimination of examples on gender stereotyping;

5.1.4. Revision of syllabi integrating gender;

5.1.5. Conduct and promote gender related activities for

students; and

5.1.6. Avoidance of gender discrimination.

5.2 Research

5.2.1. Collaboration of faculty-student in conducting genderrelated

research;

5.2.2. Motivation to conduct gender related research; and

5.2.3. Attendance to trainings/ seminars on gender related

research.

5.3 Extension

5.3.1. Integration of awareness on gender in extension activities;

5.3.2. Empowerment for women to participate in extension

activities; and

5.3.3. Facilitation of gender-responsive extension activities.

5.4 Auxiliary and Enterprise Development

5.4.1. Empowerment for students to do entrepreneurial

activities;

5.4.2. Assistance to students in identifying and sellable products;

and

5.4.3. Collaboration to develop products for profit.

6. Hindering Factors in the Implementation of GAD Activities as

Experienced by the Participants along the Four Fold Functions of

the University

6.1 Instruction

6.1.1. Limited gender related seminars/trainings;

6.1.2. Low level of gender awareness;

6.1.3. Limited gender related activities for students;

6.1.4. Insufficient instructional materials on gender; and

6.1.5. Lack of funds for gender related activities.

6.2 Research

6.2.1. Less passion on gender related research;

6.2.2. Limited time allotted for research; and

6.2.3. Limited seminars on gender related researches.

6.3 Extension

6.3.1. Less participation in extension activities;

6.3.2. Lack of funds to sustain extended services; and

6.3.3. Practices of stereotyping in rural communities.

6.4 Auxiliary and Enterprise Development

6.4.1. Lack of Resources and financial support

6.4.2. Non-sustainability of entrepreneurial activities

7. Participants’ Suggested Plan of Actions in the Implementation of

GAD Activities in the University

7.1. More gender related seminars/trainings in the mandated

functions;

7.2. Increase level of gender awareness;

7.3. Conduct of consistent gender related activities;

7.4. Provision of instructional materials on gender and other

infrastructure; and

7.5. Implementation of GAD program.

8. Unified GAD program for Quirino State University

A unified GAD program was conceptualized and proposed

based on the result of the present study. The main focus of the

program is to enhance the implementation of GAD activities in the

university.

CONCLUSION

This study focuses on the extent of implementation of GAD

activities along the four-fold functions of the university. The data

gathering process in the present study and the data on the extent of

implementation of the GAD activities have provided valuable

insights. The results also show existence and non-existence of some

of the aspects of the GFPS and GAD infrastructure. On the other

hand, profile of the participants reflects an impact in the extent of

implementation of GAD activities which shows significant differences

in their assessment. Further, best practices are reflected which

motivate some of the participants in implementing the activities. On

the other hand, some hindering factors affect their performance in

the implementation of GAD activities. Thus, these factors/problems

are considered as serious issues that the university must address.

Therefore, the university should consider mechanisms to

change the views of the participants towards the implementation of

GAD activities. Unified program emphasizing extensive

implementation of GAD activities could be of great help in realizing

the vision and mission of the institution towards the ambition to be

a “gender-responsive university”.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are grounded from the

results of the study.

1. It is recommended that GAD focal person should request for a

GAD Office staff in Campus A and C to assist in the

implementation of GAD activities.

2. The GAD focal person should request for the attendance of

middle to top management on GAD–related seminars more

specifically on GAD budget attribution.

3. The dean/program chair per college should initiate a request for

construction of comfort rooms for LGBTs/PWDs per college in the

three campuses.

4. The administration should support equal opportunity on

attendance to gender-related trainings/seminars of faculty and

staff in all areas to increase their level of gender awareness.

5. Educational qualification of faculty should be upgraded through

the approval of scholarship grants from the administration.

6. The GAD department should initiate gender mainstreaming in all

the defined functions of the university. Monitoring and

evaluation of such should be conducted by GAD executive

committee.

7. The dean/program chair in collaboration of the librarian should

request for the provision of additional gender-responsive

instructional materials to be used in the implementation of GAD

activities.

8. The GAD department should strongly initiate the implementation

of the proposed unified GAD program in the three campuses.

References

Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of

identity. New York and London. Routledge.

CHED Memorandum Order No. 01, (2015). Establishing the policies

and guidelines on gender and development in the

commission on higher education and higher education

institutions (HEIs).CHED.

Chow, E. (2003). Gender matters: Studying globalization and social

change in the 21st century. Retrieved from:

https://doi.org/10.1177/02685809030183001

Commission on Higher Education Memorandum Circular No. 17, s.

2013. Qualification standards for faculty positions/ranks in

State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and Local Colleges and

Universities (LCUs).MOA CSC-CHED page 2.

Esquivel, V. & Sweetman, C. (2016). Gender And The Sustainable

Development

Goals.United

Nations.https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13

552074.2016.1153318

Eveline, J. & Bacchi, C. (2006). What Are We Mainstreaming When

We Mainstream Gender?. Pages 496-512.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14616740500284417

Ginet, S. ( 2011). Gender, sexuality and meaning. Oxford University

Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-518780-9; 978-0-19-518781-6.

Gurung, B. (2008). Assessing the gender mainstreaming strategy for

the project: promoting sustainable agriculture in Borno state

(PROSAB). Pp 28. ISBN 978-131- 330-7. IITA Carolyn House,

UK.

UNESCO. (2014). Improving measurement of gender equality in stem.

Stem and gender advancement. Gender and Sciences.

Retrieved from: http://www.unesco.org

West, C., & Zimmerman, D. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and

society, 1:125–151

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF THE HEALTHY AGING PROGRAM FOR

ELDERLY WITH COGNITIVE DECLINE

Gracia Herni Pertiwi


ABSTRACT

Cognitive decline is a major health and social problem that occurs in an increasingly

aging population, worldwide. There is no program for the elderly to stimulate the

cognitive decline and routine to do every week. This study aims to develop and

evaluate the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP) for the elderly with cognitive decline.

HAP is a package of cognitive stimulation activities that is done every day. The HAP

activities consisted of three activities, namely: walking for 10 minutes, regular health

check, and cognitive stimulation activities. The implementation used several tools

and booklet. The tools were the cognitive questioners, Smart-watch, Digital

sphygmomanometer, and stopwatch/ watch. The validity- reliability with Cronbach's

Alpha is 0.835 and all items are valid. The study used the descriptive mixed method,

specifically the embedded design which begins with interview regarding issues and

problems among the elderly at the Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda and literature

syntheses to develop a HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP). Then, HAP was implemented

and evaluated through a quantitative study using the Quasi-Experimental approach,

adopting the nonequivalent control-group design. The qualitative data were

collected through self-reports regarding elderly issues and recommendations. The

research participants included (1) Participants who can speak, write and read well in

Bahasa Indonesia; (2) Those who can do calculation; (3) Participants should have no

respiratory complications.; (4) Participants with age ≥ 60 years old; (5) No limitation

for mobility or physical exercise; (8) Those who have a mild and moderate cognitive

decline level as measured by RUDAS; (6) Participants must be resident in Puskesmas

Pasundan Samarinda area.; (10) Participants who have a blood pressure below

150/90 mmHg at the time of initial assessment; and (11) Those who are willing to

participate in the study. Data analysis used a t-test. The salient results were the level

of systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure (P-value 0.047) were

significantly decreased by the 6th week’s HAP; the heart rates were significantly

decreased (P-value 0.042); the steps have positively significant increase after 6-

weeks implemented (p-value <0.05); and there was significant increase in the

cognitive level (p-value <0.05). However, the respiratory rate was not significantly

decreased (P- value 0.0907). In conclusion, the implementation of HAP is an effective

program for the elderly who have cognitive decline. It is recommended that the

implementation of HAP activities in the elderly cadres in the Puskesmas area should

be continued to prevent rapid cognitive decline among the elderly.

Keywords: Development, evaluation, HEALTHY AGING Program, elderly, cognitive

decline.

INTRODUCTION

Global population of persons aged 60 years or more has increased

twice since 1980. The number of elderly people has grown twofold

worldwide until 2017, which is 382 million elderly to 962 million. The

number of older adults is expected to grow twofold again by 2050

and is projected to reach almost 2.1 billion. Older populations in

developing regions grow much faster than in developed regions

according to the United Nations (UN) (2017). As a result, developing

regions are home to a growing portion of the older population in the

world. Globally, the elderly population is predicted to continually

increase. Asia, in 2015, has entered the era of aging population

because the population of those aged 60 years and over (elderly

population) exceeded seven (7) per cent. A country is said to have an

old structure if it has an elderly population above seven (7) per cent

(Infodatin, 2017).

The aging process tends to reduce the physical condition,

wherein they will experience difficulties in carrying out daily activities

and lose their normal functions (Milanovic, et al., 2013). Aging causes

gradual changes in organisms, which cause loss of function,

weakness, disease, and death. One of the most feared aspects of

increasing age is cognitive decline. Cognitive decline or damage is a

major health and social problem that occurs in an increasingly aging

population, worldwide.

Cognitive changes related to aging vary greatly between

individuals. In the 7th decade of life, people commonly experienced

a decrease in processing speed and working memory (Deutchki,

2017). In some cases, cognitive problems worsen over time (Galvin &

Sadowsky, 2012; McPerson & Schoespoester, 2012 cited in Boustani,

et al., 2003).

The decline in mental function related to age is verbal,

numerical and general knowledge abilities. While other mental

abilities, such as aspects of memory, executive function, and

processing speed decline from middle age onwards or even earlier.

All mental abilities called “fluids” are very important for

doing daily activities, living independently and living a fulfilling life

(Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009 cited in Deary,

et al., 2009)

World Health Organization (WHO) 2018 stated that cognitive

decline occurs among people aged above 65 years. As a result, they

must do physical activity according to their conditions and abilities,

such as physical activities during their leisure time and transportation

(walking or cycling). William & Kemper (2010 cited in Pertiwi & Lorica,

2019) reported that “the highest activity level resulted in a 20% risk

reduction for cognitive decline”. Lack of physical activity influences

incidents of cognitive damage (Etgen, et al., 2010).

The proportion of the data on the physical activity of all ages

in East Kalimantan was 64.3% which is in the low category (Infodatin,

2015). The Physical activity is in the low category because of a lack

of knowledge about the benefits of physical activity, how much and

what type of physical activity should be done especially for the

elderly (Riskesdas, 2018).

An effective approach to help older people achieve health

and activity is very necessary. The Puskesmas Pasundan in Samarinda

is currently providing a Health Program for elderly activity. The

elderly Health program has activities for the elderly to experience

spiritual, social and health services in the form of promotive and

preventive efforts and treatment. The activities programs for the

elderly in Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda-East Kalimantan are a

routine elderly program. They are conducted once a month, including

elderly exercise, counseling about health and carrying out physical

activities. But it is necessary to improve the exercises every day, to

maintain a regular daily physical activity.

According to the researcher’s observation in Puskesmas

Pasundan Samarinda, the elderly have a routine activity every month,

such as an elderly gym and healthy examination activity once a

month. The elderly gym is done for 30 – 45 minutes. They also are

involved in other activities such as health promotion education. In

Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda provides a clinical health facility and

health staff (Doctors and nurses) to give health services for the

elderly, such as to check the elderly’s condition, give health

counseling and dispense medicine as their problem diseases.

All of the program activities in Puskesmas Pasundan

Samarinda is already done by the elderly, but these activities still

need improvement, because activities for the elderly need to

consider the conditions and abilities in following the gymnastic

movements. Also, the amount of physical exercise that the elderly

have done in one week is only for 30 to 45 minutes per month.

According to WHO (2019a), “older adults should do at least 150

minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity throughout

the week or do at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic

physical activity throughout the week or an equivalent combination

of moderate and vigorous-intensity activity to improve

cardiorespiratory and cognitive decline”. The researcher also

observed the activities type for preventing of elderly cognitive

decline in Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. There are stimulation

activities for the elderly, but the activity is not specific for cognitive

decline and are routinely done every week.

Nurses play an important role in increasing the activity

among the elderly by providing creative and fun physical training by

combining several activities at once in their home. This physical

training which involves cognitive stimulation and physical exercises

can delay cognitive decline.

The researcher, being a nurse, can facilitate the health

program for the elderly. Thus, this study seeks to improve the

physical activities of the elderly targets through the intervention and

implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program. It is packaged to

stimulate the cognition of the elderly through the improvement of

the physical activity and Individual Cognitive Stimulation for sixweeks

to decrease cognitive decline among the elderly.

Conceptual Framework

The concept of healthy aging was adopted and studied

throughout the world (Hansen-Kyle, 2005; Hung, 2010 cited in

Manasatchakun, et al., 2018). Thanakwang, et al. (2012 cited in

Manasatchakun, et al., 2018) believe that healthy aging is a complex

concept that involves many dimensions and is related to physical,

mental, and social. Literature also shows that healthy aging is

facilitated not only by the elderly themselves but also by the family

and culture (Hung, 2010; Bryant, et al., 2001 cited in Manasatchakun

et al., 2018). The term healthy aging is associated with satisfying old

age maintenance (Bartlett & Peel, 2005; Gardner, 2006 cited in Valer,

et al., 2015). Healthy aging requires the achievement of positive

health outcomes, maintaining well-being throughout one's life, and

preventing long-term health conditions (Hung, 2010; Bryant, et al.,

2001 cited in Manasatchakun, et al., 2018).

The concept of healthy aging is not only limited to being free

from disease, but it is considered as a process of adaptation to

changes that occur along with individual lives, which allow the elderly

to maintain their physical, mental and social well-being. Roy (2009

cited in Alligood, 2017) argues that the ability of the human system

to adapt positively to a change depends on the focal stimulus and

the level of individual adaptation.

Roy’s model describes individuals as bio-psycho-social beings

who interact continuously with environmental changes. He stressed

that the environment consists of all conditions and influences that

surround and influence the development behavior of one’s adaptive

system. In particular, the environment can be interpreted as internal

and external stimuli that influence the development and behavior of

an individual. Stimulation from the environment can be categorized

into focal, contextual, and residual categories. Roy contends that a

person’s response to environmental stimuli is channeled through

coping physiological mechanisms (Regulator and Cognators).

Regulatory subsystems are major coping processes that involve

neural, neuro, chemical, and endocrine systems. Stimuli from the

internal and external environment (or through sensing) are

channeled automatically in the form of appropriate and automatic

behavior, occurring without realizing it. While the cognator

subsystem is a coping process that involves four emotive cognitive

channels: perceptual and information processing, learning,

judgment, and emotion. Stimuli, inputs to adaptive systems, are seen

as various stressors that force the need for change. The behavior

identified at the output is an adaptive response, that is, a response

to increases in integrity in terms of the goals of the human system.

Whereas, the ineffective response is a response that does not

contribute to the integrity of the human system, if the response is

ineffective, the adaptation goal is threatened, which leads to a

negative response.

Adaptive responses are those that promote human system

integrity in terms of survival, growth, mastery, the transformation of

individuals and the environment. Stimulation, entering into an

adaptive system, is seen as a variety of stressors that force the need

for change. If the response is ineffective the goal of adaptation is

threatened, which leads to a negative response. Conversely, if the

response is effective then the adaptation goal leads to a positive

response.

HEALTHY AGING is a health promotion intervention for the

elderly who lives at Puskesmas to delay cognitive decline based on

Roy’s Model (2009 cited in Alligood, 2017). This model illustrates

various aspects of human attitudes that interact with the surrounding

environment so that the elderly remains healthy.

Paradigm of the Study

The elderly with mild and moderate cognitive decline need

help from nurses and health workers to help prevent and delay the

development of cognitive decline. The HEALTHY AGING program will

provide a series of activities that can increase the activities of the

elderly, not only physical but also social.

Figure 1


1) The input includes the collected information based on

needs of the elderly which includes the physical activity which can be

a risk factor for decreased cognitive function at the age of 55 and

above. Mild and moderate cognitive decline scores were determined

by the participants. The physiological parameters include BP, RR, &

HR has been gathered. Increasing Blood pressure was also

contributory to cognitive decline. Physical exercise was measured in

terms of the number of steps. These regular activities were

introduced to the two groups of participants 2) The process includes

the problems that occur in the elderly in Indonesia especially the

elderly who live at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. They were

identified from the needs assessment done. Later, this program was

implemented and evaluated by the researcher. 3) For the output, the

researcher developed a HEALTHY AGING Program that aims to delay

cognitive decline through stimulation activities, physical exercise,

and checking of health regularly. These activities were based on the

Indonesian Ministry of Health (2017) that states that chronic diseases

such as heart disease, stroke and diabetes, and lack of physical

activity are risk factors that can affect the decline in cognitive

function. The researcher developed an initial form of the HEALTHY

AGING Program according to the literature syntheses that related to

activities of cognitive stimulate for the elderly. The researcher

prepared guidelines and manuals which evaluated the feasibility of

supporting devices. The researchers modified the program from

Spector (2005) and Sipollo (2019) to align with of the elderly culture

or background, 4) outcomes in this part, the researcher conducted

field tests to determine the effectiveness of HEALTHY AGING. The

result of this test is an evaluation of the implementation of the

HEALTHY AGING Program. This program is expected to delay

cognitive decline in the elderly, to monitor the physiological

parameters such as blood pressure, respiratory rate, Heart Rate to

remain stable, and improve physical exercise by doing physical

exercise. The HEALTHY AGING program is designed and packaged to

prevent and delay the development of cognitive decline or improve

cognitive in the elderly.


The study aimed to develop and evaluate the HEALTHY

AGING Program to decrease the development of cognitive decline

among the elderly in Samarinda.

Specifically, this study sought answers to the following

questions:

1. What are the identified program needs, issues/problems related

to cognitive decline among the elderly?

2. What cognitive stimulation program can be developed to

address the activity needs/issues and problems of the

participants?

3. What is the level of cognitive decline between the two groups of

participants before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?

4. Is there a significant difference in the level of cognitive decline

between the two groups of participants before the HEALTHY

AGING Program (HAP)?

5. What is the baseline data of the participants before the

intervention with respect to the following parameters:

5.1. Physiological parameters, such as:

5.1.1. Blood Pressure;

5.1.2. Heart Rate;

5.1.3. Respiratory Rate; and

5.2. Physical exercise

5.2.1. Steps?

6. Is there a significant difference in the baseline data of the two

groups before the HEALTHY AGING Program?

7. What is the level of cognitive decline among the two groups of

participants after the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?


after the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)?

9. What are the data of the two groups of participants after the

intervention with respect to the following parameters:

9.1. Physiological parameters, such as:

9.1.1. Pressure;

9.1.2. Heart Rate;

9.1.3. Respiratory Rate;

9.2. Physical exercise

9.2.1. Steps?

10. Is there a significant difference in the data of the parameters

after the HEALTHY AGING Program?


before and after the intervention of the experimental groups?

12. What problems were encountered by the participants' in the

implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program?

13. What are the participants’ recommendations to further improve

the HEALTHY AGING Program?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been tested at 0.05 the level

of significance:

1. There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive decline

among the two groups of participants before the implementation

of the HEALTHY AGING program.

2. There is no significant difference in the baseline data of the two

groups of participants before the implementation of HEALTHY

AGING Program.

3. There is no significant difference in cognitive decline among the

two groups of participant after the implementation of the

HEALTHY AGING Program.

4. There is no significant difference in the data of the two groups of

participants after the implementation of HEALTHY AGING

Program.

5. There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive decline

of the experimental groups before and after the intervention.

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the research design, the participants of

the study, the instruments and procedures of data collection, as well

as the statistical test used in analyzing and interpreting the collected

data.

Research Design

This study utilized embedded design as its focus on program

development. The researcher developed the program according to

Brown, Buboltz, & Soper (2006). The initial stage was to develop a

training program and then with a program evaluation. In this study,

the development of the HAP was done through the needs analysis

and the designing of the HAP. The evaluation was done through the

implementation of the program within 6-weeks, where the data were

collected before and after the six weeks implementation.

Literature syntheses and interviews have been done to

describe the needs of the elderly. It is through Literature

synthesis that the HEALTHY AGING program for the delay of cognitive

decline was developed. Second, the program has been implemented

and evaluated using the Quasi-Experimental approach adopting the

nonequivalent control-group design where it involved two groups.

One group received a pretest, experimental treatment, and posttest.

The second group received only pretest and posttest (Leavy, 2017).

The study utilized three instruments: RUDAS (Rowland Universal

Dementia Assessment Scale), “SmartWatch” which was used to

determine the HR and the number of steps, and digital

sphygmomanometer which was used to measure the BP and a watch

or stopwatch which was used to measure the RR. Qualitative data

have also been collected through self-reports regarding the elderly

issues and recommendations following the HEALTHY AGING Program

which has been implemented.

This study has been conducted among the elderly of

Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda City. It was performed for six

weeks from December 2019 to February 2020 excluding the

screening for cognitive decline among the elderly using RUDAS.


The researcher utilized purposive sampling. Participants

were not randomly selected since the design was quasiexperimental.

The elderly who experienced cognitive decline at mild

and moderate levels in the Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda has

been identified as study participants. The researcher had the

assessment of the participants in two groups-experimental and

control. The elderly have been screened using RUDAS. The inclusion

and exclusion criteria have been used. The inclusion criteria of the

participants specify the population characteristics that are eligible to

participate (Polit and Beck, 2012) in the study. The inclusion or

eligibility criteria for this study are as follows (1) Participants can

speak, write and read well in Bahasa Indonesia, (2)they can do the

calculation, (3) Participants should be at least a graduate of

elementary school, (4) they should have no respiratory

complications, (5) their age should be ≥60 years old, (6) they must

not have limitation for mobility or physical exercise, (7) they must

only have a mild and moderate cognitive decline level as measured

by RUDAS, (8) participants must be a resident of Puskesmas

Pasundan of Samarinda City, (9) participants should have a blood

pressure below 150/90 mmHg at the time of initial assessment, and

(10) they must be willing to participate in the study.

In the second stage, the following are the inclusion criteria:

1) sixty (60) elderly people who met the criteria have been divided

into the experimental group-thirty and control group-thirty, 2) the

first thirty names entered are classified as the experimental group,

the next thirty names were included in the control group 3) thirty

participants were divided into three groups so that each group has

ten elderly people (maintaining uniformity in the number of

participants in each group, for exercise and cognitive stimulation) in

the experimental group, 4) for the control group remaining, thirty

names of the elderly have been included in the control group. The

control group was not included in the HEALTHY AGING Program.

Participants did not need to be divided into subgroups. But they

continued with the regular activities at the Puskesmas.

Those who were categorized with severe cognitive decline,

moderate and severe hypertensive at the time of study were

excluded in the study as participants. The researcher considered the

total number of patients in the Puskesmas Pasundan of Samarinda

City for the past three months which is 60 elderly who have mild

hypertensive.

In this study, the total participants who have been included

in this study were sixty (60) elderly. Sixty (60) participants were

divided into thirty (30) participants as a control group, and thirty (30)

participants as an experimental group. The experimental group was

given a cognitive stimulation activity of twelve sessions. Each session

lasts for 20-40 minutes. Each session was conducted two times/

week.

Table 1

Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Elderly-Participants in

Terms of Gender

Gender Frequency Percentage (%)

Male 25 41.70

Female 35 58.30

Total 60 100.00

Table 3 shows the frequency and percentage distribution of

elderly-participants in terms of gender. The data reveal that they are

25 (41.7%) males and 35 (58%) females. The data implies that there

are more female than male participants

Table 2


Terms of Education

Education Frequency Percentage (%)

Bachelor 4 6.80

Diploma 2 3.30

Elementary School 26 43.30

Junior High School 2 3.30

Senior High School 26 43.30

Total 60 100.00

Table 2 specifies the educational attainment of the

participants. The table shows that there are 26 or 43.30% with

elementary school and Senior High School, educational attainment, 4

or 6.80% received bachelor’s degree and 2 or 3.30% of the

participants have finished Junior High School and Diploma.

Table 3


Terms of Age

Age Range Frequency Percentage (%)

60-74 48 80

75-90 12 20

Total 60 100%

Table 3 presents the frequency and percentage distribution

of elderly-participants in terms of age. The data are subdivided into

elderly (60-74 years) and old (75-90 years). The data reveal that the

ages for the elderly are 48 or 80% and old are 12 or 20%. The data

imply that there are more elderly than old participants.

Instrumentation

There were five (5) tools used in the study. The first tool used

was the literature matrix. The literature helped the researcher

identify the needs of the elderly concerning cognitive decline.

Likewise, it assisted the researcher in identifying specific activities for

the development of the program.

For both the needs analysis and program development the

literature matrix had five columns. This has reference, which includes

the author and year of publication, participants including sample, the

purpose of the study, method, and design that used and the result of

the study.

Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS).

This is a scale developed by Rowland, et al. (2004) to minimize the

effects of cultural learning and language diversity on the assessment

of a baseline cognitive performance (Limpawattana, et al., 2012).

The RUDAS tool was translated in Bahasa Indonesia by one

expert who has a health background and the other expert who has a

language background. There was no difference in meaning after two

of the RUDAS Indonesia Version were compared. The instrument has

been tested to 20 participants and it is valid (per item) and reliable

(all items), r table df = 20-2 is 0.444 because all r values are more than

0.444, the construct of each item is declared valid. The result of

Cronbach’s Alpha is 0.835. r table df = 20-2 is 0.444, because of the

Alpha > r table, the questionnaire was declared reliable because all

items were valid, the questionnaire is reliable.

Next, the instrument was retested. A valid and reliable

instrument was used as screening. The researcher trained the

implementer on how to use the RUDAS instrument. To measure the

ability of the implementer with the use of the RUDAS instrument, the

researcher used the observation procedure sheet. The researcher

has directly observed the implementer's ability in assessing the

cognitive level of the elderly by using RUDAS. If the implementers’

ability aligns with the RUDAS procedure, they were involved in the

screening with the researcher to determine cognitive decline among

the elderly at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda.

Physiological Instruments. These are smartwatches which

measured the steps for each day and the heart rate. The heart rate

and the number of steps taken were checked by the research

assistant before and after each activity.

A Digital Sphygmomanometer. It was used for blood pressure

measurement as described in the protocol.

Stop-watch or Watch. It was utilized to measure the time

with the number of respiration within one (1) full minute.

Data Gathering Procedures

Before data collection, approval was obtained from the St.

Paul University Philippines Dean. The development of the literature

review protocol for the needs of the elderly with cognitive decline

and the program to be designed was done and implemented. Then,

the Ethics Review Committee approval was sought and the issuance

of a certificate from the ERC Chair after which the researcher began

data collection from the participants.

The researcher developed the program according to Brown,

et al. (2006). The initial stage is to develop a training program and

then start with program evaluation. In this study, the researcher

developed HAP. The Development of the HEALTHY AGING Program

(HAP) consisted of the design and implementation of cognitive

stimulation activities that have been adopted and modified from a

book titled “Making a Difference” by Spector, et al. (2005). The

design focused on the needs analysis and program development. The

needs were identified by the researcher initially through literature

synthesis. Likewise, the researcher proceeded with the development

of the HEALTHY AGING Program through literature synthesis. Using

Spector, et al. (2005), the workable activities were searched from the

research database and were evaluated both by the researcher and

her adviser. The modifications were made by conducting previous

literature studies to determine cognitive stimulation activities

according to game culture in Indonesia, and the initial activities

combined with the exercise - walking for ten minutes.

HAP is a combination of several cognitive stimulation

activities that Spector's book (2003) referred about cognitive activity

therapy. This cognitive stimulation activity was modified by

incorporating a 10-minute walking activity into cognitive stimulation

activities and games that adapted to Indonesian cultures, such as

Dhakon Games.

After the research ethics committee’s approval, the

researcher proceeded with data collection. The necessary

administrative approval was facilitated through a letter that was

given to the Puskesmas. After this, the participants for the needs

analysis were contacted and informed consent was facilitated by the

researcher. The needs identification was validated by the researcher

through interviews of the nurses and elderly at the Puskesmas. After

the program was finalized, the community participants were

recruited for the implementation and evaluation of the program. The

program was evaluated using the Quasi-Experimental approach,

adopting the nonequivalent control-group design to determine the

effectiveness of the program in preventing cognitive decline among

the elderly.

First, the researcher translated the RUDAS English version

Instrument to Bahasa Indonesia by two different translators. Then

the two translated RUDAS Indonesia Version were compared. When

there was no difference in the meaning and translation, the

instrument was tested to 20 participants. The reliable instrument was

used as screening, to determine cognitive decline among the elderly

at Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda.

Second, the researcher asked permission from the Head of

Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda to conduct research at Puskesmas

Pasundan of Samarinda City. After permission was given, the

researcher contacted the nurses and cadre who were involved in the

Puskesmas activity.

Third, the researcher had 1) recruited, and 2) contacted the

implementer for approval and training schedule. Upon agreement of

the implementers, the researcher trained the implementer for two

(2) days. This training was accomplished, so that the implementers

will better implement the interventions to be done, thus, they used

the same procedure in implementing the intervention.

Fourth, the researcher and implementers conducted

recruitment of the participants based on the RUDAS instrument. In

the first stage, they screened all of the elderly population at

Puskesmas Pasundan Samarinda. In the second stage, the

participants who have mild and moderate cognitive decline were

measured by a digital sphygmomanometer to determine their blood

pressure level. The participants who have blood pressure more than

150 mmHg systole and 90 mmHg diastole were not included. In the

third stage, the participants, who were screened according to the

inclusion criteria to determine the participants, can be involved in the

research experiment. In the fourth stage, informed consent was

facilitated by the researcher. The researcher explained to the

participants about the research objectives, risks, benefits, and

potentials. Assurance about the confidentiality and anonymity of the

information gathered were explained including the participant rights,

and finally, the participants were given a questionnaire so that vital

information about the participants could be extracted. The informed

consent form was given to the elderly who agreed to participate.

After the participants agreed, the implementers started the

intervention.

The fifth was the grouping of the participants into the

experimental and control group. This stage consists of a) sixty (60)

elderly people who met the criteria. They were divided into the

experimental group-thirty (30) and control group-thirty (30); b) thirty

(30) first names were classified as the experimental group. The next

thirty names were included in the control group; c) thirty participants

were divided into three groups so that each group has ten elderly

people (maintaining uniformity in the number of participants in each

group, for exercise and cognitive stimulation) in the experimental

group; and d) for the control group, the remaining thirty names of

the elderly were included in the control group. The control group did

not receive a HEALTHY AGING Program.

Participants did not need to be divided into subgroups. But

they continued with the regular activities at the Puskesmas. The

group consisted of thirty (30) participants each.

The intervention was conducted at one of the Puskesmas

Pasundan in Samarinda for six weeks. The intervention implemented

every day with a total of 20-40 minutes for each participant.

Interventions included cognitive stimulation activities and walking

exercise. The intervention group was given cognitive stimulation

activities of twelve sessions. Each session was conducted two times/

week. Activities were performed on a schedule upon agreement of

the researcher with participants. The activity time was adjusted

according to the participants’ free time so that it does not interfere

with his activities, which was mostly done in the morning/ afternoon

and evening. Participants were considered successful in program

activities if they participated in stimulating activities for twelve

sessions (20 minutes) and did walking exercise every day for ten

minutes. If the participants did not participate in all activities,

namely; cognitive stimulate activities for twelve sessions and exercise

walking for ten minutes (six-weeks), then, they were considered as

failed or dropped out. During the intervention, participants in the

control group did not take any action, except that they continued

with the regular activities at the Puskesmas.

Sixth, the researcher or implementers oriented the

participants on how to use the smart-watch. The smart- watch was

used by the participants before exercise. The participant wore the

smart-watch for ten (10) minutes every day during the exercise. The

implementers recorded the steps and heart rate before and after

exercise.

Seventh, the implementation of the HEALTHY AGING

Program, on the first day, before exercise and cognitive stimulation

were conducted. The researcher and implementers measured blood

pressure and respiratory rate, this assessment determined the

participation of the elderly in the walking exercises. Elderly people

who had blood pressure above 150/90 mmHg and breathing

frequency ≥ 26x / minute were not included in walking exercises.

Only the elderly who had blood pressure and respiratory rate in the

normal category were included in the walking exercises and whose

results were recorded in the daily examination book which includes

BP, RR, HR, and steps. Walking exercises were performed for ten

minutes for five consecutive days each week. During this

intervention, there was no participant who felt fatigued, dyspnea,

and tachycardia. The activities continued with the activities for group

cognitive stimulation that lasted for twenty (20) minutes. Cognitive

stimulation activities consisted of twelve sessions, and two

times/week elderly participants were stimulated with different

activities according to the objectives in each session. At the end of

the session, the elderly participants made a self-report, about their

feelings and experiences after attending a cognitive stimulation

session.

The eighth part is data collection in six weeks. The

implementers assessed the cognitive decline using RUDAS, to

measure BP, RR, Heart rate, and steps of the participants and

evaluate all sessions that were conducted by asking the elderly to

make a self-report on their daily activity book.

Ninth, the researcher determined the average value of each

RUDAS and Physiological Parameters. Finally, the researcher did

calculations, tabulation, analysis of the results of the data.

Data Analysis Tools

The following have been used for data analysis:

Total and Average Scores. These tools were used to measure

cognitive levels, walking exercise, blood pressure, heart rate,

respiratory rate. The following tables were used to interpret the

scores:

Table 4

Average Score and Qualitative Interpretation Using RUDAS (Moyle, et

al., 2017)

Score

Qualitative Interpretation

24-30 No cognitive impairment

18-23 mild impairment

10-17 Moderate impairment

0-9 Severe Impairment

Tabel 5

Average Steps and Qualitative Interpretations, (Tudor-Locke, et al.,

2011)

Score


2000-9000 steps/day Healthy Older

1200-8800 steps/day Special Population Average

777-2215 steps/day Special populations elicit a

weighted increase and older

adults

Table 6

Average Steps and Qualitative Interpretations, (Sumner, et al., 2011;

Tudor-Locke, et al., 2011)

Score


10-199 steps/10 minutes Incidental Stepping

200 – 399 steps/10 minutes Sporadic Stepping

>390 steps/10 minutes Purposeful Stepping

Table 7

Average Blood Pressure Scores and Qualitative interpretations based

on JNC-8 (Aging Care, 2019)

Blood Pressure

Category

Systolic

mmHg (Upper

Number)

Diastolic

mmHg (Lower

Number)

Normal Less than 120 and Less than 80

Elevated 120-129 and 80

High Blood Pressure 130-139 Or 81-89

(Hypertension) Stage 1

High Blood Pressure 140 or Higher Or 90 or Higher

(Hypertension) Stage 2

Hypertension Crisis Higher than and/ Higher than

(Consult your doctor 180 or 120

immediately)

Jnc-8 (Aging Care, 2019) “issued new hypertension guidelines in

2014 recommending that individuals over age 60 aim for reading

below 150/90 mmHg”. These are not hard and fast rules, though,

because each senior’s health needs are unique”.

Table 8

The Normal Heart Rate for Children Through Well-trained Athletes

(AHA, 2019a)

Age

Heartbeats Per

Minute

Children 10 YEARS and Older, Adults 60-100

(Including seniors)

Well-trained Athletes 40-60

Table 9

The Normal Heart Rate Score and Qualitative Interpretation (AHA,

2019a).

Score


60-100 Normal

> 100 Tachycardia

< 60 Bradycardia

Table 10

The Normal Respiratory Rate for Newborn Through Older Adults

(Pearson Education, 2007)

Age

Respiratory Per Minute

Newborn 30-80

3-9 years 20-30

10-15 years 16-22

16-adult 15-20

Adult 12-20

Older adult 15-25

Table 11

The Normal Respiratory Rate Score and Qualitative Interpretation

(Pearson Education, 2007)

Score


15 - 25 Normal

> 25 Tachypnea

< 15 Bradypnea

RESULTS

Summary of Findings

The following are the summary of the findings of the study:

1. The Identified Program Needs, Issues/ Problems Related to

Cognitive Decline Among Elderly

The issues, problems, and those that are needed to cognitive

decline are a) the prevalence of hypertension b) lack of regular

physical activities for the elderly, and c) POSYANDU activities are not

specific for cognitive decline.

2. Proposed Cognitive Stimulation Program to Address the Activity

Needs, Issues and Problems of The Participants

HEALTHY AGING Program was accomplished for six weeks to

provide cognitive stimulation for the elderly. The activities involved

were: a) stimulation group activities, consisting of 12 sessions which

were evaluated by RUDAS instrument; b) physical exercise, and

walking activities have been performed out every day for ten minutes

which were evaluated by smart-watch; and c) health checks including

BP, HR, RR and steps every day were measured using evaluation by

Digital Sphygmomanometer and Stopwatch/ watch.

3. The Level of Cognitive Decline in the Two Groups of Participants

Before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)

There is mild impairment of cognitive decline in the majority

of the experimental and control groups before the implementation

of HAP for elderly with cognitive decline.

4. Test for a Significant Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline

Between the Participants in the Experimental and Control Before

the Implementation of The HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)

There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive

decline between the participants in the experimental and control

groups before the implementation of the HAP.

5. The Level of Cognitive Decline in the Two Groups of Participants

Before the HEALTHY AGING Program (HAP)

There is mild impairment of cognitive decline in the majority

of the experimental and control groups before the implementation

of HAP for elderly with cognitive decline.

6. Test for a Significant Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline

Between the Participants in the Experimental and Control Groups

Before the Implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program

(HAP)

There is no significant difference in the level of cognitive

decline between the participants in the experimental and control

groups before the implementation of the HAP.

7. The Baseline Data of the Participants Before the Intervention

Concerning the Following Parameters:

On the baseline data of physiological parameters, the

participants in both the experimental and control groups are in the

hypertension level for systolic blood pressure and are in normal level

in their diastolic blood pressure; have normal heart rate and

respiratory rate; have incidental stepping for steps both for

experimental and control groups before implementation of the HAP.

8. The Difference in the Baseline Data of the Two Groups Before the

HEALTHY AGING Program

There is no significant difference in the level of physiological

parameters for systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure,

heart rate, respiratory rate and steps between the participants in the

experimental and control groups before the implementation of the

HAP.

9. The Baseline Data of the Level of Cognitive Decline Among the

Two Groups of Participants After the HEALTHY AGING Program

(HAP)

Most of the participants in the experimental group have no

impairment of cognitive decline; while the participants of the control

groups are in the mild impairment level after the implementation of

the HAP.

10. The Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline After the HAP

Implementation

There is a significant difference in the level of cognitive

decline among the two groups of participants after the

implementation of the HAP.

11. The Data of the Two Groups of Participants After the Intervention

Concerning the Following Parameters:

On the data of physiological parameters, the participants of

the experimental group are in hypertension levels 2 for systolic blood

pressure level, the normal level in their diastolic blood pressure

level, heart rate and respiratory rate; and have sporadic stepping

after implementation of the HAP. While the control group are in

hypertension in above level 2 in terms of their systolic blood pressure

level, the normal in their diastolic blood pressure level, heart rate,

and respiratory rate; and have incidental stepping after

implementation of the HAP.

12. The Difference in the Data of the Parameters After the HEALTHY

AGING Program Implementation

There is a significant difference in systolic and diastolic blood

pressure levels, heart rate, and steps among the two groups of

participants after the implementation of the HAP, while there is no

significant difference in respiratory rate among the two groups of

participants after implementation of the HAP.

13. The Difference in the Level of Cognitive Decline Before and After

the Intervention of the Experimental Groups

There is a significant difference in the level of cognitive

decline of the experimental group before and after implementation

of the HAP.

14. Problems Were Encountered by the Participants in the

Implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program

Problems encountered by the participants in the

implementation of the HEALTHY AGING Program were a) natural

condition that influences the HAP activities b) Agreement of time and

c) Ability differences.

15. Participants’ Recommendations to Further Improve the HEALTHY

AGING Program

Participants’ recommendations to further improve the

HEALTHY AGING Program are a) additional physical activities b) more

cognitive stimulation sessions, and c) inclusion of HAP activities that

are the participant’s favorite activities.

CONCLUSION

The primary issue of elderly cognitive decline, the low activity

of the elderly as a risk factor for cognitive decline, and the absence

of a program or group of activities that can improve the cognitive

capabilities of the elderly were the basis of the program developed.

Thus, the program developed that aimed to delay cognitive decline.

It has identified general activities that can be implemented that

focused on H-E-A-L-T-H-Y-A-G- I-N-G.

It is further concluded that the HEALTHY AGING Program is

effective not only in delaying cognitive decline, but it also “brought

back” those with cognitive decline to a normal level.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the results of the study and the conclusion, the

researcher recommends the following:

1. Nurses, Nursing Schools, and Nursing Students can implement

the HEALTHY AGING Program when they practice on gerontology

nursing areas, both at the Elderly Poli of Hospital, Social

community (Panti Tresna Werdha), Puskesmas and Family.

2. The Puskesmas can continue implementing HAP activities in the

elderly in the Puskesmas area by training elderly cadres with this

program. Thus, the cognitive decline among the elderly can be

prevented and improved cognitive levels can be achieved.

3. Health Professionals may train nurses as counselors in hospitals

and health centers. They must receive the appropriate training in

conducting HAP activities and promote the importance of

providing HAP activities to improve cognitive levels among the

elderly.

4. Future Researchers may develop strategies for developing HAP

activities to help the elderly improve their cognitive level.

5. The researcher may present the HAP activities to nurses,

professionals, families, and the elderly and determine to further

develop HAP activities increasingly better.

References

Aging Care. (2019). High blood pressure: Guidelines and treatments

for seniors. Retrieved from

https://www.agingcare.com/articles/high-blood-pressurein-seniors-108019.htm

AHA. (2019a). Target Heart Rates. Retrieved from

http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/HealthyLiving/PhysicalAc

tivity/FitnessBasics/Target-

HeartRates_UCM_434341_Article.jsp#.XSGleugzbIU)

Brown, F. C., Buboltz Jr, W. C., & Soper, B. (2006). Development and

evaluation of the sleep treatment and education program for

students (STEPS). Journal of American College Health, 54(4),

231-237.

Deary, I. J., Corley, J., Gow, A. J., Harris, S. E., Houlihan, L. M., Marioni,

R. E., … Starr, J. M. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline.

British Medical Bulletin, 92(1), 135–152.

doi:10.1093/bmb/ldp033

Deutchki, I. M. (2017). What’s causing my older patient’s cognitive

decline? The Journal of Family Practice, 66(11), 1-7.

Etgen, T., Sander, D., Huntgeburth, U., Poppert, H., Forstl, H. & Bickel,

H. (2010). Physical activity and incident cognitive impairment

in an elderly person. American Medical Association, 170(2),

186-193.

Infodatin. (2015). Profil Kesehatan Indonesia. Kemenkes RI. Retrieved

from

http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/pusdatin/pr

ofil-kesehatan-indonesia/profil-kesehatan-Indonesia-

2015.pdf

Infodatin. (2017). Data dan informasi profil Kesehatan Indonesia

2017 Kemenkes RI. Retrieved from

http://www.pusdatin.kemkes.go.id/resources/download/pu

sdatin/profil-kesehatan-indonesia/Data-dan-

Informasi_Profil-Kesehatan-Indonesia-2017.pdf

Leavy, P. (2017). Research Design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed

methods, arts-based, and community-based participatory

research approaches. New York: The Guilford Press

Limpawattana, P., Tiamkao, S., Sawanyawisuth, K., & Thinkhamrop,

B. (2012). Can Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment

Scale (RUDAS) Replace Mini-Mental State Examination

(MMSE) for Dementia Screening in a Thai Geriatric

Outpatient Setting?. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease

& Other Dementias®, 27(4), 254–259.

doi:10.1177/1533317512447886

Milanovic, Z., Jorgić, B., Trajković, N., Sporis, Pantelić, S., & James.

(2013). Age-related decrease in physical activity and

functional fitness among elderly men and women. Clinical

Interventions in Aging, 549.doi:10.2147/cia.s44112

Ministry of Health. (2017). Rencana aksi nasional: Pencegahan dan

pengendalian penyakit tidak menular 2015-2019. Retrieved

from

http://p2ptm.kemkes.go.id/uploads/VHcrbkVobjRzUDN3UC

s4eUJ0dVBndz09/2018/10/Buku_Rencana_Aksi_Nasional_2

015_201 9.pdf

Moyle, W., Jones, C., Murfield, J., Draper, B., Beattie, E., Shum, D., …

Mervin, C. M. (2017). Levels of physical activity and sleep

patterns among older people with dementia living in longterm

care facilities: A 24-h snapshot. Maturitas, 102, 62–68.

doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.05.015

Pearson Education. (2007). Normal Respiratory rates for newborns

through older adults. Retrieved from:

https://id.scribd.com/document/258322624/Table-

Respiration-Rate

Pertiwi, G. H & Lorica, J. D. (2019). Physical activity improves the

cognitive function among elderly: an integrated literature

review. The Malaysian Journal of Nursing, 10(3), 38-43.

Polit, D.F. and Beck, C.T. (2012) Nursing Research: Generating and

Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice (9th Ed.).

Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.

Riskesdas. (2018). Hasil utama riskesdas 2018. Kementerian

Kesehatan Badan Penelitian dan Pengembengan Kesehatan.

Retrieved

from

http://www.depkes.go.id/resources/download/infoterkini/materi_rakorpop_2018/Hasil%20Riskesdas%202018.

pdf

Spector, A., Thorgrimsen, L., Woods, B & Orrell M. (2005). Making a

difference. London: The Journal for Dementia Care

Tudor-Locke, C., Craig, C. L., Aoyagi, Y., Bell, R. C., Croteau, K. A., De

Bourdeaudhuij, I., … Blair, S. N. (2011). How many steps/day

are enough? For older adults and special populations.

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical

Activity, 8(1), 80.doi:10.1186/1479-5868-8-80

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,

Population Division (2017). World Population Aging 2017-

Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/397). Retrieved from

https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/pub

lications/pdf/ageing/WPA2017_Highlights.pdf

WHO. (2018). Ageing and health. Retrieved from

https://www.who.int/news-room/factsheets/detail/ageing-and-health

WHO. (2019a). Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health.

Retrieved

from

https://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/pa/en/

MOBILE-BASED EGGPLANT DISEASES RECOGNITION SYSTEM

USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

Jake Guabes Maggay

Doctor in Information Technology

ABSTRACT

Agricultural inputs are very important; however, these are not always

available to farmers. This study aimed to develop a mobile-based

eggplant diseases recognition system using image processing

techniques to provide information to the farmers with regard to the

identification of eggplant diseases. Quantitative method using

descriptive survey was used to gather data. Weighted mean was also

used to analyze the rating on the extent of compliance of the system

along with ISO/IEC 25010 Software Quality Standards. Convenience

sampling was employed in selecting the participants. The study

employed Scrum Methodology which takes an iterative approach to

software development. It also utilized different image processing

techniques and adapted the MobilenetV2 framework. The study

found out that farmers encountered issues such as lack of modern

agricultural inputs, capital, labor force, price fluctuations, production

costs, water system, and unsupervised use of chemicals. They also

encountered challenges such as the presence of insect pests and

diseases, natural disaster, drought, and limited access to production

inputs and equipment. Result of the system evaluation using ISO/IEC

25010 Software Quality Standards shows that the system is compliant

to a great extent with overall weighted mean of 4.12. Based on the

findings of the study, the developed mobile application can be of

great help to the farmers in identifying the different eggplant pests

and diseases as well as in providing the necessary management and

control.

Keywords: Convolutional Neural Network, deep learning, image

augmentation, image classification, MobileNetV2

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture plays an important role in the country’s

economy. Based on World Bank data from 1960 to 2016, 21.36

percent was the average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the

Philippines with a maximum of 31.06 percent in 1974 and a minimum

of 9.65 in 2016 (De Guzman, 2018). Asia and the Pacific is

predominated with family farming as a form of agriculture (Sylvester,

2015). Moreover, studies show that Filipino farmers represent the

second poorest sector of the country. As a result, young people are

discouraged to pursue career in agriculture. The farmers’ average age

of 57-59 years old means that they are growing old; and their children

are taking different careers not related to agriculture (De Guzman,

2018). Furthermore, World Bank data show that total number of

employment in agriculture is decreasing from 31.01 percent in 2013

to 25.31 percent in 2018 (WorldBank, 2018). With the present status

of agriculture in the country, there is a need to encourage young

individuals to be involved in crop production to increase and sustain

food security (De Guzman, 2018). In support to this, the Department

of Agriculture (DA) tapped the Department of Education (DepEd) to

revive basic gardening among the elementary school children in both

public and private schools in the entire country. This initiative seeks

to acquaint the young people with agriculture (DA, 2016).

Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is the fifth most

economically important crop after potato, pepper, tomato and

tobacco having a global production around 50 million tons annually,

with a net value of more than US$10 billion a year (2014 data of FAO).

The top five producing countries in 2016 are China (28.4 million tons;

57% of world’s total), India (13.4 million tons; 27% of world’s total),

Egypt (1.2 million tons), Turkey (0.82 million tons), and Iran (0.75

million tons) while Philippines ranked as the tenth eggplant

producing country (0.24 million tons). In Asia and the Mediterranean,

eggplant ranks among the top five most important vegetable crops

(Taher, et al., 2017).

Eggplant (common name) is known as aubergine or brinjal

(English), talong (Tagalog), tarong (Ilocano), or bringhinas (Bisaya)

and is the number one vegetable in the Philippines in terms of

volume and production area (ISAAA, 2018). It covers approximately

22,000 hectares, yielding an average volume of 220,000 metric tons

annually which valued at about PhP2.6 billion (OVPAA-UP, 2016).

Eggplant production in the Philippines in 2011 to 2016 is increasing

with 208,000 metric tons in 2011 to 235,600 metric tons in 2016

(Statista, 2018). The Ilocos Region has the highest percentage of

produced eggplant with 59.8% share during the second quarter of

2018 while CALABARZON has the highest production in the third

quarter with 34.0% share of the country’s total eggplant production.

The Cagayan Valley Region is the second major producer of eggplant

in the country with 8.9% and 11.4% share of the total eggplant

production in the second and third quarter of 2018, respectively

(PSA, 2018).

Some studies show that the general source of information of

farmers is other farmers but for complex and technical matters,

farmers prefer to have first-hand information from experts (Wesely,

et al., 2014). Extension service by the field experts which includes

consultation is one of the ways being done in the Philippines to reach

farmers and share new technologies and information for them to be

engaged in simple farming innovations which later can increase

production. Unfortunately, these field experts cannot always provide

all the information needed by the farmers. Hence, lack of information

to the farmers leads them to revert back to the traditional practice.

This issue on information sharing especially on agricultural problems

can be addressed through the application of Information and

Communications Technology (ICT) (Dar, 2016).

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

(FAO) has been promoting the use of ICT to improve agricultural

production and to enhance value chains (Sylvester, 2015). Likewise,

the DA is looking forward for Information Technology (IT) innovations

that would provide farmers an access to needed information about

plant pests and diseases. In addition, the Department aims to provide

key infrastructure, facilities, technology, and information that will

raise incomes, productivity, and competitiveness in the countryside

(DA, 2016). This means that there is a need to leverage ICT-mediated

knowledge sharing and extension services in the area of agriculture

(Dar, 2016).

This study aimed to develop a mobile application to help

farmers identify eggplant diseases with proper management using

image processing techniques which is called “Eggplant Doctor”. In

addition, it uses Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to classify the

different diseases that are visible through mobile phones’ camera

(Browne, et al., 2008). Moreover, the mobile application serves as a

tool for the extension service providers in sharing knowledge and

information to the farmers particularly on eggplant diseases and

treatment to increase production. It also provides Good Agricultural

Practices (GAP) for the farmers for sustainable farming. In addition,

it promotes effective information and knowledge transfer which can

improve farm management.

Related Literature

Diseases of Eggplant

The most common and destructive eggplant diseases are

bacterial wilt (Nahar, et al., 2019) and fusarium wilt (DA-RF02, 2017).

Aside from these, there are more diseases such as cercospora leaf

spot (Chowdhury, 1957), damping off (Nahar, et al., 2018),

anthracnose fruit rot (Sun, et al., 2015), verticillium wilt (Hampton, et

al., 1990), phytophthora blight (Pande, et al., 2011), southern blight

(Walliser, 2011; Solberg, 2017), phomopsis blight and fruit rot

(Nahar, et al., 2019), little leaf and mosaic (Solberg, 2017).

Among the mentioned eggplant diseases, only the damping

off and southern blight have symptoms found on stems. Other

diseases can manifest symptoms on leaves and some others can

manifest symptoms on both leaves and fruits. This study focused only

on the detection of eggplant diseases that can be recognized or

detected through leaves and fruits. Therefore, damping off and

southern blight are not included in the study particularly in the

detection of diseases.

It is necessary to identify the exact disease of eggplant to

have proper management and control (Nahar, et al., 2019). In

addition, identifying the diseases and knowing the proper

management and control can prevent the spread of the diseases.

However, non-experts might not be able to identify the diseases

correctly. As a result, the proper management and control cannot be

performed. Hence, a trained or an expert individual should be

responsible to do the identification tasks. This study provides a tool

to help the non-expert individuals in identifying the eggplant

diseases.

Image Processing

This study used different image processing techniques.

Image processing is defined as “every possible action performed on

an image and it can be as simple as cropping an image, increasing

contrast or scaling” (Solberg, 2011). It focuses on digital image which

involved different steps (Li, 2011). Output of the different steps can

be an image or an image attribute. Image acquisition, image

enhancement, image restoration, color image processing, wavelets

and multi-resolution processing, compression, and morphological

processing generally produce image as the output while feature

extraction (El-gayar, 2013), segmentation (Pal, 1993), representation

and description, and object recognition generally produce image

attributes as output (Gonzales, et al., n.d.). Image processing is also

done for storage, transmission, and representation for machine

learning purposes (Verma, et al., 2017). However, this study does not

use all the techniques; it selected the most appropriate technique

that will result to a higher prediction accuracy in detecting eggplant

diseases.

Related Works

In the study of Alamdar, et al. (2011), they reduced the size

of the images into 128 x 128 pixels while Verma, et al. (2017) resized

the images into 200 x 250 pixels during segmentation process to have

better results during experiments and to reduce the running time;

while all images used in the study of Bhange & Hingoliwala (2015)

were resized to 300 x 300 pixels. Also, Sladojevic, et al. (2016) resized

the images to 256 x 256 pixels for the purpose of training. Another

study applied the same preprocessing technique however, they have

reduced images to 16 x 20 sq. cm. which saves 30% of disk storage

space and increased CPU processing speed to 1.4 times (Dey, 2016).

The segmented images were used or feature extraction (Alamdar, et

al., 2011; Verma, et al., 2017).

Sabrol, et al. (2015) used different methods before the

recognition and classification of plant diseases. They acquired images

using digital devices which is similar with the study of Singh, et al.

(2017) and they conducted image pre-processing techniques such as

smoothing, enhancement and filtering. They also conducted color

space conversion, image segmentation using color, thresholding and

Otsu method. After segmentation, they had extracted the color and

texture features of the image. However, there are multiple

classification techniques presented in their study.

In the study of Pujari, et al. (2014), they detected the disease

for analysis at early stage before it damages the whole leaf and

eventually the whole plant. As a result of their study, they have found

that using neuro-kNN (k-Nearest Neuron) as classifier method reveals

a higher accuracy of 91.54% as compared to 84.11% accuracy in using

the ANN.

Another study conducted by Tete, et al. (2017) used

segmentation such as thresholding algorithm, K-means cluster

algorithm and classification technique based on Artificial Neural

Networks particularly the feed forward back propagation algorithms.

In their study, they acquired images using a digital camera which are

in the form of RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) color. After acquiring

images, they performed pre-processing technique such as cropping

to get the interested region, image enhancement to increase the

contrast of the image, and color conversion of RGB to gray images.

However, this study does not convert the images to grayscale

because the RGB which are the three (3) dimensions of an image are

important features of the images for classification. It is also required

in the MobileNetV2 that images should have 224 x 224 x 3 dimension.

Moreover, they also segmented the images through thresholding

(Tete, et al., 2017; Chitradevi & Srimathi, 2014) to segregate objects

by transforming grayscale images into binary images. Likewise, K-

means algorithm was also used in their study to measure distance of

elements. After segmentation, feature extraction using color,

texture, and edges was also used in their study. Lastly, they used ANN

to classify images [35]. Some of the image processing techniques

used in the foregoing literature were also applied and explored in this

study to recognize the different eggplant diseases.

Objectives of the Study

This study aimed to develop a mobile-based eggplant

diseases recognition system using image processing techniques to

provide information and expertise to the farmers with regard to the

recognition of eggplant diseases. Specifically, it aimed to:

1. identify the issues and challenges encountered by the farmers in

farming eggplant;

2. determine the best practices of the farmer participants in

controlling insect pests and diseases;

3. determine the image processing techniques in recognizing

eggplant diseases;

4. develop the features of the application to identify eggplant

diseases;

5. evaluate the extent of compliance of the developed system to the

standards of ISO/IEC 25010 Systems and software Quality

Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) in terms of functional

suitability, performance efficiency, compatibility, usability,

reliability, security, maintainability, and portability; and

6. identify the enhancements that can be done to improve the

developed application.

METHODOLOGY

This study used different steps in the classification of

eggplant diseases which were adopted from the study of Sabrol, et

al. (2015). The first step is image acquisition, followed by preprocessing

of acquired images such as cropping, resizing, and

augmentation, the third step is feature extraction and the last step is

image classification.

During the image acquisition, the researcher captured

diseased eggplant leaves and fruits in the farms using Oppo A37

mobile phone with 8MP camera. A plant pathologist confirmed the

diseases through laboratory tests. All the images had undergone preprocessing

procedures such as cropping to select the most important

area of the images, and resizing the images to 224 x 224 pixels based

on the required dimensions of the image input of the adopted

MobileNetV2. After the images had been resized and enhanced,

image augmentation was also performed to enhance the datasets for

training purposes.

Feature extraction was also performed on images of diseased

leaves and fruits of eggplant to get the prominent features. The

individual pixel of a color image was broken into red, green, and blue

values which were arranged in sequential order. Therefore, the

dimension of the images used in the study was 224 by 224 by 3

matrixes. After extracting the features of the different images of

eggplant leaves and fruits, classification was performed applying the

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based on back propagation algorithm

being implemented in the MobileNetV2 framework.

In the development of the mobile-based system, the study

employed Scrum Methodology (altexsoft.com, n.d.). As mentioned

by Flora, et al. (2013), “this development methodology helps

companies build the right product and empowers teams to

continuously redesign their release to optimize its value throughout

development”. In this methodology, changes in the requirements are

to be expected and welcomed (Haunts, 2015) which was also

happened during the development life cycle of the system.

Additionally, this study adopted the Scrum Methodology wherein

software is incrementally developed, creating different versions

(Hernández, et al., 2016) where work is performed in iterations or

cycle (scrumalliance, n.d.).

As part of the development cycle, product backlog was set

which covers the different features of the system. Planning was the

first step during the system development. As mentioned by Dora &

Dubey (2013), this step aims to know the requirements of the system

based on the needs of the users. During this step, the researcher

conducted an interview with the farmers regarding their knowledge

on eggplant diseases as well as their management and control.

Likewise, the researcher identified and analyzed the requirements of

each feature to be developed. After planning the needs of the

system, system design particularly the system process and interface

were created. During the design phase of the system’s features, the

user-interface of the mobile-based system was also determined as

part of the design (Figure 1).

Figure 1

System Architecture

Upon completion of the design, the development of each

feature started. Dora & Dubey (2013) also mentioned that

development is used to convert the design into code using

programming language while testing is used to evaluate the actual

result and the expected result. In this phase, the researcher

transformed the design into a system’s working feature. Prior to this

activity, images of eggplant leaves and fruits were captured and

processed using different techniques such as cropping, resizing, and

image augmentation.

After performing the different image processing techniques,

the next process was transfer learning using the adopted

MobileNetV2 framework. During the training, combination of

multiple augmented images were used to create different models.

The created models were subjected for prediction accuracy test

which served as the basis in choosing the model for implementation.

Likewise, the chosen model was integrated in the mobile application

during the development of the classifier module. Testing each

module of the mobile application was also performed repeatedly to

ensure that there are no major errors prior to the release of the

Mobile-Based Eggplant Diseases Recognition System.

After the development, system evaluation was conducted.

This study employed a quantitative method using descriptive survey

research design in collecting and analyzing the data associated with

the proposed system along with ISO/IEC 25010 Software Quality

Standards conducted by the ten (10) IT Experts. Likewise, interview

guide was also used to gather the issues and challenges encountered

by the five (5) farmers as well as their best practices in eggplant

farming. Convenience sampling was used in selecting the participants

of study.

Weighted mean was used to analyze the rating of the IT

experts on the extent of compliance of the developed mobile

application in accordance with ISO/IEC 25010 software quality

standards. A 5-point scale was used to measure the compliance of

the developed system ranging from “Very Great Extent” (5) to “Very

Low Extent” (1) as shown in Table 1.

Table 1

The 5-Point Scale and its Descriptive Interpretation and Scale Range

Scale Range Weight Descriptive Interpretation

4.20 – 5.00

3.40 – 4.19

2.60 – 3.39

1.80 – 2.59

1.00 – 1.79

5

4

3

2

1

Very Great Extent

Great Extent

Moderate Extent

Low Extent

Very Low Extent


Issues and Challenges Encountered by the Farmers

The farmers encountered many issues on eggplant farming

such as lack of modern agricultural inputs which include varietal

selection and the use of recommended and approved chemicals. In

addition, issues such as capital for fertilizers and farm maintenance,

price fluctuations due to environmental calamities, production costs

especially in purchasing for FDA-approved chemicals, water system

during dry season, unavailability of labor force, and lack of knowledge

in the use of chemicals were also encountered by the farmers.

Likewise, farmers encountered challenges such as presence of insect

pests and diseases in the farm, natural disaster which severely

damaged plants, drought which reduces yields, and limited access to

production inputs and equipment because of their geographical

location.

Best Practices of the Farmer-Participants in Controlling Insect

Pests and Diseases

The farmers use fertilizers to provide necessary nutrients for

the plants. They apply fertilizers during transplant, vegetative stage,

and during matured or fruiting stage. They also spray insecticides

such as Solomon, DuPont Lanate SP and DuPont Prevathon to

prevent insect pests in attacking the eggplants one week before

harvesting the fruits. Likewise, they cut shoots of eggplants that are

damaged with shoot borer to prevent the spread of the insects. They

also use Megatonic Foliar Fertilizer by spraying it to the plants to

increase the yield of the plants. This chemical has been tested by the

farmers to increase the number of buds which will produce more

flowers and fruits.

According to the farmers, weed-free eggplant farms produce

more fruits. In removing the weeds, farmers manually uproot weeds

around the plants. However, if the plants are fully grown, farmers

prefer to spray weed killer like ClearOut Plus to control them. Some

of the farmers observed that planting corn as alternative to eggplant

can prevent the occurrence of wilt diseases.

Image Processing Techniques in Recognizing Eggplant Diseases

As mentioned by Chitradevi & Srimathi (2014), there are

various image processing techniques such as image acquisition,

image pre-processing, image enhancement, feature extraction and

image classification. In order to recognize the different diseases of

eggplant, this study performed similar techniques. Image preprocessing

techniques include cropping and resizing of images.

Moreover, image enhancement, applying image augmentation, was

also performed which includes the two label preserving

transformations (Shorten & Khoshgoftaar, 2019) such as flipping and

rotating. Other non-label preserving transformations such as

sharpening, adjustment of brightness, contrast, Gaussian blur, and

saturation were also performed.

This study used a mobile phone’s camera to capture images

of eggplant leaves and fruits that are infected with diseases or

damaged by insects. However, due to the unavailability of the

different diseases and other insects of eggplant, the researcher

collected images from the internet. As a result, 1,710 images were

captured from the farms while 792 images were downloaded from

the internet with a total of 2,465 images.

Pre-processing techniques such as cropping was also

performed to get the desired area of the images and resizing them to

224 x 224 as input size of the MobileNetV2. Aside from these, image

augmentation was also performed to the captured images. The first

two augmentation techniques performed were flipping and rotating.

After flipping and rotating the images, the remaining augmentation

techniques such as adjustment of brightness, contrast, color

saturation, sharpness and Gaussian blur were performed to the

original, flipped and rotated images. After performing all the image

augmentation techniques, the number of images largely increased

from 2,465 to 180,036 images. However, it was found out that

adjustment of contrast, sharpening, and adjustment of saturation of

the datasets does not increase the prediction accuracy of the system

in recognizing eggplant pests and diseases based on the tests

conducted.

Similar with the study of Feng, et al. (2019), this study

adopted the MobileNetV2 model which is considered as the

backbone for feature extraction. Feng, et al. (2019) described

MobileNetV2 as a lightweight deep neural network for mobile

embedded terminals. Meanwhile, this study emphasized the

extraction process of the MobileNetV2 in extracting the features of

each input during the training or “transfer learning” (Lu, 2017)

process using the augmented images. Lu (2017) also mentioned that

the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) has integrated the feature

extraction layers and classifier in a unified Deep Neural Network and

is being implemented in the MobileNetV2.

During the transfer learning process, various models were

created from the combination of the different augmented images. In

addition, experiments were conducted to test the prediction

accuracy of each model using 10 different sample images. Table 2

shows the models with the corresponding datasets used and the

average rank of predictions.

Based on the test, Model 9 obtained the highest rank in

terms of prediction accuracy with an average of 1.1. It was found out

that prediction accuracy increases if more augmentation techniques

will be performed before feeding the images to the MobileNetV2

framework. As an example, when Model 2, 3 and 6 were trained

individually, they only obtained an average of 1.9, 1.7 and 1.9,

respectively, but when they were combined, the prediction accuracy

had increased having an obtained average of 1.4 (Model 8). Multiple

augmentation techniques can be combined, however, the

appearance of the images slightly changed by some techniques such

as contrast enhancement, sharpening, and saturation especially on

the datasets of normal and spider mites-damaged leaves. Based on

the overall result of the prediction accuracy tests, Model 9 was

chosen and used as the model for the Mobile-Based Eggplant

Diseases Recognition System.

Table 2

List of Used Datasets in Each Model

Models Images or Datasets Used Rank

Model 1 Original, Flipped, Rotated 1.8

Model 2 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced 1.9

Model 3 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Contrast-Enhanced 1.7

Model 4 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Sharpened 1.4

Model 5 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Gaussian Blurred 1.4

Model 6 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Saturation-Enhanced 1.9

Model 7 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Sharpened, Gaussian 1.3

Blurred

Model 8 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.4

Contrast-Enhanced, Saturation-Enhanced

Model 9 Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.1

Gaussian Blurred

Model Original, Flipped, Rotated, Brightness-Enhanced, 1.3

10

Model

11

Saturation-Enhanced, Sharpened, Gaussian Blurred

Original and All Augmented Images 1.2

The Developed Mobile Application

The main focus of the study is to recognize the different

diseases of eggplant. However, during the conduct of the study, the

diseases are not present in the farms. During the farm visit, the

researcher observed that there are various insects present in the

farms such as shoot and fruit borer, leafhopper, mealybugs, spider

mites, spotted beetles, and flea beetles. Because of the existence of

the different insects, the researcher included the different insects to

be recognized by the mobile application aside from the different

eggplant diseases.

The developed mobile application or “mobile app” or simply

“app” (Inukollu, 2014) has a home screen and contains a menu on the

upper right corner of the screen which is used to display the purpose

of the app and the best practices in farming eggplant. It also contains

a button that will open the mobile phone’s camera (Figure 2).

Meanwhile, the camera icons at the bottom of the screen

initialize the cameras for capturing leaf or leaves and eventually

starts the first step in recognizing eggplant pests and diseases. Upon

pressing the camera icon in the main screen, the mobile phone’s

camera becomes ready to capture image. After the image has been

captured, the user has the option to reject or accept the captured

image. Likewise, the user has the option to crop the desired portion

of the captured image to be used for recognition.

Figure 2. Mobile App’s

Home Screen

Figure 3. Mobile App’s

Classifier

The developed mobile app has the capability to classify image as part

of the process to recognize and predict eggplant pests and diseases.

The mobile app’s classifier extracts the feature of the captured image

and matches the extracted feature to the trained classification

model. The user needs to click the “RECOGNIZE” button to start the

classification process and display the top five (5) predictions (Figure

3).

Figure 4. Top Five

Prediction Sample

Figure 5. Sample Details

of Prediction

The system ranks and displays the top five (5) predictions

from first to fifth rank based on the confidence level of the classifier

(Figure 4). The user may click each prediction to confirm if the

appearance of the infected part of the plant is similar with the sample

images being displayed in the app. Aside from the images, the app

also displays the description of the predicted pest or disease as well

as its management and control (Figure 5).

The Extent of Compliance of the Developed System in Accordance

with ISO/IEC 25010 Systems and software Quality Requirements

and Evaluation (SQuaRE)

The goal of ISO/IEC 25010 is to describe and evaluate

software quality [48]. The developed Mobile Application was

subjected for evaluation by IT Experts using ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE

with various characteristics such as Functional Suitability,

Performance Efficiency, Compatibility, Usability, Reliability, Security,

Maintainability, and Portability. Each characteristic is composed of

multiple sub-characteristics that provide consistent terminology for

specifying, measuring and evaluating system and software product

quality (Flora & Chande, 2013).

Table 3

Overall Extent of Compliance of the Developed Mobile Application in

Accordance with ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE

Criteria Mean Description

Functional Suitability 4.07 Great Extent

Performance Efficiency 4.33 Very Great Extent

Compatibility 4.00 Great Extent

Usability 4.17 Great Extent

Reliability 4.03 Great Extent

Security 4.00 Great Extent

Maintainability 4.18 Great Extent

Portability 4.19 Great Extent

Overall Weighted Mean 4.12 Great Extent

Table 3 shows the overall result of the system evaluation in

compliance with ISO/IEC 25010 SQuaRE. The result shows that the

system is compliant to a “Great Extent” with respect to ISO/IEC 25010

SQuaRE having an overall weighted mean of 4.12.

Enhancements to Improve the Mobile Application

Based on the evaluation of the system by the IT Experts from

the different institutions or affiliations, the following are the

enhancements that can be done to improve the existing features of

the developed system: (1) There should be more images of eggplant

with diseases as training datasets to improve the prediction accuracy;

(2) A users’ manual should be integrated to guide users in the proper

use of the system especially in cropping the relevant area of the

images for the system to provide more accurate prediction; (3)

Translation of the text to Filipino, Ilocano and other dialects so that

anyone can understand the description of the pests and diseases, and

the recommendations being provided by the system; (4) Aside from

eggplant, other high-value crops may be included; and (5) Version for

iOS Mobile Phone should be developed to address compatibility

issues.

CONCLUSION

Image processing techniques such as cropping, resizing,

adjustment of brightness and blurriness increase the prediction

accuracy in identifying eggplant pests and diseases. Conversely, the

developed mobile application can be of great help to the farmers in

identifying the different eggplant pests and diseases as well as in

providing the necessary management and control. Likewise, the

mobile application could also help the extension service providers in

providing relevant information related to eggplant farming and Good

Agricultural Practices to the farmers. Generally, when the

information provided by the system will be followed and applied by

the farmers, it could help them monitor and manage eggplant farms.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The Department of Agriculture (DA) may consider providing

continuous intervention and monitoring especially on the best

practices of eggplant farming. They may also provide a way to reach

the farmers to disseminate proper, safe and sustainable pest and

disease management practices to eggplant farmers. The farmers may

consider using the mobile application to help monitor and manage

eggplant farms. Aside from the farmers, the app may also be adopted

by individuals who are engaged in backyard gardening. It may also be

adopted by the DA especially for extension service providers. For

future studies, more images of the different insect pests and diseases

could be provided to increase the prediction accuracy of the system.

All other pests and diseases of eggplant may also be included as long

as images are available. Moreover, other high-value crops could also

be integrated into a single mobile application.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The researcher acknowledges Dr. Maria Visitacion N.

Gumabay for her commitment, guidance and for sharing her

expertise in completing this study. Also, the researcher

acknowledges Dr. Val Randolf S. Madrid for sharing his knowledge on

image processing.

References

Alamdar, F., & Keyvanpour, M. (2011). A New Color Feature

Extraction Method Based on QuadHistogram. 2011 3rd

International Conference on Environmental Science and

Information Application Technology (pp. 777-783). Elsevier.

Bhange, M. & Hingoliwala, H. (2015). "Detection of Bacterial Blight on

Pomegranate Leaf," International Journal on Recent and

Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication, vol. 3, no.

6, pp. 3682 - 3685.

Billiauws, I., & Bonjean, K. (2009). Retrieved March 1, 2019, from

Image recognition on an Android mobile phone:

https://iiw.kuleuven.be/onderzoek/eavise/mastertheses/billia

uwsbonjean.pdf

Browne, M., Ghidary, S., & Mayer, N. (2008). Convolutional Neural

Networks for Image Processing with Applications in Mobile

Robotics. Studies in Computational Intelligence (SCI), 83, 327-

345.

Chitradevi, B., & Srimathi, P. (2014). An Overview onImage Processing

Techniques. nternational Journal of Innovative Research in

Computerand Communication Engineering, 2(11), 6466-6472.

Chowdhury, S. (1957). "A Cercospora leaf spot of ramie in Assam,"

Transactions of the British Mycological Society, vol. 40, no. 2, pp.

260-262.

DA. (2016). Philippine Agriculture: Today and the Future! Retrieved

January 27, 2019, from Department of Agriculture:

http://www.da.gov.ph/foundation/

Dar, W. (2016). Applying ICT in Agriculture. Retrieved January 28,

2019, from The Manila Times:

https://www.manilatimes.net/applying-ict-agriculture/301999

DA-RFO2. (2017, Febraury). Eggplant Production Guide. Retrieved

February 5, 2019, from Department of Agriculture - Regional

Field Office 2:

http://rfo02.da.gov.ph/?smd_process_download=1&download

_id=459

De Guzman, S. (2018). Agriculture is dying in the Philippines.

Retrieved January 27, 2019, from PhilStar:

https://www.philstar.com/opinion/2018/06/18/1825542/agric

ulture-dying-philippines

Dey, A. K., Sharma, M., & Mesharam, M. (2016). Image Processing

Based Leaf Rot Disease, Detection of Betel Vine (Piper BetleL.).

International Conference on Computational Modeling and

Security, 748-754.

Dora, S. K., & Dubey, P. (2013). Software Development Life Cycle

(SDLC) Analytical Comparison and Survey on Traditional and

Agile Methodology. National Monthly Refereed Journal of

Research in Science & Technology, 22-30.

El-gayar, M., Soliman, H. and Meky, N. (2013). "A comparative study

of image low level feature extraction algorithms," Egyptian

Informatics Journal, vol. 14, pp. 175-181.

Feng, X., Xie, R., Sheng, J., & Zhang, S. (2019). Population Statistics

Algorithm Based on MobileNet. Journal of Physics: Conf.

Series1237 (2019) 022045, 1-7. doi:doi:10.1088/1742-

6596/1237/2/022045

Flora, H., & Chande, S. (2013). A Review and Anaysis on Mobile

Application Development Processes Using Agile Methodologies.

International Journal of Research in Computer Science, 3(4), 9-

18. doi:10.7815/ ijorcs.34.2013.068

Gonzales, R., & Woods, R. (n.d.). Digital Image Processing. USA:

Pearson Education International.

Hampton, R., Wullschleger, S. and Oosterhuis, D. (1990). "Impact of

verticillium wilt on net photosynthesis, respiration and

photorespiration in field-grown cotton (Gossypium hirsutum

L.)," Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology, vol. 37, no. 4,

pp. 271-280.

Haunts, S. (2015). Agile Software Development Succinctly.

Morrisville, USA: Syncfusion, Inc.

Hernández, R., Izaguirre, J. A., Mendoza, A., & Escandón, J. M. (2016).

A Practical Approach to the Agile Development of Mobile Apps

in the Classroom. Innovación Educativa, 17(73), 97-114.

Inukollu, V., Keshamoni, D., Kang, T., & Inukollu, M. (2014). Factors

Influencing Quality of Mobile Apps: Role of Mobile App

Development Life Cycle. International Journal of Software

Engineering & Applications (IJSEA), 5(5), 15-34. Retrieved from

https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1410/1410.4537.pdf

ISAAA. (2018). Pocket K No. 48: Bt Eggplant. Retrieved February 9,

2019, from International Service for the Acquisition of Agribiotech

Applications:

https://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/pocketk/48/def

ault.asp

Li, C., Jia, X., Deng, L. and Shi, X. (2011) "Digital image processing

technology applied in level measurement and control system,"

in 2011 International Conference on Advances in Engineering,

China.

Lu, Y. (2017). Transfer Learning for Image Classification. Université de

Lyon, 3. Retrieved from https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-

02065405

Nahar, N., Islam, R., Uddin, M. M., de Jong, P., Struik, P. and Stomph,

T. J. (2018)."Reducing damping-off problems in eggplant

(Solanum melongena L.): A participatory testing of nursery

management in Bangladesh," Crop Protection, vol. 112, pp. 177-

186

Nahar, N., Islam, R., Uddin, M. M., de Jong, P., Struik, P. and Stomph,

T. J. (2019). "Disease management in eggplant (Solanum

melongena L.) nurseries also reduces wilt and fruit rot in

subsequent plantings: A participatory testing in Bangladesh,"

Crop Protection, vol. 120, pp. 113-124.

OVPAA-UP. (2016). A Statement of Support for the Resumption of

Research and Development and Field Testing of Bt Eggplant in

the Philippines Under the New DOST-DA-DENRDOH-DILG Joint

Department Circular No. 1, Series of 2016. Retrieved Febraury

9, 2019, from Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs -

University of the Philippines: http://ovpaa.up.edu.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2016/05/PAASE_Support_Statement_April_2

016A5.pdf

Pal, N. and Pal, S. (1993). "A review on image segmentation

techniques," Pattern Recognition, vol. 26, no. 9, pp. 1277-1294.

Pande, S., Sharma, M., Mangla, U. N., Ghosh, R. and Sundaresan, G.

(2011). "Phytophthora blight of Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.)

Millsp.]: An updating review of biology, pathogenicity and

disease management," Crop Protection, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 951-

957.

PSA. (2018). Major Crops Statistics of the Philippines - Regional and

Provincial. Retrieved February 5, 2019, from Philippine Statistics

Authority:

https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Major%20Vegetables%2

0and%20Rootcrops%20Quarterly%20Bulletin%2C%20April-

June%202018_1.pdf

Pujari, J., Yakkundimath, R., & Byadgi, A. (2014). Image Processing

Based Detection of Fungal Diseases in Plants. International

Conference in Information and Communication Technologies

(pp. 1802-1808). Elsevier.

Sabrol, H., & Kumar, S. (2015). Recent Studies of Image and Soft

Computing Techniques for Plant Disease Recognition and

Classification. International Journal of Computer Applications,

126(1), 44-55.

scrumalliance. (n.d.). OVERVIEW OF THESCRUM FRAMEWORK.

Retrieved May 5, 2019, from Scrum Alliance:

https://www.scrumalliance.org/ScrumRedesignDEVSite/media

/ScrumAllianceMedia/Files%20and%20PDFs/Agile%20Resource

s/S_OverviewofScrumFrame_1.pdf

Shorten, C., & Khoshgoftaar, T. (2019). A survey on Image Data

Augmentation for Deep Learning. Journal of Big Data, 1-48.

doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-019-0197-0

Singh, V., & Misra, A. (2017). Detection of plant leaf diseases using

image segmentation and soft computing techniques.

INFORMATION PROCESSING IN AGRICULTURE, 41-49.

Sladojevic, S., Arsenovic, M., Anderla, A., Culibrk, D., & Stefanovic, D.

(2016). Deep Neural Networks Based Recognition of Plant

Diseases by Leaf Image Classification. Computational

Intelligence and Neuroscience, 1-11.

Solberg, S., Taher, D., Prohens, J., Chou, Y.-y., Rakha, M., & Wu, T.-h.

(2017). World Vegetable Center Eggplant Collection: Origin,

Composition, Seed Dissemination and Utilization in Breeding.

Frontiers in Plant Science, 8(1484), 1-12.

Statista. (2018). Eggplant production in the Philippines from 2011 to

2016. Retrieved February 9, 2019, from Statista:

https://www.statista.com/statistics/752222/philippineseggplant-production/

Sun, C., Mao, S. L., Zhang, Z. H., Palloix, A., Wang, L. H. and Zhang, B.

X. (2015). "Resistances to anthracnose (Colletotrichum

acutatum) of Capsicum mature green and ripe fruit are

controlled by a major dominant cluster of QTLs on chromosome

P5," Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 181, pp. 81-88.

Sylvester, G. (2015). Success Stories on Information and

Communication Technologies for Agriculture and Rural

Development. Bangkok: Food and Agriculture Organization of

the United Nations.

Taher, D., Solberg, S., Prohens, J., Chou, Y.-y., Rakha, M., & Wu, T.-h.

(2017). World Vegetable Center Eggplant Collection: Origin,

Composition, Seed Dissemination and Utilization in Breeding.

Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 1-12. Retrieved from doi:

10.3389/fpls.2017.01484

Tete, T., & Kamlu, S. (2017). Plant Disease Detection Using Different

Algorithms. Proceedings of the Second International

Conference on Research in Intelligent and Computing in

Engineering, 10, pp. 103-106. Gopeshwar.

Verma, T., & Dubey, S. (2017). Paddy Disease Recognition using

Image Processing and Radial basis Function Network. Indian

Journal of Science and Technology, 10(46), 1-17.

Walliser, J. (2014). 9 Diseases Killing Your Eggplant. Retrieved April

10, 2019, from Hobby Farms: https://www.hobbyfarms.com/9-

diseases-killing-your-eggplant-4/

Wesely, A., & Faminow, M. (2014, December). Background Paper:

Research and Development and Extension Services in

Agriculture and Food Security. Retrieved January 28, 2019, from

Asian Development Bank:

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/151701/e

wp-425.pdf

WorldBank. (2018). Employment in Agriculture. Retrieved January

27, 2019, from The World Bank:

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS?context

ual=default&end=2018&locations=PH&start=2013&view=chart

STIGMA AND DISCRIMINATION, HEALTH-SEEKING BEHAVIORS

AMONG MOST-AT-RISK POPULATION AND PERSONS LIVING

WITH HIV/AIDS, AND CARING BEHAVIORS OF

NURSES: BASES FOR TOOL DEVELOPMENT

Janet Alexis A. De Los Santos


ABSTRACT

The study aimed to develop and validate a tool on HIV Stigma and Discrimination and

Health-Seeking Behaviors Among Persons Living with HIV and the Most-at-Risk

Population, and a tool to measure the Nurse behaviors on nurses caring for the highrisk

groups and PLHIV. The study utilized a sequential exploratory mixed-method

design. The qualitative phase utilized phenomenological inquiry on the three groups

where key informants were recruited through purposive sampling. The data

gathering was done through focus group discussion among the PLHIV participants,

and the face-to-face interview was utilized to gather data on the MARP and nurseparticipants.

The study also utilized Aesthetic integration where the participants

were asked of their understanding on the concepts through a draw-and-talk

sequence to triangulate the qualitative results of this study. Data was gathered

through the use of an audio recorder with approval from the research participants.

The transcripts were transcribed and translated into English and analyzed using a

transcendental phenomenological approach. The narratives were returned to the

informants for member checking. Three tools were devised from the narratives of

the three groups. Revisions were made as recommended by the subject matter

experts and selected participants who validated the instruments on its structure and

content. The revised instruments were field-tested using Surveymonkey, which was

sent to emails and social media accounts of qualified participants. The use of

questionnaires was also employed to gather nurse participants' profile. A total of 400

nurses, 100 PLHIV, and 100 MARP is suitable for factor analysis. The three

instruments [HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF) Scale;

Health-Seeking Behaviors of PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (HSB-PHG) Scale; and Nurse

Behaviors towards PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB-PHG) Scale] developed in this

study showed very high validity coefficients. However, the low- reliability coefficient

of the HSB-PHG Scale suggests the need for revisions and rewording of items to

improve the instrument further. The HIV SAD-HF and NB-PHG scales were able to

yield a high-reliability coefficient making these two instruments valid and reliable

measurements to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and the nurse behaviors

towards the PLHIV and high-risk groups.

Keywords: caring behavior, health-seeking behaviors, High- risk groups, HIV stigma,

nurses, PLHIV, tool development

INTRODUCTION

The concept of stigma and discrimination from various

literature illuminates the demoralizing experiences of PLHIV in

different situations including public places, workplaces, schools, and

even in hospitals.

In a public statement of UNAIDS Confronting Discrimination

conveyed how stigma, discrimination, exclusion, and inequality

increase the vulnerability of those who have been living with

HIV/AIDS for many years. With this, the PLHIV’s experience are

limited to access to health care services such as screening and testing,

preventive measures, diagnostic procedures, and other forms of

therapeutic modalities. Due to stigma and fear of discrimination,

many PLHIVs avoid seeking medical assistance, which contributes to

2.4 times more likely to delay treatment until they experience

complications (UNAIDS, 2017b).

A variety of instruments were developed in trying to

contextualize the concept of stigma and discrimination as

experienced by the HIV positive person himself.

Some measurements assess the stigma and discrimination of

the families and carers of a PLHIV, as well as the healthcare team

whose profession is dictated to provide caring and healing for

patients regardless of the contagiousness of their disease. Others

also tried to capture the attitudes and behaviors, particularly

regarding coping and responses, as well as the caring behaviors

nurses have in dealing with a PLHIV.

The cases of HIV-related stigma exist in healthcare settings

continue to cause adverse effects on the health and well-being of a

person with HIV/AIDS. Discrimination as the precursor of stigma may

come in forms of denial of services, misinformation, requiring thirdparty

authorizations for the provision of services, and lack of privacy

and confidentiality compromising the fundamental role of health

workers as patient advocates (Joint United Programme on HIV/AIDS

(UNAIDS), 2017a)

Stigma and discrimination are critical issues affecting the

efforts of the Department of Health (DOH) in the country towards

reducing the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs),

particularly HIV/AIDS. In the country, the most denouncing forms of

stigma and discrimination to a PLHIV are gossiping, verbal and

physical harassment, and exclusion in social activities. Some are

deprived of access to a job, health, and education (Trinidad, et al.,

2011). It was also found how internal stigma associated with shame

and guilt becomes more perturbing to a PLHIV when compared to a

stigma received from others.

Various studies identified the detrimental consequences of

stigma and discrimination (SAD) to the overall quality of life among

PLWHA who experienced discouragement to disclose and seek

medical attention, fear of getting tested for infection, refusal to get

counseling and other health-related services, resulting to poor health

outcomes (Sayles, et al., 2007). Furthermore, the consequences of

lack of disclosure hinder the learning of appropriate health

information and preventive measures, which leads to the widespread

uncontrolled infection predisposing the entire population to the risks

of acquiring HIV.

Eastern Visayas (Region VIII), Philippines was also not spared

with the rising incidence of HIV. Based on the new index released by

the region's Department of Health, a total of 365 persons from the

province tested positive of HIV ever since its first case way back in

1984. However, due to the paucity of evidence within the local

context that highlights the views, thoughts, perceptions, emotions,

and feelings among most-at-risk population and PLHIV, it is

imperative to the nursing profession to continuously embrace the

Nightingale Oath that respects persons’ uniqueness and

distinctiveness with a multiplicity of needs. On the other note, there

is a need for nurses to imbibe quintessential caring attributes in

caring for PLHIV to understand the real- life experiences further and

transcend those realms into more specific essences and meanings.


Stigma and discrimination are interrelated concepts where

one is existent with the other. The two concepts were assessed from

the two separate groups who can best describe as to how they

interpret the concept based on their experience and understanding.

The first group included the MARP and PLHIV, who were the

recipients of care. The nurses, on the other hand, are the second

group, being care providers.

The MARP and PLHIV were asked of their Health-seeking

behaviors and their assessment of the nurses’ caring behaviors. This

provided a more in-depth understanding of the essentiality of an

effective nurse-patient relationship as experienced by the MARP and

PLHIV. Similarly, the nurses were assessed on their lived experiences

on the concepts of stigma and discrimination among PLHIV and

MARP as well as their caring behaviors towards these groups. The

participants were made to explore if these qualities are existent in

their practice as care providers. The responses of both groups were

consolidated to form an instrument that measures HIV Stigma and

Discrimination among MARP and PLHIV.


This sequential exploratory mixed-method study aimed to

explore the experiences of stigma and discrimination and caring

behaviors of nurses with an end view of developing tool

measurements grounded on the phenomenon of interest. The

following set of research questions was utilized to guide the study to

achieve the envisioned purpose. Specifically, the following questions

were sought:

In the initial phase of the study, particularly on qualitative

exploration, the questions were:

1. How do the most-at-risk population, persons living with HIV/AIDS

and nurses view stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS from the

critical lens?

2. How do the most-at-risk population, persons living with

HIV/AIDS, describe their health-seeking behaviors from the

critical lens?

3. What are the required quintessential caring behaviors of nurses

towards the most-at-risk population and persons living with

HIV/AIDS?

4. What are the themes, categories, and descriptors definitive for

stigma/discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring

behaviors illuminated from the experiences of the most-at-risk

population, PLHIV, and nurses?

5. How do the Most-at-risk population (MARP), persons living with

HIV/AIDS, and nurses portray stigma and discrimination (SAD)

through aesthetic voice?

It is aimed to test the instruments in assessing SAD, Health

seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors. The following research

questions will be addressed in this phase:

1. What are the factors associated with stigma and discrimination,

health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors as identified in

the factor analysis of the instrument data?

2. What are the reliability scores of the instrument?

3. What is the content validity evidence scores of the instrument?

Mixed-Method Research Questions:

The results of the QUAL-QUAN Phase will be presented

through a combination guided by the question below:

1. What is the value of the qualitative component in designing the

Stigma and Discrimination, Health Seeking behaviors, and Caring

behavior instruments using mixed-method design?

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study followed an exploratory Mixed-Method approach,

specifically the sequential exploratory by Creswell and Plano Clark

(2011). A mixed-method involves the combination of pre-designed

qualitative and quantitative data collection in a single study carefully

planned by the researcher, ensuring congruence throughout the

research process (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011; Halcomb, et al.,

2009).

The sequential exploratory mixed method design is guided by

logical approaches in the collection, analysis, and integration of both

quantitative and qualitative data in a single study (Creswell and Plano

Clark, 2010). The distinct flow of this study, beginning from the

qualitative inquiry towards a quantitative approach, characterizes

the sequential exploratory design.

The steps that were observed in this design specific to this

study included:

1. Qualitative exploration;

2. Tool development, and

3. Quantitative / Psychometric testing

Qualitative Exploration:

A. Transcendental Phenomenological Inquiry

For qualitative exploration, a transcendental

phenomenological inquiry was used as it views the phenomenon of

ever-changing patterns and mechanisms that transcends overtime to

facilitate an in-depth and critical understanding of the circumstances.

The epoche "requires a new way of looking at things, a way

that requires that we learn to see what stands before our eyes, what

we can distinguish and describe" (Moustakas, 1994). Epoche is a

process where the researcher avoids preconceived biases and

understanding of the phenomenon of interest because the

experiences require new ways of looking at things.

The next stage is the transcendental-phenomenological

reduction, where "a complete description is given of its essential

constituents, variations of perceptions, thoughts, feelings, sounds,

colors, and shapes" (Moustakas, 1994) about the phenomenon of

interest.

The last stage is an imaginative variation that aims "to grasp

the fundamental essences of experience" (Moustakas, 1994). In this

stage, the researchers and participants profess a unifying synthesis

that represents the phenomenon as a form of "textural-structural

synthesis of meanings and essences of the phenomenon or

experience being investigated" (Moustakas, 1994).

B. Aesthetic Integration: Aesthetic Voice (AV)

Aesthetic integration in this research is the mixing of an

actual illustration (aesthetic expression) and the explanation of the

artist behind his creative work.

Aesthetic expression + explanation = Aesthetic voice

The aesthetic voice (AV) session is a method of gathering

data on a topic of interest. The participants, through their art

outputs, conveyed their understanding and creative expressions

through a drawing, painting, or a caricature presenting their aesthetic

expressions to give meaning to the concepts of interest.

The phenomenon of interest of the researcher – stigma and

discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors of

nurses using those selected approaches can offer a sense of direction

and clarity on specific definitive statements towards the

development of tools to measure the phenomenon under

investigation.


Description of the Sample Population

There were three qualitative samples used in Phase I of this

study. Sixteen (16) PLHIVs, five from the MARPs: Key Population -

MSM, and 17 Filipino registered nurses, or a total of 37 participants

all in all.

Sampling Technique for Phase 1

Purposive sampling was the method of sampling employed

in Phase 1 of this study. This is best defined as the deliberate

collection of data from selected sources to answer research

objectives (Gentles, et al., 2015). The sampling technique employed

in the qualitative portions was based on the selected methodological

approach, where sample size calculation is not necessary.

Hence, the selection of interview participants was done

purposefully using an intensity strategy. The target sample size is

n=15 for MARP and PLHIV and n=15 for nurses. This decision to target

this sample size is consistent with Creswell's (2013) sample size

recommendation.

Qualitative Research Locale

The study was conducted in the Eastern Visayas (Region VIII),

Philippines. The Eastern Visayas Region is composed of the Islands

Leyte, Samar and Biliran.

Instrumentation

In this part of the study, the researcher served as the main

instrument for data gathering. It was her role to conduct the

interview and the FGDs to the participants. The transcendental

phenomenological inquiry was used by the researcher to analyze the

collected data.

There were two interview instruments devised for exclusive

use for nurses and the MARP/PLHIV groups. The first interview

instrument was used during the interview with nurses. The following

concepts were covered, including experiences, thoughts, feelings,

and views on stigma and discrimination and caring behaviors towards

the MARP and PLHIV. On the other hand, the interview guide for the

MARP/PLHIV included questions on experiences, thoughts, feelings,

and views on stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS, and healthseeking

behaviors. The questionnaires were crafted using openended

questions to gather the necessary data and, at the same time,

allow for additional probing to gather additional information for

enhancement, depth, and significance. The researcher provided art

materials for the AV session.


1. After the study has been reviewed and approved by the SPUP

dissertation committee, the researcher submitted the paper for

institutional approval by the SPUP Graduate School Dean.

2. After securing the approval from the graduate school dean, the

issuance of an endorsement from an ethics review board (ERB)

was applied by the researcher. As soon as clearance from the ERB

was received, the researcher proceeded to the three HIV

treatment hubs (Eastern Visayas Regional Medical Center,

Hilongos District Hospital and Ormoc City Health Office) and

personally discussed with the administration the intention to

conduct the research and conferred its importance, thus,

received an administrative clearance.

3. However, upon discussion, it appeared that the Ormoc City

Health Office and Hilongos District Hospital as HIV treatment

hubs are not qualified for this study primarily because the in

charge of testing and handling of patients is not a nurse but a

physician. The researcher decided to focus the collection for

nurse-participants in Eastern Visayas Regional Medical Center

(an HIV treatment hub) and added Divine Word Hospital. Divine

Word Hospital is the largest private tertiary teaching and training

hospital in Region VIII and could also care for patients with HIV

and AIDS.

4. The researcher was requested by both private and government

hospitals to present a capstone proposal of the research

highlighting the purpose, objectives, and the data gathering

procedure of the study. The forum was held in the nursing service

office with the nursing administrators as the audience. The

researcher was granted a clearance to conduct the study in their

respective nursing units after intensive discussion with the

nursing heads. A subsequent endorsement was forwarded to

their respective Institutional Review Board (IRB) for a thorough

ethical review, which the researcher was subjected to present

and propose in front of the board for questions that required

immediate answers.

5. After discussion with the IRBs of the hospital was done, the

researcher proceeded to data collection soon after receiving the

permit to conduct the study.

6. Before every session, the researcher underwent a bracketing

process to avoid preconceived ideas, misconceptions,

misunderstandings, and biases about the phenomenon of

interest that will be discussed with the participants. The

researcher wrote down in a specific journal, the inferences,

feelings, thoughts, and psycho- emotive references. This process

refers to epoche, as suggested by Moustakas (1994).

7. The researcher prepared three sets of Participant Information

Sheets, which were provided to the nurse, PLHIV, and MARP

groups. The information sheet was presented to all participants

of this study to certify that their participation is voluntary and

that they were informed of the details of the study and their roles

and expectations. The participants were informed that an audio

recorder would be used during the interview to facilitate the data

recording.

For nurses, the researcher approached each key informant

individually. The researcher oriented the selected participants with

the study and obtained their approval to join as an informant. Using

the semi-structured questionnaire, the researcher asked questions

on the nurses' lived experience in caring for a PLHIV and MARP. They

were asked how they perceive the concepts of stigma discrimination

and their caring behaviors toward a MARP/PLHIV.

For MARP participants, both the individual and group MARP

sessions started with securing informed consent. Each of them was

informed on what the study is about, and the voluntary role they will

do as a participant.

For PLHIVs, the researcher, with the help of the support

group leaders, gathered their members in a conference room in one

of the beach resorts in Tacloban. The researcher had a preliminary

discussion with the leaders regarding the intention and purpose of

the study. The researcher emphasized the need for PLHIV volunteers

who are willing to discuss their lived experience of stigma and

discrimination in the health care setting and if these leaders can

recruit their members who will agree to participate. On the day of

the scheduled FGD, the researcher introduced herself and discussed

to the group the intention and purpose of the study. Informed

consent was secured after the participants have unanimously

understood and agreed to participate in the FGD.

Data Analysis

The transcriptions underwent the reading and rereading

process to identify embossed patterns that emerged from the data

relevant to the concept of stigma, discrimination, health-seeking

behaviors, and caring behaviors. Each transcribed data was

coded/indexed and named according to the corresponding concept.

The researcher used an eclectic coding method with a repertoire of

values and emotions codes.

The codes were grouped and clustered into one, along with

the other narratives sharing the same thought or meaning. The

researcher reviewed the similarities and dissimilarities of the

codes/transcripts and selected the highly relevant codes and

categorized them into sections or themes. The themes were then

analyzed in terms of their interconnections between and among the

other concepts in this study. Qualitative content and thematic

analysis were the appropriate approaches in analyzing the qualitative

data that were gathered in this study because it used a systematic

process of coding, finding meaning, and thematization in order to

describe a concept in a social context (Alhojailan and Ibrahim, 2012;

Vaismoradi, et al., 2013).

A variation was performed by initiating the analysis with

overarching themes to facilitate a thematic, and cohesive description

of the participants' lived experiences. This strategy was also useful

for item development of the instruments/tools to measure the

concepts Stigma and Discrimination, Health-Seeking behaviors, and

Caring behaviors, which are the ultimate purpose of this study.

Using the output from the interviews and AV, the researcher

illuminated the individual textual-structural analysis of each lived

experience of a participant. The imaginative variation through the

textual-structural synthesis of the essences and meanings was

utilized to described the lived experiences of the nurses, MARP, and

PLHIV.

In conducting qualitative research, it is imperative to adhere

to the quality criteria set in conducting qualitative research, which

includes (1) Credibility, (2) Transferability, (3) Dependability, (4)

Confirmability, and (5) Reflexivity (Korstjens and Moser, 2017). In

doing this, the researcher ensured that all participants in the study

are the most qualified to provide credible information in order to

strengthen the confidence and credibility or trustworthiness of the

results.

Triangulation through the use of Aesthetic Voice as another

methodological approach in enhancing data collection hastened the

trustworthiness of this research. Furthermore, credibility is ensured

because the participants scored the validity of the developed

instrument. Transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the

data were achieved by ensuring the richness of data through

saturation following the acceptable standards of data analysis

without the bias from the researcher.

Taking down of own reflexive notes relevant to the

encounter with the interviewees and thoughts during the process of

data gathering was a means to maintain self-awareness of the

researcher, which minimized biases and wrong interpretation of the

gathered data.

Tool Development

The preliminary qualitative products of phase 1 were

integrated into the tool development or instrument building phase of

the study. Specifically, the tool development consisted of two steps:

1) the transcripts and other qualitative findings were utilized as a

guide in the item development of the instruments to assess stigma

and discrimination, health-seeking behaviors of the PLHIV and MARP,

and the caring behaviors of nurses towards the MARP and PLHIV, and

2) pilot testing of the tools.

Face and Content Validity of the Instruments

The researcher lifted transcripts from the overarching

themes of the participants’ interview results and utilized them as

items for tool development. The researcher meticulously selected

the embossed transcripts and removed those with similar content

and meaning so that unique items were added to the list on the tool

being developed. The researcher was able to develop three tools,

namely: (1) HIV Stigma and Discrimination in health facilities (HIV

SAD-HF) Questionnaire; (2) Health-seeking behaviors among PLHIV

and high-risk groups (HSB-PHG) Questionnaire; and (3) Caring

behaviors of nurses among PLHIV and high-risk groups (CBN-PHG)

Questionnaire.

The initial instruments were validated by participant

volunteers, experts in the field of instrument development, and

nursing experts, particularly those with backgrounds on HIV and AIDS

and Caring.

The analysis for Content Validity Index (CVI) was performed

by using a checklist where the participants can indicate their level of

agreement or disagreement using a three-point scoring on the

relevance of entries in the newly formulated HIV SAD-HF

Questionnaire; (2)HSB-PHG Questionnaire, and the (3) CBN-PHG

Questionnaire. They were made to validate by agreeing or

disagreeing with the entries provided in the tool using a 3-point scale

on the relevance and criticality of each statement found in the

proposed instrument.

Psychometric Testing

Data Gathering Procedure for Quantitative Phase

The quantitative data collection consisted of the following

procedure: 1) recruit a larger sample of different individuals

(MARP/PLHIV and Nurses caring for MARP and PLHIV), and 2)

administer the instrument. The researcher followed the five

responses per item guideline consistent for factorial analysis (De

Vellis, 2012). Gutterman (2015) suggests that if the tool produces 34

Likert-type response items, the minimum target sample size of 170

responses must be allowed for adequate analysis (Gutterman, 2015).

For this study, the researcher was able to yield more than the

targeted number of samples.

1. Recruitment and Sampling of Participants for Quantitative Phase.

To facilitate the recruitment of large samples, the researcher

opted to conduct the survey via Surveymonkey. A snowball

method of participant selection was done for the three groups.

Details on the recruitment per group are discussed as follow:

Nurses. The recruitment of nurses was done in different

strategies. Initially, the researcher approached her nurse friends to

answer the online link, which afterward was forwarded to other

nurses in their workstations.

MARP and PLHIV. The use of random sampling to get the

participants among the MARP and PLHIV groups is not possible

because they are socially closeted. Snowballing was the best method

to arrive at the desired number of participants in this study.

SurveyMonkey application was the method of choice to facilitate the

collection. The online link to the questionnaire was forwarded to the

different HIV support groups, HIV treatment hubs, and other similar

advocacy groups visible online. Using her Facebook and Twitter

accounts, the researcher personally asked permission from

individuals who have disclosed as HIV+ or into MSM and other risky

sexual behaviors to participate in the study. The researcher also

asked referrals from the participants from their social circle.

Aside from their consent to participate, the researcher set

several inclusion criteria for both MARP and PLHIV. The inclusion

criteria set for the MARP include: (1) of legal age; (2)has a history or

on current high-risk sexual practice such as unprotected sex, multiple

sex partners, transactional sex, or use of injectable prohibited drugs;

(3) has a history of consultations with a health care facility related to

complaints of reproductive or sexual health. The inclusion criteria for

PLHIV are: (1) of legal age, (2) diagnosed as HIV+ through HIV testing.

The PLHIV support groups operating in the country were contacted

and oriented with the study. The researcher requested the group for

assistance in reaching to their members to participate in filling out

the online questionnaire

Data Analysis for Quantitative Phase

The Stata version 15 software was used to facilitate the

quantitative analysis of the instrument measurement model. Analysis

of the measurement model consisted of three procedures:

A. Descriptive statistics. Using frequency and percentage was used

for the validity attributes of the tools.

A.1. Face Validity

As defined, face validity is the characteristic of an instrument

to be relevant and fit for the targeted population. It involves the

critical review of a particular instrument. (Arafat et al.,2016).

In this study, the researcher returned to the participants

(MARP AND PLHIV) and presented the final tool for their comments,

especially on the relevancy, clarity, and appropriateness of the item

included in the tool. Based on the response received by the

researcher, the general instructions and all items included in the

devised tool were understandable, hence, demonstrating

appropriate face validity.

In order to achieve a concrete face validity of the devised

instrument, the researcher returned to the participants and opted to

consult from the panel of subject matter experts (SME) personally

and via email. The tools were forwarded to experts in the field of

nursing science, caring behaviors, HIV/AIDS care, research

instrumentation, statistics, and the English language.

The experts were asked to comment on the structure and

organization of the instrument, as well as the appropriateness of item

statements included in the tool.

A.2. Content Validity

Content validity was used to assess the content validity of the

instruments: (1) HIV Stigma and Discrimination in health facilities

(HIV SAD-HF) Questionnaire; (2) Health-seeking behaviors among

PLHIV and high-risk groups (HSB-PHG) Questionnaire; and (3) Caring

behaviors of nurses towards PLHIV and high-risk groups (CBN-PHG)

Questionnaire. The experts were asked to evaluate each item of the

instrument using the following scale:

1 - not representative: may be deleted

2 - somewhat representative: may be included

3 - entirely representative: must be included

The Content Validity Index of items (I-CVI) and Content

Validity Index of the scale (S-CVI) were computed respectively,

guided by the protocol observed by Rodrigues, Adachi, Beattie, and

MacDermid (2017). The I-CVI was computed by determining the

number of experts who scored 3 (entirely representative: must be

included) on an item divided by the total number of experts. The I-

CVI was scored following the standard where the values range from

0 to 1. An I-CVI > 0.79, the item is considered relevant. For values

between 0.70 and 0.79, the item needs revisions and will be revised

on its second version, and if the value is below 0.70, the item is

eliminated. The S-CVI was computed following the Average S-CVI

computation. This is performed by summing up the I-CVI, divided by

the total number of items. A value of S-CVI (Ave) of ≥ 0.9 indicates

excellent content validity.

B. Factor Analysis

The researcher referred to two separate tests to determine

the adequacy of the samples before Factor analysis. The Kaiser-

Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test of sphericity were utilized

to assess the appropriateness. The KMO test ranges from 0-10. All

indices greater than five is considered acceptable. Bartlett's test with

a significance of (p<.05) is considered adequate for factor analysis.

C. Internal consistency reliability evaluation using coefficient alpha

(Cronbach, 1951)

The scales HIV SAD-HF, HSB-PHG, and CBN-PHG underwent a

reliability test. The researcher set a standard of acceptability of the

scale using the value coefficient of 0.8. A more detailed explanation

of the analysis was presented in the results section of this paper.

Mixed-Method Integration

The results on both quantitative and qualitative phases

underwent final merging integration through a joint display (Fetters

et al., 2013) to determine congruence and divergence of both results.

A. Qualitative Findings


Composite Textural-Structural Description of PLHIV lived experience

of Stigma and Discrimination

Persons living with HIV hold a variety of experiences where

their profound feelings towards themselves, towards others, and life

are deeply rooted. One of the challenges common to a newly

diagnosed PLHIV is their body's response to the ARV medication. The

ordeal of physical reactions and other undesirable side effects, which

include lack of appetite, nausea and vomiting, itchiness,

hypersensitive skin reactions, and behavioral changes are reported.

The multitude of feelings toward themselves includes feelings of

regret on the risky behaviors they did on their younger self. Most of

the PLHIVs interviewed were aware of their risks of getting infected

because of unprotected sex with multiple partners met through

online dating sites and other transactional sex opportunities that are

readily available. However, some were plain "victims of love,"

engaging in unprotected sex with their partner who hid their HIV

status from them.

The reality of being a newly diagnosed PLHIV is a complicated

process of self-acceptance. Initially, there is a surge of complex

negative feelings towards self, such as self-stigma, denial, misery,

anguish, hate, self-loathing, self-pity, discouragement, helplessness,

hopelessness, isolation, confusion, hate, vengeance, torment, and

may lead to suicidal ideation. This will be followed by their feelings

towards others, with them being the core of sorrow. Worrying on

how others (family, friends, and community) might think of them is

where feelings on the fear of rejection and abandonment set in.

A multitude of feelings is experienced by a PLHIV when

relating to others. Most of them felt stigmatized at the time they

were diagnosed as HIV+ while admitted to the hospital. Apart from

self-stigma, they felt demoralized by some of the behaviors and

attitudes of their care providers. Some have even experienced

gender discrimination.

There are several ways a PLHIV copes with his new life.

Health-seeking behaviors such as submitting for a health check-up in

a health facility, self-medication; information-seeking through

internet research and reading of articles related to HIV; asking from

a friend who has the knowledge, and consulting a doctor are few of

their activities.

Self-forgiveness is the key to the formation of the different

coping behaviors in a PLHIV. Some PLHIVs were able to achieve selfforgiveness

before receiving the acceptance of their family. However,

most of them gained the forgiveness and understanding of their

families before their self-acceptance. Family serves as a motivation

and a source of strength in redeeming their self-worth.

Based on the narratives of the PLHIV participants, the

researcher was able to draw the key manifestations and root causes

of their self-stigma. The root causes are (1) Lack of support, (2) Selfcondemnation,

and (3) Disease process. The three (3) key

manifestations are lifted from the influence of these three sources. It

is believed that the interaction of these three sources results in the

manifestations of self- stigma.

There are five structures identified in the lived experience of

a PLHIV. They include the structure of causality, time, self, and others.

The structure of causality pertains to the different sources of

stigma and discrimination. Generally, stigma can be retracted from

the environment and the self. The self can be a source of stigma.

Anxiety and fear of rejection or anticipatory grief-preconceived

rejection are the root causes of self-stigma. On the other hand, the

environment where the PLHIV socialized may refer to their friends,

neighbors, and even their own families. Unfortunately, the Philippine

culture today does not still understand HIV. Perhaps this situation is

because of the stigma that connotes sexual promiscuity in HIV as a

disease.

The structure of bodily concern pertains to the bodily

responses to the course of the disease and the ARV therapy. Most of

the PLHIV were diagnosed late, which was why most were diagnosed

during hospitalization when they have already manifested the

presence of opportunistic infections.

Most of the PLHIVs are conscious of their health. As HIV

patients, they are prone to acquiring infections, which is why they

need to maintain optimum health condition. This condition may

include adherence to ARV treatment, exercise, a healthy diet,

multivitamin supplementation, and refusing alcohol, smoke, and

other vices and stress-inducing activities.

It also appears that being gay (especially overt) can be a

source of discrimination. Most of the PLHIVs (gay) experienced being

presumed as an HIV+ patient even before testing positive.

The structure of time pertains to the process of acceptance.

Most of the PLHIVs find it hard to reach this phase because of the lack

of support system. This process is especially true when they are still

experiencing physical weakness because of their body's response to

their illness and their therapy.

However, it is noteworthy how a PLHIV starts to believe in

themselves and regain self-reliance upon reaching good health. Selflove

leads to self-acceptance, and self-acceptance leads to the

acceptance of others.

The structure of the self is multifaceted. Common to PLHIV is

self-stigma. They blame themselves and considers HIV as a

punishment for their bad behaviors. They isolate themselves as a

means of protection out of fear of being tagged as a person with HIV.

Being able to resolve trust issues with own self and others is the main

ingredient towards readiness for acceptance and moving on. The self

must be able to take courage to adjust to a new life. The self must be

able to gain enough motivation and strength in picking up himself,

realizing, living, and believing.

The structure of others refers to the different persons

involved in a PLHIVs social circle. This may include their support

system - family, friends, and their neighborhood; their employer;

their school; and the health care team (the hospital staff, doctors,

and nurses). This structure may have two different effects on a PLHIV.

Either a source of discrimination or a means of motivation. Most of

the experiences point that the structure of others is a source of

stigma, rejection, and discrimination.

From these structures, the researcher was able to find the

meaning and essence of the participants' experience of HIV stigma

and discrimination. Ultimately, a PLHIV yearns for acceptance. In

order to reach the goal of acceptance, a PLHIV must be able to

achieve a task per structure.

The dictates of culture, norms, and religion may be factors of

reluctance, yet these are necessary towards the achievement of selfforgiveness

and acceptance. Second, is the structure of time, which

pertains to the waiting period until full recuperation of mind, body,

and spirit is achieved. Third, is the structure of the self, referring to

the individuals' motivation. Self-efficacy is essential to be developed

by a PLHIV. There must be willingness to move on, and by doing so, it

requires the desire to help and uplift himself. Another structure is

bodily concern. It pertains to the individual's behaviors to reach

optimum health and well-being. To do this, a PLHIV must be able to

achieve appropriate health-seeking behaviors and maintain a healthy

lifestyle.

A PLHIV must be able to resolve issues relating to gender and

sexuality through self-confidence and by practicing moral

uprightness. Furthermore, the last is the structure of others. This

refers to the greatest extent of society. Institutionalizing social justice

through equitability leads to acceptance.

Composite Textural-Structural Description of the MARPs' Lived

Experience of Stigma and Discrimination

The lived experience of the MARP (Key population: MSM) on

stigma and discrimination is rooted in their self-awareness of the risk

of having the disease. This negative impact may be due to the risky

sexual behaviors which are done in the past, that have predisposed

them to the possibility of acquiring the virus. Sexual behaviors,

especially the unprotected multiple sex encounters and infidelity are

the common basis of the risks.

Negative feelings are widespread, especially when ruled with

a conscience in times of bodily weakness and sickness. They are guilt

feelings, self-blame, feeling disturbed, and anxiety before knowing

their HIV status. It is also prevalent among MARP to feel afraid of a

positive result with the thought that they may be rejected by their

families, friends, and the community. This fear is a common reason

hindering a high-risk person from submitting for an HIV test.

Remarkably, the majority of the MARP are eager to submit for testing

because of the desire to know their status.

The health sector-related concerns are divided into two

opposite behaviors - caring and stigmatizing. Pre-testing counseling

was deemed helpful by the MARP. Communicating with them during

the extraction process aids in making them feel more relaxed, less

tense, and provides a sense of hope, mainly that they are guided on

what to do if in case the results will reveal positive. However,

negative behaviors such as gender discrimination, lack of privacy, and

breach of confidentiality, and lack of caring approach also exist in the

health care providers.

From the narratives shared by the MARP participants, the

researcher was able to identify two responses to risk awareness of a

MARP. The MARP's feelings and behaviors rely on his initial

perception of the risks. If he continues to deny his risks, chances are

that his behaviors will be in discord. It means that, he persists doing

high-risk behaviors until such time there will be a run of conscience,

making him feel uneasy. These feelings primarily may come in the

form of guilt and paranoia.

The common structures found in the lived experience of a

MARP are structures of the self, time, and others.

The structure of self pertains to the different sexual

behaviors that have made them susceptible to acquiring the virus.

Self- awareness of the chances or possibly having the virus served as

the driving force of a MARP to submit for a check, especially when he

is accompanied by a friend. This finding is unique because the

motivation was derived from a friend and not from a family member.

A multitude of negative feelings was likewise taking control

of the self, especially before and during the actual testing. Feelings

transcend from self-doubt, self-blame, anxiety, discouragement,

paranoia until they are told of a negative result. Only then, when

feelings of relief sets in. The structure of time pertains to how the

present society becomes lax and lenient to sexual promiscuity. The

influence of social media and access to the internet has transformed

connectivity much more comfortable with a potential sex partner

right at the fingertips.

The structure of others pertains to the people that MARP

interacts with. This structure includes their family and friends and the

health care workers. Based on the experience of the MARP, these

people can be a source of motivation or a source of stigma and

discrimination.

Composite Textural-Structural Description of Nurses’ Behaviors in

Caring for High-Risk Patients and PLHIV

The majority of nurses during their lived experience in caring

for persons with HIV were brimming with different feelings and

behavior. A dichotomy between positive feelings and negative

feelings can be seen in their interaction with their clients. The

positive feelings and behaviors include the feelings of fulfillment,

empathy, trust, concern, respect, open-mindedness, enthusiasm,

humor, compassion, excitement, sensitivity, self-care, connecting,

seeking guidance, mentoring, and the development of the clinical

eye. On the other hand, negative feelings felt by the nurses include

stigma, fear, anxiety, self-doubt, hesitation, refusing to care, lack of

confidence to care, misinterpretation, non-disclosure, gender bias,

unsatisfied nursing role, paternalism, and exhaustion.

The nurses value these feelings as part of their adjustment

process to the work role they are in. They are aware of how and why

reactions of stigma and discrimination may take over their feelings

initially. Along the course of their care and interactions with these

clients, they have realized how their caring behaviors evolved from

negative to positive.

Their lived experience of confronting conflicting feelings

while working with PLHIV made them realize the essentiality of

nursing as a profession of caring. By reorienting them back to their

oath, that is to take care of patients regardless of disease conditions,

nurses were able to realize the importance of their roles in reducing

HIV stigma and discrimination in the workplace. The breadth of the

narratives provided by the nurses was able to provide a picture of

what transpires in the thoughts, views, attitudes, and behaviors of

nurses as they portray their roles as care providers.

There are six structures evident in the lived experience of HIV

stigma among nurses caring for patients with HIV. The structure of

causality for their caring behaviors has been identified by the nurses

in their lived experience in caring for PLHIVs, which includes several

facets. They are preconceived feelings (Stigma) towards HIV, which

may result in outward manifestations of discrimination towards the

person. The misconceptions may be a result of the lack of experience

in caring and feelings of inadequacies that leads to fear. Nurses have

identified how their behaviors are reciprocated by their patients

accordingly.

Several nurses have linked the lack of full disclosures of HIV

status as one of the causes of their stigma to their patients. They

believed full disclosures are helpful in the success of the patientnurse

working relationship. When feelings of apprehension are

minimized, nurses are better able to prepare themselves on the

approach they will utilize in caring for the patient and their family.

This situation could only happen if the patient has fully disclosed his

HIV status to the health care team.

Time and Space structures were ubiquitous in the lived

experience of nurses. These structures relate to the amount of

experience and interactions they made with a PLHIV. Nurses believe

that their behaviors toward a PLHIV are a result of their preparedness

in caring for them. The more prepared they are, the more competent

they feel, and the better caring behaviors they provide. It is related

to the structure of ‘self’.

The structure of relation to self includes two aspects of the

lived experience of nurses. First, this structure relates to their

confidence and competency to care. Another facet found from the

nurses’ lived experience is on how they put a value on nursing as a

profession.

The structure of relation to others has several facets. These

facets are identified as another ground of the nurses' behaviors

based on their lived experience. The first facet is the health care

workers. Health workers interact not only with the team but more

importantly with the patient. Second are the patients’ families who,

at times, may be considered as a hindrance, especially when they are

uninformed of their family members’ HIV status. The third facet is the

colleagues. Co-nurses are crucial to the success of the care team.

Through mentoring and teamwork, senior nurses offer guidance to

their junior nurses by boosting their confidence. Moreover, all nurses

agree on the importance of open communication, mentoring, and

teamwork in the delivery of patient care.

Another structure is the bodily concern which is a typical

structure found in the lived experience of these nurses. Most of these

nurses had an initial intense fear of blood, secretions, and

communicable infections from HIV/AIDS patients. They are

concerned about being infected with the virus and rationalize this

behavior as a precautionary safety measure in acquiring the disease.

In addition, the structure of materiality on the use of PPE may

sometimes be excessive, especially among the first encounters.

However, there is a noticeable change when they have been used to

caring for these types of patients which is usually observed during

their third encounter and onwards.

Views on stigma and discrimination on HIV/AIDS from the critical

lens of MARP, PLHIV and Nurses

The conducted interviews and focus group discussions with

the three groups facilitated the collection of the qualitative data,

which were analyzed using transcendental phenomenological

reduction.

In answer to this question, the groups view HIV/AIDS stigma

and discrimination as:

MARP

The lived experience of stigma and discrimination among the

MARP sector is one filled with self-directed negative feelings and

association of their gender toward HIV. The awareness of their risk is

the deciding factor for a MARP to subject for HIV screening and

testing. A MARP needs to go through the process of self-admission

(through Self) that they are at risk and resolve their self-stigma (on

the risk of a possible contraction of HIV) before the testing. For

MARPS, they consider friends rather than family as their confidant

during this period of uncertainty while submitting themselves for an

HIV test.

The surge of negative emotions occurs during the actual

submission for testing and this negativity includes feelings of guilt,

self-blame, anxiety, shame, fear of rejection, and even paranoia.

Intersecting on this period are the feelings derived from the

environment. A MARP who tested negative or non-reactive to the HIV

tests remarkably develops positive attitudes in heeding the call to be

advocates on the promotion of HIV screening and safe sexual

practices to combat the incidence of the disease.

PLHIV

The lived experience of stigma and discrimination of a person

living with HIV is one filled with negative emotions and hard life’s

lessons. The complexity of negative feelings being experienced is

because of a variety of sources where stigma can be culled - the self,

family, friends, society, school, workplaces, and even in health care

settings. These sources can be considered as either an inducer or a

deterrent to the experience of stigma.

The sources of stigma are intertwined with the process of

coping. For a PLHIV to cope well with his/her illness, a well- defined

support system must be present. Coping may be a convoluted

process but rather an essentiality that must be experienced by a

person living with HIV as he/she goes through the process of selfforgiveness

and self-acceptance.

Nurses

The lived experience of nurses in caring for suspected and

confirmed HIV+ patients is filled with a multitude of positive and

negative feelings sourced from the self, from the HIV+ patient,

patients’ family, and with the health care team.

Nurses believe that this negative feeling toward PLHIVs is an

initial reaction and is also temporary. Nurses believe that exposure

and having hands-on opportunity to care (Time and Space) for them

contribute in building up their confidence and reducing their stigma.

Moreover, nurses can understand that their stigma towards these

patients is due to their preconceived thoughts and feelings towards

HIV, most especially if they have no experience in seeing and caring

for one.

Nonetheless, once a nurse can resolve his/her initial negative

feelings, a surge of positive feelings take over. Besides, a nurse

becomes more open-minded, fulfilled, and he/she develops the

quintessential caring behavior and amiable attitude towards this

sector.

Health-seeking behaviors from the critical lens of MARP and PLHIVs

MARP

A MARP considers health-seeking behavior as their response

in times when they are in doubt with their bodies. Their awareness

of high-risk sexual behaviors makes a MARP feel that a body ailment

is related to HIV. The health-seeking behavior for a MARP is a means

of coping in trying to cure or at least reduce a physical illness

‘perceived as HIV’. Initially, denial (as a destructive health behavior)

is evident for a MARP before health-seeking behaviors.

PLHIV

For a PLHIV, health-seeking behavior is achieved after

destructive health behaviors. It is prevalent for a PLHIV to have a

history of denying the need for medical attention. He/she neglects

his/her body and continues with his/her usual high-risk routines until

such time his/her body can no longer fight the infection.

Remarkably, there is a change in health-seeking behavior

after being diagnosed as a PLHIV. This person shows eagerness in

keeping himself to become healthy physically, mentally, and

spiritually, and complies with his/her therapies.

The quintessential caring behaviors of nurses towards the most-atrisk

populations and persons living with HIV

The quintessential caring behaviors towards most-at-risk

population and persons living with HIV/AIDS are the following:

Altruism. It refers to the act of selflessness. This may also

refer to the act of being sensitive and taking the risk for the patient.

Compassion. It refers to the act of showing kindness and

thoughtfulness to a suffering person. These are acts related to

listening, supporting, empathizing, and showing concern to patients.

Confidence. It refers to a disposition to act with credence and

being certain to perform a task.

Connecting. It refers to an act that initiates communication

with another. These acts are related to reaching out to patients,

forming friendships, creating connections, and communicating.

Generosity. it refers to the willingness to offer help and

support. It also refers to the act of sharing.

Humor. It refers to the ability to make things amusing. It

entails removing oneself away from stressful situation.

Mentoring. It refers to teaching a younger colleague on how

to go about a situation. It entails offering guidance on performing

tasks or procedures where a colleague is not deemed competent.

Nondiscrimination. It refers to the act of impartial, unbiased,

and non-prejudiced approach to a patient.

Presence. It refers to the act of offering the self to the patient

which includes being there for the patient, and showing interest or

engagement.

Professional Competence. It refers to the ability to perform a

task or duties with ease and quality. It may refer to the application of

learning, composure, competence, teamwork, and professionalism.

Self-Preservation. It refers to the act of protecting the self

into something that poses a threat or harm. It may refer to

mindfulness, taking caution, and caring for the self.

Themes, categories, and descriptors definitive for stigma,

discrimination, health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors

illuminated from the experiences of the most-at-risk population,

PLHIV, and Nurses

In answer to this research question, the researcher opted to

present the findings using a table to present organized data. The

table presents the themes, categories and description of Stigma and

Discrimination as defined by the PLHIV and MARP, followed by the

health-seeking behaviors, and caring behaviors of nurses.

Table 1

Summary of Themes, Categories, and Description of the Key Variables

of the Study

Stigma and Discrimination (PLHIV)

Themes Categories Description

Negative

Facets

Sources of

Coping

Discrimination in the

Family

Discrimination in the

Society

Intense Negative Feelings

(Self)

High-Risk Behaviors

Spirituality (God)

This negative facet is the most

dominant form of discrimination

experienced by the PLHIVs. They

are acts of disownment,

ostracization, rejection, and

violence from their family

members.

The social discrimination includes

the deprivation of the right to

education, reduced employment

opportunities, gossips, lost

friendships, breach of

confidentiality, and bullying, which

may not only be experienced by

the PLHIV but may often include

their family members and relatives

to experience the same.

It is the multitude of feelings

experienced by a PLHIV. The

feeling comes in the form of denial,

misery, regret, hurt, fear of

rejection and abandonment,

neglecting self, feeling crazy, selfblame,

hopelessness, stigma,

losing confidence, depression,

dispiritedness, self- loathing,

disheartenment, worthlessness,

hate, vengeance, mistrust,

dejection, battling alone, isolation

and suicidal ideation.

PLHIVs believe their HIV is a result

of their high-risk behaviors in the

past, as most of them engaged in

unprotected and multiple sex

partners.

In the absence of their family, the

participants consider God as their

ultimate source of hope and

strength.

Health Care

System

Needs *

(*illuminated

through the

AV)

Family

Friends

Co-PLHIVs

Self

Health Care Personnel

Health Facility

Protection of human

rights, Openmindedness

of other

people, Love, Help,

Unity, Equality, Respect,

Nonjudgement,

Acceptance

Nondiscriminatory

treatment

PLHIVs consider their family as

their source of strength and

motivation to fight their illness and

continue living life.

These people are the source of

strength of PLHIVs most especially

when they have been disowned by

their family, or in cases where they

find it hard to confide to them.

Friends represent the second

family.

PLHIVs draw strength, motivation,

and coping from their PLHIV

community. A Co- PLHIV inspires

each other in one goal - to live a

healthy and longer life.

It takes self-forgiveness and selfacceptance

to cope with illnesses

and everyday challenges.

This system refers to the effect of

health care personnel’s negative or

positive attitudes and behaviors in

decreasing HIV’s stigma and

discrimination.

It pertains to the structure, and

protocols observed in the health

care facility that is deemed as a

threat or an area of concern

among the PLHIVs and the MARP.

They include the lack of proper

system in the management of HIV

cases and on maintaining respect

for the patient’s privacy and

confidentiality.

They refer to the needs of PLHIVs

which they perceived and felt that

have been taken away from them

after learning they are HIV+.

Table 2

Summary of Themes, categories, and Description of the Key Variables

of the Study

Stigma and Discrimination

(MARP)


Awareness of

the risk of HIV

Negative

feelings

Health-Seeking

behavior

Health-sector

related issues

Positive feeling

Suggested

strategies to

improve HIV

case finding

unhealthy sexual behaviors

anxiety, nervousness, fear

of rejection, paranoia,

hesitation, doubt,

incognizance, regret, and

self- stigma.

self-medication, seeking

medical attention, selfcaring,

internet search, and

natural remedies

intention of health

personnel

Health Facility

Encouragement,

willingness, confidence,

self- awareness, relief, and

hope.

advocacy, marriage

counseling, public

awareness, family- focused

care, containing the

disease, separate care

These behaviors include highrisk

behaviors such as multiple

sex partners, inconsistent use

of condoms, infidelity, Menhaving-sex

with men, multiple

oral sex partners, and

vindictive behaviors.

These feelings refer to the

variety of negative feelings a

MARP undergoes before and

during the actual submission

for HIV testing

They are the health-seeking

behaviors exhibited by a MARP

in response to a healthrelated

concern or issue, particularly

those that are

reproductive/sexual healthrelated.

The MARP identified caring

behaviors and attitudes of

health care personnel.

However, there are

stigmatizing behaviors which

they were able to note on their

experience.

The MARP identified several

hospitals or facility policies and

structures that are

stigmatizing.

They are the positive feelings

experienced by MARPs after

knowing they are non- reactive

of HIV.

They are the identified

strategies of the MARP which

are believed to increase the

uptake of HIV screening and

testing.

Reasons for

risky sexual

behavior*

(*illuminated

through the AV)

Doing good*

(*illuminated

through the AV)

team, discreet area of

testing, and training on

handling confidentiality for

health personnel.

Alcohol intoxication, Drug

use, Money, Sexual

promiscuity Lack of

knowledge

on HIV

Giving hope, Developing a

sense of purpose, Advocacy

talks

They are the identified reasons

for the risky sexual behavior of

a MARP

They refer to the intention to

do good of MARP, after finding

out their HIV status. They are

willing to share their

experience with others who

are afraid to get tested.

Table 3


of the Study

Health-Seeking Behaviors

(PLHIV & MARP)


Adaptive

healthseeking

behaviors

Self-empowerment

They include boosting health, exercise,

healthy diet, and following treatment

regimen (taking prescribed medications)

Seeking medical

intervention

This behavior refers to the willingness of

the PLHIVs and MARPs in submitting for

a regular check-up especially when they

are feeling ill.

Seeking-God

It refers to relying on spirituality and

believing on miracles.

Self-Medication

It refers to the intake of herbal-based

products, and multiple doses of vitamins.

Information

seeking

It pertains to reading, internet search,

and watching features on HIV.

Joining Learning

Group Sessions

(PLHIV)

(mental health)

Denial

Neglecting Self

Self-isolation

This behavior refers to having a person

they can relate with who shares the

same experience. It also pertains to

maintaining communication with peers.

It is a destructive behavior that refers to

denying a physical ailment, or the need

to seek medical help.

It refers to the act of doing nothing to

alleviate a physical condition requiring

medical attention

It pertains to the act of hiding in isolation

despite physical ailment out of fear of

being found out with a dreadful disease

Table 4


of the Study

Nurse Behaviors

Quintessential

Behaviors

Altruism

Compassion

Confidence

Connecting

This behavior refers to the act

of selflessness. This may also

refer to the act of being

sensitive and taking the risk for

the patient.

It refers to the act of showing

kindness and thoughtfulness

to a suffering person. These

are acts related to listening,

supporting, empathizing, and

showing concern to patients.

It pertains to a disposition to

act with credence and to

being certain to perform a

task.

It refers to an act that

initiates communication with

Generosity

Humor

Mentoring

Nondiscrimination

Presence

Professional Competence

Self-Preservation

Gossiping

another. These acts are

related to reaching out to

patients, forming friendships,

creating connection and

communicating

It is the willingness to offer

help and support or the act of

sharing.

It is the ability to make things

amusing. It entails the wit to

remove oneself away from

stressful situations.

It is teaching a younger

colleague on how to go about

a situation. It entails offering

guidance on performing tasks

or procedures where a

colleague

is incompetent to do.

It is the act of impartial,

unbiased, and non-prejudiced

approach to a patient.

It is the act of offering self to

the patient. This includes

being there for the patient,

showing an interest or

engagement.

It pertain to the ability to

perform a task or duties with

ease and quality. This may

refer to the application of

learning, composure,

competence, teamwork, and

professionalism.

It is to the act of protecting

the self into something that

poses a threat or harm. This

may refer to mindfulness,

taking caution, and caring for

the self.

It relates to the act of

habitual revealing personal or

sensational facts about

others. It includes gender

discrimination, backbiting,

Excessive use of PPE

Refusing

Detachment

Discrimination

Nurse’s oath to care and to

Cure, Educator, Holistic

approach, Family- centered,

Community involvement,

Vanguards of health care,

Personal growth

Professional growth

and breach of confidentiality.

It refers to the unnecessary

use of excessive PPE in caring

for patients with HIV/AIDS.

This behavior refers to the act

of expressing oneself as

unwilling to accept. The codes

included in this section are

refusing to care and

hesitation.

It refers to the act of

disinterest, indifference, and

lack of commitment.

It pertains to behaviors that

display selective care,

bullying, anxiety, fear, and

enacted stigma.

They are the roles and

responsibilities nurses believe

they are tasked to do when

caring for their HIV+ patients.

HIV/AIDS Stigma and Discrimination through the MARP, PLHIV and

Nurses aesthetic voice

MARP

The MARP expressed their aesthetic voices explaining their

risk of contracting HIV. The MARP is predisposed to HIV because of

risky behaviors such as engaging in careless sexual activity. While

most of these behaviors may be intentional or unintentional

predisposition such as a sheer lack of knowledge on HIV transmission,

prevention, and treatment can be a cause.

In addition, the MARP experienced gender discrimination

such as being bullied, gossiped, being called a slut or worse being

judged a sinner and that HIV is his/her punishment.

PLHIV

As expressed in the PLHIV’s aesthetic voices, there speaks a

being diagnosed with HIV and the stigma and discrimination attached

to it.

The PLHIV longs for love, acceptance, and respect from

people around him/her and even with his/her peers (co-PLHIVs).

They expressed their need for unity, open-mindedness, especially on

matters that relate to equality and the protection of their rights.

A PLHIV’s feeling evolves from denial, stigma, discrimination,

fear, self-blame, and isolation. However, remarkably, characteristics

of resilience and determination to live become evident after being

able to adapt and cope with their condition. PLHIV’s coping can be

derived from a variety of sources. Most of them take their strength

from God. The family, friends, and support group of a PLHIV play a

vital role in enhancing the coping mechanism of a PLHIV. Besides,

they can accept and forgive themselves if they are aware that they

are loved and accepted. Using their experience of stigma and

discrimination, they get as an inspiration to uphold themselves with

a sense of responsibility.

Nurses

As expressed in their aesthetic voices, the nurses can

understand what a patient with HIV goes through from the physical,

mental, and social challenges after being diagnosed with HIV. They

believe they have an essential role in the formation and achievement

of relevant nursing care that is centered on HIV patients.

The first theme identified was the roles and responsibilities

in HIV Care. Nurses consider their role as carers, which was solidified

as they took their oath as a professional nurse. Nurses are aware of

their essential roles in educating society to avoid discrimination and

remove the stigma of the disease from the PLHIV and HIV.

Nurses also described themselves as vanguards of health

care who provide not only physical but also holistic caring approach.

The most typical qualities in HIV care, which were described

frequently by the nurses, were coded as nondiscriminatory,

accepting, understanding, and connecting. Other qualities were

described as compassion, role model, and advocacy.

B. Quantitative Findings

Validity and Reliability of the devised instruments

1. Nurse Behaviors towards PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB- PHG)

Scale

The developed tool is composed of 17 items that were lifted

from the narratives of the nurses who had hands-on caring

experience with a PLHIV. The tool was face validated by a panel of

international and local subject matter experts and was found to be

relevant, coherent, and appropriate on the construct it intends to

measure.

The Item-Content Validity Index (I-CVI) ranges between 0.80-

1.00, which indicates that the items were very relevant. Further,

upon assessment of the Scale Content Validity Index [Average](S-

CVI), it revealed a 0.95 score, which suggested very high scale validity.

The developed tool revealed five factors after the Exploratory Factor

Analysis. The five constructs are (1) Stigma, (2) Sincerity, (3) Saving,

(4) Sensitivity, and (5) Self-Preservation. The scale has a highreliability

score of α= 0.71.

From a total of 17 items, the tool has the highest possible

score of 85 (using a 5-point Likert Scale) and the lowest score of 17.

The developed tool used following range and the descriptive

interpretation to interpret the scores extracted.

17-39: Undesirable / Stigmatizing behavior

40-62: Mediocre behavior

63-85: Appropriate / Caring behavior

2. Health-Seeking Behavior of PLHIV and High-Risk Group (HSB-

PHG) Scale

The developed scale is composed of 10 items based on the

narratives derived from the interview with MARPs and PLHIVs on

their health-seeking behaviors.

The tool was face validated by five (5) of the participants and

minor revisions were suggested. The participants commented that

the tool is precise in terms of item wording, relevant, and

comprehensive. In terms of its content validity, the developed tool

has an I-CVI score ranging between 0.80-1.00, which suggests that

items are very relevant. The S-CVI score is 0.98, which reveals very

high scale validity.

There were five factors extracted after the Exploratory Factor

Analysis. These are (1) Self-Medication, (2) Seeking information, (3)

Self-concealment, (4) Seeking Medical Attention, and (5) Seeking

Divine Intervention. When assessed with its psychometric properties,

results revealed that a low reliability score of α= 0.57. This suggests a

careful revision of the scale and item rewording or rephrasing.

3. HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF)

Scale

The HIV SAD-HF Scale is composed of 11 items that were

based on the narratives of the care receivers (MARP and PLHIV) and

the care providers (Nurses).

The developed tool was evaluated by participant MARP,

PLHIV, Nurses, and 1 complete Subject Matter Experts in research

instrumentation. The participants expressed that the tool is

appropriate, relevant, and coherent on the construct it intends to

measure.

The tool was examined according to its content validity using

the I-CVI and S-CVI analysis. The results revealed that the I-CVI score

between the range of 0.70-1.00 indicates that the items are relevant.

On the other hand, the S-CVI yields a score of 0.94, which indicates

that the scale is valid.

The psychometric properties of the scale were tested into

two different groups. When the developed tool was tested with the

MARP and PLHIVs, there were two factors that were extracted

following exploratory Factor Analysis. These are the (1) Health Care

Worker and (2) Health Facility. The Cronbach alpha of the scale

presented a very high reliability score of α= 0.91.

The scale is composed of 11 items or the highest possible

score of 55 (using a 5-point Likert Scale). The range and descriptive

interpretation proposed for this scale were:

11-25: low presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory

factors in the health facility

26-40: moderate presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory


41-55: high presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory


When the developed HIV SAD-HF Scale was tested with

Nurse participants, still there were two factors that were extracted

following the factor analysis. It also yields a high reliability score of α

= 0.88. The main difference however, was on the poor loading of item

no. 9 (health workers use PPE excessively in caring for persons with

HIV) to any of the factors although correlated with Factor 2 (Health

Facility). Because of this non-congruence of the item on its correlated

factor and its initial poor loading to any of the factors, it was

suggested to remove the item so that the items will only have a total

of 10 items.

The suggested scoring scheme for this shall be done using a

5-point Likert scale. The tool will have a total of 50 points as the

highest possible score. The range and descriptive interpretation was

finalized to:

10-22: low presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory


23-36: moderate presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory


37-50: high presence of stigmatizing and discriminatory


Qualitative-Quantitative Findings

The value of the qualitative component in designing the

instruments using mixed-method design relies on the fact that the

items included in the devised tool were organic on the experience of

the participants. Following this premise, it makes the instrument a

legitimate and authentic instrument on the construct it intends to

measure.

Aside from the in-depth interview with the informants, the

use of another data gathering method - aesthetic voice strengthened

and complemented the credibility of the results of this study. As the

participants were made to draw their understanding of the target

concepts, it added more value to the item transcripts that were

generated in formulating the assessment scales. A person’s drawing

or any creative work adds new and insightful ideas on the patient's

perceptions, beliefs, and experiences that may not have been

expressed during the actual face to face interview. It illuminates an

additional understanding beyond those that were verbally expressed

by the person, especially if the topic being discussed is sensitive or a

taboo health experience (Gameiro, Guevarra, Refaie, and Payson,

2018).

CONCLUSION

Despite the decreasing global course of HIV cases, the

Philippines veer otherwise, as evidently seen on its epidemiological

trends of HIV in the country. Although the Philippines is trying its best

to be proactive in curbing the increasing prevalence through the

formulation of programs as a countermeasure, this has afforded a

meager significant change to the increasing cases of HIV in the

country.

A breadth of literature has pointed on stigma and

discrimination as the root cause of a persons’ destructive or

maladaptive health behaviors and non-disclosure of their HIV status.

The high-risk groups prefer not to submit for testing results out of

fear of discrimination, and the lack of education leads to the

continuation of sexually high-risk behaviors, transmitting the virus to

another; hence, the increase of HIV incidence.

HIV stigma and discrimination are the real issues that exist in

health situations. This study provided a picture of the texture and

structures of the lived experiences of nurses who were caring for

patients with HIV. Likewise, the results of this study provided a

deeper understanding of the lived experiences of stigma and

discrimination among the high-risk group and persons living with HIV.

Generally, the experience of stigma and discrimination have not

hindered but instead ignited a burning passion for coping, survival,

and advocacy to make changes happen. Regardless of the negative

disposition as an effect of the negative experience, the PLHIV and

high-risk groups have still accounted their experience of stigma and

discrimination during consultations in health facilities such as

hospitals or health units in their locality. To address this, an

assessment instrument is formulated based on actual experiences of

the care recipients (MARP and PLHIV) and the care providers

(nurses).

The three instruments [HIV Stigma and Discrimination in the

Health Facility (HIV SAD-HF) Scale; Health-Seeking Behaviors of PLHIV

and High-Risk Groups (HSB-PHG) Scale; and Nurse Behaviors towards

PLHIV and High-Risk Groups (NB-PHG) Scale] developed in this study

showed very high validity scores. However, the low reliability

coefficient of the HSB- PHG Scale implied the need for revisions and

rewording of items to improve the instrument further.

The HIV SAD-HF and NB-PHG scales were able to yield a high

reliability coefficient making these two instruments valid and reliable

measurements to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and the nurse

behaviors towards the PLHIV and high-risk groups.

RECOMMENDATIONS

To those who wish to replicate or extend the findings of this

study, future researchers may take note of these recommendations

for further research based on data, limitations, and methodology.

1. Recommendations to the Researchers

The low reliability coefficient of the HSB-PHG Scale suggests

the need for revisions and rewording of items to improve the

instrument further. The researcher of this study recommends that

future researchers assess the patients who are already in an

advanced stage of HIV, particularly those who are diagnosed as AIDS.

Assessing this group will provide a clearer picture of the presence of

HIV stigma and discrimination in the health facility since AIDS

patients are in-patients who require a more sophisticated or

intensive nursing care.

If the future researcher is interested only among PLHIVs, it is

recommended to capture not only the gays, or bisexuals as

participants. Including female PLHIV will provide another dimension

not included in this study.

Recommendations based on methodology

Integrating Aesthetic Voice as the methodology helps

illuminate thoughts and experiences not expressed during the faceto-face

interview. The researcher recommends the use of this

methodology. However, it will be more helpful, especially in the

results if the majority, if not all of their interviewed participants join

in this session. In doing so, the researcher will have more entries to

analyze, which may provide more quality on the concept they wish to

assess.

Future researchers are also recommended to utilize other

aesthetic means or creative outputs to integrate into their qualitative

assessment. This will allow a different way of expressing the

experience of a phenomenon.

It is also recommended for future researchers to utilize the

validated tool to assess HIV stigma and discrimination and nurse

behaviors in their respective hospital facilities. It is hoped that these

instruments effectively address issues related to HIV stigma and

discrimination between the care recipients and care providers.

Since this study is limited to EFA, the assessment of construct

validity (CFA) of these instruments is also recommended. Future

researchers are encouraged to enhance this instrument by improving

on its validity and reliability coefficients.

2. Recommendation to the Nursing Education

The researcher likewise recommends the findings of this

study to be utilized by the nursing profession particularly on the

importance of reproductive and sexual health education which is a

backbone towards the mitigation and control of the HIV prevalence

in the country. The life lessons shared by both the MARP and PLHIV

will provide an insight on the importance of safe and responsible

sexual practices Similarly, the experiences shared the nurses caring

for this group will inspire nurse aspirants to not fear HIV as a disease

of their patients.

3. Recommendation to the Nursing Practice

The researcher would like to recommend the findings of this

study to the Nursing practice. Learning from the experience of stigma

and discrimination from PLHIV and MARPS proves the fact that there

is a need to improve in terms of dealings with this sector. The findings

of this study may be utilized by the nursing practice to improve their

services without bias, and discrimination to any patient regardless of

their disease condition.

4. Recommendation to the PLHIV Community

The researcher would like to recommend this study to the

PLHIV community especially to the newly diagnosed ones. By reading

the qualitative aspect of this study, they may be provided with an

insight on how other PLHIVs have coped, survived and continued

living life despite their HIV status. May the narratives serve as an

inspiration for them to not give up and go on living a healthy and

productive life.

References

Alhojailan, M. I., & Ibrahim, M. (2012). Thematic analysis: A critical

review of its process and evaluation. WEI International

European Academic Conference Proceedings, 1(2011), 8–21.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X02239569

Creswell, J. W. L., & Clark, V. P. (2010). Choosing a mixed methods

design. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research,

53–106. https://doi.org/1412927927

Department of Health - Epidemiology Bureau. (2018). June 2018

Report. HIV / AIDS & ART Registry of the Philippines.

Department of Health Regional Office VIII. (2018). HIV/AIDS Cases:

Current Situation in Eastern Visayas and Leyte. Tacloban City.

Gentles, S. J., Charles, C., & Ploeg, J. (2015). Sampling in qualitative

research: Insights from an overview of the methods

literature. The Qualitative Report, 20(11), 1772– 1789.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412950589.n885

Halcomb, E. J., Andrew, S., & Brannen, J. (2009). Introduction to

mixed methods research for nursing and the health sciences.

Mixed Methods Research for Nursing and the Health

Sciences, 1–12.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444316490.ch1

Sayles, J. N., Ryan, G. W., Silver, J. S., Sarkisian, C. A., & Cunningham,

W. E. (2007). Experiences of social stigma and implications

for healthcare among a diverse population of HIV positive

adults. Journal of Urban Health, 84(6), 814–828.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9220-4

Trinidad, A., Quinto, D. J., & Naldoza, R. R. (2011). The experiences of

external and internal stigma of HIV positive Filipinos.

Philippine Population Review, 10(1), 49–69.

UNAIDS. (2017). Confronting discrimination. Overcoming HIVrelated

stigma and discrimination in health-care settings and

beyond.

UNAIDS. (2017). Ending AIDS Progress towards the 90-90-90 targets.

Vaismoradi, M., Turunen, H., & Bondas, T. (2013). Content analysis

and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a

qualitative descriptive study. Nursing and Health Sciences,

15(3), 398–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12048

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP PRACTICES AND VALUE

FORMATION OF THE SISTERS OF ST. PAUL OF

CHARTRES IN THAILAND

Sr. Anchulee Intiya, SPC

Master of Arts in Education, Major in School Leadership

ABSTRACT

In Thailand, the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres are members of the

Catholic education system. They are essential in building and

developing human resources according to the philosophy and

direction of Catholic education in the society that is continuously

changing. Therefore, the SPC Congregation has a significant role in

developing the Sisters ready to receive changes both with the position

responsibility, along with the purpose of leadership in education. The

value formation of the Congregation supplements and motivates the

Sisters in recognizing the role of being leaders and followers. The

findings of the study had shown that age, nature of work, years in the

religious life, and years in the ministry could, directly and indirectly,

influence the practice of the transformational leadership style of the

Sisters. As educators, leaders, and administrators of institutions, they

are ready to change. They influence others to change by holding on

the value formation of the SPC Sisters. The Sisters have to continue

enhancing their practice of transformational leadership and deepen

their values through the implementation of the proposed action plan.

The SPC Superior and administrators should continue supporting the

young Sisters to live-out their Paulinian identity and mission, charism,

and responsibility through regular seminars, dialogues, encounters,

and retreats.

Keywords: transformational leadership, value formation SPC

Congregation, SPC Sisters, Paulinian identity and

mission, charism and responsibility

INTRODUCTION

Father Louis Chauvet founded the Sisters of St. Paul of

Chartres (SPC), France, in 1696. He gathered a group of young farm

women, who devoted themselves to looking after the poor, teaching

children to read and write, and nursing the sick, under the instruction

and training of Marie-Anne de Tilly. The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres

came to work in Thailand in 1898 through the invitation of Bishop

Jean-Louis Vey of Siam (Thailand). They served at St. Louis Hospital,

Bangkok. Over time, they took on educational and training works for

youth, social welfare, and services. The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres

began to open the first school in 1905, namely, Assumption Convent

School. The first school is an essential first step in the education of

the Sisters of Chartres in Thailand. The Sisters continue to move

forward until today, to bring the good news of Christ to the Thai

people just like St. Paul, Patron of the Congregation (Information

Technology Department of SPC, Thailand, 2019).

The Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres have been working in

Thailand for more than 120 years. At present, there are 226 Sisters

assigned in 36 schools in 11 dioceses in the 20 provinces and Lao

People’s Democratic Republic. There are 22 schools and one

Vocational School for the Disabled, Sikeud belonging to the Sisters of

St. Paul of Chartres, while there are 15 schools and one college which

belong to the Diocese and administered by the SPC Sisters. There are

4,169 teachers and 66,466 students in these schools (SPC Sisters,

Thailand, 2018). The SPC Sisters are also working in two archdiocesan

hospitals, an orphanage for children infected with AIDS, a daycare

center, and a home for the aged as well as a particular school for

tribal minorities. For more than 120 years, the Sisters of St. Paul of

Chartres in Thailand have provided good cooperation between the

Thai government and the Catholic Church. Also, education in schools

is provided according to the ideals of the Congregation. The Thai

Ministry of Education also provides formal acknowledgment of the

quality of teaching in these schools of the Congregation. Moreover,

many of the schools of the Congregation have also received awards

from the Ministry of Education (Phewkling, 1995).

Likewise, the Sisters have multiple roles in their position as

leaders. They lead the members of the community and the school

members as a family of Jesus (Sr. Inigo Joachim, SSA, 2018). For this

reason, the proponent is motivated to conduct the study to

determine the leadership style and value formation of the Sisters in

the different SPC Schools and diverse workplaces of Thailand.


This study aims to determine the transformational leadership

style and value formation of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres, Thai

Province.

More specifically, the study sought to answer the following

questions:

1. What is the profile of the participants in terms of:

1.1. age;

1.2. nature of work;

1.3. number of years in the religious life; and

1.4. number of years in the ministry?

2. What is the level of practice of the transformational leadership

style of the participants in terms of the following?

2.1. Charisma;

2.2. Social;

2.3. Vision;

2.4. Transactional;

2.5. Delegation; and

2.6. Execution?

3. Is there a significant difference in the practice of the

transformational leadership style of the participants when

grouped according to their profile variables?

4. What is the extent of practice of the values formed during the

formation years of the participants as assessed by themselves?

5. Is there a significant difference in the extent of practice of the

values formed during the formation years of the participants

when grouped according to their profile variables?

6. Is there a significant relationship between the extent of practice

of the transformational leadership style and the extent of

practice of the values formed during the formation years of the

participants?

7. What factors affect the transformational leadership style of the

participants?

8. What are the challenges faced by the participants in practicing

their transformational leadership style and living-out their

values?

9. What plan of action can be proposed to enhance the practice of

the transformational leadership style and value formation of the

participants?

Significance of the Study

The result of the study would be deemed beneficial to the

following sectors/groups:

Soeurs. The result of the study would create awareness and

possible ways to enhance their transformational leadership style and

value formation.

SPC Superior/Administrators. This study would serve as a

basis for policy formulation to enhance the leadership style and value

formation of the Sisters.

Stakeholders. The result of the study would benefit the

stakeholders as this would provide information and possible ways to

support the Sisters in the practice of transformative leadership and

values.

Researcher. The result of the study would provide

information and possible ways to enhance her leadership style and

value formation to be of help in the SPC School, where she belongs.

Future Researchers. The findings of the study would serve as

a reference for future researchers who are interested in conducting

further studies on identifying the transformational leadership style

and value formation of the sisters and administrators of the different

SPC Schools of the SPC Congregation.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focused on the transformational leadership style

and value formation, including the factors that affect the leadership

style and value formation of the participants. It looked into the

challenges faced by the participants on their leadership style and

value formation.

The participants of the study were limited to the Sisters who

finished their temporary vows with one year to five years and

perpetual profession for 15 years from the different SPC Schools of

Thailand such as St. Joseph Convent School, Assumption Convent

Bangrak School, Assumption Convent Silom School, Santa Cruz

Convent School, St. Francis Xavier School, St. Paul Nong Khai School,

St. Joseph Tharae School, Assumption Convent Lamnarai School,

Assumption Convent Lop Buri School, St. Joseph Nakhon Sawan

School, St. Joseph Mae Ramad School, St. Joseph Mae Chaem School,

St. Joseph Phetahaburi School, and St. Joseph Koh Samui. Schools

belonging to the Diocese are as follows: Pramarnda Nijjanukroh

School, St. Joseph Upatham School, Marie Witthaya School, Phaathra

Witthaya School, Silravee School, and Santivitthaya School. Sisters

from the different SPC workplaces of Thailand: Louis Chauvet Center;

Glory of Chartres House, Porndaensuang, Madonna Nursery, Xavier

Learning Center, Novitiate, St. Louis Hospital, and St. Mary Hospital.

The scope is limited to the profile of the participants such as age,

nature of work (Education, Pastoral, Health Ministry), number of

years in their religious life , and number of years in the ministry.

Moreover, this study was conducted in the different SPC

Schools and different SPC workplaces (Clinic, Nurseries, Hospitals,

Learning Centers, and SPC Convents) of Thailand.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study utilized the descriptive survey method. The study

aimed to determine the relationship between transformational

leadership style and value formation of the participants, particularly

in the SPC Schools, Hospitals, and in the different SPC workplaces in

Thailand.


The participants in this study were the total population of

Sisters of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (SPC) Congragation in

Thailand.

Table 1

Participants of the study

WORKPLACES

Frequency

Percentage

(%)

School 33 63.50

Hospital 9 17.30

SPC Convents and other

Workplaces

10 19.20

TOTAL 52 100.00

The table shows that there are 52 participants in the study.

The Sisters from the schools in Thailand have the highest number of

participants, followed by 10 Sisters from the SPC Convent and other

workplaces and 9 Sisters from the hospitals.

Instrumentation

This study made use of the questionnaire to gather

information about the participants. The questionnaire, which was

adopted from two different researches on transformational

leadership style and value formation, was utilized. Some parts of the

questionnaire were modified to suit the needs of the study.

Moreover, the questionnaire was subdivided into five parts.

The first part contains the profile of the participants. The second part

deals with the transformational leadership style which was adopted

from the study of Clark, D.R. (2011). It dealt explicitly with measuring

the level of transformational leadership style among individual

Sisters. The instrument used a four-point Rensis Likert Scale to assess

Sisters’ level of transformational leadership style. The third part was

crafted based on the Book of Life of the SPC Sisters. Five (5) SPUP

Sisters and teachers validated the questionnaire. It used a four-point

Rensis Likert Scale to assess Sisters’ level of values practiced. It has

three sections, namely: section one-identity and mission, section

two-charism and section three-responsibility. The fourth part deals

with the challenges faced by the Sisters in the practice of their

transformational leadership style and on how to deepen their value

formation. The fifth part deals with the recommendations to enhance

the transformational leadership practice and value formation of the

Sisters of SPC Congregation in Thailand.


In gathering the data for this study, the researcher had

undertaken the following procedures:

First, to ensure compliance with ethical standards, the study

was reviewed by the members of the Ethics Review Committee.

Second, the researcher sought a letter of permission from

the Provincial Superior of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres in Thailand

and their respective Superiors, for the conduct of the survey among

the Sisters in the SPC Congregation of Thailand.

Third, the researcher requested permission and confirmation

from the participants for the conduct of the study. Informed consent

was given to the Sisters.

Fourth, the questionnaires were administered to the

participants.

Lastly, the responses of the participants in the questionnaire

were recorded for statistical treatment.

Data Analysis

The quantitative data were organized, analyzed, and

interpreted using the following statistical tools:

Frequency Count and Percentage Distribution. This was used

to determine the profile of the participants.

Mean or Standard Deviation. This was used to determine the

transformational leadership style and the value formation of the

participants in the SPC Schools in the different SPC workplaces. The

scale below was utilized to interpret the means:

Table 2

Scale of Interpretation

Mean Range

Qualitative

Description of

Transformational

Leadership style

Qualitative

Description Value

Formation of

Sisters

1.25 4.00 Very High Very Great Extent

2.50 – 3.24 High Great Extent

1.75 – 2.49 Moderate Moderate Extent

1.00 – 1.74 Low Low Extent

Chi-Square. This was used to test the significant difference in

the transformational leadership style of the participants when

grouped according to their profile variables and the significant

difference in the value formation when grouped according to their

profile variables. Also, this was used to test the relationship between

the transformational leadership style and value formation of the

Sisters of Thailand.

Thematic Analysis. This was used to determine the factors

that affect the transformational leadership style, value formation of

the participants, and challenges faced by them in their practice of

transformational leadership and in living-out their values.

I. Profile of the Participants

1.1 Age

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Most of the participants are within the middle age range.

1.2 Nature of work

Majority of the participants are assigned in the education

ministry. This is reflective of the roles of the Sisters in training the

young through their teaching mission. In Thailand, there are 36

schools/institutions, two hospitals, and six SPC convents and other

workplaces that are directly managed/supervised by the Sisters of St.

Paul of Chartres.

1.3 The number of Years in the Religious Life

The highest percentages of the participants who have been

in the religious life are within 6-10 years, and 16 years and above.

1.4 Number of Years in the Ministry

Most of the participants are still young in the ministry.

II. Level of Competency of the Participants on Transformational

Leadership Along the Different Domains

2.1 Charisma Domain

The participants have a high level of competency on

transformational leadership along the charisma domain.

2.2 Social Domain

The participants have a very high level of competency on

transformational leadership along the social domain.

2.3 Vision Domain

The participants have a “very high” level of competency on

transformational leadership along the vision domain.

2.4 Transactional Domain

The participants have a high level of competency in

transformational leadership along the transactional domain.

2.5 Delegation Domain

The participants have a high level of competency in

transformational leadership, along the delegation domain.

2.6 Execution Domain

The participants have a high level of competency on

transformational leadership, along the execution domain.

III. Computed Chi-Square Values for the Significant Difference in the

Level of Competency on Transformational Leadership Style of the

Participants When Grouped According to Their Profile Variables

3.1 Charisma Domain

There is no significant difference in the level of competency

of the participants on transformational leadership along 'charisma'

domain when they are grouped according to age, nature of work,

years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.

3.2 Social Domain


of the participants on transformational leadership along the ‘social’

domain when they are grouped according to age, nature of work,

years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.

3.3 Vision Domain


of the participants on transformational leadership along the 'vision'

domain when they are grouped according to such variables.

3.4 Transactional Domain


of the participants on transformational leadership along the

'transactional' domain when they are grouped according to the

different profile variables.

3.5 Delegation Domain



‘delegation’ domain when they are grouped according to age, nature

of work, years in the religious life, and years in the ministry.

3.6 Execution Domain

f. There is no significant difference in the level of competency


'execution' domain when they are grouped according to age, nature

of work, and years in the ministry, respectively. However, when the

participants are grouped according to years in religious life, they

significantly differ in their level of competency.

IV. Extent of Practice of the Values Formed During the Formation

Years of the Sisters of Thailand as Assessed by Themselves

4.1 Identity and Mission

The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of

‘identity and mission’ values formed during the formation years.

4.2 Charism

The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of

‘charism’ value formed during the formation years.

4.3 Responsibility

The participants have a “very great extent” of practice of the

value of ‘responsibility’ formed during the formation years.

V. Comparative Analysis of the Participants' Extent of Practice of the

Values Formed During Their Formation Years in the Convent When

Grouped According to Their Profile Variables

5.1 Identity and Mission

There is no significant difference observed on the

participants' extent of practice of 'identity and mission' values

acquired during their formation years in the religious life when they

are grouped according to age, nature of work, number of years in the

religious life and years in the ministry.

5.2 Charism

There is no significant difference in the participants' extent

of practice of the 'charism' value, acquired during their formation

years in the convent when they are grouped according to age, nature

of work, years in the religious life and years in the ministry.

5.3 Responsibility

There is no significant difference in the participants' extent

of practice of the values of ‘responsibility’ acquired during their

formation years in the religious life when they are grouped according

to age, nature of work, years in the religious life, and years in the

ministry.

VI. Test of Relationship Between Participants’ Extent of Practice of

Transformational Leadership and Values Formed During the

Formation Years

6.1 Identity and Mission and Level of Competency on

Transformational Leadership

There is a significant relationship between the participants’

extent of practice of the ‘identity and mission’ values and their level

of competency on transformational leadership concerning social and

delegation domains. On the other hand, the participants’ extent of

practice of the ‘identity and mission’ values and their level of

competency on transformational leadership along charisma, vision,

transactional, and execution domains are significantly related.

6.2 Charism and Level of Competency on Transformational Leadership

The participants’ extent of practice of the ‘charism’ values is

not significantly related to their level of competency on

transformational leadership along charism, social, delegation, and

execution domains. However, the participants’ extent of practice of

the ‘charism’ values is significantly related to their level of

competency on transformational leadership along vision and

transactional domains.

6.3 Responsibility and Level of Competency on Transformational

Leadership

There is no significant relationship between the participants’

extent of practice of the ‘responsibility’ values and their level of

competency on transformational leadership along ‘charisma’,

‘social’, ‘vision’, ‘transactional’ and ‘delegation’ domains. On the

other hand, there is a significant relationship between the

participants’ extent of practice of the ‘responsibility’ values and their

level of competency on transformational leadership along execution

domain.

VII. Factors That Affect the Transformational Leadership Style of the

Sisters in Thailand

The participants considered the following factors which

affect their transformational leadership style: (1) Idealized Influence:

(2) Individual Consideration; (3) Intellectual Stimulation; and (4)

Inspirational Motivation. The factors were ranked accordingly.

VIII. Challenges Faced by the Sisters in Practicing Their

Transformational Leadership Style and in Living-out Their Values

The participants noted the following challenges in practicing

their transformational leadership style and living-out their values: (1)

Social/Emotional/Spiritual Skills; (2) Leadership Skills; and (3)

Media/Technology Literacy Skills. The challenges were ranked

accordingly.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this study, the following were

derived.

The first and most essential purpose of Consecrated Life is to

be committed God-seekers, a deeper immersion into the world as

radical disciples of Jesus, and a call to live in communion with others

and to build communities of freedom, fellowship and justice. As a

process of formation in the Congregation, the Sisters’ age, nature of

work, years in the religious life, and years in the ministry can, directly

and indirectly, influence the practice of their commitment as a

religious leader, who has been touched and transformed by the Spirit

of God. Hence, SPC Sisters are meant to be effective catalysts of those

values which carry deep meaning for all people, irrespective of time

or culture. The role of the SPC Sisters in the religious communities is

to live those deepest values and to radiate them, to bring them into

life.

Transformational leadership is a style of leadership that

transforms follower attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, to a higher

realm of motivation where the leader inspires followers to be

motivated over time.

The value formation of the congregation supplements and

motivates the Sisters in recognizing the role of being leaders and

followers. As an educator, as a leader and an administrator of

institutions, they are ready to change. They influence others to

change by holding the value formation of the SPC Sisters.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusions made, the following

are recommended:

1. The SPC Congregation in Thailand should continue enhancing the

practice of transformational leadership and deepen the values of

the Sisters through the implementation of the proposed action

plan.

2. The SPC Superior and administrators should continue supporting

the young Sisters to live-out their Paulinian identity and mission,

charism, and responsibility through regular seminars, dialogues,

encounters, and retreats.

3. The researcher may be given a chance to disseminate the findings

of her study to the SPC Congregation in Thailand.

4. The future researchers may consider conducting other relevant

researches on transformational leadership style and value

formation in the different SPC Schools of the SPC Congregation.

References

Berkovich, I. (2016). School leaders and transformational leadership

theory: time to part ways? Journal of Educational

Administration, 54(5), 609-622.

Bhekanan, K., SPC (2012). Strategies for developing transformational

leadership of mid-level school administrators under the

Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres in Thailand (Doctoral

dissertation, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand).

Clark, D.R. (2015). Transformational leadership durvey. Retrieved

from

http://nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/transformational_surv

ey.html

DiFranza, A. (2019). Transformational leadership: How to inspire

innovation in the workplace. Northeastern University.

Information Technology Department of SPC - Thailand (2019) St. Paul

of Chartres History in Thailand.

Joachim, I., SSA, (2018). Renewed Consecrated Life for the New

Evangelization with Sr. Inigo Joachim, SSA.

Montuori, A. & Donnelly, G. (2017). Transformative leadership.

Handbook of Personal and Organizational Transformation. J.

Neal (ed.). DOI10.1007/978-3-319 29587-9_59-1

Okçu, V. (2014). Relation between secondary school administrators'

transformational and transactional leadership style and skills

to diversity management in the school. Educational Sciences:

Theory & Practice, 14(6), 2162-2174.

Pher, W. (2015). Transformative leadership: English education

instructor at Cavite State University.

https://www.slideshare.net/wpampo/transformativeleadership

Phewklieng, S. (1995). The development of education provided by

the Sister of St. Paul De Chartres in Thailand: A historical

analysis. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.

Reed, R. E. (2013). Transformational Leadership Analysis of the Band

Director of a Christian School: A Case Study (Doctoral

dissertation, Tennessee Temple University)

Saint Paul of Chartres (n.d.). The Book of Life: Sisters of Saint Paul of

Chartres.

Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (1991).The Spirituality of Educational

Management of SPC Sisters, p. 13-15; 19: Bangkok;

Assumption Printery. Sister of Saint Paul of Chartres (2018).

School statistics for the academic year 2017–2018.

RECORDS MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING SYSTEM OF

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY, LAL-LO CAMPUS

Vicky B. Agcaoili

Master in Information Technology

ABSTRACT

Data are very important to be managed and preserved in an

institution because they are the institutional memories which serve

as evidences of the institution’s activity. Cagayan State University at

Lal-lo (CSUL) is one of the academic institutions that need to manage

data records efficiently and effectively to monitor its performances in

instruction, research, and extension. Without an efficient and

appropriate system, such records are put into the risk of being

misplaced, damaged, or lost. This study focused on the assessment of

the current practices and services of managing and monitoring

records in the MIS Office which served as a basis in developing the

Records Management and Monitoring System of Cagayan State

University Lal-lo Campus. The researcher made use of SCRUM

methodology as a guide in the development of the software. The

participants of this study were the IT experts employed in the CSUL,

Office Heads, faculty, and staff. Results showed that the participants

agreed that the MIS Office has been performing practices and services

in collecting and recording of data, as well as in generating reports.

However, they strongly disagreed that the MIS Office has been

sharing/disseminating the data it consolidated. The developed

system was found to be compliant to a “great extent” by the

participants. The result also revealed that there is no significant

difference between the assessment of IT experts and userparticipants.

Considering the findings of this study, the newly

developed system would greatly benefit the different offices of the

CSUL in terms of records management.

Keywords: electronic records management system, hybrid system,

management information system, record management,

record monitoring

INTRODUCTION

Managing and preserving data are very important in an

institution like the Cagayan State University Lal-lo Campus because

the data served as institutional memories, which function as

evidences of the institution’s activities and of its contributions to

academia and the wider community. In addition, to monitor the

performance of the institution and to make necessary interventions

on how to improve the performance of the institution, data gathered

and consolidated must be well disseminated to all employees.

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) Memorandum

Order (CMO) No.45 series of 2016, mandated all its offices to collect,

collate, store and disseminate data and information needed by the

public and stakeholders to make informed choices and decisions. The

CHED needs higher education institutions’ data/information as bases

for formulating policies on instruction, research, and extension as

well as for monitoring the higher education sector’s progress.

Like any other universities, Cagayan State University at Lal-lo

(CSUL) has its campus Management Information System (MIS)

coordinator who manages and monitors all records of the campus.

The MIS coordinator is also responsible in preparing and submitting

the reports needed by CHED to comply with the CMO No. 45 s. 2016.

According to Rogers (2017), data sitting dormant in a school’s

MIS are worthless unless reported on in a manner that gives

interesting insights and helps put interventions in place to improve

teaching and learning. CSU Lal-lo is now equipped with an established

Wi-Fi connection and this technology made the researcher thought

of the Records Management and Monitoring System that could be

implemented online to help the MIS Coordinator collect and prepare

his reports and to serve as a tool for sharing information among

offices and stakeholders of the Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.

Basic information obtained from the reports of the different offices

can be accessible to all the stakeholders of CSU Lal-lo who are

utilizing the system. Moreover, the developed Records Management

and Monitoring System will make the records in the MIS office useful

to all the stakeholders of the Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.

Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework

This section shows and identifies the conceptual structure

used by the researcher as a framework for the development of the

Records Management and Monitoring System of CSUL.

Figure 1


Develop abstract

Specification

YES

Stable Version

Build/Develop

the application

NO

Application

Adequate?

Evaluate the

application

The first phase includes developed abstract specification

where the researcher created a concept of the application based on

the data gathered from the focus group discussion, document

analysis and survey questionnaires. After creating the concept or

flow of the system, the researcher moved to the second phase where

she started to develop all the modules of the application. After the

development of all the modules, the researcher proceeded in the

third phase, which is the evaluation of the application. The

researcher presented the developed application to the target users

for them to evaluate. The target users gave their comments and

feedback on the system. The researcher used the users’ comments

and feedback to enhance the developed application. The last phase,

which is the stable version, became possible when the target users

gave their satisfactory feedback.


This study aimed to create a Records Management and

Monitoring System of Cagayan State University at Lal-lo.

Specifically, this study aimed to answer the following

questions:

1. What is the assessment of the participants on the current

practices and services of the MIS Office?

2. What system can be developed to address the problems and

issues encountered in the existing system?

3. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of compliance

of the developed system as assessed by the IT experts and user

participants?

Research Design

METHODOLOGY

The study made use of the descriptive survey and research

systems development to describe the assessment of the participants

to the practices and services of the MIS Office, and the software

quality characteristics of the developed Records Management and

Monitoring System in order to enhance the MIS Office practices and

services at CSUL.

The researcher also utilized the SCRUM methodology in

developing the Records Management and Monitoring System of

Cagayan State University, Lal-lo Campus.


In order to obtain information on the practices and services

of the MIS Office and the problems encountered by the different

offices in managing records, the researcher gathered data from the

faculty, staff and IT Experts of CSUL who were chosen purposively.

Research Instruments

Internet Research was used to gather relevant literature and

studies that were necessary in the development of the system.

Survey questionnaires were used by the researcher to gather

information on the practices and services of the MIS. Document

Analysis Form was also used to analyzed the documents that are

being managed in the MIS Office and Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

was conducted to validate and support results of survey

questionnaires.

Data Collection Procedure

The following procedures were considered in order to pursue

the objectives of the study.

1. The researcher sought the approval of Dr. Ricardo B. Casauay, the

Campus Executive Officer.

2. The researcher distributed the informed consent to the heads of

the different offices and other participants to let them know

what the study is all about and for them to anticipate the nature

of their participation in the study.

3. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in the CICS

Multimedia Room while the proposed system was under

development.

4. Survey questionnaires were floated to determine the assessment

of the participants and their problems encountered in the

practices and services of MIS Office.

Data Analysis

The data that were obtained by the researcher were tallied

and organized for their analysis and interpretation. The study used

frequency count and percentage distribution in analyzing the

responses of the participants regarding the problems and issues they

encountered in the current practices of managing and monitoring

reports in the MIS Office. Moreover, the study utilized the Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software in employing T-Test as

the tool in analyzing the significant difference between the

assessment of IT Experts and other participants on the extent of

compliance of the proposed system based on the ISO 25010 Software

Quality Standards.


Assessment of the User-participants on the Current Practices and

Services of the MIS Office

On collection and recording of data, the participants agreed

that the MIS Office has been performing practices and services in

terms of collecting and recording of data as assessed by them with

an overall weighted mean score of 3.07 with a descriptive

interpretation of “Agree”. This means that the MIS Office of the

campus collects data but not able to get updated data from the

different offices since it collects data of the past semester at the start

of the coming semester. This finding is consistent with the finding of

Aldarbesti and Saxena (2014) stating that it is not enough to arrange

only resources but their timely acquisition, utilization and monitoring

are also essential.

In terms of generation of reports, the participants agreed

that the MIS Office could generate reports as reflected in the overall

weighted mean assessment of 3.15 with a descriptive interpretation

of “Agree”. This means that the MIS Office can generate reports

based on the data available in its computer but cannot generate

reports using new and updated data.

With respect to sharing/dissemination of information, the

participants strongly disagreed that the MIS office performs its

functions in terms of sharing/ disseminating information that it gets

from the consolidated reports of the different offices of the campus

as shown in the overall weighted mean assessment of 2.58 with a

descriptive interpretation of “Strongly Disagree”. This finding is

consistent with the study of Gregg (2013) as cited by Gumarang

(2018) in her study titled, “Assessment of Records Management

Practices: Basis for a Proposed Integrated Management Information

System”, that one of the challenges of paper-based records

management is accessibility of hard copy files and limited access to it

because of its single location.

Problems and Issues Encountered by the Participants in the Existing

System

The participants’ common problems and issues on the

current practices and services of the MIS Office includes viewing the

updated status of the campus in its enrollment, instruction, research

and extension performances and the absence of feedback

mechanism in the MIS office. Other issues also emerged such as

inability to immediately retrieve reports submitted and difficulty of

requesting or updating reports to the MIS Office. These findings are

consistent with the findings of Caluza (2017) in his study titled,

“Development of Electronic Document Archive Management System

(EDAMS): A Case Study of a University Registrar in the Philippines”,

that the office of records management is facing issues such as

misclassification, misplacement and security of document, difficulty

in monitoring, and difficulty in document retrieval.

Proposed System that can be Developed to Address the Problems

and Issues Encountered in the Practices and Services of MIS Office

Most of the participants encountered problems on the

current practices and services of the MIS Office specifically on

viewing the updated status of the campus in its enrollment,

instruction, research and extension performances. Thus, the creation

of the new system Records Management and Monitoring System of

Cagayan State University, Lal-lo Campus has been developed to

address the problems and issues in the current practices and services

of MIS Office.

Compliance of the Developed System to ISO 25010

The proposed Records Management and Monitoring System

was assessed by the IT experts and user-participants as compliant to

a “very great extent” in terms of performance efficiency, usability,

security, maintainability and portability with category means of 4.26,

4.22, 4.22, 4.34, 4.23, respectively, while great extent in terms of

fundamental suitability, compatibility, and reliability, with category

means of 4.10, 3.71 and 4.06, respectively.

Differences Between the Assessment of IT Experts and Userparticipants

in Compliance of the Developed System to ISO 25010

The test of significant differences between the assessment of

IT experts and user-participants in the compliance of the developed

system to ISO 25010 showed insignificant differences in all the

attributes. This implies that the assessments of IT experts and userparticipants

are comparable in all the attributes of the ISO 25010

Software Quality Standards.

Enhancements to be Done to Enhance the Developed Records

Management and Monitoring System

The participants recommended that the system should

produce list of users/offices who always comply in accomplishing the

reports needed by the MIS Office. According to them, this is a good

feedback mechanism that will motivate the users to always update

their data in the system so that they can immediately generate their

reports from the system and submit them promptly to the MIS Office.

The participants also recommended the inclusion of e-signatures that

can be replaced when there is a change in the signatories of particular

reports. They further recommended the use of smart phones to

access the developed system using the internet.

CONCLUSION

From the above findings, the researcher concluded that the

proposed Records Management and Monitoring System will certainly

hasten and improve the practices and services of the MIS Office in

managing and monitoring records. The developed system will be

accessed online by the different offices in recording and submission

of data to the MIS office. It can also easily generate reports

automatically from the data sets being managed and monitored by

the different offices.

RECOMMEDATIONS

Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, the

following recommendations are offered:

The CSUL administration may consider the implementation

of the developed Records Management and Monitoring System in

order to facilitate the services of MIS Office and to ensure better

processes and services of records management in all the offices of

the Cagayan State University Lal-lo.

The office of MIS may collaborate with the researcher on the

conduct of the orientation/ training on the use of the said system

before its deployment.

The administration may consider boosting its internet

connectivity to ensure that users of the system will fully maximize the

features and benefits of the developed system.

Future researchers may conduct parallel studies and may

consider recommendations provided by the participants on the

enhancement of the developed system.

References

Aldarbesti, H., & Saxena, J.-P. (2014). Management information

system for education. IOSR-JRME: Journal of Research and

Method in Education, 4, 36-44. Retrieved from

http://www.iosrjournals.org/

Caluza, L. (2017). Development of electronic document archive

management system (EDAMS): A case study of a university

registrar in the Philippines. International Journal of Digital

Information and Wireless Communications, 7, 106-17. doi:

10.17781/P002280.

Gumarang, S. (2018). Assessment of records management practices:

Basis for a proposed integrated management information

system.

Rogers, C. (2017). Management Information System and School

Development. Retrieved from

https://edtechnology.co.uk/Article/managementinformation-

systems-and-school-development

CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTION

IN EFL CLASSES

Zheng Weizheng


ABSTRACT

This research aimed to investigate on teacher talk in the

conversational interaction between teacher and student in EFL

classroom in higher institution, by comparing the teacher talk in

English majors’ classes and non-English majors’ classes, focusing on

types of question, strategies of questioning and feedback, time of

teacher/student talk, and interaction patterns. By using the method

of descriptive research of discourse analysis. Findings show that (1)

Teachers of English majors utilized more referential questions than

those of non-English majors, teachers of non-English majors hardly

used referential questions, instead, they used much more display

questions. (2) Teachers of English majors used more prompting and

probing in the text analysis than those of non-English majors. (3)

Teachers of English majors employed more recast, while teachers of

non-English majors hardly use recast. Teachers of English majors used

more elicitation. (4) English majors’ average talk time is longer than

non-English majors. (5) Six variations of IRF were found: IRInRnF,

IRFRnFn, IRFR, IR, IFRF and IF. Patterns of IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, appeared

more frequently in classrooms of English majors than non-English

majors. Results contribute to teachers’ training program to promote

the classroom interaction.

Keywords: Teacher Talk, Conversational Interaction, EFL Class, Type

of Question, Questioning Strategy, Feedback Strategy

INTRODUCTION

In most of the Chinese classrooms, students are used to

keeping silent, they are shy to express themselves, many of the

students even have difficulty in expressing what they want to say

(Zhaohong Xue and Yonghui Tang, 2019;Qin Liu,2019;Qingsong

Liu, Kaihong Liao, 2019;Hongyang Zhang, 2018). Such situation is

not conducive to the development of communicative competence,

not to mention the cultivation of students’ autonomy, creative and

critical thinking.

Interaction is a key in language development, and it is

significant in language learning and teaching (Long, 1985; Swain,

1995; Gass, 1997; Ellis, 2015). It promotes students’ language

acquisition and enhances language proficiency due to the

conversational and linguistic modification that happen in classroom

discourse which supply students with the necessary comprehensible

input (Long, 1985). Only when the students actively engage

themselves in the conversational interaction in class can they

successfully develop their language competence. So, teacher should

try to construct a learning environment and organize learning

activities to facilitate the effective conversational interaction

centered on sharing and meaning negotiation (Rivers, 1987).

Teachers should transform their role in language learning classroom

and provide students with opportunities to use target language

(Littlewood, 2014).

In language learning classroom, teacher talk serves at least

two functions in class: (1) input of the target language, and (2)

impetus of classroom interaction which enhances students’

understanding of the input and their participating in the learning

activities (Ellis, 2015). Teacher talk offers researchers the vision on

how the teaching and learning process is organized, developed and

influenced by the teacher. Teacher-dominated classroom interaction

does not necessarily result in passive, receptive learning. Much rely

on the factors such as the content of teacher talk, the way of its

delivery and the extent of its engaging students in target language

use will influence the effective learning greatly (Leung, 2005).

Teacher talk in teacher-dominated classroom interaction can engage

students into language use.

This research aimed to investigate on teacher talk in the

structure of conversational interaction (Initiation-responsefeedback/fellow-up)

between teacher and students in EFL high

institution classroom, by comparing the teacher talk in English

majors’ classes and non-English majors’ classes, focusing on types of

question, strategies of questioning and feedback, time of

teacher/student talk.

Theoretical Framework

It has been widely accepted that input, interaction and

output are fundamental in language acquisition and learning. These

three components are integrated by teachers to facilitate learners’

target language competency in language learning classroom.

According to Krashen’s (1985) input hypothesis, exposure to

the comprehensible target language is fundamental for language

acquisition. In classroom, teacher should make students exposed to

comprehensible input by written or oral materials. Swain (1993)

claimed comprehensible input alone is not enough for language

acquisition until it is associated with interaction. Long (1985)

proposes interaction hypothesis which shows that learners’ language

proficiency is enhanced by interpersonal interaction. Swain (1985)

proposes output hypothesis. She claims that comprehensible input

and interaction are fundamental to language acquisition, but

comprehensible input alone is not enough for language learning and

acquisition if language learners do not have enough chances for

output because interaction exchanges are in connection with both

comprehensible input and comprehensible output. Comprehensible

output is one of the main sources for comprehensible input.

According to Swain, the best way to test the level of language

is to use the language in output, because only through this way may

learners modify the prior utterances or try other new forms. She

realizes that output is a part of learning mechanism. Swain (1995)

posits that output motivates learners to transfer their focus from

processing for comprehension such as semantic processing and

strategic processing to the complete grammatical processing for

output. This shows that output is also fundamental in learners’

development of syntax and morphology.


Data in this study will be analyzed based on the following

framework related to teacher talk.

Long & Sato (1983) investigated the role of questions in ESL

classroom. They classify teacher questions into two categories:

echoic and epistemic question. Echoic question is the question used

to require a repetition of the information or to verify whether the

utterance has been comprehended, which facilitates mutual

understanding. It includes confirmation checks, comprehension

checks and clarification requests. Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of

question is showed in Table 1. In this study, types of question are

identified and analyzed based on Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of

question.

Table 1

Long & Sato (1983)’s Taxonomy of question

Category Type of Question Example

Echoic Comprehension

checks

Get me?, Are you clear? ,

Alright?

Clarification

requests

Confirmation

checks

What do you mean by...? Do you

mean...?

What? What did you say just

now?

Case1: S: I’ve already finished.

T: Already finished?

Case2: S: ...woman doctors....

T: Woman ?

Epistemic Referential Why are you interested in

dancing?

Display

Who set up the community?

Expressive (teacher spots a student watching

cellphone in class ) What are you

doing? Could you please answer

the question?

Rhetorical It’s interesting, isn’t it?

Why did I say like that? Because...

As for questioning strategies to develop the interaction and

elicit more students’ output, Yang, et al. (2005) claim that Socratic

mode of questioning probe high-level thinking which means using

questioning strategies such as clarification and probing questions.

Cruickshank et al. (2009) identified three questioning strategies:

Probing, directing and rewording. Huiyu Liu (2010) classifies

questioning strategy into four types after classroom observation:

Self-explanation, probing, prompting and repetition. Hu Qingqiu

(2012a) argued that there are six questioning strategies including

probing, chaining, repetition, simplification, rephrasing and

decomposition. Matra (2014) investigated teacher questioning in

classroom interaction and proposed the following questioning

techniques: (1) Repeating and rephrasing. (2) Prompting and probing.

Ding Xiaoyue (2015) identifies four questioning strategies: probing,

prompting, repeating, redirecting. Hao Yang (2017)suggests three

questioning techniques: phrasing, directing and probing. So, to

summarize the literature above, some of the strategies mentioned

have the similar meaning, for example, decomposition and phrasing,

directing and redirecting. Some of them have inclusion relationship,

for instance, rewording can be rephrasing, simplification,

decomposition or phrasing. Generally speaking, in the follow-up

move, the main questioning strategies which have been mentioned

in the literature above are as follows: clarification, probing,

prompting, chaining, directing (or redirecting), rewording (eg.,

rephrasing, simplification, decomposition or phrasing), repetition

and so on. In this study, questioning strategies are identified and

analyzed based on questioning strategies summarized above.

In language learning interaction, language teachers tend to

use various strategies to give feedback in order to support and

facilitate student’s learning. Basing on Lyster’s classification of

corrective feedback and the effect on language acquisition, Ellis

(2009) identifies seven corrective feedback strategies: Recast, explicit

correction, repetition, clarification request, metalinguistic

explanation, elicitation and paralinguistic signal. The strategies of

written corrective feedback include direct, indirect, and

metalinguistic feedback. Oral corrective feedback strategies consist

of recast, explicit correction, repetition, clarification request,

elicitation and paralinguistic signal. Besides, Ellis develops two cases

of oral feedback: Input-providing and output-prompting corrective

feedback. Input-providing can take two forms: recast (implicit) and

explicit correction (explicit); While out-prompting can take four

forms: repetition (implicit), clarification (implicit), elicitation

(explicit), and Paralinguistic signal (explicit). Ellis’s taxonomy of

feedback strategies is shown in Table 2. In this study, feedback

strategies are identified and analyzed based on Rod Ellis’s taxonomy

below.

Table 2

Ellis (2009)’s taxonomy of feedback strategies

Inputproviding

Outputprompting

Strategies Features Examples

Recasts Implicit S: She want buy some

books

T: Yes, she wants to

buy some books.

Explicit Explicit S: They goed there

correction

yesterday.

T: No, not goed, it

should be “went”.

Repetitions Implicit S: They goed there

yesterday.

T: They goed ?

Clarification

requests

Implicit

S: Lily found a good

job.

T: What ?

Metalinguistic

feedback

Explicit

S: Both of them have

passed the exam.

T: Did I mention that?

This answer is not

comprehensive.

Elicitation Explicit L: The girl will leave if

it will not rain.

T: The girl will leave if

it...?

Classroom talk is the main component of classroom

discourse, including teacher talk and student in classroom. Teacher

and student talk is decided by classroom discourse. Student talk

serves at least the following functions: (1) To promotes language

learning because it’s beneficial to students’ reconstructing new

linguistic forms in social settings; (2) Students expand their ideas by

creating relationship between previous and new knowledge/

information; (3) It enhances students’ comprehension, critical

thinking, and achievement (Piazza, et al., 2015). The more student

talks, the more beneficial the classroom environment is (Sedova, K.

et al., 2019).

However, researches have shown that teachers dominate

classroom talk (Bautista, 2017; Apaydin & Aydemir, 2018;

Norboevitch, 2019; Sedova, et al., 2019). Apaydin and Aydemir

(2018) found that teacher in class of high-achieving students spared

more than fifty percent of the time talking, while teacher in

comparatively low-level class spent eighty percent in talking. This

study investigates on the average amount of teacher/student talk in

English classes of both English majors and non-English majors.

Interaction structures

Different choices in the third move result in different

teaching activities, which lead to the variation of IRF

pattern/sequence. Yue-e Li & Hongya Fan (2002) find the

conversational interaction structure follows the pattern of: (1) IRFR.

After the teacher gives feedback on student’s wrong answer,

students usually imitate/repeat the correct answer provided by the

teacher. (2)IR[I1R1(I2R2)]F. Teacher doesn’t give feedback on

student’s response immediately, instead, she/he initiates another

question to make the student answer. (3) IR1F1 /R2F2. One or more

students’ response after teacher initiates the question. At this time,

if the teacher doesn’t shift the topic, it is likely that more students

will give the answers, then the teacher has to give the feedback again.

Sinclair and Coulthard (2013) identify five types of bound exchange:

(1) IRIbRF. In this structure, teacher initiates the same or a rephrased

question after receiving no answer by employing the strategies such

as prompt, nomination, clue and other acts. (2) IRF(Ib)RF. After

getting an incorrect answer, teacher can stay with the same student

by guiding him to the right answer or move on to another student.

(3) IRF(Ib)RF(Ib)RF. In this case, the teacher doesn’t offer evaluation

until two or three answers are given. In this case, teacher re-initiates

by nomination and F move contains no evaluation. (4) IRIbR. This

structure happens when the teacher gives the whole or a group a

direction or instruction and one student fails/is reluctant to follow. In

this bound exchange, Ib is realized by using nomination, prompt, or a

clue. (5) IRIbRF. Teacher doesn’t give feedback on student’s

response, instead, teacher initiates again, after they have heard but

need a repeated answer for other reasons. In this study, variations of

IRF are identified and analyzed based on these variations below.

Table 3

Coding Scheme for Interaction patterns

Code Descriptive Example Move

IRF Teacher gives the

feedback soon after

the students’ response

to the question

initiated by the

teacher.

IRI n R n F

Teacher doesn’t give

feedback on student’s

response immediately,

TA: Result. What’s I

your question?

S: The last one. R

TA: Yeah, yeah, the F

last one.

TB: Do you know

anything about this

novel?

I

IRFR n F n

instead, she initiates

another question to

make the same

student answer, or ask

another student to

answer the original

question.

One or more students’

response after teacher

initiates the question.

IRFR It happens when

student adds more

information after

teacher gives the

feedback on students’

response to the

question initiated by

the teacher.

Ss: Dickens, Charles R

Dickens.

TB: Anything about I

it?

Ss: London and Paris. R

TB: Yes, London and F

Paris.

TB: Once again I

Sydney Carton, Why?

S: If I were her. I, I -- R

TB: If I were her, F

who?

S: Sydney Carton. R

TB: Sydney Carton. F

TE: Does anyone tell I

us the differences?

S: The westerners’ R

relationship is simple,

but for Chinese, it’s

too complicated.

TE: Very complicated. F


The current research aimed to explore teacher talk in the

teacher-student conversational interaction in a higher education

institution’s EFL classrooms. Specifically, it sought answers to the

following questions:

1. What types of questions do teachers ask during classroom

interaction?

2. What types of questioning strategies do the teacher-participants

use in the follow-up move?

3. What types of strategies do the teacher-participants use when

giving feedback to students?

4. What is the average talk time of the teacher/ students in the

conversational interaction?

5. What types of interaction structure happen during the studentteacher

interaction in the classroom?

6. What teacher training program could be proposed to promote

classroom interaction in EFL classroom?

Research Design

METHODOLOGY

The design of the current study is descriptive research design

in order to gain deeper insight on how the teachers employ their talk

to promote students’ target language use in the conversational

interaction in EFL classroom discourse. According to Shona

McCombes (2019), McNabb, Connie (2008) and Shuttleworth,

Martyn (2008), the purpose of descriptive research is to

systematically describe an existing phenomenon involving who,

where, when, what, how instead of why or to describe “what exists”

regarding variables in a certain discourse. Descriptive research design

may employ quantitative approach to investigate the variables. This

type of research is proper when the study attempts to identify the

characteristics, frequencies, tendency, relationship, types and so on

by observing the participants in a comparatively natural and

unchanged natural discourse. Descriptive research design is used in

the current study in order to identify and describe the formal and

functional features of teacher talk in the interaction in EFL classroom,

focusing on the types and frequencies of questions, questioning and

feedback strategies in IRF sequence.

Participants

There are two types of participants in the study: 1.Teacherparticipants.

The following are the inclusion criteria for the teacherparticipants:

(1) They are EFL teachers for 10-20 years, their ages

ranging from thirty to forty-five. (2) They belong to the Foreign

Language School in the university, three are members of College

English Teaching Department, teaching non-English majors, three are

those who teach English majors. (3) They are able to express

themselves in English. (4) They agree to be part of the research

voluntarily and sign the informed consent form. 2.Studentparticipants.

(1) They are students from the six teacher-participants’

teaching classes, respectively. (2) They are at least 17 years old. (3)

They agree to be the participants.

Data Collection

Data in this research were collected from the actual videorecordings.

The current research chose to record the teaching in the

Intensive Reading Course, because non-English specialized college

students at all levels are only provided with two English learning

courses: Intensive Reading Course and Listening and Speaking

Course, both of which are the compulsory courses with uniform

syllabi, textbooks, teaching plan and final exams. Meanwhile, for

English majors, Intensive Reading Course is the basic compulsory

course.

Intensive Reading Course is designed to develop the college

students’ English competence through teacher’s instruction of

grammar, vocabulary, and text comprehension by using the text as

carrier (Xiaoli Ji & Jian Gong, 2017). It can reflect the typical English

learning classroom organization in higher institutions in China.

With the permission of the participants and relevant

administrative departments, the whole teaching processes of six

teachers were video recorded to reflect what have occurred in the

classroom of Intensive Reading Course. Altogether six sessions

involving 240 minutes in EFL classroom teaching are recorded and

transcribed by the researcher and three English teachers who have

worked in the same university for at least 10 years, which supplies

comparatively naturally occurring data from conversational

interaction between teachers and students in EFL classroom

discourse.

Data Analysis

In the data analysis, these six teachers are referred to as

Teacher A, B, C, D, E, F. Teacher A, B, C are teacher participants who

teach English majors, while Teacher D, E, F are teachers of non-

English majors. Analysis and interpretations of the video transcripts

and extracts are validated by at least 3 specialists/experts in the field.

The video-recordings are transcribed based on Jefferson’s (1984)

transcription notation for discourse analysis and the classroom.

Table 4

Notations adapted in transcription

Symbol Meaning Example

? Rising intonation S: Some food.

TC: Some food?

::: Extension of an

utterance

TB: All of them were written

by:::

TB&AS: Women.

(text) Correction or Note TB:(Looking around the

classroom), OK, you please.

Uh Hesitation or silence S: Uh ---

... Expressions which

can’t be heard.

TC: Do you know what is

Bosun?

S: It’s ...

The video-recordings are coded, categorized, analyzed,

interpreted based on Sinclair & Coulthard's IRF model (1975). In the

research, the components such as types of question and their

percentage, questioning and feedback strategies and their

frequencies, teacher/student talk time are identified and analyzed.

Meanwhile, in the data analysis, teacher talk in English majors and

non-English majors will be compared from the aspects mentioned

above.

Table 5 is the basic framework as a guidance for teacher talk

observation and analysis. In Sinclair and Coulthard’s model of

teacher’s initiation-students’ response-teacher’s feedback, teacher

talk lies in the first move “initiation” and the last “move”. In initiation

move, types of question will be identified and analyzed based on

Long and Sato’s classification of questions. In the feedback/follow-up

move, questioning strategies will be identified and analyzed based on

the researcher’s own summary; The feedback strategies will be

identified and analyzed based on Ellis (2009)’s taxonomy.

Table 5

Framework of teacher talk

Initiation Types of

questions

Echoic

Followup

move

in IRF

Questioning

strategies

Feedback

strategies

Epistemic

There is

response

No/

Incorrect/

Incomplete

response

Correct

response

No/

Incorrect/

Incomplete

response

Comprehension checks

Clarification requests

Confirmation checks

Referential question

Display question

Expressive question

Rhetorical question

Clarification

Chaining

Prompting

Probing

Rewording

Repetition

Redirecting

Acknowledgment/Praise

Comment

Encouragement

Recast

Explicit correction

Repetition

Clarification request

Metalinguistic

explanation

Elicitation

Paralinguistic signal


In this research, six teacher participants’ Intensive Reading

classes were recorded and transcribed on the basis of the conceptual

framework and the research design. In the following analysis, TA, TB

and TC belong to the group who teach English majors, while TD, TE

and TF are of the group who teach non-English majors. Teachers of

the same group have the same topic in classes, but they have

different focuses and teaching methods. Data analysis covers the

conversational interaction components such as frequency of types of

questions teachers initiated, frequency of questioning strategies

teachers used, frequency of feedback strategies, average talk time of

the teachers & students, and the interaction patterns.

Question 1: Types of Questions Asked by Teachers

Table 6

Types of Questions Asked by Teachers

Table 6 shows the specific use of types of questions in the

classes of both English majors and non-English majors and the

frequency of these questions. In this table, CC1 is Comprehension

Check, CC2 is Clarification Request, St means subtotal, RQ1 is

Referential Question, DQ is Display Questions, EQ is Expressive

Question, RQ2 represents Rhetorical Question. F is short for

frequency, % means percentage.

As for the teachers of English majors, in Table 6, TA totally

utilized 16 questions, and she used more epistemic questions than

echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she used clarification the

most frequently. Of all the epistemic questions, TA used display

question the most frequently. This may be because her teaching

tasking was focused on the use of words and expressions and most

of her questions were to tell students to translate the English

sentences or vice versa, which was to test students’ previous

knowledge with low-level thinking. TB used 40 epistemic questions,

which were more than her echoic question. Of all the echoic

questions, she used confirmation checks the most frequently; Of all

the epistemic type, she used referential question the most frequently

(23 times), which was followed by display question (17 times). This

may be because her teaching task was focused on the understanding

of text theme and needed higher level thinking. TC totally used 69

questions, which were more than TA or TB. She also asked more

epistemic questions than echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she

used confirmation checks the most frequently. This may be because

TC also emphasized on the comprehension of text theme which

needed higher level thinking. Overall, data of teachers of English

majors in table 6 shows that: (1) Teachers of English majors used

more epistemic questions than echoic questions. (2) Of the echoic

questions, all of the three teachers of English majors used more

confirmation checks than any other echoic questions; while of the

epistemic questions, all of the three used display question and

referential question more frequently than any other question types.

This may be because the teaching tasks of English majors focused

more on comprehension of text theme and development students’

higher level thinking.

As for the teachers of non-English majors, TD used more

epistemic questions than echoic type. Of all the echoic questions, she

only used 3 confirmation checks. Of all the 37 epistemic questions,

she used display question the most frequently, 37 times. This may be

because TD focused on reading skill and the semantic and syntactic

understanding of the sentences in the text. TE totally asked 65

questions, more than TD and TF. She used more epistemic questions

than echoic ones. Of all the echoic questions, she used confirmation

checks the most frequently. Of all the epistemic questions, her

display question took the highest proportion. This may be because TE

focused more on the writing skills in the text and used more display

questions to check students’ comprehension on the author’s using

comparison and contrast to develop the text, which was

characterized by finding evidences in the text to support the points.

TF also asked more epistemic questions than echoic type. Of her 48

epistemic questions, TF asked 31 display questions which occupied

the highest proportion. On the whole, findings were: (1) Teachers of

non-English majors used more epistemic questions than echoic type.

Of all the echoic questions, confirmation checks were employed

more frequently than comprehension checks and clarification

requests. Of all the epistemic questions, display question was used

the most frequently. This result is similar to the investigation of Inan

and Fidan (2013) that majority of the teacher-initiated questions

were epistemic questions, most of which were display questions; Of

all the echoic questions, confirmation checks were the most

common. It is also in line with the investigation of Long and Sato

(1983) that teachers asked more epistemic than echoic questions in

class; Teachers asked more display questions compared to referential

questions. (2) Teachers of non-English majors rarely used expressive

question in EFL classes. This maybe because in Chinese EFL

classroom, teachers knew the importance of the relationship

between teacher and students and tried to avoid using expressive

question to create the harmonious learning environment in the

classroom.

To compare the two groups -- teachers of English and non-

English majors. It can be seen that (1) Both groups used more

epistemic questions than echoic type. Of the echoic questions, both

groups tended to use more confirmation checks than any other

echoic type. Of all the epistemic questions, both groups used more

display questions than any other types of questions. This result is

similar to the investigation of Inan and Fidan (2013) that majority of

the teacher-initiated questions were epistemic questions, most of

which were display questions; Of all the echoic questions,

confirmation checks were the most common. It is also in line with the

investigation of Long and Sato (1983) that teachers asked more

epistemic than echoic questions in class; Teachers asked more

display questions compared to referential questions. (2) Both groups

rarely used expressive question in classes. This maybe because in

Chinese EFL classroom, teachers knew the importance of the

relationship between teacher and students and tried to avoid using

expressive question to create the harmonious learning environment

in the classroom. This is in line with the investigation of Yanfen, L. &

Yuqin, Z. (2010) that both teacher and students prefer

encouragement or appreciation in EFL classroom. Expressive

question sometimes arouse students’ negative emotions and

teachers tend to avoid using it to discourage students’ interest or

confidence in English learning. (3)Teachers of non-English majors

used a little more epistemic questions than those of English majors

did. Teachers of English majors utilized more referential questions

than those of non-English majors did, while teachers of non-English

used more display questions. This maybe because learning task of

English majors was more focused on the understanding of text theme

and needed higher level thinking, while non-English majors were

focused on reading or writing skills and the semantic and syntactic

understanding of the sentences in the text.

To observe the recordings, the followings can be found: (1)

More epistemic questions were used by both groups to develop

interaction and epistemic questions which induced more student talk

in classroom. That is, epistemic questions involved students in more

language use, and students can talk more, while echoic question only

made the students say “yes” or ”no”. This backs up the view of Long

& Sato (1983): epistemic questions such as referential question,

display question, expressive question and rhetorical question,

especially referential question and display question, help students

elicit new information and acquire the information. Meanwhile, all

the teacher-participants used echoic question to promote

understanding between teacher and students during interaction,

which supports the position of Long & Sato (1983) that echoic

question helps enhance understanding between teacher and

student. (2) Compared to the classes of non-English majors, more

referential questions were used in classes of English majors, and

referential question induced more student talk. In the classes where

there were more referential questions, students were more actively

engaged in language use and could respond fluently and creatively

without using the original expressions in the current text. This

supports the views of the researchers such as Long & Sato (1983), Hu

Qingqiu (2012a) that referential question not only makes classroom

more interactive and promotes students’ critical thinking and deep

understanding, but also generates more complicated and nearnatural

speech. (3) Compared with the teachers of English majors,

teachers of non-English majors hardly used referential question, they

employed more display questions instead, and the interaction in non-

English majors’ classrooms were also active, which is in line with the

observation of Wright (2016) that displayed question can lead to

more interactive communication between lower level students and

teacher, compared to referential question. However, non-English

majors comparatively talked much less, sometimes, their answers are

only “yes” or “no”.

According to Wright (2016), display question is used to check

students' previous knowledge and factual information elicitation

with low-level thinking, which helps students provide imitative

answers. So, Both display and referential questions are crucial to

language learning and acquisition. Long & Sato (1983) found that in

natural language environment, there are more referential questions

than display questions, and referential question helps create real

language environment in language learning class. Abhakorn (2014)

proposed that the real communicative classroom interaction was

characterized by using more referential questions instead of display

questions. In addition, according to Boyd (2015), responsive and

responsible use of questions initiated by teacher can guide and elicit

more student talk, and induce diverse characteristics of student talk.

So, teacher should be able to get familiar with types of questions,

Flexibly use them by using different forms of speech.

Question 2: Questioning Strategies Utilized by Teachers

Table 7

Questioning Strategies Utilized by Teachers

Table 7 is about questioning strategies used by the teachers.

In this table, the letter “f” means “frequency” and the symbol “%”

represents “percentage”. Of the three teachers of English majors,

table 7 shows that TA totally used 3 types of questioning strategies

including clarification, prompting and redirecting, of which she used

clarification the most frequently. This perhaps because her teaching

focus was translation of the new words, expressions and sentences

which was comparatively simpler and changeless. TB used all the

types of questioning strategies. Of all her strategies, she used probing

the most frequently, then followed by clarification. TC totally utilized

strategies 41 times, that means her questioning strategies are the

most of all. Of all the strategies, she used clarification the most

frequently, which was followed by probing. That maybe because their

learning tasks were more difficult and needed higher level thinking,

so both TB and TC needed probing to guide students to understand

the theme of the text. Overall, data of the teachers of English majors

show that (1) Clarification was the most widely used by the teachers.

Meanwhile, chaining was rarely used by them. This maybe because

teachers paid much importance to the understanding between

students and themselves, due to students’ lower level English

competency, they had to use clarification to confirm whether they

had understood each other. (2) Teachers who used the questioning

strategies most frequently tended to use more questioning strategies

including prompting, probing, rewording and clarification. This

maybe because (1) they had better English competency; (2) they

were more flexible in using questioning strategies; (3) their teaching

tasks were more complicated and difficult, and needed students’


As for the teachers of non-English majors, TD used the fewest

questioning strategies, only 5 times, of which, 4 were clarification and

one was repetition. TE used questioning strategy the most frequently

of all the three, she didn’t use chaining. Of all her 40 strategies, she

used clarification the most frequently, then followed by rewording

and probing. This maybe because (1) TE’s teaching tasks were more

difficult than that of TD and TF, (2) TE’s English competence was

much better than others; (3) TE’s was flexible in using questioning

strategies. Overall, As for the teachers of non-English majors, we can

find: (1) Of all the questioning strategies, clarification was the most

widely and frequently used by all the teachers of non-English majors,

which can be inferred that clarification was the most common

strategy. (2) Teachers who used more questioning strategies tended

to use more questioning strategies including prompting, probing,

rewording and clarification.

To compare the two groups, the following can be found: (1)

Of all the questioning strategies, only clarification was used by both

of the groups of teachers, which could be inferred that clarification

was the most common strategy of all questioning strategies. (2)

Teachers who used the questioning strategies most frequently

tended to use more questioning strategies such as prompting,

probing, rewording and clarification. English teachers used

prompting and probing frequently perhaps because they wanted to

help students induce correct answers.

Looking into the recordings collected, it’s obvious that

questioning strategies were usually used in follow-up moves by

teachers to promote interaction and students’ comprehension. The

specific findings of the transcription are: (1) Clarification is the most

frequently used questioning strategy. (2) In both groups, teachers

who used more questioning strategies such as prompting, probing,

rewording and clarification elicited more student talk, and these

teachers tended to be good at switching between different kinds of

questioning strategies, especially prompting, probing and

clarification. Also, the quality of the student talk in their teaching

classes was higher. This supports Hardman’s (2020) investigation that

teacher talk involving follow-up moves facilitates students’

engagement in expressing themselves. Teacher’ using questioning

strategies are so significant for language teaching and learning in

classroom because they are beneficial to interaction development

and elicit students’ output, especially in the cases when students give

no response to teacher’s question. Hao Yang (2017) claims that When

students give no response, or have difficulty in giving an answer,

teacher should consider whether the question has multiple answers

or the question is too general and should phrase the question into

specific questions to promote students’ deep thinking or output, or

redirect the initial question to the next student so that students’ face

or self-esteem are kept. So, teachers of both English majors or non-

English majors should use more questioning strategies and choose

proper questioning strategies according to the classroom discourse.

(3) The researcher also found that compared to the teachers of non-

English majors, teachers of English majors used comparatively more

prompting and probing during the text analysis, which is because

they focused more on the deep understanding of the text theme, and

most of the answers couldn’t be found in the textbook. So, students

had to organize the words and expressions on their own. While the

teachers who taught non-English majors relatively used fewer

questioning strategy of prompting and probing, which is because

they emphasized more reading skills such as scanning and skimming

which are used to test students’ semantic and syntactical

comprehension of the text. This finding in agreement with Matra’s

(2014) investigation that prompting and probing benefit students a

lot in answering higher-level questions which need more clues in

formulating their responses. It’s in line with Huiyu Liu (2010)’s claim

that prompting and probing can not only guides students to provide

more complete and sufficient answer, but also promotes students’

critical thinking.

Question 3: Feedback Strategies Utilized by Teachers

Table 8

Feedback Strategies Utilized by Teachers

Table 8 is about the frequency of feedback strategies utilized

by teacher participants. In terms of teachers of English majors, in

Table 8, TA used all types of feedback strategies, she totally used

them 30 times. Of all these strategies, she used the acknowledgment

the most frequently, and then followed by repetition. TB used

feedback strategy for 54 times. Of all the strategies, she utilized

repetition the most frequently, then followed by acknowledgment,

and then by recast. TC used feedback strategy for 53 times. Of all the

strategies, she utilized clarification the most frequently, Then

followed by recast, 11 times, and then by acknowledgment. On a

whole, Table 8 shows that: (1) Acknowledgment was the most widely

used feedback, very few of the teacher-participants used feedback of

explicit correction, only Teacher A used explicit correction twice. It

can be inferred that teachers tended to give acknowledgment or

praise after students answered the questions. (2) All of them used

feedback strategies of acknowledgment, repetition and clarification

request. This may be because paid much attention to the

understanding between students and themselves. (3) To observe the

transcription of English majors’ class, it could be found that the more

frequent feedback strategies teacher used; the more students talked.

for example, TB and TC used comparatively more feedback strategies

such as acknowledgement, recast, repetition and elicitation, and

their students were engaged more in language output activities. This

may be because learning tasks were more difficult in the classes of

TB and TC, they needed various strategies to promote students’


As for the teachers of non-English majors, in Table 8, TD used

feedback strategy for 36 times. She used repetition the most

frequently, which was followed by acknowledgment. TE was the one

who used feedback strategy the most frequently, 57 times. She didn’t

use explicit correction. Of all the feedback, she used

acknowledgment the most frequently, which was followed by

clarification strategy, 17 times, then by repetition. TF used the fewest

feedback strategy. Of all her feedback strategies, she used repetition

the most frequently, then followed by acknowledgement. She did not

use any recast. Overall, table 8 shows: All of the teachers of non-

English majors used feedback strategies of acknowledgement,

repetition and clarification, meanwhile, acknowledgement and

repetition were the most frequently used by them. None of them

used explicit correction. This perhaps because teachers of non-

English recognized the importance of positive feedback and used

positive feedback such as acknowledgement/praise and repetition to

encourage students to participate in language use activities.

According to the recordings, the researcher found (1) students

tended to be more active and output more creative language in the

classrooms where metalinguistic signal and elicitation were used. For

example, students in the classrooms of TE and TF more engaged in

language use and generate more creative interlanguage. (2) Compare

to Teacher E and Teacher F, Teacher D used more pre-modified

questions and were not able to use the questioning strategies

flexibly. Her students talked more than Teacher F’s students did, but

they answered most of Teacher D's questions by reading the original

expressions in the textbook rather than using creative language. This

may be because TD and TE focused more on reading skill or writing

skill, while TF focused on explanation of difficult sentences of the

text. So students in classes of TD and TE could directly find the

answers in the text.

To compare the two groups -- teachers of English and non-

English majors, Table 8 shows: (1) In the classrooms of both groups,

feedback strategies of acknowledgement, repetition and clarification

request were the most widely used feedback, especially

acknowledgment, repetition. Teacher didn’t use or seldom used

explicit correction. This perhaps because teachers in EFL classrooms

have recognized the importance of positive feedback and used

positive feedback such as acknowledgment/praise and repetition to

encourage students to participate in language use activities. (2)

Teachers of English majors employed more feedback strategy of

recast, while teachers of non-English majors seldom used recast or

did not use recast. This may be because learning tasks of English

majors were more difficult than those of non-English majors,

teachers needed cast to improve students’ confidence and

enthusiasm in English learning. (3) Teachers of English majors used

more elicitation than those of non-English majors. This may be also

because learning tasks of English majors were more difficult than

those of non-English majors, teachers needed elicitation to guide

students’ higher level thinking and induce more student talk.

To observe the videos and transcripts, the researcher found:

(1) acknowledgment and repetition were the most widely used

feedback strategies in the classrooms of both teachers of English and

non-English majors. Nearly all of the teacher participants managed to

integrate praise or acknowledgement with the feedback strategies

such as repetition, clarification request, metalinguistic signal or

elicitation. This can be inferred that all the teachers managed to

make good use of positive feedback like praise or acknowledgement

to stimulate students’ interest, cultivate students’ confidence and

encourage them to engage in target language output by establishing

harmonious relationship between teacher and students. This

supports Ellis’s conclusion (2009) that positive such as

acknowledgment/praise (e.g., “yes”, “good”, “well done”,

“Excellent”) validates students’ correct answer as well as enhances

their confidence and motivation of continuous learning and

improvement. It also backs up the view that teachers’ positive

feedback is powerful in inspiring students’ motivation and interest,

boosting students’ confidence in language use activities and

developing their target language skills (Nunan, 1991; Noviana and

Ardi, 2015; Hao Yang, 2017). (2) Feedback strategies of

acknowledgment, repetition and clarification request were used by

all of the teachers. That is, all of the teacher-participants tended to

use implicit feedback in conversational interaction between teacher

and students. This phenomenon support the conclusion of

researchers such as Korn, et al. (2014), Q Huang (2014), Jia Cui (2014),

Q Huang (2014), and Jingjiao Chen (2018) that, due to the influence

of Chinese culture of face-maintenance, teachers try to use different

kinds of feedback strategies to prevent students from being too shy

to express themselves in English class, or keeping silent for fear of

making errors or mistakes, in order to keep students’ facemaintenance

or self-esteem and encourage them to keep on

participating in learning activities in class. Although implicit feedback

has the advantages mentioned above, it is worth mentioning that

explicit feedback also enhances language competence. For example,

Long (1996) and Ellis (2009) prove that explicit feedback such as

metalinguistic feedback, explicit correction and elicitation promote

the flow of conversational interaction in classroom and contribute to

students’ implicit knowledge development by making students notice

the gap between their utterances and the target language. Language

acquisition happens when students get explicit feedback on their

efforts to express themselves. (3) Compered with teachers of non-

English majors, teachers of English majors used more feedback

strategy of recast, while teachers of non-English majors used fewer.

This is not in agreement with Lyster and Ranta’s conclusion (1997)

that recasting was the most widely employed strategy by a large

margin. But, in the classrooms of English majors, the researcher

found that the more the students talked, the more frequently their

teacher used the feedback of recast and elicitation. This is in

accordance with Ellis (2009)’s conclusion that corrective feedback of

recast helps teacher provide students with correct modification of

their previous errors which increases comprehensible input, while

feedback of elicitation facilitates students modifying their own errors

and their generating more output.

Generally speaking, corrective feedback such as explicit

correction, recast, elicitation, metalinguistic cues, clarification and

repetition are beneficial to language teaching and learning in

classroom. According to VanPatten (2003), corrective feedback

assists students to notice the errors and establish form-meaning

connections by meaning negotiation, which promotes language

acquisition. Moreover, Ellis (2009) claims that the goal of corrective

feedback is to make students aware of the difference between the

target language and his own level of foreign language, by using the

direct/explicit or indirect/ implicit corrective feedback. Thus, through

corrective feedback, students can increase the awareness of selfcorrection

which promotes students’ reconstruction of the target

language system. Therefore, in EFL classroom, teachers should use

various strategies to give feedback to support and facilitate students’

learning.

Question 4: Average talk Time of Teachers and Students

Table 9

Talk Time of Teachers and Students

Table 9 is about Student talk time, teacher talk time and the

silence time in the classes. As for classes of English majors, Table 9

shows that teacher talk is dominant in the classes of English majors.

Of all these teachers of English majors, students of TB and TC talked

much more than those of TA, separately taking up 32.9% and 34.6%

of the classroom talk. TA’s talk time occupied over 90% of the

classroom talk. To exam the transcriptions, the researcher found that

(1) students of TB and TC talked much more. This may be because the

talk of TB and TC was involved in the follow-up moves, and they were

more flexible in using types of questions, questioning strategies and

feedback strategies, their student talked more than TA’s, too.

Compared to TA, both of TB and TC used more various types of

questions, and they used more epistemic questions especially display

question and referential question. This may be because teaching

tasks of TB and TC were more complicated than TA. Meanwhile, they

employed more questioning strategies, especially probing and

prompting. Both TB and TC used more feedback strategies than TA,

especially they used more acknowledgement and recast. The

researcher also found that the English competency and proficiency of

TB and TC is much better than that of TA, and the pace (the speed of

the class) of TB’s and TC’s class was faster than that of TA. Students

in these two classes were more active too. Meanwhile, teacher A’s

teaching tasks were related to explanation of the new expressions

and the leading-in activities of the text, and most of the learning tasks

were to translate the English expressions and sentences. The learning

tasks of TB and TC were relevant to the understanding of the theme,

which may be the reason why Teacher B and C used more display and

referential question that Teacher A. What’s more, the researcher also

found the quality and the quantity of the students in both TB and TC

are better those in TA.

As for classes of non-English majors, Table 9 shows that

teacher talk of non-English majors took up a large proportion of the

classroom talk. Students in TE’s class talked more than those of TD

and TF. This may be because talk of TE was more involved in followup

move such as using more types of questions, more strategies of

questioning and feedback compared to classes of TD and TF.

According to the transcriptions, teaching tasks of all the three non-

English major classes were similar -- Text analysis. Teacher E used

more various types of questions (e.g., The total of the questions used

by TE is 65, while TD and TC are 40 and 53 separately.), specially used

more display questions than the other two (The total of the display

questions utilized by TE is 46). Meanwhile, TE used more questioning

strategies than the other two. As for the feedback strategies, TE also

used more.

To compare the classes of English and non-English majors.

Table 9 shows (1) the average talk time of English majors is 9.30

minutes, which occupied 27.65% of the classroom talk, the average

talk time of their teacher is 24.33 minutes, which took up 72.35% of

the classroom talk; The average talk time of non-English majors is

3.93 minutes, which was 12.93% of the classroom talk, the average

talk time of their teacher is 26.47 minutes, its percentage was

87.07%. Average talk time of English majors were longer than that of

the non-English majors, accordingly, the average talk time of the

teachers of non-English majors was longer than that of the teachers

of English majors. That may be because teachers of English majors

focused more on understanding of the text theme while teachers of

non-English majors focused more on writing skill of reading skill in

text analysis. (2) It’s obvious that it was the teacher who dominated

a higher portion of the talk in EFL classes of both English and non-

English major regardless of different teachers, different students,

different themes and different teaching procedures, Talk time of

both groups of teachers far exceeded that of students, accounting for

over two-thirds of the classroom talk. This is in line with the findings

of the researches (Bautista, 2017; Apaydin and Aydemir, 2018;

Norboevitch, 2019; Sedova, et al., 2019) that talk time of teacher far

exceeded that of student in EFL classroom, accounting for over twothirds

of the classroom talk. This may be because of Chinese

classroom culture that teachers tend to spread knowledge and

information and students tend to accept them without questioning.

To examine the recordings, the researcher found: (1) Even in IRF

cycle, the teacher dominated the interaction talk, which is agreed

with Jingfen Xu’s (2015) observation. The teachers (TA, TD and TF)

whose talk time far exceeded that of students used more closed

/displayed questions, while those (TB, TC and TE) whose classes had

longer student talk time used more open/ referential questions or

used more questioning strategies such as prompting and probing.

This is in line with Hardman’s (2020) investigation that teacher’s talk

involving open questions and follow-up moves facilitates students’

engagement in expressing themselves; (2) Compared to non-English

majors, English majors took up larger proportion of the interaction

talk, and their talk are much more fluent. So, it can be explained that

student talk time was influenced by their English competence; It can

also be explained that student talk time is greatly affected by

teacher’s competence such as the language competence and the

flexibility of using the question types and transferring the questioning

strategies. This backs up Ellis (2015)’s view that teacher talk is the

impetus of student talk which promotes student’s participating in the

language output.

According to Piazza et al.(2015), student talk can not only

expand their ideas by creating relationship between previous and

new knowledge, but also enhance students’ comprehension, critical

thinking, and achievement. The more the student talk is, the more

the student participates in language use. The more the student

engages in language output, the faster student acquires the

language(Ellis; 2015). So, student talk time should be increased and

improved while teacher talk time should be relatively minimized. To

achieve this, besides improving their own speech quality, teacher

should try to do the followings: (1) To provide appropriate ground

rules which support student talk. Ground rules promote students’

evaluating the evidences, using them for their thinking, creating

meaning and sharing them with others (Mercer, 2002). For example,

all the students should actively take part in language use activities

and their engagement in language use in class should be evaluated;

Students should prepare for the lesson and its theme before class so

that they know what to say and how to say in class; To respect and

encourage the speakers instead of laughing at them when they make

mistakes or errors, etc. (2) To use more higher order questions like

referential questions and questioning strategies such as prompting

and probing. (3) To spare time giving ear to students’ expressions.

Question 5: Interaction patterns in EFL class

Table 10

Interaction patterns in the EFL classes

Table 10 is about the patterns of interaction in the EFL

classrooms of the teacher participants. As for classes of English

majors, in table 10, three patterns including IRF, IRInRnF and IFRF

appeared in TA’s class. IRE appeared the most frequently. Of all the

classes of English majors, interaction pattern in TB’s class can be

observed the most frequently. In her class, there were totally 4

patterns including IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn and IRFR. In TC’s class, IRF

also appeared the most frequently, which was followed by the

pattern of IRInRnF (9 times), then followed by IRFRnFn, then by IRFR.

Overall, in classes of English majors, there were five types of

interaction patterns in the classrooms of English majors, including

IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IRFR and IFRF. This indicated that teachers of

English majors tended to provide feedback after students provided

feedback. Of all the patterns, IRF is the dominant patterns. And IRF,

IRInRnF appeared the most frequently, and the pattern of IR did not

appear. That’s perhaps because all of these three teachers knew the

importance of tended to give the feedback after students provided

the answers. Meanwhile, IFRF rarely appeared, this means that

usually after the teacher gave feedback, students did not continue

the utterances any more. This may be because to the students,

teacher meant authority, students tended to accept the feedback

given by their teachers.

As for the classes of non-English major, five interaction

patterns appeared, they were: IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR, IFRF. In TD’s

class, totally 22 times of interaction pattern can be observed, which

includes two types of patterns: IRF and IRInRnF. IRF appeared 21

times. In TE’s class, five types of interaction patterns appeared such

as IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR, IFRF. IRF appeared the most frequently.

Then was followed by IRFRnFn and IFRF. IR appeared only once.

Overall, there were five types of interaction patterns in the

classrooms of English majors, including IRF, IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IR and

IFRF. Among all the patterns, IRF appeared the most frequently. IR

was seldom used by teachers of non-English majors. That means that

all of these three teachers tended to provide the feedback on

students’ responses. Meanwhile, IFRF only appeared in TE’s

classroom, which indicated that some of the students of TE had the

motivation to talk more after receiving the feedback from their

teacher.

To compare the classes of English and non-English majors.

Table 10 showed that (1) it’s obvious that IRF was the dominant

interaction pattern, and IRF appeared more frequently in classes of

non-English majors than that did in classes of English majors. (2)

During the classes of text analysis, patterns such as IRInRnF, IRFRnFn,

IRFR appeared more frequently in classroom of English majors than

in that of non-English majors. That is to say there were more turns

appearing in the patterns, which may be because teachers of non-

English majors used more display questions to test students’

understanding of the sentences instead of the theme, students could

comparatively easily find the answers in the textbook (e.g., TD and

TE), thus, the pattern is simpler. On the other hand, interaction

patterns were more various and had more turns in classes of English

majors, this may be because teachers of English majors used more

referential questions, and their teaching tasks focused more on the

understanding of the text theme instead of the surface

understanding of the sentences during the text analysis. To examine

the transcriptions, it could be found that teacher talk was dominant.

That is, teacher dominated the patterns of interaction between

teacher ans student. This position is in line with the conclusion of

Jingfen Xu(2015), Junhonh Guo (2015) and Behtash and Azarnia

(2015) that in the interaction pattern in EFL classroom, even in IRF

cycle, teacher dominated the classroom talk. (2) IRF is the most

ubiquitous interaction pattern in the recorded EFL classes, and of all

the variations of IRF, IRInRnF is the most common variation. That

means that teachers tended to provide feedback on students’

response in the traditional EFL classrooms, which showed that these

teachers realized the importance of feedback. This is in line with Zhu

Xiaomei’s (2008) finding that IRF can often be found in the traditional

teacher-centered classroom teaching. (3) In the classrooms of English

majors, there were more variations of IRF, and patterns such as

IRInRnF, IRFRnFn, IRFR appeared more frequently. The researcher

also found that the more frequently these patterns appeared, or the

more turns the variation embraced, the more the students were

engaged in creative language output. This phenomenon backs up the

position of Cullen (2002) that when teacher replaces the last move

with a follow-up question or feedback move, students will be more

motivated to perpetuate the language interaction, which contributes

to student’s higher thinking and more target language use.

Although IRF has its limitations, teachers can enrich the last

move of IRF and use follow-up move to extend the sequence until

they get satisfying responses. These variations of IRF facilitate the

open dialogic interaction in class.

CONCLUSION

Teacher talk serves as input of the target language as well as

impetus of classroom interaction which enhances students’

comprehension of the input and their participation in the language

use activities. Students’ language learning and acquisition much rely

on the content of teacher talk and the way of its delivery and the

extent of its engaging students in target language use. In order for

engaging students to express themselves in target language as much

as possible, besides increasing their English competency, teachers of

both English majors and non-English majors should be flexible in the

use of question types, especially referential and display question, the

use of questioning strategies especially prompting and probing, and

the feedback strategies, especially recast, elicitation and

metalinguistic feedback.

RECOMMENDATION

Although teachers dominate the EFL classroom talk, the

researcher proposes that teachers can be trained to improve their

talk and have control of learning activities in EFL classroom to

increase the quantity and the quality of the student talk.

In the training program, the following points should be paid

attention: (1) To equip teachers with necessary theories or

conceptions relevant to language learning and acquisition; to make

them understand these theories so that they know how important

teacher talk is, how input, interaction and output promote language

learning and acquisition, how to develop interaction in language

teaching according to students’ language level and teaching content,

what types of questions, questioning strategies, feedback are and

what their functions are, etc. (2) Teachers should be trained to

flexibly use various types of question (especially referential and

display question), questioning strategies (especially prompting and

probing, and the feedback strategies (especially recast, elicitation

and metalinguistic feedback), and above all, teachers should be

trained to improve their proficiency and flexibility of using English,

if possible, teachers should observe the effective teaching as much

as possible. (3) Teachers should be trained to do researches related

to language learning and teaching, thus they can reflect on and

modify their own teaching.

References

Boyd, M. P. (2015). Relations between teacher questioning and

student talk in one elementary ELL classroom. Journal of

Literacy Research, 47(3), 370-404.

Coulthard, M. (2014). An introduction to discourse analysis.

Routledge.

Ellis, R. (1995). Modified oral input and the acquisition of word

meanings. Applied Linguistics, 16(4),409-441.

Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition 2nd

Edition-Oxford applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2

Journal, 1(1).

Hongyang Zhang (2018). Analysis and reflection on silence in English

classes for Non-English majors in colleges and universities,

Overseas English. 24(22):48-52.

Leung, F. K. S. (2005). Some characteristics of East Asian mathematics

classrooms based on data from the TIMSS 1999 video study.

Educational Studies in Mathematics, 60(2), 199-215.

Littlewood, W. (2014). Communication-oriented language teaching:

Where are we now? Where do we go from here?. Language

Teaching, 47(3), 349-362.

Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second

language acquisition. In Handbook of second language

acquisition, 2, 413-468.

Long, M.H. (1985) Input and second language acquisition theory. In

S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds.), Input and second language

acquisition (pp. 377-393). Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.

Long, M.H.(1990). The least a second language acquisition theory

needs to explain. Tesol Quarterly, 24(4), 649-666.

Lyster, R., Saito, K. & Sato, M. (2013). Oral corrective feedback in

second language classrooms. Language Teaching, 46(1):1-40.

Qin Liu (2019). Self-efficacy theory and college English class cilence,

Journal of Zhaotong College, 12(6)28-22

Qingqiu Hu (2012). Research on modified feedback in communicative

language teaching, Journal of Changsha Railway Institute

(Social Science Edition),12(1), 10-14

Qingqiu Hu (2012). A study on the interaction characteristics

between teachers and students in communicative English

class, Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.

12(3), 17-22

Qingsong Liu & Kaihong Liao (2019). The learning promoting effect of

question-asking discourse in college English classroom: From

the perspective of interaction and collaboration, Foreign

Languages and Literature, 12(3)21-26

Sinclair and Coulthard (1992) “Toward in analysis in discourse.” In

Coulthard, M. (ed). Advances in spoken discourse analysis.

London: Routledge. 1- 34.

Sinclair, J. & Coulthard, M. (2013). Towards an analysis of discourse.

In Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 7-40).

Routledge.

Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of

comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its

development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second

language acquisition (pp. 235–253). Rowley, MA: Newbury

House.

Swain, M. (1993). The output hypothesis: Just speaking and writing

aren’t enough. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 158–

164.

Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language

learning. In G.Cook & B.Seidlhofer (Eds.),Principle and

practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honor of H.G.

Widdowson (pp. 125–144). Oxford, England: Oxford

University Press.

VanPatten, B.(2003). From input to output: A teacher's guide to

second language acquisition. McGraw-Hill.

Wright, B. M. (2016). Display and referential questions: Effects on

student responses. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 15(4),

160-189.

Yanfen, L. & Yuqin, Z. (2010). A study of teacher talk in interactions in

English classes. Chinese journal of applied linguistics,

33(2),76-86.

Yule G. (2016). The study of language. Cambridge university press.

Zhaohong Xue & Yonghui Tang (2019). A study on the influencing

factors of English classroom silence in Chinese universities

based on grounded theory, Journal of Heilongjiang Institute

of Technology (Comprehensive Edition).

Graduate School Research Journal Vol XVIII No 1 (Body)(edited)

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?