Instruction in Functional Assessment, 2014a
Instruction in Functional Assessment, 2014a
Instruction in Functional Assessment, 2014a
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<strong>Instruction</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Functional</strong> <strong>Assessment</strong> Chapter 1<br />
ents that signal those desired consequences. A recent meta-analysis of over 170 empirical<br />
studies found that, <strong>in</strong> most cl<strong>in</strong>ical cases, a clear environmental reason for the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s<br />
challeng<strong>in</strong>g behavior was identified (Matson et al., 2011).<br />
Positive re<strong>in</strong>forcement and negative re<strong>in</strong>forcement are the basic environmental functions<br />
or ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g variables for <strong>in</strong>dividuals’ challeng<strong>in</strong>g behavior (e.g., Beavers, Iwata,<br />
& Lerman, 2013; Lancioni, S<strong>in</strong>gh, O’Reilly, Sigafoos, & Didden, 2012; Matson, 2009).<br />
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT is a term used when events, objects, or sensory stimuli presented<br />
immediately follow<strong>in</strong>g a behavior result <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> that behavior <strong>in</strong> similar situations<br />
(Mart<strong>in</strong> & Pear, 2011). For <strong>in</strong>stance, an adolescent who has severe <strong>in</strong>tellectual disability<br />
and is <strong>in</strong> a wheelchair may grab at staff ’s clothes result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> much negative attention from<br />
the staff member (e.g., a stern look and statement to, “Please don’t do that!”). Although<br />
the staff member may be attempt<strong>in</strong>g to decrease the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s behavior, if the grabb<strong>in</strong>g<br />
behavior is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g and occurr<strong>in</strong>g when someone is around, then that behavior may be<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by positive re<strong>in</strong>forcement <strong>in</strong> the form of attention. POSITIVE REINFORCERS are<br />
the specific consequences that <strong>in</strong>crease the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s behavior, and can <strong>in</strong>clude attention,<br />
toys (tangibles), or food (edibles). It should be recognized that there are many consequences<br />
that are positive re<strong>in</strong>forcers for a child and what is a positive re<strong>in</strong>forcer for one may not be<br />
for another. Attention (even <strong>in</strong> the form of reprimands), objects (e.g., toys, food, electronic<br />
devices), and specific events (e.g., see<strong>in</strong>g a show, go<strong>in</strong>g for a walk) can be positive re<strong>in</strong>forcers<br />
when they <strong>in</strong>crease the behavior that preceded it.<br />
Re<strong>in</strong>forcement may also be produced by engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the behavior itself without any<br />
mediation by others, termed AUTOMATIC POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
might be engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> excessive f<strong>in</strong>ger tapp<strong>in</strong>g as a function of the sensory stimulation<br />
produced by that behavior. Likewise, thumb suck<strong>in</strong>g may occur because of the sensations<br />
it produces on the sk<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Another major function of challeng<strong>in</strong>g behavior is negative re<strong>in</strong>forcement (Lancioni,<br />
S<strong>in</strong>gh, O-Reilly, Sigafoo, & Didden, 2012). NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT refers to stimuli<br />
or events that when removed or avoided immediately after a behavior <strong>in</strong>crease its rate <strong>in</strong><br />
similar situations (Mart<strong>in</strong> & Pear, 2011). A NEGATIVE REINFORCER is an object or event that<br />
when it is immediately removed (escape condition<strong>in</strong>g) or prevented (avoidance condition<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g a behavior results <strong>in</strong> that behavior be<strong>in</strong>g more likely to occur <strong>in</strong> similar situations.<br />
For example, a child at the d<strong>in</strong>ner table may scream at the top of her lungs lead<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
parent send<strong>in</strong>g the child to her room. If that child screams at d<strong>in</strong>nertime more often, then<br />
negative re<strong>in</strong>forcement, <strong>in</strong> the form of “escap<strong>in</strong>g” from the d<strong>in</strong>ner table, may be occurr<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
As another example, a child who is hav<strong>in</strong>g difficulty with his homework talks to nearby<br />
classmates to avoid complet<strong>in</strong>g the work. See the Table 3 below for additional examples of<br />
challeng<strong>in</strong>g behaviors ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by positive and negative re<strong>in</strong>forcement.<br />
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