Mind, Body, World- Foundations of Cognitive Science, 2013a

of each part by closing the keyboard lid, and opened the lid when the part was over.
4’33” places tremendous compositional responsibility upon its audience. Cage
is quoted on this subject as saying:
Most people think that when they hear a piece of music, they’re not doing anything
but something is being done to them. Now this is not true, and we must arrange
our music, we must arrange our art, we must arrange everything, I believe, so that
people realize that they themselves are doing it. (Nyman, 1999, p. 24)
This is contrary to the traditional disembodiment of classical music that treats audiences
as being passive and unimportant.
Cage pioneered other innovations as he decentralized control in his compositions.
From the early 1950s onwards, he made extended use of chance operations
when he composed. Cage used dice rolls to determine the order of sounds in his 1951
piano piece Music of Changes (Ross, 2007). The stochastic nature of Cage’s compositional
practices did not produce music that sounded random. This is because Cage
put tremendous effort into choosing interesting sound elements. “In the Music of
Changes the effect of the chance operations on the structure (making very apparent
its anachronistic character) was balanced by a control of the materials” (Cage, 1961,
p. 26). Cage relaxed his influence on control—that is, upon which element to perform
next—with the expectation that this, coupled with his careful choice of elements
that could be chosen, would produce surprising and interesting musical
results. Cage intended novel results to emerge from his compositions.
The combination of well-considered building blocks to produce emergent
behaviours that surprise and inform is characteristic of embodied cognitive science
(Braitenberg, 1984; Brooks, 1999; Dawson, 2004; Dawson, Dupuis, & Wilson, 2010;
Pfeifer & Scheier, 1999; Webb & Consi, 2001).
Advances in synthetic psychology come about by taking a set of components, by
letting them interact, and by observing surprising emergent phenomena. However,
the role of theory and prior knowledge in this endeavor is still fundamentally
important, because it guides decisions about what components to select, and about
the possible dynamics of their interaction. In the words of Cervantes, diligence is
the mother of good luck. (Dawson, 2004, p. 22)
An emphasis on active audiences and emergent effects is also found in the works
of other composers inspired by Cage (Schwarz, 1996). For instance, compositions
that incorporated sounds recorded on magnetic tape were prominent in early minimalist
music. Minimalist pioneer Terry Riley began working with tape technology
in 1960 (Potter, 2000). He recorded a variety of sounds and made tape loops from
them. A tape loop permitted a sound segment to be repeated over and over. He then
mixed these tapes using a device called an echoplex that permitted the sounds “to
be repeated in an ever-accumulating counterpoint against itself ” (p. 98). Further
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