Mind, Body, World- Foundations of Cognitive Science, 2013a

More documents

Recommendations

Info

5 Elements of Embodied Cognitive Science 5.0 Chapter Overview One of the key reactions against classical cognitive science was connectionism. A second reaction against the classical approach has also emerged. This second reaction is called embodied cognitive science, and the purpose of this chapter is to introduce its key elements. Embodied cognitive science explicitly abandons the disembodied mind that serves as the core of classical cognitive science. It views the purpose of cognition not as building representations of the world, but instead as directing actions upon the world. As a result, the structure of an agent’s body and how this body can sense and act upon the world become core elements. Embodied cognitive science emphasizes the embodiment and situatedness of agents. Embodied cognitive science’s emphasis on embodiment, situatedness, and action upon the world is detailed in the early sections of the chapter. This emphasis leads to a number of related elements: feedback between agents and environments, stigmergic control of behaviour, affordances and enactive perception, and cognitive scaffolding. In the first half of this chapter these notions are explained, showing how they too can be traced back to some of the fundamental assumptions of cybernetics. Also illustrated is how such ideas are radical departures from the ideas emphasized by classical cognitive scientists. 205
Not surprisingly, such differences in fundamental ideas lead to embodied cognitive science adopting methodologies that are atypical of classical cognitive science. Reverse engineering is replaced with forward engineering, as typified by behaviourbased robotics. These methodologies use an agent’s environment to increase or leverage its abilities, and in turn they have led to novel accounts of complex human activities. For instance, embodied cognitive science can construe social interactions either as sense-act cycles in a social environment or as mediated by simulations that use our own brains or bodies as physical stand-ins for other agents. In spite of such differences, it is still the case that there are structural similarities between embodied cognitive science and the other two approaches that have been introduced in the preceding chapters. The current chapter ends with a consideration of embodied cognitive science in light of Chapter 2’s multiple levels of investigation, which were earlier used as a context in which to consider the research of both classical and of connectionist cognitive science. 5.1 Abandoning Methodological Solipsism The goal of Cartesian philosophy was to provide a core of incontestable truths to serve as an anchor for knowledge (Descartes, 1960, 1996). Descartes believed that he had achieved this goal. However, the cost of this accomplishment was a fundamental separation between mind and body. Cartesian dualism disembodied the mind, because Descartes held that the mind’s existence was independent of the existence of the body. I am not that structure of limbs which is called a human body, I am not even some thin vapor which permeates the limbs—a wind, fire, air, breath, or whatever I depict in my imagination, for these are things which I have supposed to be nothing. (Descartes, 1996, p. 18) Cartesian dualism permeates a great deal of theorizing about the nature of mind and self, particularly in our current age of information technology. One such theory is posthumanism (Dewdney, 1998; Hayles, 1999). Posthumanism results when the content of information is more important than the physical medium in which it is represented, when consciousness is considered to be epiphenomenal, and when the human body is simply a prosthetic. Posthumanism is rooted in the pioneering work of cybernetics (Ashby, 1956, 1960; MacKay, 1969; Wiener, 1948), and is sympathetic to such futuristic views as uploading our minds into silicon bodies (Kurzweil, 1999, 2005; Moravec, 1988, 1999), because, in this view, the nature of the body is irrelevant to the nature of the mind. Hayles uncomfortably notes that a major implication of posthumanism is its “systematic devaluation of materiality and embodiment” (Hayles, 1999, p. 48); “because we are essentially information, we 206 Chapter 5
Page 2 and 3:
MIND, BODY, WORLD
Page 4 and 5:
MIND, FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE SCIE
Page 6 and 7:
Contents List of Figures and Tables
Page 8 and 9:
5.5 Umwelten, Affordances, and Enac
Page 10 and 11:
List of Figures and Tables Figure 2
Page 12:
Table 2-1. Examples of the truth va
Page 15 and 16:
happened in psychology. “One acco
Page 18 and 19:
1 The Cognitive Sciences: One or Ma
Page 20 and 21:
The fragmentation of psychology is
Page 22 and 23:
qualitatively different kinds of qu
Page 24 and 25:
should we examine “cognitive scie
Page 26 and 27:
discrete symbols stored in a separa
Page 28 and 29:
Some researchers have attempted to
Page 30 and 31:
tool, or by its designer. The perso
Page 32 and 33:
experiments fall into new relations
Page 34:
With the foundations of the three d
Page 37 and 38:
level, one asks what physical mecha
Page 39 and 40:
thinking was logic, then thinking m
Page 41 and 42:
equation of thought is of the secon
Page 43 and 44:
ewritten as “A is B,” which in
Page 45 and 46:
combinations of the binary inputs p
Page 47 and 48:
Vannevar Bush. This machine was a p
Page 49 and 50:
In Lovecraft’s (1933) story, the
Page 51 and 52:
given in Table 2-2 (Hillis, 1998).
Page 53 and 54:
switch was closed matched the durat
Page 55 and 56:
2.6 Multiple Levels of Investigatio
Page 57 and 58:
mentioned in the current section ar
Page 59 and 60:
How does a Turing machine generate
Page 61 and 62:
The problem with reverse engineerin
Page 63 and 64:
2.10 Architectures against Homuncul
Page 65 and 66:
out at any given time (Newell, 1980
Page 67 and 68:
experiment, people write questions
Page 69 and 70:
hypothesis (Dawson, 1998), is used
Page 71 and 72:
Other developments in cognitive sci
Page 73 and 74:
and strong equivalence are reviewed
Page 75 and 76:
After establishing his own existenc
Page 77 and 78:
For it is a very remarkable fact th
Page 79 and 80:
used to solve a complex problem by
Page 81 and 82:
In the code given above, recursion
Page 83 and 84:
The complex, clausal structure of a
Page 85 and 86:
within a phrase marker. The recursi
Page 87 and 88:
new physical state, the direction i
Page 89 and 90:
Bever, Fodor, and Garrett (1968) us
Page 91 and 92:
found that informant learning permi
Page 93 and 94:
derived, in the same way as new kno
Page 95 and 96:
physical symbol system hypothesis:
Page 97 and 98:
semantic lives, in which they have
Page 99 and 100:
A device that can compute every pos
Page 101 and 102:
contents of mental states and behav
Page 103 and 104:
as being tokens of a particular typ
Page 105 and 106:
-1.5 Grande Prairie Slave Lake Fort
Page 107 and 108:
A production system is a general-pu
Page 109 and 110:
in thinking about cognition without
Page 111 and 112:
ased on informed judgment, and how
Page 113 and 114:
paranoids. Forty practising psychia
Page 115 and 116:
if they are weakly equivalent), acc
Page 117 and 118:
Newell and Simon (1972) created a c
Page 119 and 120:
is a property that is not local, bu
Page 121 and 122:
A third approach to validating a mo
Page 123 and 124:
growing variety of models of reorie
Page 125 and 126:
are instructed to scan across the i
Page 127 and 128:
paper (Pylyshyn, 1973), which propo
Page 129 and 130:
location to the first. In this cond
Page 131 and 132:
The packing problem is concerned wi
Page 133 and 134:
I should like to propose a generali
Page 135 and 136:
attempt to localize function. For i
Page 137 and 138:
solution to the problem? For instan
Page 139 and 140:
links between the two at the differ
Page 142 and 143:
4 Elements of Connectionist Cogniti
Page 144 and 145:
twentieth centuries (Warren, 1921).
Page 146 and 147:
connectionist cognitive science dev
Page 148 and 149:
via unsupervised learning (Carpente
Page 150 and 151:
symbols. However, as connectionism
Page 152 and 153:
Empiricist philosopher John Locke c
Page 154 and 155:
The ability of A’s later activity
Page 156 and 157:
In spite of the popularity and succ
Page 158 and 159:
then become a different kind of net
Page 160 and 161:
space, an entire row of a truth tab
Page 162 and 163:
the only time that output unit acti
Page 164 and 165:
The multilayer network illustrated
Page 166 and 167:
input pattern in an all-or-none fas
Page 168 and 169:
function such as the logistic. “N
Page 170 and 171:
esponse is interpreted as represent
Page 172 and 173: define more complex probabilistic c
Page 174 and 175: A second condition of the perceptro
Page 176 and 177: esponses to determine the trigger f
Page 178 and 179: hidden unit computes its error by s
Page 180 and 181: The musical notation for the C majo
Page 182 and 183: and then determine the relationship
Page 184 and 185: In the pitch class representation u
Page 186 and 187: input signals coming from all of th
Page 188 and 189: chords. For instance, none of the h
Page 190 and 191: ecording or wiretapping (Calvin & O
Page 192 and 193: anding when a hidden unit’s activ
Page 194 and 195: classical form. This result suggest
Page 196 and 197: technique, the ID3 algorithm (Quinl
Page 198 and 199: Decision Point From Table 4-4 Equiv
Page 200 and 201: For example, mushrooms that were as
Page 202 and 203: color; that red, for instance, even
Page 204 and 205: When New Connectionism arose in the
Page 206 and 207: idea is to give the network as many
Page 208 and 209: in contiguity with the UR, the CS b
Page 210 and 211: stronger, or more intense, or faste
Page 212 and 213: simulations also revealed new pheno
Page 214 and 215: the correlation between the connect
Page 216 and 217: Given the breadth of connectionist
Page 218 and 219: were provided earlier in this chapt
Page 220 and 221: On the other hand, the functional n
Page 224 and 225: can do away with the body” (Hayle
Page 226 and 227: of the environment in which he find
Page 228 and 229: salesman’s tour increases linearl
Page 230 and 231: of the superorganism’s components
Page 232 and 233: next. Theraulaz and Bonabeau (1999)
Page 234 and 235: physical robot that acts like a Bra
Page 236 and 237: seriously as a contributor to the c
Page 238 and 239: to perception. Gibson (1966, p. 49)
Page 240 and 241: modules provide basic, general-purp
Page 242 and 243: several hours to complete a task (M
Page 244 and 245: Scribner’s own work (Scribner & T
Page 246 and 247: a virtual interface that was increa
Page 248 and 249: The embodied approach’s emphasis
Page 250 and 251: eorganizing the entire system. The
Page 252 and 253: understanding. The extended mind hy
Page 254 and 255: old clocks and gas meters” (Grey
Page 256 and 257: the British Association (Hayward, 2
Page 258 and 259: without feature cues. Their goal wa
Page 260 and 261: obot has stopped moving, and two ar
Page 262 and 263: cognitive science ventures to study
Page 264 and 265: the human brain (Gallese et al., 19
Page 266 and 267: y changing its facial expression, d
Page 268 and 269: others’ actions mind reading or m
Page 270 and 271: that others “are like me in being
Page 272 and 273:
is illusory (Clark, 2003; Dennett,
Page 274 and 275:
Even though an agent’s body can b
Page 276 and 277:
interaction with the world are not
Page 278 and 279:
The lofty goals of artificial intel
Page 280:
This system is then placed in an in
Page 283 and 284:
Reviewing the three approaches with
Page 285 and 286:
For instance, the exposition uses i
Page 287 and 288:
this interface, internal thinking,
Page 289 and 290:
The conductor is not the only contr
Page 291 and 292:
grouped into distinct auditory stre
Page 293 and 294:
and stored in memory in a form diff
Page 295 and 296:
theorize about mental processing be
Page 297 and 298:
Krumhansl’s (1990) internalizatio
Page 299 and 300:
mighty Alps, whose white and shinin
Page 301 and 302:
The isolated genius is a recurring
Page 303 and 304:
6.4 The Connectionist Approach to M
Page 305 and 306:
will not occur (Gasser, Eck, & Port
Page 307 and 308:
preferences (Bugatti, Flammini, & M
Page 309 and 310:
The key feature from above is tonal
Page 311 and 312:
The vein for which three hundred ye
Page 313 and 314:
complexities of sound were produced
Page 315 and 316:
Reich’s idea of a musical process
Page 317 and 318:
orchestra brings the score to life
Page 319 and 320:
meaning and that this meaning is so
Page 321 and 322:
evaluation, interpretation, and des
Page 323 and 324:
software objects can now evolve and
Page 325 and 326:
instruments can serve as behavioura
Page 327 and 328:
the case that Austro-German music i
Page 329 and 330:
Interactions between perception of
Page 332 and 333:
7 Marks of the Classical? 7.0 Chapt
Page 334 and 335:
in this section. One context for th
Page 336 and 337:
Critical to Vera and Simon’s (199
Page 338 and 339:
Vera and Simon (1993) pointed out t
Page 340 and 341:
physical scene that is being viewed
Page 342 and 343:
the three schools of thought in cog
Page 344 and 345:
was employed to work on the 1880 Un
Page 346 and 347:
predefined value was reached (Willi
Page 348 and 349:
Indeed, the interactions between a
Page 350 and 351:
determine which production will act
Page 352 and 353:
classical models they inspire are d
Page 354 and 355:
a word in memory to be accessed in
Page 356 and 357:
7.5 Local versus Distributed Repres
Page 358 and 359:
Finally, different degrees of super
Page 360 and 361:
to produce networks that are capabl
Page 362 and 363:
e essentially embodied and embedded
Page 364 and 365:
to question explicit rules as a mar
Page 366 and 367:
the electronic circuits which perfo
Page 368 and 369:
which make use of the knowledge att
Page 370 and 371:
instance, meaningful, complex token
Page 372 and 373:
constraints on symbol manipulations
Page 374 and 375:
linguistic structures. That is, suc
Page 376 and 377:
8 Seeing and Visualizing 8.0 Chapte
Page 378 and 379:
an enormously high-quality visual w
Page 380 and 381:
for the discovery of subjective sen
Page 382 and 383:
The primary visual data caused by t
Page 384 and 385:
A related phenomenon is inattention
Page 386 and 387:
Spontaneously and by our own power,
Page 388 and 389:
depends upon noticing and reacting
Page 390 and 391:
this location. The affected locatio
Page 392 and 393:
For our purposes, though, the above
Page 394 and 395:
The nearest neighbour principle is
Page 396 and 397:
8.5 Vision, Cognition, and Visual C
Page 398 and 399:
Feature integration theory arose to
Page 400 and 401:
(Pylyshyn, 2007, p. 32). Part of Py
Page 402 and 403:
independent of those for processing
Page 404 and 405:
(Pylyshyn & Storm, 1988). However,
Page 406 and 407:
& Stanton, 1978; Sakata et al., 198
Page 408 and 409:
that compose early vision, and whic
Page 410 and 411:
with embodied cognitive science. Py
Page 412 and 413:
esults by demonstrating that they a
Page 414 and 415:
According to the index projection h
Page 416 and 417:
9 Towards a Cognitive Dialectic 9.0
Page 418 and 419:
summarizes that text visually by us
Page 420 and 421:
Another way to illustrate the diffe
Page 422 and 423:
tension? One approach to achieving
Page 424 and 425:
interested in reformulating cogniti
Page 426 and 427:
On the other side of the antagonism
Page 428 and 429:
For instance, Simon’s (1969) earl
Page 430 and 431:
was a low-level interpretation that
Page 432 and 433:
computation approach appeals to ele
Page 434 and 435:
etween scientific paradigms (Kuhn,
Page 436 and 437:
each of the three schools of though
Page 438 and 439:
It is pleasurable and easy to creat
Page 440 and 441:
exploring how this problem might be
Page 442 and 443:
References Abu-Mostafa, Y. S. (1990
Page 444 and 445:
Baddeley, A. D. (1990). Human memor
Page 446 and 447:
Bernstein, L. (1976). The unanswere
Page 448 and 449:
Brooks, R. A., & Flynn, A. M. (1989
Page 450 and 451:
Chase, V. M., Hertwig, R., & Gigere
Page 452 and 453:
Comrie, L. J. (1933). The Hollerith
Page 454 and 455:
Dawson, M. R. W., Kelly, D. M., Spe
Page 456 and 457:
Downing, H. A., & Jeanne, R. L. (19
Page 458 and 459:
Fletcher, G. J. O. (1995). The scie
Page 460 and 461:
Gjerdingen, R. O. (1989). Using con
Page 462 and 463:
Greeno, J. G., & Moore, J. L. (1993
Page 464 and 465:
Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch
Page 466 and 467:
Hopcroft, J. E., & Ullman, J. D. (1
Page 468 and 469:
Josephson, M. (1961). Edison. New Y
Page 470 and 471:
Kolers, P. (1972). Aspects of motio
Page 472 and 473:
Leahey, T. H. (1987). A history of
Page 474 and 475:
Luria, A., Tsvetkova, L., & Futer,
Page 476 and 477:
McNaughton, B., Barnes, C. A., Gerr
Page 478 and 479:
Monelle, R. (2000). The sense of mu
Page 480 and 481:
Oaksford, M., & Chater, N. (1991).
Page 482 and 483:
Peretz, I., Kolinsky, R., Tramo, M.
Page 484 and 485:
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1980). Computation
Page 486 and 487:
Révész, G. E. (1983). Introductio
Page 488 and 489:
Samuels, R. (1998). Evolutionary ps
Page 490 and 491:
Shepard, R. N. (1984b). Ecological
Page 492 and 493:
Steedman, M. J. (1984). A generativ
Page 494 and 495:
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive beh
Page 496 and 497:
Verfaille, V., Depalle, P., & Wande
Page 498 and 499:
Wexler, K., & Culicover, P. W. (198
Page 500:
Zittoun, T., Gillespie, A., & Corni
Page 503 and 504:
conduit metaphor, 299-303, 308 cons
Page 505 and 506:
motion correspondence problem, 375-
Page 507:
Turing equivalence, 95, 152 Turing
show all

Mind, Body, World- Foundations of Cognitive Science, 2013a

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?