Mind, Body, World- Foundations of Cognitive Science, 2013a

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This is because the tabular form of this information makes distances between places explicit, so that they can be “read off of ” the representation in a seemingly effortless manner. Other information cannot be so easily gleaned from a tabular representation. For instance, perhaps I am interested in determining the compass direction that points from Edmonton to Fort McMurray. The table does not make this information explicit—directions between cities cannot be simply read off of Table 3-1. BAN CAL CAM DRU EDM FMC GRA JAS LET LLO MED RED SLA BANFF 0 128 381 263 401 840 682 287 342 626 419 253 652 CALGARY 128 0 274 138 294 733 720 412 216 519 293 145 545 CAMROSE 381 274 0 182 97 521 553 463 453 245 429 129 348 DRUMHELLER 263 138 182 0 279 703 735 547 282 416 247 165 530 EDMONTON 401 294 97 279 0 439 456 366 509 251 526 148 250 FORT MCMURRAY 840 733 521 703 439 0 752 796 948 587 931 587 436 GRANDE PRAIRIE 682 720 553 735 456 752 0 397 935 701 982 586 318 JASPER 287 412 463 547 366 796 397 0 626 613 703 413 464 LETHBRIDGE 342 216 453 282 509 948 935 626 0 605 168 360 760 LLOYDMINSTER 626 519 245 416 251 587 701 613 605 0 480 374 496 MEDICINE HAT 419 293 429 247 526 931 982 703 168 480 0 409 777 RED DEER 253 145 129 165 148 587 586 413 360 374 409 0 399 SLAVE LAKE 652 545 348 530 250 436 318 464 760 496 777 399 0 Table 3-1. Distances in kilometres between cities in Alberta, Canada. However, this does not mean that the table does not contain information about direction. Distance-like data of the sort provided by Table 3-1 can be used as input to a form of factor analysis called multidimensional scaling (MDS) (Romney, Shepard, & Nerlove, 1972; Shepard, Romney, & Nerlove, 1972). This statistical analysis converts the table of distances into a map-like representation of objects that would produce the set of distances in the table. Dawson et al. (2000) performed such an analysis on the Table 3-1 data and obtained the map that is given in Figure 3-10. This map makes the relative spatial locations of the cities obvious; it could be used to simply “read off ” compass directions between pairs of places. Elements of Classical Cognitive Science 87
-1.5 Grande Prairie Slave Lake Fort McMurray -0.5 Jasper Edmonton Lloydminster South - North Red Deer Camrose 0.5 Banff Drumheller Calgary Medicine Hat Lethbridge 1.5 -1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5 West - East Figure 3-10. Results of applying MDS to Table 3-1. “Reading off ” information from a representation intuitively means accessing this information easily—by using a small number of primitive operations. If this is not possible, then information might be still be accessed by applying a larger number of operations, but this will take more time. The ease of accessing information is a result of the relationship between structure and process. The structure-process relationship, producing second-order effects, underscores the value of using relative complexity evidence, a notion that was introduced in Chapter 2. Imagine that a physical symbol system uses a tabular representation of distances. Then we would expect it to compute functions involving distance very quickly, but it would be much slower to answer questions about direction. In contrast, if the device uses a map-like representation, then we would expect it to answer questions about direction quickly, but take longer to answer questions about distance (because, for instance, measuring operations would have to be invoked). In summary, while structures are arbitrary, structure-process relations are not. They produce second-order regularities that can affect such measures as relative complexity evidence. Using such measures to investigate structure-process relations provides key information about a system’s algorithms and architecture. 88 Chapter 3
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MIND, BODY, WORLD
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MIND, FOUNDATIONS OF COGNITIVE SCIE
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Contents List of Figures and Tables
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5.5 Umwelten, Affordances, and Enac
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List of Figures and Tables Figure 2
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Table 2-1. Examples of the truth va
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happened in psychology. “One acco
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1 The Cognitive Sciences: One or Ma
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The fragmentation of psychology is
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qualitatively different kinds of qu
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should we examine “cognitive scie
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discrete symbols stored in a separa
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Some researchers have attempted to
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tool, or by its designer. The perso
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experiments fall into new relations
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With the foundations of the three d
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level, one asks what physical mecha
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thinking was logic, then thinking m
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equation of thought is of the secon
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ewritten as “A is B,” which in
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combinations of the binary inputs p
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Vannevar Bush. This machine was a p
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In Lovecraft’s (1933) story, the
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given in Table 2-2 (Hillis, 1998).
Page 53 and 54: switch was closed matched the durat
Page 55 and 56: 2.6 Multiple Levels of Investigatio
Page 57 and 58: mentioned in the current section ar
Page 59 and 60: How does a Turing machine generate
Page 61 and 62: The problem with reverse engineerin
Page 63 and 64: 2.10 Architectures against Homuncul
Page 65 and 66: out at any given time (Newell, 1980
Page 67 and 68: experiment, people write questions
Page 69 and 70: hypothesis (Dawson, 1998), is used
Page 71 and 72: Other developments in cognitive sci
Page 73 and 74: and strong equivalence are reviewed
Page 75 and 76: After establishing his own existenc
Page 77 and 78: For it is a very remarkable fact th
Page 79 and 80: used to solve a complex problem by
Page 81 and 82: In the code given above, recursion
Page 83 and 84: The complex, clausal structure of a
Page 85 and 86: within a phrase marker. The recursi
Page 87 and 88: new physical state, the direction i
Page 89 and 90: Bever, Fodor, and Garrett (1968) us
Page 91 and 92: found that informant learning permi
Page 93 and 94: derived, in the same way as new kno
Page 95 and 96: physical symbol system hypothesis:
Page 97 and 98: semantic lives, in which they have
Page 99 and 100: A device that can compute every pos
Page 101 and 102: contents of mental states and behav
Page 103: as being tokens of a particular typ
Page 107 and 108: A production system is a general-pu
Page 109 and 110: in thinking about cognition without
Page 111 and 112: ased on informed judgment, and how
Page 113 and 114: paranoids. Forty practising psychia
Page 115 and 116: if they are weakly equivalent), acc
Page 117 and 118: Newell and Simon (1972) created a c
Page 119 and 120: is a property that is not local, bu
Page 121 and 122: A third approach to validating a mo
Page 123 and 124: growing variety of models of reorie
Page 125 and 126: are instructed to scan across the i
Page 127 and 128: paper (Pylyshyn, 1973), which propo
Page 129 and 130: location to the first. In this cond
Page 131 and 132: The packing problem is concerned wi
Page 133 and 134: I should like to propose a generali
Page 135 and 136: attempt to localize function. For i
Page 137 and 138: solution to the problem? For instan
Page 139 and 140: links between the two at the differ
Page 142 and 143: 4 Elements of Connectionist Cogniti
Page 144 and 145: twentieth centuries (Warren, 1921).
Page 146 and 147: connectionist cognitive science dev
Page 148 and 149: via unsupervised learning (Carpente
Page 150 and 151: symbols. However, as connectionism
Page 152 and 153: Empiricist philosopher John Locke c
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The ability of A’s later activity
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In spite of the popularity and succ
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then become a different kind of net
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space, an entire row of a truth tab
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the only time that output unit acti
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The multilayer network illustrated
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input pattern in an all-or-none fas
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function such as the logistic. “N
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esponse is interpreted as represent
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define more complex probabilistic c
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A second condition of the perceptro
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esponses to determine the trigger f
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hidden unit computes its error by s
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The musical notation for the C majo
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and then determine the relationship
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In the pitch class representation u
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input signals coming from all of th
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chords. For instance, none of the h
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ecording or wiretapping (Calvin & O
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anding when a hidden unit’s activ
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classical form. This result suggest
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technique, the ID3 algorithm (Quinl
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Decision Point From Table 4-4 Equiv
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For example, mushrooms that were as
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color; that red, for instance, even
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When New Connectionism arose in the
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idea is to give the network as many
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in contiguity with the UR, the CS b
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stronger, or more intense, or faste
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simulations also revealed new pheno
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the correlation between the connect
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Given the breadth of connectionist
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were provided earlier in this chapt
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On the other hand, the functional n
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5 Elements of Embodied Cognitive Sc
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can do away with the body” (Hayle
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of the environment in which he find
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salesman’s tour increases linearl
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of the superorganism’s components
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next. Theraulaz and Bonabeau (1999)
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physical robot that acts like a Bra
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seriously as a contributor to the c
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to perception. Gibson (1966, p. 49)
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modules provide basic, general-purp
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several hours to complete a task (M
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Scribner’s own work (Scribner & T
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a virtual interface that was increa
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The embodied approach’s emphasis
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eorganizing the entire system. The
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understanding. The extended mind hy
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old clocks and gas meters” (Grey
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the British Association (Hayward, 2
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without feature cues. Their goal wa
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obot has stopped moving, and two ar
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cognitive science ventures to study
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the human brain (Gallese et al., 19
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y changing its facial expression, d
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others’ actions mind reading or m
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that others “are like me in being
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is illusory (Clark, 2003; Dennett,
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Even though an agent’s body can b
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interaction with the world are not
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The lofty goals of artificial intel
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This system is then placed in an in
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Reviewing the three approaches with
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For instance, the exposition uses i
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this interface, internal thinking,
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The conductor is not the only contr
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grouped into distinct auditory stre
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and stored in memory in a form diff
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theorize about mental processing be
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Krumhansl’s (1990) internalizatio
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mighty Alps, whose white and shinin
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The isolated genius is a recurring
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6.4 The Connectionist Approach to M
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will not occur (Gasser, Eck, & Port
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preferences (Bugatti, Flammini, & M
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The key feature from above is tonal
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The vein for which three hundred ye
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complexities of sound were produced
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Reich’s idea of a musical process
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orchestra brings the score to life
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meaning and that this meaning is so
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evaluation, interpretation, and des
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software objects can now evolve and
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instruments can serve as behavioura
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the case that Austro-German music i
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Interactions between perception of
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7 Marks of the Classical? 7.0 Chapt
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in this section. One context for th
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Critical to Vera and Simon’s (199
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Vera and Simon (1993) pointed out t
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physical scene that is being viewed
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the three schools of thought in cog
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was employed to work on the 1880 Un
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predefined value was reached (Willi
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Indeed, the interactions between a
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determine which production will act
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classical models they inspire are d
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a word in memory to be accessed in
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7.5 Local versus Distributed Repres
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Finally, different degrees of super
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to produce networks that are capabl
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e essentially embodied and embedded
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to question explicit rules as a mar
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the electronic circuits which perfo
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which make use of the knowledge att
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instance, meaningful, complex token
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constraints on symbol manipulations
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linguistic structures. That is, suc
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8 Seeing and Visualizing 8.0 Chapte
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an enormously high-quality visual w
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for the discovery of subjective sen
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The primary visual data caused by t
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A related phenomenon is inattention
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Spontaneously and by our own power,
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depends upon noticing and reacting
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this location. The affected locatio
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For our purposes, though, the above
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The nearest neighbour principle is
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8.5 Vision, Cognition, and Visual C
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Feature integration theory arose to
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(Pylyshyn, 2007, p. 32). Part of Py
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independent of those for processing
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(Pylyshyn & Storm, 1988). However,
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& Stanton, 1978; Sakata et al., 198
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that compose early vision, and whic
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with embodied cognitive science. Py
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esults by demonstrating that they a
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According to the index projection h
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9 Towards a Cognitive Dialectic 9.0
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summarizes that text visually by us
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Another way to illustrate the diffe
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tension? One approach to achieving
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interested in reformulating cogniti
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On the other side of the antagonism
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For instance, Simon’s (1969) earl
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was a low-level interpretation that
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computation approach appeals to ele
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etween scientific paradigms (Kuhn,
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each of the three schools of though
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It is pleasurable and easy to creat
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exploring how this problem might be
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References Abu-Mostafa, Y. S. (1990
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Baddeley, A. D. (1990). Human memor
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Bernstein, L. (1976). The unanswere
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Brooks, R. A., & Flynn, A. M. (1989
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Chase, V. M., Hertwig, R., & Gigere
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Comrie, L. J. (1933). The Hollerith
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Dawson, M. R. W., Kelly, D. M., Spe
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Downing, H. A., & Jeanne, R. L. (19
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Fletcher, G. J. O. (1995). The scie
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Gjerdingen, R. O. (1989). Using con
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Greeno, J. G., & Moore, J. L. (1993
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Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch
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Hopcroft, J. E., & Ullman, J. D. (1
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Josephson, M. (1961). Edison. New Y
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Kolers, P. (1972). Aspects of motio
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Leahey, T. H. (1987). A history of
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Luria, A., Tsvetkova, L., & Futer,
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McNaughton, B., Barnes, C. A., Gerr
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Monelle, R. (2000). The sense of mu
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Peretz, I., Kolinsky, R., Tramo, M.
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Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1980). Computation
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Révész, G. E. (1983). Introductio
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Samuels, R. (1998). Evolutionary ps
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Shepard, R. N. (1984b). Ecological
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Steedman, M. J. (1984). A generativ
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Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive beh
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Verfaille, V., Depalle, P., & Wande
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Wexler, K., & Culicover, P. W. (198
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Zittoun, T., Gillespie, A., & Corni
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conduit metaphor, 299-303, 308 cons
Page 505 and 506:
motion correspondence problem, 375-
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Turing equivalence, 95, 152 Turing
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