Language and Culture in Context - A Primer on Intercultural Communication, 2020a
Language and Culture in Context - A Primer on Intercultural Communication, 2020a
Language and Culture in Context - A Primer on Intercultural Communication, 2020a
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LANGUAGE AND<br />
CULTURE IN CONTEXT<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es<br />
Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth University
Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth University<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es
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This text was compiled <strong>on</strong> 08/26/2021
Preface<br />
In teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past, I have used a st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard North American textbook, Neuliep's <strong>Intercultural</strong><br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>: A <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>ual Approach (2012). At that time, a recent comment <strong>on</strong> amaz<strong>on</strong>.com about this textbook was as<br />
follows:<br />
A Jesus stomp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g good time!<br />
By Gigs<br />
I was look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for a book about stomp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Jesus, man this <strong>on</strong>e really fit the bill. Sure, there are other books about<br />
stomp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Jesus, but this is really the authority <strong>on</strong> the matter. I was a little disappo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted that there wasn't more<br />
coverage of stomp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Buddha, c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the title of this book is "<strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong>" so it loses <strong>on</strong>e<br />
star for that.<br />
As a review of a commercial textbook, this is unusual; its t<strong>on</strong>e, however, rich with sarcasm, reflects frequent language use <strong>on</strong><br />
the Internet when a writer feels str<strong>on</strong>gly about a topic. This is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, <strong>on</strong>e of many reviews posted <strong>on</strong> the textbook <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
to media reports about a professor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Florida carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out a suggested class activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which students were asked to write<br />
"Jesus" <strong>on</strong> a slip of paper, step <strong>on</strong> it, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then discuss with classmates their reacti<strong>on</strong>s. The expectati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the activity<br />
is that most students will not step <strong>on</strong> the paper. What the exercise was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to reveal to students was how central to many<br />
people's core values religi<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what power there is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> symbolic acti<strong>on</strong>s. The public reacti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, as seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Amaz<strong>on</strong> reviews was very different, namely that this was a denigrati<strong>on</strong> of Christianity. The episode is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a couple<br />
of ways:<br />
It dramatizes how volatile <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>-laden issues related to religious beliefs or spiritual views can be, topics that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably arise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong> across cultures. There are often knee-jerk reacti<strong>on</strong>s to perceived slights to<br />
religious beliefs. This is by no means limited to Christians, as the virulent reacti<strong>on</strong> to Mohammed carto<strong>on</strong>s from Denmark<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010 dem<strong>on</strong>strated. When we perceive our core values to be under attack, we d<strong>on</strong>'t reas<strong>on</strong> or look to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident occurred. This can quickly lead to misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of reas<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> unlikely.<br />
Flag burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A powerful symbolic act<br />
In the United States there has been at times quite a bit of c<strong>on</strong>troversy over whether it is okay to burn the U.S. American<br />
flag…Many of the problems related to this c<strong>on</strong>troversy are due to the symbolic nature of what is d<strong>on</strong>e when a flag is<br />
burned. The flag represents the United States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples up<strong>on</strong> which the United States as a political entity is based.<br />
Thus, burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the flag, whether it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the U.S. or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iran, is not simply destroy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a piece of cloth. It is mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
statement about a way of life. Some argue that the burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g itself is symbolic of the freedoms that exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United<br />
States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others feel that the burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g represents an effort to destroy those freedoms. Thus, symbolic acts are open to<br />
great differences of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
-Hall, Covarrubias & Kirschbaum, 2017, p.<br />
It dem<strong>on</strong>strates the power of symbols. The name of Jesus written <strong>on</strong> a slip of paper is not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> itself a religious document or<br />
statement of faith – rather it evokes the beliefs associated with that name. Symbols can have profound cultural significance.<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al flags, for example, may carry str<strong>on</strong>g emoti<strong>on</strong>al power, so that defac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or disrespect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a flag may be<br />
taken as a rejecti<strong>on</strong> of the values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors associated with that particular nati<strong>on</strong>al culture (see sidebar).<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> itself is a system made up of symbols (words po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a central mechanism for c<strong>on</strong>vey<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
elements of a culture.<br />
It po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the mispercepti<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence is about giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up pers<strong>on</strong>al beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values.<br />
This is absolutely not the case. In fact, the exercise described above was designed to make students aware of the emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensity of their own religious beliefs. This can help build self-awareness as well as an appreciati<strong>on</strong> of the fact that others'<br />
beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values may be as crucially important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their lives. It can be safely assumed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-religious groups, the<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong> would be similar to the <strong>on</strong>e cited above if students were asked to write down the word they used to refer to the<br />
God they worshipped as compared to ‘Jesus’.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/43001
It illustrates how rapidly an event can go viral <strong>on</strong> the Internet. Almost all comments <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident echoed those of the<br />
commenter above. The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of groupth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence here is a comm<strong>on</strong> phenomen<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Internet, which can<br />
sometimes functi<strong>on</strong> as a repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g amplifier, with the tendency for many people to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret events or news <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a way that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firms already-held beliefs.<br />
The reacti<strong>on</strong> to the suggested “step <strong>on</strong> Jesus” exercise illustrates someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else, the importance of c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human acti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech. The c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case is a formal classroom envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which an academic<br />
experiment is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g carried out, designed as a learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-awareness experience. The Amaz<strong>on</strong> reviews ignored this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead view<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident as a direct attack <strong>on</strong> Christianity. This po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the fact that the very same words used or<br />
identical behaviors performed can have very different mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> when, where, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how they take<br />
place. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g slang, for example, is f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if am<strong>on</strong>g friends or family but may be unacceptable at work or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom.<br />
Propp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e’s feet up to relax may be comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US but might result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a reprim<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> if d<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> a German tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (author's<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al experience), or even be perceived as a pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an Arab sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, should the soles of the shoes be fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out.<br />
This text takes a c<strong>on</strong>textual approach to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the envir<strong>on</strong>ments — physical, cultural,<br />
local, electr<strong>on</strong>ic, etc. — will be seen as key elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significance of human encounters. That<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all its complexity at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersecti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual(s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>text. Rather than try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes based <strong>on</strong> a pers<strong>on</strong>'s background or status, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead will be analyzed to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
myriad dynamics. The goal is not to predict behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes but to describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Neuliep's textbook (latest versi<strong>on</strong> 2017) is representative of many used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it focuses <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> from the perspective of communicati<strong>on</strong> studies (see also J<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, 2017; Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, & Roy,<br />
2015; T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey & Dorjee, 2018). Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> particularly outside the US – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troductory textbooks<br />
tend to orient more towards applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics with a greater emphasis <strong>on</strong> the role of language (Hua, 2014; Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2014:<br />
Piller, 2017). That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes texts emphsaiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> analysis (McC<strong>on</strong>achy, 2017) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical discourse analysis<br />
(Scoll<strong>on</strong>, Scoll<strong>on</strong>, & J<strong>on</strong>es, 2011). We are also see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g textbooks which embrace critical approaches to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> (Holliday, Hyde, & Kullman, 2017; Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Nakayama, 2018), social c<strong>on</strong>structivist approaches (Kurylo,<br />
2012), peace-build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, J<strong>on</strong>es, Foeman, & Arévalo), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social justice (Sorrells, 2015). This textbook draws <strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts from all these approaches, referenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recent research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field as broadly as possible. Those c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude:<br />
Complexity theory. Orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from chaos theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the natural sciences, complexity theory "sees the<br />
world as complex to the extent that it c<strong>on</strong>sists of always-chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, unstable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dynamic systems" (Ang, 2011, p. 781). We<br />
shall see that it is particularly helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hold of the slippery c<strong>on</strong>cept of "culture," given its variety of sources,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manifestati<strong>on</strong>s. It is also useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> untangl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the fluid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complex dynamics of pers<strong>on</strong>al identity<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> today (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2018).<br />
Cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially developed with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Management Studies (Earley & Ang, 2003). This c<strong>on</strong>cept can be<br />
helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the complexity of our globalized world through "strategic simplificati<strong>on</strong>", break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>al difficulties based <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>textual fram<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Critical realism. The "critical turn" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social science research has led researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical discourse analysis to look at<br />
how power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privilege <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>form <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shape c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al dynamics (Gee, 2004; Van Dijk, 1993). The emergent outcomes,<br />
as they are affected by class, gender, place, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth are central c<strong>on</strong>cerns with scholars – most associated with sociology<br />
– us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g critical realism (Collier, 1994).<br />
Global citizenship. The c<strong>on</strong>cern with the social forces shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discourses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need not <strong>on</strong>ly to learn, but also to act<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of sec<strong>on</strong>d language acquisiti<strong>on</strong> that social justice needs to be an ultimate<br />
goal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a sense of global resp<strong>on</strong>sibility (Byram, Golubeva, Hui, & Wagner, 2017).<br />
Comm<strong>on</strong> to these approaches is the prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence of c<strong>on</strong>text, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a view of human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s as dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
changeable, given the complexity of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, as human agents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with their envir<strong>on</strong>ments. This aligns with<br />
the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal approach used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this textbook, which is broadly ecological, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the multiple factors of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>text (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but not limited to nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>) that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There is an attempt throughout the text to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate views <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> from a geographically diverse<br />
array of scholars, supplement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the author's North American perspective. How <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is envisi<strong>on</strong>ed as a<br />
discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e varies c<strong>on</strong>siderably from country to country. In many cases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is associated with<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al areas such as bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, educati<strong>on</strong>, healthcare, or hospitality services. These are all areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
with those who represent different cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages is crucially important, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where encounters between those<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/43001
epresent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different cultures is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly the norm. While <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is often associated with<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Australia, it is comm<strong>on</strong>ly seen as a field with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics. This text strives to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives from many different approaches, but c<strong>on</strong>siders language, broadly c<strong>on</strong>ceived, as central<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus different dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of language use are woven <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to each unit. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to<br />
most IC textbooks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which "language" is the topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e of 10 or 12 chapters. Piller (2007) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fact<br />
(from the perspective of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists) "as if language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages were a negligible or at best m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or aspect of communicati<strong>on</strong>"<br />
(p. 215).<br />
The text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduces some of the key c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> as traditi<strong>on</strong>ally presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (North American)<br />
courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks, namely the study of differences between cultures, as represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theories of Edward<br />
Hall (1959) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Geert Hofstede (1980). The perspective presented here is that, despite changes brought <strong>on</strong> by globalizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
demographic shifts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Internet communicati<strong>on</strong>, there still exist identifiable cultural characteristics associated with nati<strong>on</strong>states<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular social groups. However, the default norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors derived from be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of a nati<strong>on</strong>al culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
no way determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al identity, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly is complex, derived from many different<br />
sources. Moreover, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals may resist adopt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> values of the culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they were raised or they may be<br />
members of ethnic or regi<strong>on</strong>al groups which hold different values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exhibit c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors from the majority. While<br />
dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism versus collectivism can be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some c<strong>on</strong>texts, they are less useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
predict<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior. Nati<strong>on</strong>al (or ethnic) characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong>s oversimplify the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly complex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fluid nature of identity formati<strong>on</strong> today.<br />
As the title of this text implies, the operat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assumpti<strong>on</strong> throughout is that language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>separable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> need to be<br />
understood c<strong>on</strong>textually. Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally, culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language have been treated as m<strong>on</strong>olithic entities, comprised of discrete<br />
sets of knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills, which are enacted by an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other fields with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the humanities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social sciences,<br />
that view has changed significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades, with the so-called "social turn" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es (Hawk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
2013, pp. 1-2; Block, 2007, p. 31). <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly seen from socially situated perspectives. That<br />
emphasis is ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed here, with an explorati<strong>on</strong> of how people use language (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other means) to create, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
change identities. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> is treated as socially c<strong>on</strong>structed, not as a set of fixed values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors. Although some attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
is paid to the mechanics of language, the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal emphasis is <strong>on</strong> language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes areas of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersecti<strong>on</strong>s of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture such as speech communities, social language codes, c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al analysis, speech acts,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural schemas.<br />
Another key c<strong>on</strong>cern is the role of technology today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity formati<strong>on</strong>. The availability of networked<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> tools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services has changed dramatically how humans communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with each other. While<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al Internet access is not universally available, mobile devices are becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ubiquitous almost everywhere, supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the means for electr<strong>on</strong>ic messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> retrieval that affect all areas of human activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g commerce,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, health care, journalism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social/political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s of all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds. The ease of communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs the<br />
possibility of c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g electr<strong>on</strong>ically with people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> far-flung locati<strong>on</strong>s. This has enabled the rise of communities of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<br />
which span geographically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally diverse communities. The potential for cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shared endeavors is<br />
tremendous, but, given different communicati<strong>on</strong> styles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies, so is the potential for misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
This makes the need for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence all the more necessary.<br />
Each of the text units c<strong>on</strong>cludes with a set of practical recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al use, both <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
face-to-face encounters, some of the c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors presented. The recommendati<strong>on</strong>s attempt to highlight useful<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three areas traditi<strong>on</strong>ally seen as c<strong>on</strong>stitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicative competence, namely knowledge,<br />
skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the "<strong>Intercultural</strong> Knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>fidence Value Rubric," developed by the AACU,<br />
"knowledge" here references both cultural self-awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge of other cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their "history, values,<br />
politics, communicati<strong>on</strong> styles, ec<strong>on</strong>omy, or beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices" (Rhodes, 2010). The positi<strong>on</strong> advocated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this text is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is also a journey of self-discovery, about <strong>on</strong>e's own cultural identity. The "skills" needed are first <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the area of competence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong>. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language provides a<br />
necessary, but not sufficient, entry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to another culture. Bey<strong>on</strong>d the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic knowledge, an underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the cultural<br />
enactments of language use is needed, i.e., an underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of language pragmatics - how language is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real, everyday<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s. This can be seen as "cultural literacy", a familiarity with the rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s of a culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ability to<br />
navigate am<strong>on</strong>g them appropriately.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/43001
An equally important skill is the ability to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural experiences from an empathetic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thoughtful perspective,<br />
go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d superficial stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at people as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, not types. This necessitates avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g snap<br />
judgments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> easy categorizati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead, critically exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's own <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values. In terms of attitudes, a<br />
spirit of openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curiosity is needed. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturally competent does not mean <strong>on</strong>e has to give up pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values, but it does necessitate accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that others have the right to their own str<strong>on</strong>gly-held perspectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
worldviews. Needed as well is a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to seek out <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> explore those other perspectives. That process can lead to greater<br />
acceptance of difference, while develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sense of empathy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> solidarity. In today’s world of extreme political<br />
partisanship <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g nati<strong>on</strong>alism, however, it may be necessary to move bey<strong>on</strong>d an attitude of tolerance. In the face of<br />
dire threats to the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, mistreatment of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suspici<strong>on</strong> of democracy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence should<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude today as well the need to engage actively (locally or globally) for social justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for the health of our planet.<br />
The chapters of this text are by no means exhaustive treatises <strong>on</strong> the topics covered. They are short <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong>s, with the<br />
hope that the student-reader will ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> enough <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest to follow up by seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the topics. There are<br />
recommended l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each chapter for that purpose. One source which is referenced repeatedly deserves a brief note<br />
of explanati<strong>on</strong>. A good number of TED talks are listed, as they often provide enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative explorati<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
illustrati<strong>on</strong>s of the c<strong>on</strong>cepts discussed. Moreover, they represent stable, reliable resources, likely to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be accessible<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to many hyperl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks). They feature transcripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subtitles provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple languages, as well as low b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>width<br />
versi<strong>on</strong>s. These are important c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s for a set of resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended for use by students from a variety of<br />
countries. TED talks have been criticized for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g slickly produced "eduta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ment", provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a platform for "experts" who<br />
may exaggerate the significance of f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, sometimes qualify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative breakthroughs, what has l<strong>on</strong>g been known or<br />
has been debunked by others. They are suggested here as resources, not because they represent the most up-to-date or accurate<br />
research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given field, but rather because they can stimulate discussi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discoveries about alternative views to<br />
those presented.<br />
In any course <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, critical recepti<strong>on</strong> of media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas about culture, language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology<br />
(the c<strong>on</strong>tent of many of the TED talks) should be an essential comp<strong>on</strong>ent. Another rati<strong>on</strong>ale for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g TED talks is the<br />
importance of storytell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>. Many of the talks focus <strong>on</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights or developments<br />
around an epiphany of some k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. Al<strong>on</strong>g with other k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of stories (for example, language autobiographies), the narratives<br />
presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> TED talks can be used to explore the nature of narrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics of identity formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
I need to c<strong>on</strong>clude this preface by thank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those who have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to this text. At the same time, the ultimate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for the c<strong>on</strong>tent rests with me. Comments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> correcti<strong>on</strong>s are very welcome, addressed to rgj<strong>on</strong>es@vcu.edu.<br />
Thanks go to Dorothy Chun, UC Barbara, for her encouragement, to the VCU Cabell Library for support, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> especially to a<br />
team of reviewers that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes Mayda Topoushian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jill Bowman, both of VCU, Ant<strong>on</strong>ie Alm (University of Otago),<br />
Aradhna Malik (Indian Institute of Technology), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wen-Chuan L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Wenzao Ursul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e University of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s).<br />
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Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/43001
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
The text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduces some of the key c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> as traditi<strong>on</strong>ally presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (North American) courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
textbooks, namely the study of differences between cultures, as represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theories of Edward Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Geert<br />
Hofstede. Comm<strong>on</strong> to these approaches is the prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence of c<strong>on</strong>text, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a view of human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s as dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
changeable, given the complexity of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, as human agents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with their envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
PREFACE<br />
1: BROADENING HORIZONS<br />
1.1: INTRODUCING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
1.2: CULTURES UNDER STUDY AND IN THE MEDIA<br />
1.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING- INFORMATION LITERACY<br />
1.4: BROADENING HORIZONS (SUMMARY)<br />
2: BUILDING IDENTITIES<br />
2.1: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT<br />
2.2: JUDGING AND TREATING OTHERS FAIRLY<br />
2.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - ONLINE IDENTITIES<br />
2.4: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT (SUMMARY)<br />
3: USING LANGUAGE<br />
3.1: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE<br />
3.2: SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING<br />
3.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY<br />
3.4: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE (SUMMARY)<br />
4: CONVERSING AND RELATING<br />
4.1: COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE<br />
4.2: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY<br />
4.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - CONVERSING AND RELATING ONLINE<br />
4.4: CONVERSING AND RELATING (SUMMARY)<br />
5: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY<br />
5.1: BODY LANGUAGE<br />
5.2: NONVERBAL MESSAGING<br />
5.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - SEMIOTICS AND THE INTERNET<br />
5.4: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY (SUMMARY)<br />
6: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
6.1: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.2: PROFESSIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE AND PRIVACY ONLINE<br />
6.4: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (SUMMARY)<br />
7: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES<br />
7.1: COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES<br />
7.2: MOVING AMONG CULTURES<br />
7.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - REFLECTIVE WRITING<br />
7.4: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES (SUMMARY)<br />
BACK MATTER<br />
INDEX<br />
1 8/26/2021
INDEX<br />
GLOSSARY<br />
2 8/26/2021
TABLE OF CONTENTS<br />
The text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduces some of the key c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> as traditi<strong>on</strong>ally presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (North American) courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
textbooks, namely the study of differences between cultures, as represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the works <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theories of Edward Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Geert<br />
Hofstede. Comm<strong>on</strong> to these approaches is the prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence of c<strong>on</strong>text, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a view of human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s as dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
changeable, given the complexity of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, as human agents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with their envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
PREFACE<br />
1: BROADENING HORIZONS<br />
1.1: INTRODUCING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
1.2: CULTURES UNDER STUDY AND IN THE MEDIA<br />
1.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING- INFORMATION LITERACY<br />
1.4: BROADENING HORIZONS (SUMMARY)<br />
2: BUILDING IDENTITIES<br />
2.1: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT<br />
2.2: JUDGING AND TREATING OTHERS FAIRLY<br />
2.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - ONLINE IDENTITIES<br />
2.4: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT (SUMMARY)<br />
3: USING LANGUAGE<br />
3.1: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE<br />
3.2: SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING<br />
3.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY<br />
3.4: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE (SUMMARY)<br />
4: CONVERSING AND RELATING<br />
4.1: COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE<br />
4.2: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY<br />
4.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - CONVERSING AND RELATING ONLINE<br />
4.4: CONVERSING AND RELATING (SUMMARY)<br />
5: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY<br />
5.1: BODY LANGUAGE<br />
5.2: NONVERBAL MESSAGING<br />
5.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - SEMIOTICS AND THE INTERNET<br />
5.4: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY (SUMMARY)<br />
6: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
6.1: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.2: PROFESSIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE AND PRIVACY ONLINE<br />
6.4: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (SUMMARY)<br />
7: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES<br />
7.1: COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES<br />
7.2: MOVING AMONG CULTURES<br />
7.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - REFLECTIVE WRITING<br />
7.4: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES (SUMMARY)<br />
BACK MATTER<br />
INDEX<br />
1 8/26/2021
INDEX<br />
GLOSSARY<br />
2 8/26/2021
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
1: BROADENING HORIZONS<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Recognize the need for IC competence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly diverse communities<br />
Develop balanced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed views <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>cepts of culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Perceive patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural traditi<strong>on</strong>s/values but be alert to over-simplificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Recognize the ethnic issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> IC <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need for global citizenship<br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the role of media <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fram<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural values<br />
In this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial chapter we will be discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some of the fundamental aspects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today’s world, its history as an academic discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the typical approaches to its<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. There will also be discussi<strong>on</strong> of the role of media <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> as well as its relati<strong>on</strong>ship to ethics. This<br />
chapter, as do each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this text, c<strong>on</strong>cludes with a secti<strong>on</strong> related to technology; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case, deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the importance of digital <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> literacy for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicative competence.<br />
1.1: INTRODUCING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
1.2: CULTURES UNDER STUDY AND IN THE MEDIA<br />
1.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING- INFORMATION LITERACY<br />
1.4: BROADENING HORIZONS (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
1.1: Introduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
What is <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong> refers to the process of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with people who are different from <strong>on</strong>eself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fundamental<br />
ways related to appearance, language, worldviews, or a number of other categories. For many people this phenomen<strong>on</strong> is part<br />
of their everyday lives, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual, multicultural communities or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally diverse families. The majority<br />
of human societies deal with multiple cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple languages. The USA has traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been <strong>on</strong>e of the few<br />
countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which it is possible to be successful even if <strong>on</strong>e speaks <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e language, English (Nieto, 2010). The USA,<br />
however, is shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g demographically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways that are likely to change dramatically attitudes towards language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture. By<br />
the year 2042, demographers tell us, n<strong>on</strong>-Hispanic whites will be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority (Roberts, 2008).<br />
The USA is by no means unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> undergo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this process. The means of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> available today<br />
result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of cultures than ever before. This co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cides with trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> commerce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades which<br />
have facilitated grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all areas of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic activity. This process of globalizati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
facilitated by social media activities of people around the world. Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others who are physically remote is<br />
possible through social networks such as Facebook or through <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s via Skype or chat programs such as<br />
WhatsApp. At the same time, political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic forces are caus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g large numbers of people to become asylum-seekers or<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic refugees, creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more diverse cities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries throughout the world. This process can also create c<strong>on</strong>flict,<br />
sometimes due to c<strong>on</strong>cerns of foreigners tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g jobs away or chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the character of a regi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes due to fear<br />
aris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from willful ignorance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> xenophobia – the fear of foreigners.<br />
In fact, globalizati<strong>on</strong> is by no means, as often portrayed a benign process, benefit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g humanity universally. While many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
developed countries enjoy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al travel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prosperity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> safe communities, those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other parts of the world<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to experience severe deprivati<strong>on</strong>s (food, water, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), mass unemployment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> violent communities. These<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, al<strong>on</strong>g with unequal access to educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> healthcare, are often accompanied by corrupti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political<br />
powerlessness. This has led to mass migrati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries, there are sharp divisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
based <strong>on</strong> geography, social class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come. These disparities, al<strong>on</strong>g with changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the global ec<strong>on</strong>omy, have propelled<br />
populist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>alistic leaders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world to power.<br />
The Need for <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> Today<br />
Given the demographical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> globaliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trends of recent decades, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today’s world <strong>on</strong>e is likely to have more encounters<br />
(<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>) with people from different cultures. Technological advances have played a major role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people<br />
together. The Internet has reached the remotest corners of the world, as has satellite <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ment. People are able<br />
to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appreciate differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, way of life, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the world at the click of a butt<strong>on</strong>. To add to<br />
this is the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ease of travel to different parts of the world for both work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pleasure (for the privileged). This has<br />
possibly resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a significant decrease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> apprehensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a visible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desire to be<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturally sensitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> competent. From that perspective, there is certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly a pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centive for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturally<br />
sensitive. The openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flexibility needed for successful cross-cultural exchanges offer benefits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s of all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds. Becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g knowledgeable about other cultures is also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>valuable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g deeper<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <strong>on</strong>e's own culture. An experience liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> close c<strong>on</strong>tact with those from another culture can lead to<br />
dramatically changed perspectives <strong>on</strong> the values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior patterns of <strong>on</strong>e's native country.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
Figure : UK Internati<strong>on</strong>al Development Secretary, Just<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Green<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Syrian chil-dren <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Zaatari <br />
refugee<br />
camp, Jordan<br />
There is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> a practical, utilitarian benefit, as companies are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for employees who are flexible,<br />
tolerant, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> able to work with others different from themselves. In virtually every bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess today, what happens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
countries can have a serious impact <strong>on</strong> its operati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> viability. Communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> societies benefit as well, as underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tolerance reduce animosity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. This is of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g importance today, as we see a rise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>alistic<br />
movements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries, often accompanied by grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g calls for political isolati<strong>on</strong>, ec<strong>on</strong>omic nati<strong>on</strong>alism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stricter<br />
immigrati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>trols. In part, this is a resp<strong>on</strong>se to the fact that the forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong> have resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> disadvantages for<br />
particular local populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of job opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic well-be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These tendencies have unfortunate<br />
byproducts, namely the rise of prejudicial attitudes towards members of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a clos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-off of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs towards those who act or look different.<br />
It is of particular importance for future leaders to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> empathy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to other cultures. Nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
officeholders, heads of political parties, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public eye (enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers, writers, activists) functi<strong>on</strong> as role models.<br />
Their views, op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors can have a substantial public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence. Figures like Pope Francis, Malala Yousafzai, or<br />
Greta Thunberg have exerted positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence, respectively, <strong>on</strong> views of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority rights, educati<strong>on</strong>al opportunities for girls,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need for immediate acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> global warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Unfortunately, we have seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years public figures advocat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies which divide <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flame communities, such as white supremacy or rejecti<strong>on</strong> of equal rights for LBGTQ<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. Messages of this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d — of hatred <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bigotry— can fall <strong>on</strong> receptive ears, particularly if an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual or a<br />
community has not often encountered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic background, religious belief, or language:<br />
Many societies are deeply divided: the anger of rural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrialised<br />
communities cut adrift by neoliberal globalizati<strong>on</strong> is readily harnessed aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the<br />
more c<strong>on</strong>crete scapegoat of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities, particularly if people have little experience<br />
with diversity. Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st this c<strong>on</strong>text, opportunities for everyday mundane c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that allow people to engage bey<strong>on</strong>d the stereotypes can become a crucial means to<br />
overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g divisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exclusi<strong>on</strong> (Piller, 2017, p. 203).<br />
Studies have shown that the geographical regi<strong>on</strong>s with the lowest number of immigrants or members of a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority tend to<br />
have the highest level of negative views of those groups. This is a clear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong> that these views are not based <strong>on</strong> experience<br />
or evidence but <strong>on</strong> un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> slanted media or anecdotal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> from friends or family. Piller (2017)<br />
provides a hopeful example, namely Sudanese immigrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a virtually all-white Australian community becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g socially<br />
accepted by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community leaders who reach out bey<strong>on</strong>d stereotypes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group bubbles.<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is essential as well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> balanced appreciati<strong>on</strong> of media, whether that be<br />
televisi<strong>on</strong> reports focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> other countries or blog posts from abroad. Today there is a vast amount of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> freely<br />
available, through media channels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet. Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the perspective from which others view the world can be<br />
very helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed c<strong>on</strong>sumers of news stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media. Given the importance of this topic, it will<br />
form a thread through many of the discussi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this textbook.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Central to our lives<br />
Embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the term <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is the word culture. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a slippery c<strong>on</strong>cept. In English, it has a<br />
number of different uses. Already <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1950’s, <strong>on</strong>e article cited over 150 def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of culture (Kluckhohn & Kroeber, 1952),<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
while a more recent study analyzed over 300 def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s (Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al., 2006). One of those c<strong>on</strong>cepts is culture with a capital<br />
C, or high culture, namely literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the arts. When we say <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English that some<strong>on</strong>e is cultured, this is the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of culture<br />
we mean, some<strong>on</strong>e with a good educati<strong>on</strong>, who perhaps goes <strong>on</strong> a regular basis to the theater or c<strong>on</strong>certs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reads books. We<br />
w<strong>on</strong>'t be talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g much here about that k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of culture. Rather what's important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is the c<strong>on</strong>cept<br />
of culture related to the everyday pattern of life. Neuliep def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es culture as "an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
behaviors, shared by an identifiable group of people with a comm<strong>on</strong> history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal symbol systems" (2012,<br />
p. 19). We will use this as our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>, ref<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it subsequently to embrace other c<strong>on</strong>cepts bey<strong>on</strong>d that of<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures, implied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this view. In this traditi<strong>on</strong>al descripti<strong>on</strong> of culture, several ideas emerge as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of importance:<br />
An accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors…<br />
Individual cultural identities develop over time, with h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed-down c<strong>on</strong>cepts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>s be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forced through<br />
repetiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a gradual socializati<strong>on</strong> process. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> references a number of aspects of normal human existence, from<br />
weighty issues such as our worldview <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethical–moral st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards to more mundane matters such as how we greet each<br />
other or the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of food we like to eat.<br />
…shared by an identifiable group of people…<br />
These cultural norms represent fundamental, default values for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals identified with that cultural group. That<br />
group may be small or large, fixed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle locati<strong>on</strong> or dispersed am<strong>on</strong>g different diaspora communities<br />
(geographically separated). However, no matter where they may be, they share particular characteristics that make them<br />
a dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct group.<br />
…with a comm<strong>on</strong> history…<br />
How important historical memory is to members of a culture may vary. In some cases, as with Native Americans, or for<br />
other groups hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g been displaced or suffered acute social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice, their history is likely to be well known <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to play<br />
a significant role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural values as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with other groups. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
Rogers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt (1999), "collective cultural c<strong>on</strong>sciousness," the embedded memories of historical events important<br />
to a particular cultural group, can act as a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of "message filter", affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g significantly communicati<strong>on</strong> dynamics (p.<br />
3).<br />
…<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (comm<strong>on</strong>) verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal symbol systems.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> plays an oversized role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social cohesi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the most important vehicle for transmissi<strong>on</strong> of cultural<br />
values. N<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> patterns are also a prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent c<strong>on</strong>stituent part of a group’s identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an easily<br />
identifiable marker for group membership. Both systems are based <strong>on</strong> symbols. Some see the use of symbols as the<br />
essence of a culture. For anthropologist Clifford Geertz, culture is a complex set of symbols used to create order <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our lives. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Geertz, cultures "denote an historically transmitted pattern of mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g embodied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
symbols" (Geertz, 1973, p. 89). As we saw from the example at the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this chapter, while symbols may<br />
sometimes seem arbitrary (i.e., no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to their mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), they nevertheless can be powerful, embody<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
deeply-held values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs.<br />
Figure : Sushma Swaraj, External Affairs M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister of India at an Indian Diaspora event <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>. Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <br />
home<br />
to many families orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India or Pakistan.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g we are born with, but rather it is learned, start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with our families, then mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> to our school<br />
experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> friends. We often are not aware of the cultural values we embrace, even though many of those values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
behaviors determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e important aspects of our lives. They may <strong>on</strong>ly come to the surface when we encounter people who come<br />
from different cultures. In that sense, culture is often described as hidden (Hall, 1966). <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not fixed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> immutable;<br />
culture does not exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a vacuum, but is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by historical, social, political, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Cultural values<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>structed from social dynamics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the countries or groups represented. Those values are not necessarily universally<br />
embraced.<br />
In everyday life, cultures are often associated with nati<strong>on</strong>-states, as assumed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Neuliep's def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>. This can be traced back to<br />
the work of early 19th-century German scholar Wilhelm v<strong>on</strong> Humboldt, who was <strong>on</strong>e of the first to equate nati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
cultures (Rogers & Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt, 1999). We often hear about French culture or Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese culture. But with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> political boundaries,<br />
cultures are rarely m<strong>on</strong>olithic. There tend to be many regi<strong>on</strong>al differences, as well as differences based <strong>on</strong> ethnicity, age,<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>, social class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other categories. Nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures change, whether it's a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of catastrophic events such<br />
as wars or natural disasters, or simply<br />
through c<strong>on</strong>tact with a foreign culture. One could po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the spread of U.S. culture, for example, through the popularity of<br />
American movies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> music, as well as through military <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s. In recent years we're seen South Korean popular<br />
culture develop a large follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside of Korea. K-pop, as it's called, has many fans worldwide, some of whom adapt<br />
aspects of the K-pop sub-culture such as dress, hair style, or mannerisms (Kim, 2013). The fact is that as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals we d<strong>on</strong>'t<br />
necessarily fit the mold of the nati<strong>on</strong>al culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we were raised. Some scholars speak of culture as someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g often<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tested (see Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2010; Pillar, 2017). Hippies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1960's, for example, saw themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oppositi<strong>on</strong> to the cultural<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream of many Western countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> political views, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dress, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes towards work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leisure. In the end,<br />
culture is pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fluid.<br />
Figure<br />
: Korean group Girls' Generati<strong>on</strong>, popular world-wide<br />
With these perspectives <strong>on</strong> culture, we can return to our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> add some qualifiers. This traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
view of culture implies a static state, not the flexibility described above. It also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a comm<strong>on</strong> history, but a dynamic<br />
visi<strong>on</strong> of culture embraces the idea that cultures can be built <strong>on</strong> the fly, through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together due to<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>alities of <strong>on</strong>e k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d or another, possibly even for a short durati<strong>on</strong> of time. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g values, behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
languages may be true <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a restricted sense. It is useful to have knowledge of the traditi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> of culture, but at<br />
the same time underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different perspectives <strong>on</strong> what "culture" is. That is further explored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the perspective of complexity theory<br />
We live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world that has become <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly complex, with a host of problems both global <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tractable:<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stability, the widen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gap between rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor, climate change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental crisis, the unstoppable transnati<strong>on</strong>al flow of refugees despite<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly harsh regimes of border c<strong>on</strong>trol, the threat of terrorist movements, ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
geopolitical tensi<strong>on</strong>s as the hegem<strong>on</strong>y of the West decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, urban gridlock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our hyper-diverse cities, the unsusta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able costs of health care <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> times of<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> age<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the unsettl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impact of rapid technological change – these<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
are <strong>on</strong>ly a few of the large c<strong>on</strong>undrums fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our globalized, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terc<strong>on</strong>nected world<br />
today (Ang, 2011, p. 779).<br />
One could easily add to the list a host of issues surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Internet, from cyber security to the loss of privacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
addicti<strong>on</strong> to social media. These problems are l<strong>on</strong>g-term <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have a variety of causes. They have repercussi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human lives,<br />
both local <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> global. In recent years, the forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong>, mechanizati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mass migrati<strong>on</strong> have led to social<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political upheaval. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resentment towards immigrants have led to the growth of<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic nati<strong>on</strong>alism, populism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong>ism across the globe. Comm<strong>on</strong> to these developments are ubiquity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complexity – the problems are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terwoven <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> local <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> global c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce multiple causes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unpredictable<br />
outcomes:<br />
In short, everywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world complexity is star<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the face; its<br />
overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impact – socially, ec<strong>on</strong>omically, ecologically – is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly<br />
undeniable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>escapable. That the world is terribly complex is now a vital part of<br />
global cultural experience, a structure of feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which has grown more pervasive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the twenty-first century (Ang, 2011, p. 779).<br />
One way of deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly complex world is to pretend the problems do not exist, to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> willful<br />
ignorance, by, for example, disbeliev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scientific evidence. Another opti<strong>on</strong> is to ignore what happens bey<strong>on</strong>d <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
neighborhood. Yet <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 21st-century it is virtually impossible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any part of the world to withdraw completely from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terc<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terdependencies which may be global <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scale, but often local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect. One path is to put forward<br />
short-term or partial measures. The danger <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that approach is that it tends to lead to simplistic soluti<strong>on</strong>s, that may be popular,<br />
but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reality misrepresent both the issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its complexity. Complex problems are not solved by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle, simple cause-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>effect<br />
explanati<strong>on</strong>s. There are typically multiple, chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g variables at play, so that any problem-solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is likely to be both<br />
complicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provisi<strong>on</strong>al. As c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s change, problem-solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approaches must adapt.<br />
The first step is to recognize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accept the complexity of a problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
path. An approach that has ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed currency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social sciences is complexity theory (CT), an ecological<br />
approach which stresses n<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>earity, unpredictability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how systems work. An exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed versi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
chaos theory, complexity theory looks to uncover a system's beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (its “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s”) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to trace development as<br />
variables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsystems are added to comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shape outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways that are unpredictable. Studies have shown the<br />
extent to which language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can be understood as complex systems, given the variability of language use<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the multiple factors which affect learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). That approach has recently been<br />
used as well to analyze the dynamics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2018). In chapters three <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four we will<br />
look at that topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more detail. Another area with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vites a CT analysis is pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
identity, a topic we will address <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next chapter.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence from a CT perspective helps us underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture to<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a simplistic misrepresentati<strong>on</strong> of the dynamics of identity formati<strong>on</strong> today, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>, <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the media – comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unique ways that are varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unforeseeable. Holliday (1999) uses the term<br />
“networked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual” to po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the myriad <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our time. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> from this perspective is fluid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dynamic, impacted by diverse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not reducible to a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The complexity of culture can<br />
also lead us to realign the typical approach <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> studies of focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> similarities or differences.<br />
There are too many variables <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> play for c<strong>on</strong>tact between cultures to be understood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary terms. It is preferable to<br />
imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead a slid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scale, with both c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>: A Human Necessity<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many different c<strong>on</strong>texts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s will have different characteristics depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> who is<br />
speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, where the exchange takes place, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what the purpose of the encounter is. Human c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is highly c<strong>on</strong>textual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itely variable. The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Noam Chomsky has made us aware of the fact that virtually every sentence we speak is<br />
someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g br<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-new, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a basic set of elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to endless comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s, a phenomen<strong>on</strong> known as digital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ity<br />
(Chomsky, 2005).<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the popular c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> of human speech, language is used primarily for the transmissi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
familiar transmissi<strong>on</strong> model breaks communicati<strong>on</strong> down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a transmitter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a receiver, whose roles may be reversed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
course of a dialogue, but whose purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is to send a message of some k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. This is a c<strong>on</strong>cept derived from early<br />
work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic communicati<strong>on</strong>, such as that d<strong>on</strong>e by Bell Labs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1040's <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1950s (see Shann<strong>on</strong>, 1948). In<br />
1960, Berlo exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the communicati<strong>on</strong> model to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude factors such as the purpose <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectives of the message be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
transmitted, as well as n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong>. His "SMCR" model breaks down communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the Sender, Message,<br />
Channel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Receiver, each of which is affected by a variety of factors. One of the important modificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the model is<br />
emphasis <strong>on</strong> the channel's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> message transmissi<strong>on</strong>. This was later popularized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the phrase, "the medium is the<br />
message," by Marshall McLuhan (1964), mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that a message is tightly tied to the means of transmissi<strong>on</strong>. This is of<br />
particular relevance today, as digital media have provided multiple channels of communicati<strong>on</strong> — text<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, email, Facebook<br />
messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, tweets, Instagram posts, etc. – all of which have a shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> how a message is received.<br />
Figure<br />
: C<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is often less about <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> transmissi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more about build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
In the traditi<strong>on</strong>al model of communicati<strong>on</strong>, the major emphasis is <strong>on</strong> how a message is transmitted. Yet l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists, from<br />
observ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g actual c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, have learned that rarely does a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> have <strong>on</strong>ly a semantic purpose, i.e.,<br />
used to c<strong>on</strong>vey mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Instead, talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is often a social acti<strong>on</strong>, used to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>vey feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>s. Sometimes c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s are shaped by social status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong> as a way to affirm or c<strong>on</strong>test a hierarchical status<br />
quo (see Sorrells, 2013). Humans are social animals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need to communicate is fundamental to our nature.<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> is what builds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s communities. Historically, the worst k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of human punishment has been<br />
exclusi<strong>on</strong> from a community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enforced verbal isolati<strong>on</strong> (see sidebar). Like culture, we take human communicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
granted, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feel its importance <strong>on</strong>ly when it is lost.<br />
The nature of human speech affects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>. If talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is essentially a socializati<strong>on</strong> process, hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s has the potential to build relati<strong>on</strong>ships. But that also means that the language we need for engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> normal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is not simply vocabulary useful for express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. We need, importantly, to know about the social<br />
dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of language, i.e. the appropriate way to greet others, how to express gratitude, or what topics are appropriate to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. Communicati<strong>on</strong> is fundamentally cultural. To be effective, c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partners need to be<br />
sensitive to a range of factors bey<strong>on</strong>d verbal communicati<strong>on</strong>. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong>s, such as how close to st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
the other pers<strong>on</strong> or whether to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> eye c<strong>on</strong>tact (see Hall, 1966).<br />
<br />
No communicati<strong>on</strong> = no community<br />
Throughout history, when societies wanted to severely punish some<strong>on</strong>e for a social transgressi<strong>on</strong>, the harshest punishment<br />
was excommunicati<strong>on</strong> — banishment from the community. In Catholicism this means to cast out some<strong>on</strong>e from the<br />
church. In ancient Rome the process was called ostracism, a ritual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which citizens used clay shards (ostraca) to vote for<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e to be sent away from the community for 10 years. In modern Amish communities the practice is called<br />
shunn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The shunned pers<strong>on</strong> is allowed to physically rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community but is prohibited from any social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with others<br />
Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al,, 2014. p. 9<br />
Those k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s we need not th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about if the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is with a pers<strong>on</strong> or a group with whom we are<br />
familiar (Hall, 1959). When we speak of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, we are mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away from that comfort z<strong>on</strong>e, engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchanges with people represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different cultures, that is to say different sets of values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors; a<br />
different historical memory; quite possibly a different language (or dialect). The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual may not, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, represent the<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture. Thereby we c<strong>on</strong>struct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>vey different mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfamiliar c<strong>on</strong>texts. That type of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
can be very different from encounters with those with whom we share a culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the c<strong>on</strong>text is familiar. As a result,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tra-cultural c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s tend to be more comfortable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Even so, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the situati<strong>on</strong> or c<strong>on</strong>text, we may<br />
experience c<strong>on</strong>flict or communicati<strong>on</strong> apprehensi<strong>on</strong>. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of a group, for example, can produce anxiety for<br />
many people. C<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with strangers can br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> even more apprehensi<strong>on</strong>. This comes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large part from uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty. The<br />
less we know about the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s background <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s, the more uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apprehensive we may be. We can<br />
combat these feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs through approach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g encounters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spirit of openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discovery. That lessens the likelihood of<br />
misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/13/2021 1.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48820
1.2: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s under study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the media<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> as an academic discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
There are a variety of approaches to study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> (see Leeds-Hurwitz, 2010; Rogers &<br />
Hart, 2002). As an academic discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, it is often traced back to anthropologist Edward T. Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his book The Silent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1959). Hall was above all c<strong>on</strong>cerned with creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g greater cultural awareness am<strong>on</strong>g employees of the US<br />
Department of State. He was striv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to improve the ability of US technicians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diplomats to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract effectively with their<br />
foreign counterparts. Given that perspective, his approach was underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ably more practical than theory-based. That<br />
pragmatism c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues to be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field, as a central goal is to provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> that can<br />
be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> everyday encounters (Rogers & Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt, 1999).<br />
Much of the early development of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> North American scholars<br />
represented the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal c<strong>on</strong>tributors to scholarly activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> through most of the 20th century.<br />
However, beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1990s, the field became <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>alized. European scholars have c<strong>on</strong>tributed<br />
important new <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approaches to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> (Byram, 1997; Holliday, 2010; Hua, 2013; Spencer-<br />
Oatey & Frankl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009), as have Australian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scholars (Piller, 2017; Schirato & Yell, 2002). These scholars<br />
tend to focus more centrally <strong>on</strong> language issues than is the case for IC research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America.<br />
Through the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s of researchers from Africa, Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, there has been a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
that Western approaches to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> need to be supplemented – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases corrected – through the<br />
different life experiences, backgrounds, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives offered by n<strong>on</strong>-Western scholars. One example is the anthropocosmic<br />
perspective presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a recent Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese textbook <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> (Jia & Li, 2019), which is based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts of dao (, "the path", the way to enlightenment through cosmic harm<strong>on</strong>y) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ren (, "benevolence", empathy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for fellow humans). There have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years more calls for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous perspectives <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> (Miike, 2007). Particularly welcome would be more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights from African scholars (Miller, 2005). In the latter<br />
part of the 20th century, there has been c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, which views<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of power structures (see Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2010; Piller, 2017). That perspective will<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>form much of the discussi<strong>on</strong> of IC <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this textbook.<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce Hall’s time, a great variety of discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es have c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the field, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, social psychology, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al studies. In fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is taught with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of<br />
academic units. Given the practical usefulness of eas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g those represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
languages, it is logical that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> figures prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas where such <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s are comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expected. In many countries, that will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude tourism, medical care, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or educati<strong>on</strong>. In the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
is taught most comm<strong>on</strong>ly with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> studies, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other Angloph<strong>on</strong>e countries, it is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a<br />
subdivisi<strong>on</strong> of applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics. Professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s often br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together scholars from a variety of discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es.<br />
Indeed, that is <strong>on</strong>e of the enrich<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characteristics of the field, that it draws <strong>on</strong> knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experience represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a great<br />
variety of academic fields. This textbook will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate aspects of research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> as represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a variety of discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es. The discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es use different research methodologies, have differ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goals, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> address issues from a<br />
variety of perspectives. Some use primarily quantitative data, others are more qualitatively oriented. In the end, these different<br />
approaches complement each other <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> together provide a more complete picture then would reliance <strong>on</strong> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
(see Kotthoff & Spencer-Oatey, 2007).<br />
What it means to be a c<strong>on</strong>fident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicator differs depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary orientati<strong>on</strong>. However, as an<br />
overall set of comm<strong>on</strong> denom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ators, we might break down the competencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g categories, follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rubric<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> competence from the Associati<strong>on</strong> of American Colleges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Universities (Rhodes, 2010):<br />
Knowledge Skills Attitudes<br />
Cultural self-awareness Empathy Curiosity<br />
Knowledge of cultural worldview frameworks Verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> Openness<br />
The more knowledge we have about other cultures the more likely it is that we will base <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial judgments about representatives<br />
of those cultures <strong>on</strong> reliable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, rather than <strong>on</strong> stereotypes gleaned through popular culture or media reports. That<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
knowledge may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of areas rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from geography to religious beliefs. Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed views of other cultures<br />
is likely to make encounters more successful. In learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about other cultures we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably learn about ourselves, as we draw<br />
comparis<strong>on</strong>s between the values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors of the target culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> our own.<br />
A primary enabler of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to another culture is verbal language. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> enables us to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> express<br />
phenomena we may have found unfamiliar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for which we may not have had the vocabulary. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new language <strong>on</strong><br />
the <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, widens our worldview, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the other, opens a w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow of familiarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the worlds of others who may have<br />
seemed unfamiliar earlier, thereby afford<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an opportunity for both to c<strong>on</strong>nect with each other. Depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text, the<br />
ability to c<strong>on</strong>verse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another language can be of central importance, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whether effective communicati<strong>on</strong> is possible.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal clues – smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, nodd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — can send important messages, but will <strong>on</strong>ly take a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> so far. It's also<br />
the case that learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language provides deeper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more complete access to the other culture. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> takes you<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the heart of a culture, offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an emic (from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side the group) perspective, rather than an etic view (from outside). The<br />
possibility of participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target culture, rather than just observati<strong>on</strong>, is likely to lead to greater underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
appreciati<strong>on</strong> of its values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greater empathy. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn is likely to lead to curiosity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a desire to<br />
learn more about that culture. For communicati<strong>on</strong> to be effective, both parties need to be motivated to communicate. If we go<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to an encounter with pre-formed negative views of the group we assume the other pers<strong>on</strong> represents, it's not likely that there<br />
will be a positive outcome. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, refra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from judgment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a spirit of openness create a positive<br />
atmosphere, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective communicati<strong>on</strong> much more likely.<br />
Some would argue that empathy, tolerance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> openness are helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters, but that a further aspect of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence bey<strong>on</strong>d skills, knowledge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes, should be added: civic acti<strong>on</strong>. Given the widen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
socioec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equities, the growth of nati<strong>on</strong>alism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mistrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mistreatment of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities, collective<br />
acti<strong>on</strong> is needed bey<strong>on</strong>d the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of global citizenship po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that directi<strong>on</strong>. This c<strong>on</strong>cept entails a call<br />
for acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of active civil engagement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with local acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> service to the community (O'Dowd,<br />
2019). Another framework <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accord with this visi<strong>on</strong> is critical cosmopolitanism, described as "a deep appreciati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
difference, the will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to engage with cultural Others <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be transformed by such experiences, k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness towards strangers,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the labour of the imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> to envisi<strong>on</strong> a world that aspires towards peace, possibilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural respect for<br />
those near <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> far" (Sobré-Dent<strong>on</strong> & Bardhan, 2013, p. 7). The c<strong>on</strong>cept of cosmopolitanism, orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of<br />
sociology, has emerged as complementary to the c<strong>on</strong>cept of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence (Kennedy, Díaz, & Dasli, 2017).<br />
Cultural tax<strong>on</strong>omies<br />
In the academic study of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, cultures are often characterized as bel<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to particular categories,<br />
often referred to as tax<strong>on</strong>omies (i.e., a type of classificati<strong>on</strong> scheme). Many of the characteristics used go back to work d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
by Geert Hofstede <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1970's, who studied the cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of workers for IBM <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of countries (1980). The<br />
salient category often used to characterize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast cultures is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism versus collectivism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s labeled as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic (most often Western countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern Europe) are seen as emphasiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the rights of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual to self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, with children be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g brought up to be assertive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive. In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
collectivistic cultures (seen as prevalent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa, Asia, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East) emphasize group identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>formity, with children expected to be obedient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respectful. While such dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s can be useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g general<br />
cultural traditi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> patterns of behavior, they are problematic when applied to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. Individual identities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's<br />
world tend to be complex, c<strong>on</strong>structed from a variety of sources. Individuals may bel<strong>on</strong>g to a ethnic group, whose worldview,<br />
values, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior are quite different from those represented by the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture. Political boundaries do not def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
who we are. One might c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that regard groups which cross political boundaries, such as the Kurds, Romani, or<br />
Basques. In fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's world the coherence of nati<strong>on</strong>-states is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly porous, given chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g demographics, widespread<br />
immigrati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the growth of social media.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
Figure<br />
: Representatives of the Yi M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
There are a number of other cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s often used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, most of which derive<br />
from the work of Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hofstede. The c<strong>on</strong>cept of power distance describes the importance attributed to hierarchies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
given culture, the extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals are grouped accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to birth, status or positi<strong>on</strong> of power. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves as well<br />
the percepti<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how easy <strong>on</strong>e feels it is to communicate with or approach a pers<strong>on</strong> higher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hierarchy. The higher the power distance, the less more reluctant <strong>on</strong>e may feel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> approach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a pers<strong>on</strong> senior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hierarchy.<br />
Individualistic cultures are typically seen as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a small power distance, mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that they strive for equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> families. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries with a large power distance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality am<strong>on</strong>g people is seen as expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desired.<br />
<br />
Time orientati<strong>on</strong> is another category often used. Polychr<strong>on</strong>ic ("P-time") cultures tend to be less c<strong>on</strong>cerned with be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> time<br />
for events, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals deal comfortably with more than <strong>on</strong>e task or pers<strong>on</strong> at a time. A m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic orientati<strong>on</strong> ("Mtime"),<br />
<strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, shows a preference for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g punctual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than <strong>on</strong>e task or pers<strong>on</strong> to focus <strong>on</strong> at a<br />
time. A third c<strong>on</strong>cept is uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance, the idea that some cultures are more comfortable with ambiguity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty than others. Uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance refers to the degree to which members of a particular culture feel threatened by<br />
uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or unknown situati<strong>on</strong>s. Those with a str<strong>on</strong>g uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance prefer predictability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tend to have clear rules of<br />
behavior.<br />
The Danger of Cultural Tax<strong>on</strong>omies<br />
C<strong>on</strong>temporary scholars of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> urge cauti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these categories, as they tend to "present people's<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior as entirely def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they live so that the stereotype becomes the<br />
essence of who they are" (Holliday, 2010, p. 4). Critics like Holliday describe the use of Hofstede's categories as essentialism,<br />
that is, assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs have 'natural' characteristics that are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. That may translate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the essence of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of their nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. If <strong>on</strong>e is from Mexico (a culture designated as<br />
polychr<strong>on</strong>ic), for example, an essentialist view would be to assume that pers<strong>on</strong> will be late for meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs all the time, no matter<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text. Inherent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such an assumpti<strong>on</strong> is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals are unable to adapt to others’ norms of behavior. The term<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong>ism is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> similar fashi<strong>on</strong>, referr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the tendency to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an object by reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it to a different, usually<br />
simpler, level. When deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with people this means that identities are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reduced to a predeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed set of characteristics,<br />
associated with ethnic or cultural stereotypes. Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual characteristics through associati<strong>on</strong>s with nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures<br />
denies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual free will. It assumes that we d<strong>on</strong>'t develop unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual pers<strong>on</strong>alities as we grow. Many people liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a "m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic" society are often habitually late. Entrepreneurs (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (a "high uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance" culture)<br />
often take risks to make their bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses successful. No matter what k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of culture we live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, we can probably all po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our culture who have the characteristics of "<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others who tend towards "collectivism".<br />
Holliday <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others have po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted out that most of the cultural categories used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> were created<br />
from a Western perspective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tend to skew accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly the values attached to the different labels (Holliday, 1999; Piller,<br />
2017). Individualism, for example, is seen as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herently positive, with attributes attributed to it which are valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western<br />
cultures, namely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiative, assertiveness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ambiti<strong>on</strong>. Similarly, cultures with a large power distance are seen as<br />
undemocratic, hence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those with high uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance are regarded as adverse to risk-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, therefore,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>hospitable to creativity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiative. Holliday emphasizes the importance of allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other cultures to def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
themselves, advocat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a decentered perspective. One should be aware of c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al cultural descripti<strong>on</strong>s, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
encounter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e put them aside to the extent possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> focus <strong>on</strong> the other as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual, whose identity may be<br />
quite complex, derived from a variety of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences. He emphasizes "bracket<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" away the cultural stereotypes, remov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
priori assumpti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to be able to judge others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually. Of course, this necessitates <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware<br />
of <strong>on</strong>e's own prec<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it c<strong>on</strong>tradicts the basic human tendency of putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unknowns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to familiar<br />
categories.<br />
Figure<br />
: Small cultures can arise from impromptu gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, as groups coalesce around comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests or values<br />
Holliday advocates mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away from the traditi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>cept of "culture", identified with largely homogeneous nati<strong>on</strong>-states<br />
to that of small cultures. He argues, as do others, that the comm<strong>on</strong>ly used characterizati<strong>on</strong>s of nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures are a product<br />
th<br />
of 19 century nati<strong>on</strong>alism; as such, the c<strong>on</strong>cept is associated with col<strong>on</strong>ialism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the devalu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of n<strong>on</strong>-European cultures<br />
(see Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2010). Holiday also ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s that the "large culture" paradigm makes less sense <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world that is "becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly cosmopolitan, multi-cultural place where cultures are less likely to appear as large coherent geographical entities"<br />
(1999, p. 244). Instead of the fixed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> timeless c<strong>on</strong>cept of culture related to nati<strong>on</strong>-states, small cultures are often formed <strong>on</strong><br />
the fly, by organized or impromptu social group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or work-related groups. They can easily cut across nati<strong>on</strong>al borders.<br />
<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to large cultures which are often presented as behavior-def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, small cultures represent <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e aspect of an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's identity. People align themselves to different cultures at different times (see sidebar). The small culture c<strong>on</strong>cept is<br />
similar to the idea of "community of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest" or "aff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ity spaces". It is clear that if we envisi<strong>on</strong> culture from the perspective of<br />
small cultures, the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of broad-stroke comparis<strong>on</strong> of differences am<strong>on</strong>g cultures, as often emphasized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> undergraduate<br />
courses <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, is problematic.<br />
Small cultures form dynamically<br />
Small culture is thus a dynamic, <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g group process which operates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g circumstances to enable group<br />
members to make sense of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operate mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gfully with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those circumstances. When a researcher looks at an<br />
unfamiliar social group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, it can be said to have a small culture when there is a discernible set of behaviours <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs c<strong>on</strong>nected with group cohesi<strong>on</strong>. The dynamic aspect of small culture is central to its nature, hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
capacity to exist, form <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> change as required.<br />
Kullman, Holliday & Hyde (2004), p. 64<br />
One of the reas<strong>on</strong>s identities are complex today is the pervasive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of modern media, which crosses cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic boundaries. Participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media can be such a central aspect of <strong>on</strong>e's life as to have a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect <strong>on</strong><br />
worldview, values, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors. Individuals can become members of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities which acquire over time more<br />
importance than nati<strong>on</strong>al characteristics, religious affiliati<strong>on</strong>s, or even families. Such relati<strong>on</strong>ships may be virtual, but they are<br />
just as real – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be just as str<strong>on</strong>g – as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-pers<strong>on</strong> relati<strong>on</strong>ships.<br />
Ethics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
When we reference the widespread use of social media, we need to keep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the very real nature of the digital divide<br />
between those (predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed countries) with easy access to Facebook <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those<br />
(predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries) who have no Internet c<strong>on</strong>nectivity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possibly even no access to electricity. In fact,<br />
for many of our co-denizens of the 21st-century, daily rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es do not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tweets, post<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Facebook updates, or<br />
check<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Instagram, but rather seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to fill basic human needs — food, water, shelter. About 50% of the world’s populati<strong>on</strong><br />
lives below the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally recognized poverty l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> less than $2.50 a day. The forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong>, discussed<br />
at the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this chapter, have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed brought the world closer together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commerce, but<br />
large numbers of people have been left out. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes not <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals from countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America or<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
Southeast Asia, but also factory workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blue-collar jobs who have lost their livelihoods to outsourc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
to companies mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factories to lower wage ec<strong>on</strong>omies. There has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the distributi<strong>on</strong> of wealth, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to phenomena such as the “Occupy” movement of 2011-2012, protest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the elite 1% of the populati<strong>on</strong>, or the electi<strong>on</strong> of D<strong>on</strong>ald Trump <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2016, who was elected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large<br />
part due to votes from those who feel left out of the 21st-century US ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
Figure : Oakl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (California) Occupy general strike <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2011<br />
To be truly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturally competent means not <strong>on</strong>ly be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resp<strong>on</strong>sible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> empathetic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters, but<br />
extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that process more broadly. We need engaged global citizens, knowledgeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> car<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> events<br />
outside our own backyards. Part of that process is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cognizant of the privileged positi<strong>on</strong> many of us enjoy. Important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that process is a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to break out of our regular rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> retrieval, occasi<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
stepp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside our social media bubble to encounter different voices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of view. In that way, we are likely to be<br />
better <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed about the complexities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fragmentati<strong>on</strong>s of global communities. This can lead to an enhanced recogniti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the need for social justice, i.e. the struggle to c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> challenge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>equities. We are both c<strong>on</strong>sumers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
producers of culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> we all have a role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the nature of the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we live. From that perspective, it is<br />
important not to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of culture as a fixed entity with a c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> our lives. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, as are all human affairs,<br />
are not immutable, but rather subject to change through a variety of forces.<br />
There is a natural human tendency to want to be am<strong>on</strong>g those similar to ourselves, known as homophily. It takes some effort<br />
to overcome this normal human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct. Part of that phenomen<strong>on</strong> makes us leery of those who look different, bel<strong>on</strong>g to<br />
different ethnic groups, or profess other worldviews. Those who seem different become the "other", rejected for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
dissimilar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior (see Scoll<strong>on</strong>, Scoll<strong>on</strong> & J<strong>on</strong>es, 2011). This rejecti<strong>on</strong> of others who have different<br />
ethnic backgrounds or practice other religi<strong>on</strong>s has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human history led to multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of civil strife <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent times c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world from Northern Irel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to South Sudan. In extreme cases, the result can be<br />
th<br />
ethnic cleans<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> genocide, as we have experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 20 century <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Armenia, Germany, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a. That process of<br />
other<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensified if we feel threatened <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our livelihood or security by new arrivals. This has been <strong>on</strong>e of the unfortunate<br />
byproducts of the large wave of refugees beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2015, pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipally to Europe, from Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> north<br />
Africa.<br />
<br />
Figure<br />
: Refugees from Syria <strong>on</strong> their way to Europe<br />
As the number of immigrants has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries like Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, France, Germany, some feel that not <strong>on</strong>ly are jobs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> security at risk, but also the very existence of their cultures. This has led to the rise of a number of new movements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
political parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe which promote xenophobia <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic nati<strong>on</strong>alism. The vote <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2016 to leave<br />
the European Uni<strong>on</strong> was not just an asserti<strong>on</strong> of nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence, but also a rejecti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flux of foreigners. We<br />
have witnessed similar shifts towards greater nati<strong>on</strong>alism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Turkey, Russia, India, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
United States. Unfortunately, the patriotism evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these developments often translates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of free license to<br />
discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities, whether that be Muslims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India or Hispanics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. Political leaders play a crucial role<br />
here <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the t<strong>on</strong>e, thereby <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g followers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms not <strong>on</strong>ly of attitudes but also of behavior. This is <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gest reas<strong>on</strong>s we need today worldwide more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, so that future leaders are acculturated to accept<br />
diversity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice tolerance.<br />
Counter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the media echo chamber<br />
The popular image of the "the world is flat" (Friedman, 2005) is that modern communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transportati<strong>on</strong> are level<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people together, break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down barriers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what Marshall McLuhan called the "global<br />
village" (McLuhan, 1962). The reality can be quite different. We may th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k that <strong>on</strong> the net we are all equal, but the major<br />
Internet companies – Facebook <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Google, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance – d<strong>on</strong>'t just serve up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a neutral way. Rather they use an<br />
algorithm – a procedure or formula – to filter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> or l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> what they know about us. What that can<br />
mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice is that we are served up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> that the algorithm has determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed we want to have, based <strong>on</strong> the pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
profile the system has built. That derives from the filter bubble created by what the system th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks our likes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences<br />
are. This is built <strong>on</strong> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks we tend to click <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> search<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Google, the people we follow <strong>on</strong> Twitter, or the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests<br />
represented by the friends we have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Facebook. The assumpti<strong>on</strong> is that we want <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> our expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> established friends. That means we may have less opportunity to have c<strong>on</strong>tact with people outside our circle of friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
family. If we want to be competent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicators, we need to step outside of that comfort z<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Figure<br />
: Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie<br />
We all have a pers<strong>on</strong>al narrative, a way we put the puzzle pieces of our lives together to make a coherent story out of the<br />
sometimes disparate elements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> events. That narrative is built from our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of pers<strong>on</strong>al experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
family dynamics, religious practices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with friends, or major life events. When we encounter new ideas, new<br />
people, new situati<strong>on</strong>s, we try to fit them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to that narrative. Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie, the Nigerian novelist, talks about the<br />
power of the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle story. It's a natural human tendency to make order out of complexity by simplify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. We feel more<br />
comfortable if we can put people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to already established categories.<br />
<br />
In deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with people, this can lead to stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. We may not have enough knowledge of a pers<strong>on</strong> or of that pers<strong>on</strong>'s<br />
culture to create an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed picture. In such cases we fall back <strong>on</strong> the little <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> we might have. If I've been to Africa<br />
or have learned about Africa, for example, I can dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish between Nigerians, Ivoirians, Kenyans, South Africans, etc. But if<br />
I d<strong>on</strong>'t have that knowledge, I fall back <strong>on</strong> clichés <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stereotypes. If I am a US citizen, I may make associati<strong>on</strong>s with Ebola,<br />
HIV, hunger, or refugees. Where do these impressi<strong>on</strong>s come from? It may be from our friends or family, or from school, but<br />
most likely it's from media reports. In most of the Western world, news is reported from Africa <strong>on</strong>ly if there are natural<br />
disasters, wars, epidemics, or other catastrophic events. This is why it is so important to be critical c<strong>on</strong>sumers of media, to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
ways to enlarge not shr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k our views. Traditi<strong>on</strong>al pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t media such as the Ec<strong>on</strong>omist, the New York Times, or the Guardian (just<br />
to name a sampl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of English-speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g media) often run substantial stories <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al events, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to most local<br />
televisi<strong>on</strong> stati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> newspapers. Many alternative new sources have become available <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years, such as Global<br />
Voices or Vice News.<br />
Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e media can also be a great source of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, but it doesn't come easily or automatically. Hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directly from<br />
Africans, for example, has the potential for explod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our stereotypes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g varied perspectives. That can be<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>valuable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g open <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receptive attitudes. We can't become experts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all parts of the world, but we can take<br />
advantage of opportunities that may arrive to gather first-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge from natives. Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e media can supply those<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tacts. But it takes a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to move outside our regular social circle, to rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> open <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curious, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to seek out<br />
opportunities to encounter people different from ourselves.<br />
One of the developments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years which has changed the media l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape has been the growth of citizen journalism.<br />
Individuals around the world are tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g advantage of the ease of post<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g media – photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos – to<br />
report <strong>on</strong> stories or issues important to them. These are not tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, professi<strong>on</strong>al journalists, but rather everyday citizens who<br />
use their cell ph<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media to report <strong>on</strong> stories traditi<strong>on</strong>al media outlets have ignored. That may be due to the<br />
absence of media corresp<strong>on</strong>dents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that locati<strong>on</strong> or because events have occurred suddenly. Citizen journalists have been<br />
particularly important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g events from natural disorders, sites of political upheaval, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> war z<strong>on</strong>es. Examples of<br />
events for which citizen journalism through social media, especially Twitter, has been important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> spread<br />
widely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the Cedar Revoluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 (Leban<strong>on</strong>), the Tunisian upris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2010-11, or the Arab Spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2011. As<br />
with all media c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>, it’s important to view citizen journalism also from a critical perspective. Citizen reporters may<br />
have a political agenda <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their news accounts, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to slanted perspectives. There may as well be technical or l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic<br />
issues which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of public report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In some cases that has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved those hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g political power shutt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
down the <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e services used by citizen journalists.<br />
Figure<br />
: Citizen journalist Ryan Boyette, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Nuban refugee <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Yida camp, South Sudan<br />
<br />
In report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds, know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about the writer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the purpose or c<strong>on</strong>text for the text can be<br />
important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to evaluate trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectivity. That can be of particular importance for reports not<br />
associated with a trusted media source or news provider, especially relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about c<strong>on</strong>tentious social or political<br />
issues. One approach which aims to supply an objective analysis of both a prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent social problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an implemented<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se is soluti<strong>on</strong>s journalism. Central to this type of report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is the use of credible evidence, backed by reliable data, to<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> profile a resp<strong>on</strong>se that is work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — or <strong>on</strong>e that been tried <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has proven <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>effective. The Fixes column<br />
of the New York Times provides an example of this approach. Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g carefully fact-checked stories about c<strong>on</strong>crete projects to<br />
solve important social issues (educati<strong>on</strong>, poverty, unemployment) provides renewed credibility to news media, while enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigative report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the public good.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 1.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48821
1.3: Technically speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g- Informati<strong>on</strong> literacy<br />
One of the prerequisites for effective communicati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about our c<strong>on</strong>versant. The knowledge we br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> about the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s background <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity can be valuable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g misplaced assumpti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> false<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to possible miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> or potential c<strong>on</strong>flict. Knowledge about the other's religious beliefs or<br />
worldviews may provide practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about aspects of everyday life, such as greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rituals, eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g habits, or<br />
cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g choice. A Muslim woman, for example, may not choose to shake h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, may be skipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g lunch because of Ramadan,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may be wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a headscarf due to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious customs. Knowledge about important historical events, m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority<br />
groups, social hierarchies, or the geo-political situati<strong>on</strong> of the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s home culture, all may be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> topics.<br />
We can't be knowledgeable about all cultures, but we can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>form ourselves about particular cultures or groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we<br />
have a special <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest or are likely to encounter. That might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the language spoken is <strong>on</strong>e we are<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or it might be cultures represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g community, work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment, or university. Most people today<br />
are likely to search <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Internet. That holds true as well for read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the news <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up with<br />
world affairs. As discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this chapter, <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e searches do not provide neutral, unbiased results. It's also not the case that all<br />
search results po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to sites with accurate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. With the glut of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the Internet today, it's more important<br />
than ever to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed c<strong>on</strong>sumers of technology tools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services.<br />
Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed c<strong>on</strong>sumer of Internet services<br />
In assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g search results, there are a few important c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s. Typically, the sites l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked first <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a search (us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Google)<br />
are "sp<strong>on</strong>sored l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks", sites that have paid to have their l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks first <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. The next hits listed are those which Google's<br />
algorithm has determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed are the most popular related to the topic searched. These sites, however, may be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked higher not<br />
due to real popularity – or to the usefulness of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> – but because of the effectiveness of their search eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
optimizati<strong>on</strong> (SEO). SEO <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves modify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a site's HTML code (Hypertext Markup <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> – the underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g code of<br />
web pages) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude terms most likely to be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular searches. In some cases dummy websites are set up<br />
with back l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> page to try to enhance the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process used by Google <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other search eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es. It's important<br />
for sites to be ranked high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> search results, as <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e advertis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come is based <strong>on</strong> the number of visitors to that site. Socalled<br />
"clickbait" sites are set up to generate advertis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g revenue by rely<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> sensati<strong>on</strong>alist headl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es to attract clickthroughs.<br />
Often, the dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> site will have m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will require additi<strong>on</strong>al click-throughs to try to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> advertised.<br />
In such an envir<strong>on</strong>ment, it's important to be able to evaluate search results, to ascerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the likely reliability of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
provided. One <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong> is the nature of the website. Instituti<strong>on</strong>al sites associated with a university, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stitute,<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong> of some k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (such as a museum) are likely to be more objective than pers<strong>on</strong>al sites or<br />
blogs. Most countries have government websites provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a wealth of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>; sites for government agencies can be<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative as well. Of particular trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess are sites with resources which are curated, peer-reviewed, or annotated.<br />
Merlot, for example, is a curated collecti<strong>on</strong> of free <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials. Crowd-sourced sites such as<br />
Wikipedia can be good start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, particularly as they po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to further resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
authoritative sources. The same cauti<strong>on</strong>s recommended here for written resources hold as well for video sites such as YouTube.<br />
Digital literacy also means becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed user of other k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e tools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services. There are, for example, a<br />
great number of opti<strong>on</strong>s available today for work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other languages. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a variety of dual-language dicti<strong>on</strong>aries,<br />
thesauri, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spellcheckers. There are also a number of services which offer <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e translati<strong>on</strong>. Most of those, such as<br />
Google Translate, rely pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipally <strong>on</strong> dual-language corpora – collecti<strong>on</strong>s of translated texts. This means that they are most<br />
accurate when there is a large number of texts available, as there are between English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other major European languages. It's<br />
likely that there are far fewer texts for other language comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s, say Arabic to Est<strong>on</strong>ian, forc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the translati<strong>on</strong> eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to<br />
rely <strong>on</strong> built-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar/language models. It's always good practice to back-translate mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e translati<strong>on</strong>s, particularly us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
different translati<strong>on</strong> service. Such tools are especially useful for decipher<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g websites or other texts but less so for writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as<br />
they do not have the flexibility to adjust for language register (i.e., degree of formality) or t<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
8/26/2021 1.3.1 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/49115
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s-of-use<br />
In participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e discussi<strong>on</strong>s, it's important to be aware of netiquette practices – that is, the social c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
attached to the use of particular forms of electr<strong>on</strong>ic communicati<strong>on</strong>. One should, for example, avoid writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all capital<br />
letters, as that is perceived as shout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g text messages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other short form electr<strong>on</strong>ic messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
to ignore spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar rules, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g capitalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punctuati<strong>on</strong>, while mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rich use of abbreviati<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
potential for miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> written <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased by the absence of facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s, t<strong>on</strong>e of<br />
voice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> body language, c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> of communicative <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent exclusively to the written language. Depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> the particular medium of communicati<strong>on</strong>, there may be as well a particular "culture-of-use", that is, a set of historically<br />
developed, socially accepted norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior for participati<strong>on</strong>. Steve Thorne discusses, as an example, French language<br />
learners participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an Internet discussi<strong>on</strong> forum for readers of the French newspaper Le M<strong>on</strong>de – see sidebar. Not be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
aware of localized cultures of use, such as exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case, can lead to miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frustrati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all sides.<br />
Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an awareness of the appropriate genres of language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> styles of communicati<strong>on</strong> can enable full engagement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multicultural <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e activities.<br />
A practical less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures-of-use<br />
In a recent study exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g foreign language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> open Internet envir<strong>on</strong>ments, Hanna <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de Nooy reported <strong>on</strong> the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity related activity of four students of French who participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public Internet discussi<strong>on</strong> fora<br />
associated with the Parisian newspaper Le M<strong>on</strong>de. Hanna <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de Nooy’s rati<strong>on</strong>ale for opt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to use a public discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
forum was to move students entirely outside of the relative safety of explicitly educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s where participants<br />
occupy the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>ally bounded subject positi<strong>on</strong> of student or learner. Le M<strong>on</strong>de discussi<strong>on</strong> fora, by c<strong>on</strong>trast, exist to<br />
support argumentati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> debate about mostly c<strong>on</strong>temporary political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural issues. Hanna <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de Nooy followed<br />
four students, two of whom opened with st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-al<strong>on</strong>e messages that requested help to improve their French. They received<br />
a few cordial as well as abrupt replies, each of which suggested the need to take a positi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discussi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Neither did <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> both disappeared from the forum. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the other two students opened with a resp<strong>on</strong>se to an exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
message, directly enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g debates. One student primarily used English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his posts but still engaged members<br />
of the forum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> garnered numerous resp<strong>on</strong>ses to his c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s. With coach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support from other participants, he<br />
was able to fully participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the discussi<strong>on</strong>s, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that "neither politeness nor l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic accuracy is the measure<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence here" (Hanna <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de Nooy 2003, p. 78). Rather, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the circumstances of this Le M<strong>on</strong>de<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> forum participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the genre of debate was the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum threshold for c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued participati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Thorne, 2013, pp. 200-201<br />
Such c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s as illustrated here exist for most forms of Internet-based social activities such as multiplayer gam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Many<br />
of these activities are likely to be global, with participati<strong>on</strong> from users represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a variety of cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages. New<br />
modes of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong> will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably develop new cultures-of-use. These will be learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally, <strong>on</strong> the fly,<br />
through participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> observ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most areas of culture, here too we are socialized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to acceptable norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
behaviors. Given the pace of development of services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities <strong>on</strong> the Internet, this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of socializati<strong>on</strong> is not likely to<br />
take place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, as John Seely Brown comments: "The unrelent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g velocity of change means that many of<br />
our skills have a shorter shelf life, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that much of our learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g will need to take place outside of traditi<strong>on</strong>al school<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> university envir<strong>on</strong>ments." (2008, p. xi). This translates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to both a need for <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g digital literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, as well, a high<br />
degree of learner aut<strong>on</strong>omy, to be able to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the necessary skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a self-directed envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
For Discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
1. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> of culture presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this unit, how would you describe your culture? Why are so many people afraid<br />
to communicate with people from cultures different from their own? Do you agree with the greater need for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> competence today? Why or why not?<br />
2. To what extent have you experienced the media echo chamber <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the filter bubble? What methods can help overcome the<br />
restricti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others? How can greater digital literacy help?<br />
3. After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie TED talk (“The dangers of a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle story”): What does she mean by a "s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
story"? What would be other ways to describe this phenomen<strong>on</strong>? Have you had pers<strong>on</strong>al experiences that parallel those of<br />
Adichie?<br />
8/26/2021 1.3.2 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/49115
4. After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Alisa Miller TED talk (“How the news distorts our worldview”): Imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e a map which would represent<br />
the geographical areas that you read, hear,<br />
8/26/2021 1.3.3 https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/49115
1.4: Broaden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Horiz<strong>on</strong>s (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice…<br />
Strive to encounter others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an attitude of openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spirit of curiosity. Seek to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rather than to predict. To<br />
the extent possible, suspend judgment for as l<strong>on</strong>g as you can, form<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an image of the other pers<strong>on</strong> gradually through<br />
c<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g helps, i.e., focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tently <strong>on</strong> the words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> body language of the other pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
D<strong>on</strong>'t apply culturally differentiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g labels to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. Generalizati<strong>on</strong>s about norms of behavior are misplaced when<br />
we are deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. Because they are widespread, it's good to know about the categories (i.e.<br />
“<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism” vs. “collectivism”) used to differentiate nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures, but it's important to keep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that they<br />
represent broadstroke generalizati<strong>on</strong>s, which can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> no way be applicable to every <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual from that culture.<br />
Beware of unexam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed assumpti<strong>on</strong>s. You are likely to have gleaned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about different cultures from local new<br />
sources or from friends or family or from what you may have learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. You should be cautious with such<br />
"received wisdom", which may rely <strong>on</strong> stereotypes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outdated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. It's important to learn what sources to trust –<br />
both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Equally important is a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to be open to different po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of view.<br />
Be alert to your pers<strong>on</strong>al filter bubble. You should not assume that you are receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g neutral results from search requests or<br />
gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g balanced views from <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e news providers. They may be feed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g you what they assume you want, namely more of<br />
the same. Try us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a different web browser or logg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out of your Google or other accounts, to see if suggested l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks<br />
change.<br />
Key C<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
Active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A communicati<strong>on</strong> technique that requires that the listener fully c<strong>on</strong>centrate, underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then<br />
remember what is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g said.<br />
Algorithm: A process or set of rules to be followed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> calculati<strong>on</strong>s or other problem-solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g operati<strong>on</strong>s, especially by a<br />
computer<br />
Citizen journalism: Ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary citizens report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the Internet <strong>on</strong> events or issues of local importance, often us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
social media<br />
Collectivism: Cultural orientati<strong>on</strong> where the group is the primary unit of culture; group goals take precedence over<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual goals<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> apprehensi<strong>on</strong>: The fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communicati<strong>on</strong> with another<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> or group of pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Complexity theory: Also known as complex dynamic systems; a framework for underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phenomena that are<br />
composed of many variables <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsystems<br />
Cosmopolitanism: Moral view of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an allegiances <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>sibility to the world<br />
Critical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>: Approach to the field that focuses <strong>on</strong> issues of power, c<strong>on</strong>text, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> historical/structural forces as they play out <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> encounters,<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>: An accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors shared by an identifiable group of people with a<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal symbol system (from Jim Neuliep)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>-of-use: A set of historically developed, socially accepted norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior for participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech<br />
communities such as <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e discussi<strong>on</strong> forums (from Steve Thorne)<br />
Decentered: Shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from an established center or focus; especially to disc<strong>on</strong>nect from practical or theoretical<br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong>s of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, priority, or essence<br />
Digital divide: Inequalities related to the access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> technologies<br />
Digital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ity: The idea that all human languages follow a simple logical pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciple, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to which a limited set of<br />
elements are comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to produce an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite range of potentially mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful expressi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Diaspora: A scattered populati<strong>on</strong> whose orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> lies is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a smaller geographic area<br />
Echo chamber: In media, an echo chamber is a situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, ideas, or beliefs are amplified or re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forced<br />
by transmissi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repetiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side an 'enclosed' system, where different or compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views are censored, disallowed or<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 1.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42960
otherwise underrepresented<br />
Emic/Etic: In anthropology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other social sciences, emic refers to characteristics derived from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side a social group<br />
(from the perspective of the subject) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> etic from outside (from the perspective of the observer)<br />
Empathy: The imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another pers<strong>on</strong>’s experience, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emoti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual dimensi<strong>on</strong>s, by<br />
imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his or her perspective (James Bennett)<br />
Essentialism: A belief that th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs have a set of characteristics that make them what they are; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, characteriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultures by a set of c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g features, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism versus collectivism<br />
Filter bubble: Describes a pers<strong>on</strong>alized search <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which a website algorithm selectively guesses what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> a user<br />
would like to see based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the user<br />
Global citizenship: the idea that all people have rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civic resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities that come with be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a member of the<br />
world<br />
Globalizati<strong>on</strong>: A process of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g the people, companies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> governments of different<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>s, a process driven by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al trade <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aided by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> technology<br />
Groupth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k: When group members try to m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imize c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reach a c<strong>on</strong>sensus decisi<strong>on</strong> without critical evaluati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
alternative viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts by actively suppress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dissent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by isolat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g themselves from outside <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences<br />
Homophily: i.e., "love of the same", is the tendency of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to associate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> b<strong>on</strong>d with similar others<br />
Individualism: Cultural orientati<strong>on</strong> where the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual is unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual goals are emphasized over group goals<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>: Two pers<strong>on</strong>s from different cultures or co-cultures exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
messages<br />
Netiquette: A set of social c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s that facilitate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> over networks<br />
Other: Identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exclud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a pers<strong>on</strong> from a social group, plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him or her at the marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of society, where social<br />
norms do not apply<br />
Other<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Describes the reductive acti<strong>on</strong> of label<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a pers<strong>on</strong> as some<strong>on</strong>e who bel<strong>on</strong>gs to a subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate social category<br />
Power distance: The extent to which members of a culture expect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accept that power is unequally distributed<br />
Reducti<strong>on</strong>ism: The practice of analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a complex phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of phenomena that are held to<br />
represent a simpler or more fundamental level; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, refers to reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual identities to<br />
perceived nati<strong>on</strong>al characteristics<br />
Search eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e optimizati<strong>on</strong>: The process of maximiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number of visitors to a particular website by ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the<br />
site appears high <strong>on</strong> the list of results returned by a search eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Semantic: Perta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Small cultures: Small social group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or activities wherever there are cohesive behavior patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice (from<br />
Adrian Holliday)<br />
Social justice: The equitable distributi<strong>on</strong> of wealth, opportunities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privileges with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a society<br />
Soluti<strong>on</strong>s journalism: An approach to news report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that focuses <strong>on</strong> the resp<strong>on</strong>ses to social issues as well as the problems<br />
themselves<br />
Symbol: An arbitrarily selected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned stimulus represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else<br />
Tax<strong>on</strong>omy: The practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> science of classificati<strong>on</strong> of th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or c<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
Uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance: The degree to which members of a particular culture feel threatened by unpredictable, uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
or unknown situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Worldview: The cognitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affective lens through which people c<strong>on</strong>strue their experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make sense of the world<br />
around them (AACU)<br />
Xenophobia: Intense or irrati<strong>on</strong>al dislike or fear of people from other countries<br />
Recommended Resources<br />
Books<br />
Edward T. Hall, The Silent <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1959), a classic, which many seen as the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the field of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Geert Hofstede, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Organizati<strong>on</strong>s: Software of the M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (1991), st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field by <strong>on</strong>e of the major<br />
scholars<br />
Adrian Holliday, <strong>Intercultural</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong> & ideology (2011), looks at <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the<br />
backdrop of an unequal global politics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which ideology plays a major role<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 1.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42960
Edward Said (1979). Orientalism. 1978. New York: V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tage, 1994.<br />
Kathryn Sorrells, <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong>: Globalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Social Justice (2015)<br />
ONLINE RESOURCES<br />
Globalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
· Why the World Is Flat<br />
Article from Wired about Thomas Friedman's well-known book <strong>on</strong> globalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
· Pankaj Ghemawat: Actually, the world isn't flat<br />
Ghemawat offers counter-arguments to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al wisdom about globalizati<strong>on</strong>, the c<strong>on</strong>cept that, as Tom Friedman put it,<br />
the "world is flat". In particular he has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comments about Facebook.<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "It may seem that we're liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a borderless world where ideas, goods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people flow freely from nati<strong>on</strong><br />
to nati<strong>on</strong>. We're not even close, says Pankaj Ghemawat. With great data (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an eye-open<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g survey), he argues that there's a<br />
delta between percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world that's maybe not so hyperc<strong>on</strong>nected after all."<br />
· Global Policy Forum: Globalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
From Global Policy Forum, with extensive l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks<br />
Statistics <strong>on</strong> world demographics<br />
· World Demographics Profile<br />
From Index Mundi, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> all countries<br />
· Hari K<strong>on</strong>dabolu - 2042 & the White M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority<br />
Humorous take <strong>on</strong> the demographic changes com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the USA<br />
Cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> history of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
· Edward T. Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> The History of <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong>: The United States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan<br />
Article trac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the role of anthropologist Edward T. Hall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> found<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the field of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
· Geert Hofstede cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
From Clearly Cultural<br />
On broaden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g horiz<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> media<br />
· Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Ngozi Adichie: The danger of a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle story<br />
Nigerian novelist speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about her experiences grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the USA<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Our lives, our cultures, are composed of many overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stories. Novelist Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie tells the<br />
story of how she found her authentic cultural voice — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> warns that if we hear <strong>on</strong>ly a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle story about another pers<strong>on</strong> or<br />
country, we risk a critical misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g."<br />
· Leslie Dods<strong>on</strong>: D<strong>on</strong>'t misrepresent Africa<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Real narratives are complicated: Africa isn’t a country, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it's not a disaster z<strong>on</strong>e, says reporter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
researcher Leslie Dods<strong>on</strong>. In her talk, she calls for journalists, researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs to stop represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g entire c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ents as<br />
<strong>on</strong>e big tragedy."<br />
· Alisa Miller: How the news distorts our worldview<br />
World map dramatically illustrates the US media's report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> world events (very limited)<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Alisa Miller, head of Public Radio Internati<strong>on</strong>al, talks about why — though we want to know more about<br />
the world than ever — the media is actually show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us less. Eye-open<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stats <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> graphs."<br />
Technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the filter bubble<br />
· Technology is creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a world without strangers<br />
On the shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
· How to Burst the "Filter Bubble" that Protects Us from Oppos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Views<br />
From the MIT Technology Review<br />
· Eli Pariser: Beware <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e "filter bubbles"<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 1.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42960
Pariser's classic TED talk expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the c<strong>on</strong>cepts of echo chamber <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> filter bubble.<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "As web companies strive to tailor their services (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g news <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> search results) to our pers<strong>on</strong>al tastes,<br />
there's a dangerous un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended c<strong>on</strong>sequence: We get trapped <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a 'filter bubble' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d<strong>on</strong>'t get exposed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> that could<br />
challenge or broaden our worldview. Eli Pariser argues powerfully that this will ultimately prove to be bad for us <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bad for<br />
democracy."<br />
· Ethan Zuckerman: Listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to global voices<br />
Interest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comments <strong>on</strong> how to be more aware of what's happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rest of the world, such as "eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eer serendipity"<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "cultivate xenophiles". Discussi<strong>on</strong> of Twitter from an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al perspective.<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Sure, the web c<strong>on</strong>nects the globe, but most of us end up hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly from people just like ourselves.<br />
Blogger <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technologist Ethan Zuckerman wants to help share the stories of the whole wide world. He talks about clever<br />
strategies to open up your Twitter world <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read the news <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages you d<strong>on</strong>'t even know."<br />
References<br />
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Credits<br />
Photos: Unless otherwise noted, the images used are from open sources<br />
Horiz<strong>on</strong>: Pixabay; pixabay.com/p-768759<br />
Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie: Slowk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, GFDL 1.,; https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/w/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex.php?curid=28638718<br />
Sushma Swaraj: UK Foreign <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth Office; https://www.flickr.com/photos/foreignoffice/14937796423<br />
Girls’ Generati<strong>on</strong>: Korea KPOP World Festival: https://www.flickr.com/photos/42438955@N05/11039813825/<br />
Just<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Green<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Peter Millett/British Embassy Jordan:<br />
https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Just<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e_Green<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g_talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g_with_Syrian_children_at_a_UKfunded_cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ic_<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>_the_Zaatari_refugee_camp,_Jordan_(9712014008).jpg<br />
Ryan Boyette: Enough Project: https://www.flickr.com/photos/enoughproject/6939045049<br />
Yi ethic group: Bernd Gross; https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/F...i-M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority.JPG<br />
Small discussi<strong>on</strong> group: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> Republic; https://www.flickr.com/photos/getambiti<strong>on</strong>/4700594335<br />
Oakl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Occupy: Brian Sims;https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/F...cent_signs.jpg<br />
Active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: CCCE Teach-In-18, University of Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> Department;<br />
https://www.flickr.com/photos/uwcomm/26826519792/<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 1.4.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42960
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
2: BUILDING IDENTITIES<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Discuss the dynamics of identity formati<strong>on</strong> today<br />
Compare/c<strong>on</strong>trast different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> roles<br />
Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Be able to discuss ways to overcome prejudicial views <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
2.1: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT<br />
2.2: JUDGING AND TREATING OTHERS FAIRLY<br />
2.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - ONLINE IDENTITIES<br />
2.4: HOW IDENTITIES ARE BUILT (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
2.1: How Identities are Built<br />
The same factors that make <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence today so relevant – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased human mobility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> open,<br />
worldwide communicati<strong>on</strong> networks – also have led to the formati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>al identities that are more varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dynamic<br />
than ever before. It is of course always been the case that as we grow, we evolve. From the narrow start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of the family,<br />
we enter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to ever wider social circles, as we attend school, make friends, start work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a partner. Added to this<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al model now is the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g likelihood of exposure to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals from different cultures. This modifies how we<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k, how we view the world, how we react to different situati<strong>on</strong>s, which, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn, adds a variety of flavors to how others see<br />
us <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how we see ourselves, i.e. our identity. Today, part of that process may well happen virtually, through <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social<br />
networks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> media. More exposure to different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of people does not necessarily mean acceptance of grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social<br />
diversity. Unfortunately, the result can be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance. In this unit we will be look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at identity<br />
formati<strong>on</strong>, the roles of ethnic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
La<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Dawes: Identity assumpti<strong>on</strong>s sometimes go astray<br />
La<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a's identity comes from many different sources, grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a rural part of Canada where there were few if any<br />
other blacks, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g adopted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a white family, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a woman <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> love with heavy metal music. Her situati<strong>on</strong><br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strates that pers<strong>on</strong>al identity doesn't necessarily match expectati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> stereotypes, for example, that all<br />
black people prefer hip-hop.<br />
Audio / Transcript of NPR story about La<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Cultural identity<br />
Our identities are formed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of ways. As we grow, we develop characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>ality traits that set us apart as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. Some of those are biological, such as sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color, height, hair color, etc. We may be shy or outgo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, enjoy play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sports or prefer computer games. Each of us has a pers<strong>on</strong>al identity which develops <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changes over time. Some of our<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual characteristics we develop <strong>on</strong> our own, but many aspects of our pers<strong>on</strong>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences develop through c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
with others. The start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t is the family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to which we are born. Our family typically supplies our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial cultural identity<br />
– the values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herited from bel<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a particular culture or ethnic group. Cultural identities provide<br />
a default framework for how we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with others. That doesn't mean that we c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to have this perspective throughout<br />
our lives.<br />
Cultural identities are dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can change with <strong>on</strong>e's <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g life experiences. This may be an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized change or<br />
could reflect changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> views embraced by <strong>on</strong>e of the cultural groups to which we bel<strong>on</strong>g. In the US, for example, a<br />
significant shift <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes towards Muslims occurred after the 9/11 terrorist attacks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001. Many US citizens developed a<br />
new, often negative op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> of any<strong>on</strong>e perceived to be Muslim or from an Arab country. Major shifts have occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent<br />
years <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regard to same-sex marriage. It is certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly not the case that all citizens of those countries have<br />
changed their attitudes; after all, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals have free will <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ability to adopt differ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views.<br />
It may be also that <strong>on</strong>e's views may differ from those of the cultural ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream through the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <strong>on</strong>e has to a particular<br />
subculture. This might be a traditi<strong>on</strong>ally identified m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group – based <strong>on</strong> ethnic, racial, or language characteristics – or<br />
might be a group we bel<strong>on</strong>g to out of pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest or through other relati<strong>on</strong>ships such as employment. M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups –<br />
or microcultures – are traditi<strong>on</strong>ally characterized as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several different ways (Neuliep, 2012). There may be<br />
dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive physical characteristics, such as sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color or dress. Sometimes, microcultures practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group marriage, known<br />
as endogamy (as opposed to exogamy – marry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside your group). Often microcultures receive unequal treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
face discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> employment. The social status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights of microcultures vary<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
c<strong>on</strong>siderably depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place. At <strong>on</strong>e time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, Irish immigrants were discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st, but they (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other European immigrants) have l<strong>on</strong>g s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce become part of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream white culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US.<br />
To <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that subgroups exist with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> must <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with the majority cultures, some use the term co-culture (Orbe &<br />
Spellers, 2005). The term is frequently used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the power discrepancy between co-cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant<br />
culture, highlight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disenfranchisement of many m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups. In us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the terms majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority, we are referenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a group's relative <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> power with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a society, rather than numerical superiority. In some<br />
societies, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> col<strong>on</strong>ized countries, the largest number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants may not hold the levers of power, which may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of a smaller, elite group. In apartheid South Africa (before 1994), for example, the overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g majority of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants were black, but the government, ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school systems were all under the c<strong>on</strong>trol of the<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority white South Africans. One could po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t as well to similar discrepancies between numerical superiority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to<br />
political, social, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic power <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Saddam Hussa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>‘s Iraq (Sunni versus Shi’a) or the Bashar al-Assad regime <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Syria<br />
(Alawi versus Sunni).<br />
Cultural identities tend to be c<strong>on</strong>structed differently depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> whether an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual is a member of a co-culture or a<br />
representative of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream. Often, those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the majority populati<strong>on</strong> lack the social c<strong>on</strong>sciousness that typically<br />
accompanies be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority. Members of the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture typically will be happy with the social status quo.<br />
They are likely never to have been led or forced to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e their positi<strong>on</strong> or role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g themselves as "normal" or<br />
"regular" citizens. In the documentary film, the Color of Fear (Wah, 1994), the white US Americans identify themselves as<br />
"Americans", while those represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups use hyphenated terms such as African-American, Mexican-American,<br />
or Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese-American; those men have much more to say than their white counterparts about their cultural backgrounds. This is<br />
typical of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US: "People who are white know that they are white, but this is often translated as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g just<br />
American. They do not have any experience underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g race <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how it shapes our lives. They typically d<strong>on</strong>’t th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about<br />
their whiteness, nor do they th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about the privilege bestowed <strong>on</strong> them because of their race" (Sisneros, Stakeman, Joyner &<br />
Schmitz, 2008, p. 29). In fact, white Americans may be reluctant to acknowledge that "white privilege" exists. Peggy<br />
McIntosh has put together a compell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g list of examples of white privilege <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US (see sidebar). Unearned social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic privilege is not unique to European-Americans; that phenomen<strong>on</strong> has parallels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other countries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
elite classes enjoy rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advantages not available to all members of the society. Migrant workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries are<br />
denied many of the benefits (educati<strong>on</strong>, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, employment) afforded other sectors of society.<br />
White Privilege: Unpack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>visible knapsack<br />
I have chosen those c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that I th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> my case attach somewhat more to sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-color privilege than to class, religi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
ethnic status, or geographic locati<strong>on</strong>, though of course all these other factors are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tricately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tertw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. As far as I can<br />
tell, my African American coworkers, friends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tances with whom I come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to daily or frequent c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
particular time, place <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time of work cannot count <strong>on</strong> most of these c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
1. I can if I wish arrange to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the company of people of my race most of the time.<br />
2. I can avoid spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time with people whom I was tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to mistrust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who have learned to mistrust my k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d or<br />
me.<br />
3. If I should need to move, I can be pretty sure of rent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an area which I can afford <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which I would want to live.<br />
4. I can be pretty sure that my neighbors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a locati<strong>on</strong> will be neutral or pleasant to me.<br />
5. I can go shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e most of the time, pretty well assured that I will not be followed or harassed.<br />
[Note: the full text c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s 50 items]<br />
Members of a majority group may be unaware of the reality of life for m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their society. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, members<br />
of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups cannot ignore the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture — they typically encounter aspects of that culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
representatives <strong>on</strong> an everyday basis, as they go about their daily lives. The societal apparatus — educati<strong>on</strong>, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, media,<br />
government, employment – is c<strong>on</strong>trolled by the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream populati<strong>on</strong>. Members of a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority are well aware of the situati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> must adjust accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly. It is likely, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> African-American families today, parents talk to their children<br />
(especially the boys) about how to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with police officers. That is not likely to be a necessary c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> white<br />
households. Members of a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority need to balance issues of adaptati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assimilati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture with the<br />
need to reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identificati<strong>on</strong> with their own communities.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
One of the issues with which microcultures often have to c<strong>on</strong>tend is language. The major <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s of a country – schools,<br />
government, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry – use predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly or exclusively the language of the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture. This means that members of a<br />
microculture who either speak a different language or use a dialectical variety of the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard language may be at a<br />
disadvantage. In fact, "muted group theory" suggests that those with less power <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a society often have difficulty<br />
communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effectively, as they must re-encode their thoughts to make them understood (Ardener, 1975). One resp<strong>on</strong>se to<br />
this phenomen<strong>on</strong> is the creati<strong>on</strong> of a unique language. African American Vernacular English, or Eb<strong>on</strong>ics, is an example of that<br />
(Perry & Delpit, 1998). Spanglish – code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spanish – is characteristic of many Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
US (Stavans, 2004). In Germany Kiezdeutsch (also "kanaksprach") is a versi<strong>on</strong> of German that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrates Turkish terms<br />
(Freywald et al, 2011). Similar language hybrid phenomena can be observed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures. We will be explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issues<br />
around m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter three.<br />
Integrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong><br />
To what extent microcultures rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> separate or become <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eventually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>separable from the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture<br />
varies c<strong>on</strong>siderably. The metaphor popularly used for many years <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US was that of the melt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pot, with the implicati<strong>on</strong><br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that immigrant communities were to assimilate, or give up their cultural identities (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopt the<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream European-American culture. In the US today there is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> of the right of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups to<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> aspects of their cultures of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Alba & Nee, 2009). This embrace of pluralism – with a more appropriate<br />
metaphor for the US be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a garden salad or a mixed stew – is by no means universal. That is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries as<br />
well.<br />
In the US, sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> third generati<strong>on</strong> immigrant families often have a quite different attitude toward their ethnic heritage than<br />
was the case for their parents or gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>parents (Rumbaut & Portes, 2001). They may express c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pride <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that heritage, its customs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language. The degree to which descendants of immigrant families or representatives of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities are able to blend successfully their family/ethnic backgrounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture depends <strong>on</strong> the<br />
extent of social acceptance. Some groups have been systematically marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alized, that is, denied the same basic rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
privileges as granted to other populati<strong>on</strong>s. They may face discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas such as hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, access to educati<strong>on</strong>, or<br />
employment opportunities. Examples are the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous populati<strong>on</strong>s of North America or Australia, the Romani <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe, the<br />
Palest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ians <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East, or the "Untouchables" (Lower Castes or Dalit) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India. There are as well counter-examples of<br />
societies, such as Canada, which have embraced multiculturalism, enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g newcomers to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al cultural<br />
identities, as they adjust to the new Canadian envir<strong>on</strong>ment (Peach, 2005).<br />
Countries vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic diversity. Japan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Koreas, for example, are ethnically homogeneous, with small<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority populati<strong>on</strong>s. That is characteristic as well of isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>s, for underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>able reas<strong>on</strong>s. One of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
methodologies used to measure diversity is l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic variati<strong>on</strong> (Fear<strong>on</strong>, 2003). From that perspective, Papua New Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
South Africa rank particularly high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural diversity. That is the case as well for India, with 22 different languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> over<br />
1500 officially recognized dialects. The cultural fabric of India (language, food habits, cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, colors of houses, architecture,<br />
etc.) can vary tremendously from <strong>on</strong>e regi<strong>on</strong> to another. The modern state of India, with its variety of cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
<strong>on</strong>e political entity, is a byproduct of British col<strong>on</strong>ialism. It was not uncomm<strong>on</strong> for occupy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g col<strong>on</strong>ial powers to c<strong>on</strong>struct<br />
arbitrary boundaries, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic hegem<strong>on</strong>ic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests rather than accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to languages spoken or<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g traditi<strong>on</strong>al ethnic or tribal l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es. This k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of forced political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> has led to c<strong>on</strong>flict, as compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tribes or ethnic<br />
groups struggle for power, for example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rw<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a (1990-1994), Sudan (1955 to 1972), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria (1967-1970). Ethnic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict is by no means limited to Africa. Tribal affiliati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious differences have led to many c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle<br />
East <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere.<br />
Figure<br />
: Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan: a largely homogeneous country<br />
<br />
Although European countries have tended to be largely homogeneous, there are excepti<strong>on</strong>s such as Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or Belgium.<br />
While the Swiss have managed to create a comm<strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al identity, which has largely shielded the country from strife am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally diverse cant<strong>on</strong>s, Belgium has not been so successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>. The Flemish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
French parts of the country have had c<strong>on</strong>siderable trouble cooperat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g politically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omically. C<strong>on</strong>flict has arisen as well<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, with struggles of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous populati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Guatemala, Mexico, Columbia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries for equal<br />
rights. In some cases, ethnic strife has led to countries break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g apart <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to separate entities, such as happened <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yugoslavia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the early 1990s or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sudan <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2011. Separatist movements have arisen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of countries, such as Catal<strong>on</strong>ia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or<br />
Scotl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
Just because a country is ethnically homogeneous, it does not mean that it will rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that way. Germany, for example, has<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been relatively homogeneous, but has seen several large waves of immigrati<strong>on</strong> which have made the populati<strong>on</strong><br />
much more diverse. So-called "guest workers" (Gastarbeiter) were recruited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1950s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1960s from Italy, Greece,<br />
Yugoslavia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Turkey to supply manpower for the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g post-war German ec<strong>on</strong>omy (Herbert, 1990). Many of those<br />
workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families elected to resettle permanently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. The large number of Turkish Germans has had a<br />
significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> German culture, with Germans of Turkish descent play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g significant roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> politics, sports,<br />
enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other areas. In 2015–2016, large numbers of refugees arrived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany, flee<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g war, civil strife, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern Africa. The substantial numbers of new arrivals placed stress <strong>on</strong> the ability<br />
of government agencies, churches, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> citizen groups to provide sufficient services, such as hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As<br />
migrants are dispersed am<strong>on</strong>g different urban <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany, efforts to reach the different groups with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has been a challenge. One of the more successful methods that has been used is mobile technology (see sidebar).<br />
Not all Germans have welcomed the arrival of large numbers of refugees. Some refugee centers have been burned to the<br />
ground. Anti-immigrant movements such as PEGIDA (Patriotic Europeans aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the Islamificati<strong>on</strong> of the West) have<br />
attracted popular support am<strong>on</strong>g some parts of the German populati<strong>on</strong> (Vorländer, Herold, & Schäller, 2015). As is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
neighbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries, that has also lead to political changes, with a new anti-immigrant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anti-EU party, the Alternative for<br />
Germany (AFD), which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2018 entered the German parliament. In France, the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Fr<strong>on</strong>t has attracted large numbers of<br />
French voters unhappy with ec<strong>on</strong>omic stagnati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with the perceived cultural changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French society through the large<br />
numbers of immigrants from Northern Africa.<br />
Smartph<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugees<br />
In Germany, the hoped-for dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of many refugees, a number of apps have been created tar-get<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the immigrant<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. The Goethe Insti-tute, al<strong>on</strong>g with federal agencies deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with im-migrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> employment, have created<br />
Ankommen (Arrival), available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Arabic, English, Farsi, French, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> German. As do other such apps, it is designed with<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal technical requirements, so as to be usable <strong>on</strong> older ph<strong>on</strong>es. It features three branched areas: German language<br />
study, German asylum procedures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tips <strong>on</strong> liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. Integreat offers a similar service for refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Germany. It is available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> five languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fea-tures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> specific to <strong>on</strong>e of the 80 German cities targeted.<br />
Daheim (At Home) offers a meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g platform for new arrivals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> German natives, designed for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural exchange.<br />
Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017, p. 11<br />
The extent to which members of microcultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture may depend <strong>on</strong> how that particular group<br />
arrived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new country. This may have happened <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of different ways: forced repatriati<strong>on</strong> – as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of<br />
slavery –, voluntary immigrati<strong>on</strong>, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance those seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g better job opportunities, or through refugee status, seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> from political persecuti<strong>on</strong> or dangerous liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> process also depends <strong>on</strong> the nature of the<br />
group, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how similar or dissimilar its customs, language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldviews are to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture. One of the central<br />
issues affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the recepti<strong>on</strong> of recent migrants to Europe is that most are Muslims, while European countries are majority<br />
Christian. The difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religi<strong>on</strong> affects not <strong>on</strong>ly worship practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious doctr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es but also social views, such as<br />
the role of women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society. Visibly different sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color or dress are likely to make <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>, or even acceptance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture potentially problematic. Diaspora communities tend to keep many customs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rituals from their places of<br />
orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Indian families who migrated to Southern Africa, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from there to the UK, the USA, or Canada, may have never<br />
visited India, but still marry accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Indian customs. Yet, they also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate Western customs, such as hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speeches at<br />
the wedd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recepti<strong>on</strong> (A. Malik, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, June 25, 2017).<br />
Figure<br />
: PEGIDA dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dresden, Germany<br />
The degree to which particular groups ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural ties to their family places of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> differs significantly accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
both the group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the nature of the dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> culture. In the US, for example, many people of European ancestry have<br />
largely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated culturally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have lost most of their associati<strong>on</strong> with their ancestral homel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may<br />
not even be aware of their family backgrounds. They may not know about the stigma which used to be attached to immigrants<br />
to the US from countries such as Irel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Italy, or Germany. Some white US Americans may have a symbolic ethnicity, a<br />
largely voluntary affiliati<strong>on</strong> with a particular ethnic group which <strong>on</strong>ly surfaces <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the celebrati<strong>on</strong> of a<br />
holiday such as St. Patrick's Day or Oktoberfest. While many microcultures become segregated due to prejudicial treatment by<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture, as has historically been the case with African-Americans, some microcultures choose to rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apart.<br />
The Amish community <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US live apart from the n<strong>on</strong>-Amish, with their religious beliefs lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them to reject many<br />
aspects of c<strong>on</strong>temporary US culture. They dress differently, speak a German dialect, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shun modern technology. Because<br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an Amish community isolates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals so completely from ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream US culture, young people are given an<br />
opportunity to experience the "English", i.e. n<strong>on</strong>-Amish, world through a traditi<strong>on</strong> called rumspr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ga.<br />
Rumspr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ga: Amish youth explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the world<br />
In many communities, Rumspr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ga is a period when some Amish youth, boys more than girls, experience greater<br />
freedom. They are no l<strong>on</strong>ger under the c<strong>on</strong>trol of their parents <strong>on</strong> weekends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, because they are not baptized, they are<br />
not yet under the authority of the church. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this time, many Amish youth adhere to traditi<strong>on</strong>al Amish behavior.<br />
Others experiment with “worldly” activities—buy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a car, go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to movies, wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>-Amish clothes, buy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
televisi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Kraybill, 2016<br />
Figure<br />
: Amish family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New York farm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<br />
Social Identity<br />
While our nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic background typically c<strong>on</strong>tribute substantially towards form<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual identities,<br />
they al<strong>on</strong>e do not play a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g who we are. There are likely to be a variety of groups we bel<strong>on</strong>g to,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>struct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what is comm<strong>on</strong>ly called our social identity. Some of these are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voluntary, such as age, race, or family. Others<br />
are groups we choose to jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, such as a club, church, or political party. There may be groups we do not bel<strong>on</strong>g to but with<br />
which we identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some way, for example, a professi<strong>on</strong>al group we hope to jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e day (i.e., physicians, lawyers,<br />
astr<strong>on</strong>auts) or political acti<strong>on</strong> groups with whose views we agree. These are known as reference groups (Shibutani, 1955).<br />
There may be as well any number of impromptu, ad-hoc groups with which we identify, forg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a variety of shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g small<br />
cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ity groups. At least some of those are likely to be mostly or exclusively <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, such as our Facebook friends<br />
or those we follow or who follow us <strong>on</strong> Twitter or through other social media.<br />
How we communicate with others may be str<strong>on</strong>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by our group memberships. Some groups dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish sharply<br />
between who is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who is out. Members of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group may feel prejudiced aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> out-groups. Extreme<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>alists, for example, may discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st or even harass immigrant communities. One way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which groups tend to<br />
shape <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior is through a phenomen<strong>on</strong> known as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group bias, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we as members of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group<br />
automatically favor other members of our group (Brewer, 1979). This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to out-group negativity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we<br />
attribute automatically negative characteristics to those outside our group (Sherif et al., 1961). The same observed behavior<br />
might be judged quite differently depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> whether the other pers<strong>on</strong> bel<strong>on</strong>gs to our group.<br />
Interacti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g group members may also be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals’ roles with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups. In some<br />
groups, roles may be formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> well-def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, with a strict hierarchy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> place. This is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
In such cases, how we communicate is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by our place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hierarchy, with those at the top accorded a high measure<br />
of respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g addressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> deferential language. Different cultures may see group roles quite differently, even with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
similar groups or organizati<strong>on</strong>s. In most university communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, for example, there is a fairly relaxed, relatively<br />
egalitarian relati<strong>on</strong>ship between students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professors, with the language used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> colloquial. In other countries,<br />
such as South Korea, the relati<strong>on</strong>ship is likely to be more hierarchical, with an accompany<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shift <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the language to a much<br />
more formal register.<br />
An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly prevalent approach to address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the nature of social identity is the "communicati<strong>on</strong> theory of identity",<br />
developed orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally by communicati<strong>on</strong> scholar Michael Hecht (1998). The theory provides a model for describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how<br />
groups create an identity through communicati<strong>on</strong>. The idea is that identity is negotiated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts, either between<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals of the same identity groups or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals of different groups. In this view, social identities are c<strong>on</strong>structed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fluid. We express our identities through such th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as choice of language, n<strong>on</strong>verbals like cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or body language, or the<br />
degree to which we emphasize our group membership. Depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the situati<strong>on</strong>, we may express our identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different<br />
ways. The theory is helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to separate categories how our communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior as members of a<br />
group affects our sense of identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts. Identity comp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
Scope (how many people hold the identity)<br />
Salience (how important the identity is to a pers<strong>on</strong> at a given po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> time)<br />
Centrality (how important the identity is usually to a pers<strong>on</strong>’s self-esteem)<br />
Intensity (how vocal or expressive <strong>on</strong>e is about an identity)<br />
Changeability (some aspects of identities change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others do not)<br />
How this works <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice is dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the example of women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sahara (see the sidebar).<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the theory proposes that identities have both a c<strong>on</strong>tent comp<strong>on</strong>ent – norms of behavior associated with an identity<br />
– <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a relati<strong>on</strong>ship comp<strong>on</strong>ent, i.e., how we feel about an identity. The c<strong>on</strong>tent may be acti<strong>on</strong>s, behaviors, or language<br />
expected or accepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts such as us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g formal language when address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a superior. The relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent (sometimes referred to as "regard") refers to different views <strong>on</strong> particular behaviors or attitudes associated with an<br />
identity, which may be seen differently depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2013) provides this example, "Two people<br />
might see themselves as 'geeks.' Both may agree what the identity means as far as characteristics (c<strong>on</strong>tent), but <strong>on</strong>e might<br />
embrace the identity (positive regard) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other might dislike the identity (negative regard)". This approach treats identity<br />
as c<strong>on</strong>text-dependent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emergent, rather than static <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fixed. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accord with views <strong>on</strong> identify formati<strong>on</strong> current <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the social sciences generally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has been of particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d language acquisiti<strong>on</strong>. In this<br />
view, we negotiate our identities <strong>on</strong> the fly, through our use of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other identity markers such as body language or<br />
dress. The dynamics of that k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of identify asserti<strong>on</strong> are dependent <strong>on</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the background <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior<br />
of those with whom we are communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sahara<br />
If we th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of the identity of gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sahara, we can state that:<br />
Scope: Sex has a much broader scope than, say, Jewish people<br />
Salience: A woman might be a professi<strong>on</strong>al, a student, a researcher, or a Muslim. In some c<strong>on</strong>texts, <strong>on</strong>e identity will<br />
be more relevant or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fr<strong>on</strong>t of her m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d than others.<br />
Centrality: Because of the emphasis <strong>on</strong> gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sahara, this identity is probably “salient” all or most of the time<br />
—thus, it has more centrality.<br />
Intensity: Women may express their identity either more or less vocally. By wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a head-cover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, especially<br />
when such is opti<strong>on</strong>al, as it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries, the women is express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g identity more explicitly. She is “out” about<br />
her religious identity.<br />
Changeability: Clearly, as expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the photo above, gender identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> parts of the Saharan regi<strong>on</strong> is chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g—<br />
but likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other ways stay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same.<br />
Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2013)<br />
Worldviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Religi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
One of the groups many bel<strong>on</strong>g to is a religious community. The religi<strong>on</strong> to which we adhere may have a substantial impact <strong>on</strong><br />
how we communicate with others:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
Religious differences have tremendous implicati<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Religi<strong>on</strong> is a powerful force <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mark<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural differences, which can lead to both<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural cooperati<strong>on</strong>. Even when not explicitly noted,<br />
religi<strong>on</strong> may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence our attitudes about right <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wr<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence our<br />
own behavior. (Nakayama & Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2002, p. 21).<br />
Religious beliefs often play a central role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a pers<strong>on</strong>'s worldview, i.e., the set of values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs about acceptable human<br />
behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> about mank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d's relati<strong>on</strong>ship to a supreme be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to the natural world. In some cases, religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldview<br />
are tightly c<strong>on</strong>nected. This is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what are deemed "sacred cultures", where there is a religious doctr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e that plays a<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected pers<strong>on</strong>al behavior, fundamental values, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appearance (Dodd, 1998). In some cultures, such as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Saudi Arabia, there may be a state religi<strong>on</strong> which exerts this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence. In other cases, the c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong><br />
between religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldview is not as clear-cut, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of the Puritan <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US (see sidebar). Secular<br />
societies, such as the US, draw a sharp dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between church <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> state. France has a l<strong>on</strong>g traditi<strong>on</strong> of "laïcité" (secularity)<br />
which has been the expressed reas<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>troversial measures such as the bann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of women wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g veils or headscarves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
public schools (Car<strong>on</strong>, 2007). On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, India, also a secular culture, has not banned religious symbols (Burchardt,<br />
Wohlrab-Sahr & Wegert, 2013).<br />
Pervasive Puritanism<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of the Puritan settlers <strong>on</strong> US society can be seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fact that US Americans have rather c<strong>on</strong>servative<br />
views about alcohol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nudity — someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that many Europeans f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d rather prudish. This dem<strong>on</strong>strates the implicit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of religi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> worldview <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> percepti<strong>on</strong> — people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States who may not subscribe to Puritan or<br />
even Christian beliefs may still be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by that historical traditi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldview.<br />
Nakayama & Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2002, p. 22<br />
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck (1961) developed a set of "value orientati<strong>on</strong>s" to dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish worldviews. The values tax<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s are implicitly provided by a culture as guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others. They<br />
address the questi<strong>on</strong>s of man's place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cosmos, namely:<br />
Character of human nature (basically good – a mixture of good <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evil – basically evil)<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong> of humans to nature (humans dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate–harm<strong>on</strong>y of the two–nature dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ates)<br />
Time orientati<strong>on</strong> (future-oriented - present-oriented - past-oriented)<br />
Activity orientati<strong>on</strong> ("do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g"/acti<strong>on</strong> – "grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g"/spiritual growth – "be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g"/who you are)<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ships between people (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual - group-oriented – collateral)<br />
If applied to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream US culture, the human–nature orientati<strong>on</strong> is that mank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d is essentially good, with humans<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be rati<strong>on</strong>al be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs who have c<strong>on</strong>trol of their own dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ies (the much vaunted but elusive US "equality of<br />
opportunity"). The mutable nature of human character <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US view is dem<strong>on</strong>strated by the popularity of self-help groups,<br />
self-improvement sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ars, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "life coaches". US culture sees mank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d as empowered to rule over nature, with faith <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
science to solve problems. In terms of activity orientati<strong>on</strong>, the US tends to value pragmatism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficiency; that applies to<br />
time as well, which tends to be future-oriented. In their relati<strong>on</strong>ships with others, US Americans are seen as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic,<br />
with few b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g group memberships. They are more likely to be will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to relocate to entirely new regi<strong>on</strong>s for educati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
employment.<br />
India offers a dramatically different profile. In this life, humans must accept restra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limitati<strong>on</strong>s, but need to work<br />
towards enlightenment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perfecti<strong>on</strong>, but that may occur over successive lives. The human-nature relati<strong>on</strong>ship is seen quite<br />
differently, with an emphasis <strong>on</strong> harm<strong>on</strong>y, not c<strong>on</strong>trol, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>cern for the "welfare of all th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs" tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g precedence over<br />
human c<strong>on</strong>cerns (Roa & Thombre, 2015, p. 67). Spiritual growth is highly valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that may occur over successive<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>carnati<strong>on</strong>s, so that both the past <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future are important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are not seen as dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctly different entities. From an Indian<br />
perspective, time is not l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ear but circular. Indians are "highly collectivistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their local group, but are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with outsiders" (Rao & Thombre, 2015, p. 81). Starkly different regi<strong>on</strong>al characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> customs tend<br />
to lead Indians to feel most comfortable liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home regi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> less likely than North Americans to accept mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
far from home for educati<strong>on</strong> or employment (Rao & Thombre, 2015).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
As is always the case with such generalizati<strong>on</strong>s, these value orientati<strong>on</strong>s need to be seen as just that — generalities which may<br />
be useful as default categories but do not hold for all members of a culture. In the case of the characteristics for US culture, for<br />
example, there are significant differences am<strong>on</strong>g different co-cultures, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Native Americans' view of the<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship to nature or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the importance of family relati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the African-American household. A similar variety of values<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>s are evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other countries. There are shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views <strong>on</strong> man's relati<strong>on</strong>ship to nature, which<br />
derive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part from global warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other natural phenomena. In India, for example, the c<strong>on</strong>cept of dharma (loosely, the<br />
right way of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) leads to envir<strong>on</strong>mentalism be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to Indian culture, while envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong> is viewed as an<br />
expressi<strong>on</strong> of karma (just retributi<strong>on</strong>; Roa & Thombre, 2015). There are likely generati<strong>on</strong>al differences too, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
time orientati<strong>on</strong>, with younger North Americans or Indians be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more present-oriented, with greater <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality-of-life<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the value orientati<strong>on</strong>s of other cultures is likely to show similar results, that is, some comm<strong>on</strong> default<br />
values, with many discrepancies depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> group memberships.<br />
The forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mass immigrati<strong>on</strong> which have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly mixed cultures together have also brought together<br />
different worldviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religi<strong>on</strong>s. This can lead to greater religious diversity. This phenomen<strong>on</strong> is seen by some as a<br />
weaken<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or diluti<strong>on</strong> of religious beliefs. In resp<strong>on</strong>se, fundamentalist religious movements have arisen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different parts of the<br />
world, which strive to set boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adhere to a perceived "pure" versi<strong>on</strong> of a religi<strong>on</strong>. Often, this is also a reacti<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st particular social changes, such as equality between men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women or equal rights for LGBTQ communities<br />
(Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer/Questi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). Religi<strong>on</strong> is often deeply tied to people's cultural identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
disregard or perceived disrespect for a pers<strong>on</strong>'s religious beliefs or rituals is seen as a pers<strong>on</strong>al attack. In such cases,<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> may be shut down completely.<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ideology<br />
When we talk about worldviews, another term that frequently comes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to play is ideology. Ideology is similar to worldview <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that it references our c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong> of the order of the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humans' role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, but it places additi<strong>on</strong>al emphasis <strong>on</strong><br />
what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an ideal world human relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior should be. This often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s, with a central c<strong>on</strong>cern be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual or groups who exercise power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol. From that perspective,<br />
the questi<strong>on</strong> arises as to who c<strong>on</strong>trols culture – that is where do our values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mores come from. Italian theorist, Ant<strong>on</strong>io<br />
Gramsci (1971, orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally 1935), uses the c<strong>on</strong>cept of cultural hegem<strong>on</strong>y to describe how those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> power manipulate the value<br />
system of a society so as to co-op <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors am<strong>on</strong>g the populati<strong>on</strong> at large. In this way, the rul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class<br />
worldview becomes the accepted cultural norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> establishes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> justifies a social, political, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic status quo.<br />
Adrian Holliday (2010) sees the c<strong>on</strong>cept of culture itself as a form of ideology. Under the guise of culture, we (especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the West) tend to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perpetuate static images of particular groups. Edward Said (1978) has shown, for example, how<br />
the West exoticized images of people from the East, creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a stereotype of "Orientals", which helped promote Western<br />
superiority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hence justify col<strong>on</strong>ialism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subjugati<strong>on</strong>. Holliday has shown that the terms of cultural differentiati<strong>on</strong> often<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> such as collectivism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> subtle ways denigrate particular cultures<br />
or peoples. For Holliday, the c<strong>on</strong>cept of culture, as usually understood, leads "easily <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nocently to the reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
of the foreign Other as culturally deficient" (Holliday, 2010, ix).<br />
Figure<br />
: Snake Charmer, example of image <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the West of "Orientals"<br />
<br />
If, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, as Holliday states, the world is governed by "unequal global politics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which ideology plays a major role" (2010,<br />
ix), that holds c<strong>on</strong>sequences for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. It makes it important to recognize our own ideological framework,<br />
both as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of how our gender, socioec<strong>on</strong>omic class, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic background<br />
affect our views of the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of others. This critical self-awareness can enable us to view others <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their cultural values<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors with a clearer appreciati<strong>on</strong> of how forces bey<strong>on</strong>d an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's c<strong>on</strong>trol c<strong>on</strong>tribute to identity formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
particular worldviews. Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a knowledge of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> between culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s can help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
avenues for change that are feasible, given societal c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts. We may see <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justices which, given our own backgrounds,<br />
seem to be evidence of "backwards" beliefs or of a corrupt political culture. Rather than judge harshly an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
what we see as negative behavior, it is better to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts at work. Individuals do not always have the freedom<br />
to change aspects of behavior that are c<strong>on</strong>trolled by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al forces. It is also the case, that as outsiders, we are not likely to<br />
have a full underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of what may be a quite complex <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terplay of factors which determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42968
☰<br />
2.2: Judg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Others Fairly<br />
Categorizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
When we encounter some<strong>on</strong>e for the first time, we may not be aware of their cultural or social identities. If we do not have any<br />
prior knowledge, we tend to assign <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to categories based <strong>on</strong> appearance, age, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the encounter<br />
takes place. This is normal human behavior, as we make sense of the world by putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to categories. We<br />
tend to categorize based <strong>on</strong> perceived similarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> differences. Obviously, our ability to make viable choices depends <strong>on</strong><br />
our own degree of experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge. The less knowledge we have, the more likely we are to fall back <strong>on</strong> general<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> we may have acquired <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally from friends, family, or media reports. Our m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d tries to c<strong>on</strong>nect the dots <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order to create a complete picture based <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> it already has, which may be scant or faulty. This can provide a<br />
very limited, narrowly focused, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially distorted impressi<strong>on</strong> of the other.<br />
Rely<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> faulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> leads us to make generalizati<strong>on</strong>s that may be far removed from reality. We can overcome the<br />
distorti<strong>on</strong> of the "s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle story", as Nigerian novelist Chimam<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Adichie puts it, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of ways (Adichie, 2009). The<br />
most effective antidote is to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greater real knowledge of other cultures through direct c<strong>on</strong>tact. That can come from travel,<br />
study abroad, service learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal means of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tact. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g news reports <strong>on</strong> what's<br />
happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside our immediate area can also be valuable, particularly if we seek out reliable, objective report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. What can<br />
be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that regard is to try to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d multiple sources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. Another way to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to other cultures is<br />
through stories, told <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> novels, autobiographies, or movies. The more perspectives we have <strong>on</strong> a given culture, the less likely it<br />
is that we will extrapolate from a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle experience to make generalizati<strong>on</strong>s about an entire group.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out opportunities for ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g knowledge about other cultures, what is also needed is to engage with<br />
others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spirit of openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curiosity. An unwill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to view others as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals whose real identity is yet to be<br />
discovered, means that we are assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that every<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that perceived category is the same, with identical characteristics<br />
shared by all. Stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can be positive or negative. There may be, for example, a percepti<strong>on</strong> that all members of a given<br />
community are smart <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hard-work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as is sometimes said of Asian-American students. Indian immigrants to the US are<br />
often seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that light, as a "model m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority" (Lee, 2015). More comm<strong>on</strong> are negative stereotypes; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US race <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender<br />
groups are often stereotyped. In other cultures, stereotypes may be attached to those from certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>s or who follow<br />
particular religi<strong>on</strong>s. Even positive stereotypes can be problematic, as they lead us to depers<strong>on</strong>alize people, treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them as<br />
members of a group, rather than as unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. Stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can lead to communicati<strong>on</strong> breakdowns, if <strong>on</strong>es<br />
stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a group is different from the view the group has of itself. We can dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish between ascribed identities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
avowed identities. The ascribed identity is <strong>on</strong>e that we give to either people or groups. Ones avowed identity is the identity<br />
we claim as our own. Effective communicati<strong>on</strong> occurs when there is a match between the identity we ascribe to others <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
identity they avow. Otherwise misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict can arise.<br />
Stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn can lead to ethnocentric attitudes. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to place our own group above all others,<br />
while see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out-groups negatively. Ethnocentrism can have positive effects, namely c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toward solidarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to build pride <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> patriotism. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ethnocentrism can lead to<br />
prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>. In the most extreme cases, it can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> racism, which claims a biologically-based superiority<br />
for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group. While ethnocentrism is a universal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate human behavior, racism is social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned. We are more<br />
likely to see racism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficult ec<strong>on</strong>omic times, when out-groups such as immigrants become scapegoats. Modern science has<br />
shown that there is no biological basis for racial categories, as the genetic make-up am<strong>on</strong>g humans differs very little (Smedley<br />
& Smedley, 2005).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Protest aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st racism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK<br />
Related to racism is xenophobia, the fear of strangers. Some scholars say that xenophobia is universal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> biological. Others<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the fact that xenophobia is often racialized – it can be a fear of <strong>on</strong>ly those strangers with a particular racial profile. In<br />
German-speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries, the German equivalent of xenophobia, Ausländerfe<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dlichkeit, is used to the exclusi<strong>on</strong> of the term<br />
racism (Rassismus). That is likely tied to the Nazi-era appropriati<strong>on</strong> of the latter term. Teun van Dijk's research <strong>on</strong> racism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Europe po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the fact that although Europeans do admit there is xenophobia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their countries, they see it as a general<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st foreigners (1987). In practice the xenophobia mostly arises for selected foreigners, namely those with different<br />
sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religi<strong>on</strong>s. The relati<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g different groups that give rise to prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> animosity often have historical<br />
causes. The <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East, for example, have roots <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tribalism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> col<strong>on</strong>ialism (see sidebar).<br />
Tribalism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East<br />
<br />
The same north Arabian Bedou<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tribes that accepted Islam <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spread it by the sword also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fused the regi<strong>on</strong> with a<br />
deeply tribal culture, impact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g everyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from family relati<strong>on</strong>s to governance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. Tribal affiliati<strong>on</strong> is based <strong>on</strong><br />
descent from a comm<strong>on</strong> male ancestor; all descendants are deemed to share comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to have obligati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
solidarity with <strong>on</strong>e another. Descendants of other ancestors are deemed to have different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are seen to be<br />
opp<strong>on</strong>ents, sometimes enemies. The ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciple of tribal life is absolute loyalty to <strong>on</strong>e's l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eage group vis à vis other<br />
groups of the same order <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope: clan vs. clan, tribe vs. tribe, c<strong>on</strong>federati<strong>on</strong> vs. c<strong>on</strong>federati<strong>on</strong>, sect vs. sect, Muslim vs.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fidels...Oppositi<strong>on</strong>, rivalry, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict are thus seen to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the nature of social life. Success, power, wealth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
above all, h<strong>on</strong>our derives from triumph<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over oppositi<strong>on</strong> groups. Failure to triumph means the loss of power, wealth,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, above all, h<strong>on</strong>our.The pervasive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East–between clans, tribes, sects, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
religi<strong>on</strong>s–is a manifestati<strong>on</strong> of this culture.<br />
Salzman, 2016<br />
Address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance<br />
Prejudice "<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a prejudgment based <strong>on</strong> membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a social category. While prejudice can be positive or<br />
negative, there is a tendency for most of us to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of it as negative" (Gudykunst, 2004, p. 134). We can be prejudiced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> favor<br />
of a group or aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st. Prejudice is tied to group identificati<strong>on</strong>. We all tend to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of ourselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of our group<br />
memberships, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it is natural to judge our own groups positively. The fact that prejudice is comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>born is of course<br />
an explanati<strong>on</strong> but not a justificati<strong>on</strong>. Prejudice can lead to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance, an active unwill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to accept views or behavior<br />
different from <strong>on</strong>e's own. Prejudice can take different forms. There is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual prejudice but also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al prejudice, i.e.<br />
prejudice embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social policies or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s. Today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US we see less "overt prejudice", namely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g publically str<strong>on</strong>g op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st particular groups, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more "subtle prejudice", hidden <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> symbolic language, as<br />
when talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about gangs or welfare to really make racial comments. Hid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g racism beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d symbols or political attitudes is<br />
known as symbolic racism (Sears, 1988). Racism may be reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the language used by those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> power, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
epressi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous languages by col<strong>on</strong>ial powers, for example, Arabic be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g suppressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> favor of French <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Leban<strong>on</strong><br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ☰North Africa.<br />
In recent years, there has also been attenti<strong>on</strong> paid to behaviors which may be un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended examples of prejudicial treatment,<br />
sometimes labeled micro-aggressi<strong>on</strong>s (Sue, 2010). Examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US c<strong>on</strong>text might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude such questi<strong>on</strong>s as "Where are<br />
you from or where were you born?” or “You speak English very well.” Yet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts, a questi<strong>on</strong> as to the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor's orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s or aff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ities may be seen as normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>offensive. In a community-oriented culture, such as that of<br />
India, such questi<strong>on</strong>s may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate rapport build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or a search for comm<strong>on</strong> ground <strong>on</strong> which to base future communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Malik, 2017). The appropriateness of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s questi<strong>on</strong>s depends <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. It may be evident through<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> or body language that the questi<strong>on</strong> is well-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spirit of openness, curiosity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> good<br />
will.<br />
Where are you from? Sometimes not easy to answer<br />
“Where are you from?” As some<strong>on</strong>e who was born <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grew up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, who has spent the last 15 years work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
British higher educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Newcastle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, I often found it difficult to answer the above questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
small talk. I can never get it right. If I say that I’m from L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, I can guarantee that the next questi<strong>on</strong> would be ‘But<br />
where are you really from?’. People expect to hear that I am from Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a or somewhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia. But I feel that I am<br />
mislead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them if I just give them what they want to hear. I am Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese, but that is not all. I am a Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, a professor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a British university <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have two children of school age who were born <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grew up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Engl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Zhu, 2014<br />
Racism can be seen as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual trait or as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> societal. How we frame the issue can be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ways to address it. If racism is seen as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual, that tends to absolve the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual from pers<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>sibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about it, such as encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g societal changes (reallocati<strong>on</strong> of resources, chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g laws). If racism is seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
terms, that makes society as a whole resp<strong>on</strong>sible, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ourselves. Many of the efforts used to address prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve educati<strong>on</strong>, that is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural awareness or sensitiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to difference. However,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance is complex, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not <strong>on</strong>ly a cognitive side, but also affective (emoti<strong>on</strong>al), behavioral, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> structural/political<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents. One approach for address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tolerance is c<strong>on</strong>tact theory, orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally the "c<strong>on</strong>tact hypothesis," as developed by<br />
US psychologist Gord<strong>on</strong> Allport (1979). Allport suggested that direct c<strong>on</strong>tact between members of different groups – under<br />
certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s – could lead to reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict. The c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for success he laid out, are that 1) there be<br />
equal status between the groups, 2) both groups have comm<strong>on</strong> goals for the encounter, 3) both groups focus <strong>on</strong> cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
rather than competiti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally 4) the process be supported by an authority of some k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, such as a government agency.<br />
This approach has been used effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such c<strong>on</strong>flicts as the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between Catholics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Protestants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern<br />
Irel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong> talks between whites <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> blacks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> post-apartheid South Africa. It is the underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong> for the benefits derived from school exchanges.<br />
Research by Allport <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others has shown that br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>tact with <strong>on</strong>e another does not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> itself provide<br />
a guarantee of improved attitudes or enlightened views vis-à-vis the other group. Allport’s c<strong>on</strong>tact theory shows that the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of the encounter will shape success or failure. Even encounters when c<strong>on</strong>ducted under ideal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
carefully supervised c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s may still have mixed results. That might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude benefits for some students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adverse<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong>s from others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reacti<strong>on</strong>s border<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> culture shock. A story <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public radio show This American Life<br />
reports <strong>on</strong> just such an experience, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which students from an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner-city New York City school, with predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly Hispanic<br />
students from low-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come families, visit an elite private school located nearby (see sidebar).<br />
Three miles away <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worlds apart<br />
There’s a program that br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs together kids from two schools. One school is public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the country’s poorest<br />
c<strong>on</strong>gressi<strong>on</strong>al district. The other is private <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> costs $43,000/year...These two schools were three miles from each other,<br />
but the students basically needed a foreign exchange program to meet each other...Lisa, the public school teacher, says the<br />
moment her kids got off the bus at Fieldst<strong>on</strong>, the private school, they had a dramatic reacti<strong>on</strong> to what they saw: "They<br />
couldn't believe the campus. They felt like every<strong>on</strong>e was look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at them. And <strong>on</strong>e of the students started scream<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Like, this is unfair. This is-- I d<strong>on</strong>'t want to be here. I'm leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. I'm leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g right now. I'm go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home."<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
Melanie [the upset student]: "I know I looked at it <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> I said, well, I know that we're <strong>on</strong>ly be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taught to flip burgers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Burger ☰ K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or McD<strong>on</strong>ald's or to hold doors for students like them that will probably live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <strong>on</strong> Madis<strong>on</strong><br />
Avenue. And we'll be wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the uniform servic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these people."<br />
So that's what she found so upsett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It seemed that the people around her must believe that this was the natural order of<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Melanie knew there was no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate difference between her <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a kid born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to wealth. She could see that this<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong> we're all so <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ured to was not a reflecti<strong>on</strong> of her <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior worth or ability..<br />
Glass, 2015<br />
One of the ways that as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals we can c<strong>on</strong>tribute to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tolerance towards other cultures is to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
critical reflectivity, (Prayer, 1993), a practice often used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> workplace sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. The idea is to leverage the<br />
knowledge of <strong>on</strong>e's own value system to build a secure sense of identity, enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g greater will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to accept others. The<br />
first step is to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from her own racial/ethnic background, gender, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
status:<br />
The process highlights areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which assumpti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s between <strong>on</strong>eself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors that<br />
perpetuate the marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong> of people who have been oppressed. This process reveals how power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privilege are<br />
understood or misunderstood, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how assumpti<strong>on</strong>s make a difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s are productive,<br />
hurtful, or destructive (Sisneros, Stakeman, Joyner & Schmitz, 2008, p. 24).<br />
A self-narrative <strong>on</strong> whiteness<br />
The most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluential, factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> my lack of process for self-exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my whiteness was what I now call the<br />
“luxury of whiteness.” Because I have never been subject to discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the basis of my race, I have the luxury of<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to easily disengage or distance myself from a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> race or racism. The logic of luxury was clear –<br />
because I had no race, I did not have to do the self-exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g work <strong>on</strong> my racial identity. That is the ultimate luxury of<br />
whiteness: the ability to see myself as neutral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus excuse myself from any resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g racial issues<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, society <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most importantly, myself.<br />
Gorski, 2000<br />
Develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a str<strong>on</strong>g sense of self allows us to approach others with more underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> empathy. This is especially<br />
important for those with a privileged status <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a society.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Identity<br />
One of the ways we can have more underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appreciati<strong>on</strong> of those with different cultures is to learn their language.<br />
This provides a view "from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side" that is difficult to achieve without knowledge of the language. In recent years, there has<br />
been substantial scholarly work <strong>on</strong> the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between language – especially sec<strong>on</strong>d language or L2 – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity. The<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong> is that be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g proficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another language can add a new pers<strong>on</strong>al identity which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herits traits from the<br />
culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the language is spoken. We may acquire, al<strong>on</strong>g with l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic skills, n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors (i.e. learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how to<br />
bow <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Japanese), cultural preferences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas such as food or music, as well as a fundamental worldview shared by<br />
native speakers of the language. However, we should be aware of the complex relati<strong>on</strong>ship between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture,<br />
which is not the same for all languages. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English, for example, a language which encompasses many different<br />
cultures, is quite different culturally from learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Japanese, closely associated with just <strong>on</strong>e country.<br />
Modern theories of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity have moved away from the focus <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual psychological effect of sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language acquisiti<strong>on</strong> to a greater c<strong>on</strong>cern with sociological <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>temporary scholars study how<br />
language learners c<strong>on</strong>struct identity depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they are us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the L2. David Block, <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scholars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity, po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that issues of self-identity arise often when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals move<br />
across socio-cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language borders. In this sense, says Block, identity can be seen as "c<strong>on</strong>tested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature as the new<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put provided to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual serves to disturb taken-for-granted po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of reference" (Block, 2007, p. 20). Block<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Camer<strong>on</strong> (2002) used the term "critical experience" to refer to such periods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's life:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
☰<br />
By critical experiences, I mean periods of time dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which prol<strong>on</strong>ged c<strong>on</strong>tact with<br />
an L2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different cultural sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g causes irreversible destabilizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual sense of self. There is, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sense, an element of before <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
critical experiences as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's socio-historical, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <strong>on</strong>ce well def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> delimited, becomes relatively ill-def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
open-ended (Block & Camer<strong>on</strong>, 2002, p. 4).<br />
In such cases, argues Block, it's not a questi<strong>on</strong> of discard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> substitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new. Rather the result is<br />
what has come to be known as "hybrid" or "third place" identities. This hybrid identity creates a subject positi<strong>on</strong> that provides<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to different l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural worlds. However, it can also lead to feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ambivalence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
particular for migrants, who strive to keep aspects of their home culture while learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a new<br />
way of life. In order to c<strong>on</strong>struct a coherent life narrative, we seek to resolve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assuage feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of<br />
ambivalence. In that sense, there is a recogniti<strong>on</strong> that as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals we can make choices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of self-identity (see<br />
sidebar). We tend to take <strong>on</strong> different available identities depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> need <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text. Block po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out, however, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast to the open choice of products <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a supermarket, we are c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our choice of identity by factors such as social<br />
hierarchies, educati<strong>on</strong>al systems, or government policies. The language choices we make are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by a variety of factors.<br />
Socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> historical c<strong>on</strong>texts may play significant roles. In formally col<strong>on</strong>ized nati<strong>on</strong>s, the language of the col<strong>on</strong>izer<br />
acquired a hegem<strong>on</strong>y over the local languages, which c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued even after the col<strong>on</strong>izer had left. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn left a significant<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> the identity that the speakers of the language of the col<strong>on</strong>izer assumed or were attributed. The speakers of the<br />
language of the col<strong>on</strong>izer were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be socially superior or higher up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society than speakers of the local language.<br />
Shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for identities at the "cultural supermarket"<br />
The cultural anthropologist, Gord<strong>on</strong> Matthews, argues that identities are not entities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to which <strong>on</strong>e is "raised"; rather, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
"assumes" an identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then works <strong>on</strong> it. Identity is thus seen to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what Matthews calls the cultural<br />
supermarket: just as the modern supermarket offers foods from all over the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all shapes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sizes, so the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advanced technology together make available to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals around the world a range of identities<br />
to be assumed.<br />
Block, 2007, pp. 21-22<br />
The dynamics of identity formati<strong>on</strong> has led to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what is called the imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed community<br />
that language learners may aspire to jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> when they learn a new language (see Anders<strong>on</strong>, 1991). The imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed community<br />
may be a rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of a past culture or a c<strong>on</strong>struct of the imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, a desired community that offers a range of possible<br />
identities for the future. Often language learners are motivated by such imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed futures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may develop extensive ficti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ae around these possible future selves: "An imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed community presupposes an imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed identity—<strong>on</strong>e that offers an<br />
enhanced range of possibilities for the future" (Pavlenko & Nort<strong>on</strong>, 2007, p. 598). Learners of French might envisi<strong>on</strong> a future<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paris <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are fluent enough <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French to c<strong>on</strong>verse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cafés <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to read French poetry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al. The<br />
"imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed self" available through a sec<strong>on</strong>d language might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve pers<strong>on</strong>al growth (Dörnyei, 2009). Pavlenko & Nort<strong>on</strong><br />
(2007) cite research that has shown that "many young Japanese women c<strong>on</strong>sider English to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sically l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to fem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus are motivated to learn it as a language of empowerment" (p. 597). In fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world English has<br />
become the language which represents opportunities for pers<strong>on</strong>al growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al advancement (see L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Byram,<br />
2016). At the same time, English may be seen as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument of col<strong>on</strong>ialism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imperialism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a repressive force <strong>on</strong> the<br />
development of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous cultures. The ambiguous attitude towards the social role of English is particularly evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> former<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ial countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa (see Miller, 1996).<br />
Another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersecti<strong>on</strong> of language, place, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity is represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>cept of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes, the often<br />
multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual urban signage now encountered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cities throughout the world (see Shohamy & Gorter, 2008). An analysis of<br />
signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular neighborhoods can reveal the dynamics of different language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic communities. Exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
changes over time, as Dutch scholar Jan Blommaert has d<strong>on</strong>e for his neighborhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Amsterdam, can show not <strong>on</strong>ly how<br />
neighborhoods change but also how they identify themselves l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically (2013). This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> signs is a branch of<br />
semiotics, the science of signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their significance. Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists are look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d traditi<strong>on</strong>al uses of language to<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
"multimodal" underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of how communicati<strong>on</strong> takes place <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how identities are created through language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ☰<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> with other modes of communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure<br />
: Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese sign <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glish" translati<strong>on</strong><br />
<br />
Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> offers an avenue for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another culture. There are many other opportunities we have to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
other cultures through observati<strong>on</strong> or participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural activities, artifacts, or practices comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these cultures. We<br />
might ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more about Brazilian or Portuguese cultures, for example, by be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fans of famous soccer<br />
(football) players such as Pele or R<strong>on</strong>aldo. We might be led to want to learn Korean if we are immersed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world of<br />
competitive video gam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to music from countries with rich musical traditi<strong>on</strong>s such as Mali or Argent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a might be<br />
the path through which we become curious about other aspects of culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those countries.<br />
One of the th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs all cultures have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong> is food. Eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has an important social functi<strong>on</strong>: "Food, like language, exists as<br />
a vehicle for express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture. It has the power of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both a biological necessity as well as a deeply symbolic cultural<br />
artifact, <strong>on</strong>e that c<strong>on</strong>nects us to <strong>on</strong>e another <strong>on</strong> several levels...Food is a mechanism for express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g identity that also has a<br />
social purpose" (Food & Identity, 2014). Our food choices are tied to our pers<strong>on</strong>al identities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> our life trajectories: "The food<br />
choices made by people, either as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals or as a group, can reveal views, passi<strong>on</strong>s, background knowledge, assumpti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>alities. Food choices tell stories of families, migrati<strong>on</strong>s, assimilati<strong>on</strong>, resistance, changes over times, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al as<br />
well as group identity. "(Almerico, 2014). Food studies is an emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terdiscipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary field of study which exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship am<strong>on</strong>g food, culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> society from a variety of discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary perspectives (Hauck-Laws<strong>on</strong>, 2004).<br />
Comm<strong>on</strong> cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary traditi<strong>on</strong>s can be an essential comp<strong>on</strong>ent of nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al cultures. Familiar meals or dishes that <strong>on</strong>e<br />
cannot f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d when abroad can be a major c<strong>on</strong>tributor to homesickness. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g habits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food<br />
choices of the host country can also be stressful. Individuals vary of course <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some people are more accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adventurous than others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new dishes. The extent to which food represents someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than necessary human<br />
sustenance varies am<strong>on</strong>g cultures. In the rest of the world, US eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g habits are seen as centered <strong>on</strong> fast food, such as<br />
hamburgers at McD<strong>on</strong>ald's. In fact, home cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US is varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al specialties abound, such as North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
barbecue, Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e lobster, or New Engl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clam chowder. Well-known is the regi<strong>on</strong>al richness of cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary traditi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
countries such as Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, India, France, or Italy. In some cultures, cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary practices are so highly valued, that they even make<br />
their way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs such as school cafeterias. School lunches, for example, tend to be rather simple <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> basic.<br />
In France, school lunches are different: "The variety <strong>on</strong> the menus is ast<strong>on</strong>ish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: no s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle meal is repeated over the 32 school<br />
days <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the period, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> every meal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes an hors d’oeuvre, salad, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> course, cheese plate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dessert." (Walt, 2010). In<br />
France, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures, meals have a particular structure al<strong>on</strong>g with must-have comp<strong>on</strong>ents. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there may be<br />
certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ritualistic behaviors expected. In Japanese tea cerem<strong>on</strong>ies, for example, there are expected acti<strong>on</strong>s for both host <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guests.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: McD<strong>on</strong>alds, a frequent st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> for US culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food<br />
In many parts of the world modern transportati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> distributi<strong>on</strong> have significantly changed the availability of foods. It used<br />
to be that fresh foods had limited distributi<strong>on</strong>, restricted to particular times of the year or regi<strong>on</strong>s. It is not the case, however,<br />
that all have sufficient access to food even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prosperous countries. In the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK, for example, "food deserts" exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omically disadvantaged urban communities (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolated rural areas as well), where there is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sufficient<br />
access to affordable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nutritious food sources (Walker, Keane & Burke, 2010). This tends to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority or immigrant<br />
communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often leads to health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<strong>on</strong>gevity issues, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants resort to unhealthy c<strong>on</strong>venience foods or fast food<br />
meals. The TED talk by Mari Gallagher discusses the situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social justice. The nutriti<strong>on</strong><br />
situati<strong>on</strong> can be even more severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of the world where drought or civil strife have led to significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
malnutriti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.<br />
<br />
In many cultures, there are hybrid food dishes that are popular, created out of domestic remix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a foreign dish or cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>s. In the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, for example, "Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese" food is very popular, but differs markedly from what is found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a.<br />
The TED talk by Jennifer Lee, the Hunt for General Tso, recounts how Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese food made its way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<br />
American <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>venti<strong>on</strong>s such as General Tso's chicken or fortune cookies are seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US as qu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tessentially Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese. Another<br />
example is the popularity of Indian food <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK. Then UK foreign m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cook extolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a speech the<br />
multicultural significance of the Brit<strong>on</strong>s' f<strong>on</strong>dness for chicken tikka massala (see sidebar). In Germany, the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally Turkish<br />
dish d<strong>on</strong>er kebab has become <strong>on</strong>e of the most popular street foods. Food can represent the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of successful merg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
cultures <strong>on</strong>e hopes develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities as well.<br />
"Chicken Tikka Massala is now a true British nati<strong>on</strong>al dish"<br />
It isn't just our ec<strong>on</strong>omy that has been enriched by the arrival of new communities. Our lifestyles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural horiz<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have also been broadened <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process. This po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t is perhaps more readily understood by young Brit<strong>on</strong>s, who are more<br />
open to new <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more likely to have been educated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a multi-ethnic envir<strong>on</strong>ment. But it reaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to every<br />
aspect of our nati<strong>on</strong>al life. Chicken Tikka Massala is now a true British nati<strong>on</strong>al dish, not <strong>on</strong>ly because it is the most<br />
popular, but because it is a perfect illustrati<strong>on</strong> of the way Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> absorbs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapts external <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences. Chicken Tikka is<br />
an Indian dish. The Massala sauce was added to satisfy the desire of British people to have their meat served <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> gravy.<br />
Com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to terms with multiculturalism as a positive force for our ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> society will have significant implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for our underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Britishness.<br />
Muir (2013).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 2.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42969
2.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e identities<br />
One of the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal factors mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al identities complex today is the participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities. For many<br />
people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> developed ec<strong>on</strong>omies, this is likely to be of substantial importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their lives, with extensive time spent <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g computers or mobile devices, communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others. The mode of communicati<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
preferences but also <strong>on</strong> the device used, the purpose of the message, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its length. Our group memberships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> group roles<br />
will be determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factors as well. It is quite likely that an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual will bel<strong>on</strong>g to multiple real-life (RL) groups, each of<br />
which may be represented <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e through a particular service, website, or communicati<strong>on</strong> tool. For example, a university<br />
student may use teleph<strong>on</strong>e calls <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> email with her parents, text messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Facebook with her friends, text messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
university-supplied services with classmates, email with professors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> letters to her gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>parents. That last communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
opti<strong>on</strong> may be questi<strong>on</strong>able, as electr<strong>on</strong>ic communicati<strong>on</strong> becomes ubiquitous regardless of age.<br />
With each of these relati<strong>on</strong>ships, the student is likely to use different communicati<strong>on</strong> tools or services, but also somewhat<br />
different language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of t<strong>on</strong>e, grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> playful with friends, family, or<br />
classmates, while us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more formal language with professors. The ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriateness of mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally<br />
also vary with the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. It is comm<strong>on</strong> today, to see code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal exchanges am<strong>on</strong>g friends. In<br />
India, it is comm<strong>on</strong> practice to use English script to c<strong>on</strong>verse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the local language <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, as is us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hybrid languages, e.g.<br />
Kiddi sohni w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d blowndi hai? [Punjabi - How beautifully the w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d is blow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g]. The word 'blow' is comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with the Punjabi<br />
'di' to make it a Punjabi-English hybrid word c<strong>on</strong>not<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 'blow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g' (A. Malik, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, August 1, 2017. In<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is widely used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> digital communicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> many shorth<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressi<strong>on</strong>s have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vented such as 88<br />
(p<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: bābā) represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "bye bye" (English).<br />
If the student is th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about future employment, she may have a L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kedIn account, a popular service for jobseekers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
employers. Her profile <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s through L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kedIn will highlight her professi<strong>on</strong>al side, namely her academic<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong>, work history, significant achievements, etc. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, her Facebook profile <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s will emphasize her<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> circle of friends/family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a rich exchange of photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos. In the process, she<br />
is c<strong>on</strong>struct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different identities corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the different c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
For both Facebook <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kedIn, there is likely to be a RL c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>, that is, the student will be us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her real name <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
authentic aspects of her pers<strong>on</strong>al life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> history. If she also participates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e dat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g service, that is likely to be the case<br />
as well. That might not be true, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which she participates. She may, for example, be a<br />
regular player <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiplayer <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e games, such as World of Warcraft. In that envir<strong>on</strong>ment she may have created a game<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>a as well as an avatar, perhaps represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her RL identity, or perhaps an imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed or desired self. This could be the<br />
case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a virtual worlds envir<strong>on</strong>ment such as Sec<strong>on</strong>d Life or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fantasy-related <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e envir<strong>on</strong>ments. The identities assumed are<br />
likely to have an impact <strong>on</strong> the communicati<strong>on</strong> style <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language use. They might also have a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect <strong>on</strong> social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e envir<strong>on</strong>ment, determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with whom she associates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how she presents herself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of<br />
values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors.<br />
Identity repertoires <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: Opportunities & c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts<br />
Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to write <strong>on</strong>eself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g means that <strong>on</strong> many forums, <strong>on</strong>e can start from scratch, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e wants to be. Here we of course encounter differences between an<strong>on</strong>ymous <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>ymous sites for identity<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance a social network site such as Facebook is a n<strong>on</strong>ymous site; users present themselves there, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
many if not most cases, with their real name, with a picture of themselves attached to that name to further authenticate<br />
their ‘real’ identity. On an<strong>on</strong>ymous sites we perhaps see more room for manoeuvr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity play – we are for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance able to present ourselves with a self-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vented user name.<br />
Varis, Wang & Du, 2011, p. 268)<br />
One of the situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the subject positi<strong>on</strong> is likely to be quite different from the normal RL self is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sec<strong>on</strong>d language. To what extent this is the case will depend <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part <strong>on</strong> the mode of communicati<strong>on</strong>–<br />
whether written or audio/video–<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the level of language proficiency. In any case, there are likely to be restricti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
possible topics of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text, cultural sensitivity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> available vocabulary. The likely l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48839
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icaps <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural differences may change how she presents herself, possibly lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to some tentativeness or timidity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
areas such as suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g topic changes or assert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The opportunities afforded by the Internet for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al development have been a subject of c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years. There have been a number of studies, for example, <strong>on</strong> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through students' participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges, often as part of class-to-class activities (Belz & Thorne, 2006).<br />
There is grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities which occur outside of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, as that is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly the case for many<br />
young people today. Eva Lam (2004), for example, studied the experiences of several immigrant youth participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> forums <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g webpages <strong>on</strong> Japanese anime, to provide out of class language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g opportunities. These<br />
experiences were particularly valued by the students, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school they were stigmatized as immigrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor language<br />
learners.Another study focused <strong>on</strong> the writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of "fanficti<strong>on</strong>" – orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al works of ficti<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> popular media such as<br />
televisi<strong>on</strong>, movies, or books. Rebecca Black (2006) describes the complex language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural situati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e young<br />
woman of Japanese descent ("Nanako") whose family settled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Canada. She became a successful fanficti<strong>on</strong> writer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English<br />
(see sidebar). The multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multicultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of her experience with writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fanficti<strong>on</strong> is representative of<br />
many <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Internet activities today. In this way, a sec<strong>on</strong>d language enables more than just l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic competence, as Ema<br />
Ushioda comments:<br />
A foreign language is not simply someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to add to our repertoire of skills, but a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>alized tool that enables us to exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> express our identity or sense of self <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with new k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of people; to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a more<br />
diverse range of c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so broaden our experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
horiz<strong>on</strong>s; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> share new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative sources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ment or material that we need, value or enjoy. (2011, p. 204).<br />
Proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sec<strong>on</strong>d language is not just an added skill. By broaden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the range of activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
people with whom we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract, a new pers<strong>on</strong>al identity is created.<br />
Active F<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om: Writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, re-mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
[Her] identity was negotiated, not <strong>on</strong>ly through English, but also through Nanako’s pan-Asian l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural<br />
knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong>s. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, for Nanako’s writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Fanficti<strong>on</strong>.net she draws <strong>on</strong> a range of pop cultural<br />
resources from different countries, such as Japanese animati<strong>on</strong>, music from the United K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gdom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> novels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moti<strong>on</strong><br />
pictures from the United States, to assist her <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> compos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English...these dialogic resources shifted over time as<br />
Nanako’s facility with English as well as her comfort level <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e community <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased...Nanako’s participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e space helped her to develop c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> motivati<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English;<br />
however, it also provided her with a sense of pride <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a renewed emphasis <strong>on</strong> her l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic background <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic<br />
identity as an Asian.<br />
Black, 2006, p. 174<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/25/2021 2.3.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48839
2.4: How identities are Built (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice...<br />
Explore your own cultural identity. An awareness of your cultural heritage can help make you aware of the sources of the<br />
values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors you may take for granted. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to articulate our own views – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s – can be helpful<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sider the nature of your social identity. Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about how the different groups you may bel<strong>on</strong>g to help c<strong>on</strong>stitute who<br />
you are – what you believe, how you behave, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how you <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with others.<br />
Evaluate your pers<strong>on</strong>al identity. To what extent do your <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual tastes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences lead you <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> directi<strong>on</strong>s away from<br />
your family background, ethnic heritage, or group affiliati<strong>on</strong>s? C<strong>on</strong>sider how you envisi<strong>on</strong> your future self.<br />
For discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
1. C<strong>on</strong>sider the number of groups to which you bel<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the roles you play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each. How do the groups affect the way you<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k, feel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> act? By virtue of your membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these groups, how are you treated by others? What are some of the<br />
groups to which you would like to bel<strong>on</strong>g but do not?<br />
2. After read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the article by Peggy McIntosh, White Privilege: Unpack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Invisible Knapsack, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> from the documentary "Color of Fear":<br />
What's your reacti<strong>on</strong> to McIntosh's essay <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the excerpt from Color of Fear? To what extent do the views expressed reflect<br />
your own experiences? Is this type of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> represented by the documentary useful? To what extent was the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> affected by not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any women?<br />
3. After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talks <strong>on</strong> women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity by Liza D<strong>on</strong>nelly, Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Casey <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lizzie Velasquez...<br />
How do you def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e who you are? What role does appearance have? Where do the rules for appearance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior come<br />
from? Are these rules universal? For women everywhere? Do you agree <strong>on</strong> the power of carto<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> humor?<br />
4. After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talk by Pico Iyer <strong>on</strong> multicultural identities:<br />
How typical do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k his pers<strong>on</strong>al experience with identity is? To what extent are we all "a work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> progress"?<br />
5. After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talk <strong>on</strong> prejudice by Paul Bloom:<br />
Do you agree that our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial judgments about people tend to be accurate? What is your take <strong>on</strong> his recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "bad" prejudice? Are there other approaches that might work?<br />
6.. Get together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups of two or three. Spend about two to three m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g yourself to your group members. Now<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d to the questi<strong>on</strong>: "Who am I?" Also resp<strong>on</strong>d to the questi<strong>on</strong> "Who is 'A' or 'B' where 'A' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'B' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so <strong>on</strong> represent<br />
each of your group members. Compare your notes. The exercise may be modified for a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> biases <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prejudices.<br />
Key C<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
Ascribed identity: Identity given to a pers<strong>on</strong> by others<br />
Assimilati<strong>on</strong>: Used here <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sense of cultural assimilati<strong>on</strong> - the process by which a pers<strong>on</strong> or a group's language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or<br />
culture come to resemble those of another group.<br />
Avowed identity: How a pers<strong>on</strong> perceives his or her own self<br />
Categorizati<strong>on</strong>: Classify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or sort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of perceived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct groups<br />
Co-culture: A group of people that are not part of the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant structure of society; use of the term emphasizes the lack of<br />
power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture<br />
Code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Alternat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between two or more languages or varieties of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> theory of identity: Theory developed by Michael Hecht that identities are c<strong>on</strong>structed through social<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>tact theory: Theory by Gord<strong>on</strong> Allport that under appropriate c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>tact is <strong>on</strong>e of the most<br />
effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group members<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 2.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48838
Critical reflectivity: Will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a serious way <strong>on</strong>es values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs so as to be able to deal fairly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
equitably with the values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs of others<br />
Cultural identity: Identity based <strong>on</strong> cultural membership; <strong>on</strong>e's identificati<strong>on</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceived acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a larger<br />
culture group<br />
Eb<strong>on</strong>ics: Dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive variety of English spoken by African Americans, which most l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists refer to as African American<br />
Vernacular English<br />
Endogamy: The practice of marry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>ly with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's local community, clan, or tribe<br />
Ethnicity: classificati<strong>on</strong> of people based <strong>on</strong> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s of shared characteristics such as nati<strong>on</strong>ality, geographic orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
language, religi<strong>on</strong>, ancestral customs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong><br />
Ethnocentrism: Favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ethnic group you bel<strong>on</strong>g to over all others<br />
Exogamy: The practice of marry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside of <strong>on</strong>e's group or community<br />
Hegem<strong>on</strong>y: Dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ance, especially by <strong>on</strong>e country or social group over others<br />
Ideology: A system of ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideals, especially <strong>on</strong>e that forms the basis of ec<strong>on</strong>omic or political theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy<br />
Imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed community: C<strong>on</strong>cept co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by Benedict Anders<strong>on</strong> referr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a community not based <strong>on</strong> face-to-face<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s; for example, Anders<strong>on</strong> believes that a nati<strong>on</strong> is a socially c<strong>on</strong>structed community, imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the people<br />
who perceive themselves as part of that group<br />
In-group: A group to which we bel<strong>on</strong>g<br />
In-group bias: A pattern of favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g members of <strong>on</strong>e's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group over out-group members<br />
Intolerance: Unwill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to accept views, beliefs, or behavior that differ from <strong>on</strong>e's own.<br />
LGBTQ Acr<strong>on</strong>ym that st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer; sometimes LGBT+ is used to encompass<br />
spectrums of sexuality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gender<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape: The visibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> salience of languages <strong>on</strong> public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given territory or<br />
regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong>: The treatment of a pers<strong>on</strong>, group, or c<strong>on</strong>cept as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>significant or peripheral<br />
Microculture: An identifiable group of people who share a set of values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who possess a<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal symbol system that is similar to but systematically varies from the larger, often<br />
dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant cultural milieu<br />
M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group: A subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate group whose members have significantly less power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol over their own lives than<br />
do members of the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant or majority group<br />
Model m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority: A m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group whose members are perceived to achieve a higher degree of socioec<strong>on</strong>omic success<br />
than the populati<strong>on</strong> average<br />
Muted groups: Microcultures whose members are forced to express themselves (e.g., speak, write) with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant<br />
mode of expressi<strong>on</strong><br />
Out-group: A group to which we do not bel<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we often treat differently from those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group Pluralism:<br />
Used here <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sense of Cultural pluralism is a term used when smaller groups with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a larger society ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
unique cultural identities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices are accepted by the wider culture<br />
Out-group negativity: Attribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g negative characteristics to people not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> your <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-group<br />
Pluralism: Cultural pluralism refers to small groups with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a larger society ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their unique cultural identities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that accepted widely<br />
Prejudice: A rigid attitude based <strong>on</strong> group membership; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a prejudgment based <strong>on</strong> membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a social<br />
category<br />
Racism: The belief that all members of each race possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially so as to<br />
dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish it as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior to another race<br />
Reference group: A group to which we look for mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d language acquisiti<strong>on</strong>: The process by which people learn a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, often abbreviated to SLA; also refers<br />
to the scientific discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e devoted to study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that process<br />
Social identity: The total comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e's group roles; a part of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's self-c<strong>on</strong>cept that is derived from the<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>'s membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups<br />
Spanglish: A hybrid language comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> idioms from both Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, especially Spanish speech that<br />
uses many English words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Stereotype: A set of characteristics that a group or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that group are assumed to have; a generalizati<strong>on</strong> about<br />
what people are like; an exaggerated image of their characteristics, without regard to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual attributes<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 2.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48838
Symbolic racism: Subtle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct form of racism, often expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US towards Blacks<br />
White privilege: Societal privileges that benefit white people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> western countries bey<strong>on</strong>d what is comm<strong>on</strong>ly experienced<br />
by n<strong>on</strong>-white people under the same social, political, or ec<strong>on</strong>omic circumstances<br />
Learn more…<br />
Books<br />
Adichie, C. (2013). Americanah. Novel exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blackness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, Nigeria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Blee, K. (2002). Inside Organized Racism: Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Hate Movement: Self-identities of women c<strong>on</strong>nect to the US<br />
racist organizati<strong>on</strong>, the Ku Klux Klan<br />
Friend, T. (2010). Cheerful M<strong>on</strong>ey: Me, My Family, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Last Days of Wasp Splendor: Provocative assessment of the<br />
role of WASP (White Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> Protestant) white privilege <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US society<br />
Lubrano, A. (2005). Limbo: Blue-Collar Roots, White-Collar Dreams: Pers<strong>on</strong>al account of grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-class,<br />
Italian-American community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the middle class<br />
Said, E. (1978). Orientalism. Classic study discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural representati<strong>on</strong>s that are the bases of "Orientalism", def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
as the West's patr<strong>on</strong>iz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g representati<strong>on</strong>s of "The East"<br />
Shaprio, J. (1994). No Pity: People with Disabilities Forg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a New Civil Rights Movement. Classic account <strong>on</strong> the rights<br />
of the disabled<br />
Films<br />
Afro-Punk (2003): Documentary film explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the roles of African-Americans with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what was then a white punk scene<br />
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fanQHFAxXH0<br />
Babette's Feast (1987, Danish title: Babettes gæstebud) celebrati<strong>on</strong> of the French cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary traditi<strong>on</strong><br />
Bend It Like Beckham (2002). Story of an Indian girl <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK who challenges norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>s of the Indian<br />
community to play soccer (football)<br />
Chocolat (2000): French film illustrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the power of food to change identities<br />
The Color of Fear (1994). Documentary film show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g eight North American men from different ethnic backgrounds,<br />
gathered for a dialog <strong>on</strong> race relati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Crash (2004): Feature film featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g racial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social tensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Los Angeles, explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a verity of stereotypes<br />
Witness (1985). Crime thriller which features members of the Amish community<br />
Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e resources<br />
- Ethnicity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> microcultures<br />
Tiger Mom: Some cultural groups are superior<br />
C<strong>on</strong>troversial take <strong>on</strong> why some m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority groups succeed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others d<strong>on</strong>'t<br />
The Slants Fr<strong>on</strong>tman Fights Government To Register His B<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>'s Name<br />
What would you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of a b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> called "The Slants" or "The Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks"? What if the members of the b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are all Asian?<br />
Trevor Noah Is A Quarter Jewish. Does That Make His Anti-Semitic Jokes OK?<br />
This is the South African comedian replac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g J<strong>on</strong> Stewart<br />
- C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> race <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prejudice<br />
Color of Fear - What it Means to be American<br />
Excerpt from the documentary<br />
White Privilege: Unpack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Invisible Knapsack<br />
Influential essay by Peggy McIntosh<br />
A C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> With White People <strong>on</strong> Race<br />
Short documentary featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews with white people <strong>on</strong> the challenges of talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about race (NY Times)<br />
Is It An 'Upris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g' Or A 'Riot'? Depends On Who's Watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Is it symbolic racism, or just objective report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g? The language used can be crucial. The reference is to the death of Freddie<br />
Gray <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Baltimore <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2015<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g The Black Male Experience In America<br />
How would you like to be remembered, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a word or two? That questi<strong>on</strong> was posed by a black man <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answered by other<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 2.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48838
lack men <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a multimedia art project called "Questi<strong>on</strong> Bridge: Black Males."<br />
Paul Bloom: Can prejudice ever be a good th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?<br />
About categorizati<strong>on</strong>, ethnocentrism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> out-groups<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "We often th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of bias <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prejudice as rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ignorance. But as psychologist Paul Bloom seeks to<br />
show, prejudice is often natural, rati<strong>on</strong>al ... even moral. The key, says Bloom, is to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how our own biases work —<br />
so we can take c<strong>on</strong>trol when they go wr<strong>on</strong>g."<br />
Vernā Myers: How to overcome our biases? Walk boldly toward them<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: “Our biases can be dangerous, even deadly — as we've seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cases of Michael Brown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fergus<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Missouri, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eric Garner, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Staten Isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, New York. Diversity advocate Vernā Myers looks closely at some of the<br />
subc<strong>on</strong>scious attitudes we hold toward out-groups. She makes a plea to all people: Acknowledge your biases. Then move<br />
toward, not away from, the groups that make you uncomfortable. In a funny, impassi<strong>on</strong>ed, important talk, she shows us<br />
how.”<br />
- TED talks <strong>on</strong> identity: Know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g yourself before judg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others<br />
Liza D<strong>on</strong>nelly: Draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> humor for change<br />
Interest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g perspective <strong>on</strong> identity creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appearance for women; humor as a powerful tool for self-actualizati<strong>on</strong><br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "New Yorker carto<strong>on</strong>ist Liza D<strong>on</strong>nelly shares a portfolio of her wise <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funny carto<strong>on</strong>s about modern<br />
life — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> talks about how humor can empower women to change the rules."<br />
Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Casey: Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g past limits<br />
On the importance of "be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g true to yourself" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what seem like unsurmountable barriers<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Activist Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Casey tells the story of her extraord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary life, start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a revelati<strong>on</strong> (no spoilers).<br />
In a talk that challenges percepti<strong>on</strong>s, Casey asks us all to move bey<strong>on</strong>d the limits we may th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k we have."<br />
Lizzie Velasquez: How do you def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e yourself?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In a time when beauty is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by supermodels, success is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by wealth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fame is deified by<br />
how many followers you have <strong>on</strong> social media, Lizzie Velasquez asks the questi<strong>on</strong> how do you def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e yourself? Once<br />
labeled, 'The Worlds Ugliest Woman,' Lizzie decided to turn th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs around <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> create her own def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of what she<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es as beauty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> happ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess."<br />
Pico Iyer: Where is home?<br />
On the multicultural identities today <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how we all are a "work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> progress"<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "More <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more people worldwide are liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries not c<strong>on</strong>sidered their own. Writer Pico Iyer —<br />
who himself has three or four 'orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s' — meditates <strong>on</strong> the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of home, the joy of travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the serenity of<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g still."<br />
- Humorous takes <strong>on</strong> issues of race, ethnicity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
What Is A 'Good Muslim' Anyway? A Podcast Disrupts The Narrative<br />
Zahra Noorbakhsh <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tanzila "Taz" Ahmed host the podcast #GoodMuslimBadMuslim.<br />
Louis CK: I enjoy be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g white<br />
Different take <strong>on</strong> white privilege<br />
How to tell if you're American<br />
From zompist.com; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes humorous profiles of other nati<strong>on</strong>alities as well<br />
- Food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural identity<br />
Amy Choi: What Americans can learn from other food cultures<br />
On different roles of food, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "food as identity"<br />
Jennifer 8. Lee: The hunt for General Tso<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Reporter Jennifer 8. Lee talks about her hunt for the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of familiar Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese-American dishes”<br />
explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the hidden spots where these two cultures have (so tastily) comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to form a new cuis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e."<br />
Who owns Chicken Tikka Masala?<br />
Is it British or Indian?<br />
Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cook's chicken tikka masala speech<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 2.4.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48838
Extracts from a speech by the foreign secretary to the Social Market Foundati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: "Chicken Tikka Massala is now a<br />
true British nati<strong>on</strong>al dish"<br />
Reg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Bernard-Carreno: The underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g racism of America's food system<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Dr. Bernard-Carreno has been actively research<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about the cultural performance of food, food<br />
access <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food racism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come neighborhoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New York City <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> abroad. Al<strong>on</strong>g with research<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Dr.<br />
Bernard-Carreno has been design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scholarly projects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community products based <strong>on</strong> food access <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> poor NYC areas."<br />
References<br />
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Credits<br />
Amish women: By Pasteur (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia<br />
Comm<strong>on</strong>s https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/F...mmes-Amish.jpg<br />
Refugees from Western Sahara: Danielle Van Brunt Smith<br />
www.forcedmigrati<strong>on</strong>.org/podcasts-videos-photos/photos/westernsahara<br />
La<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Dawes: George Kelly<br />
https://www.flickr.com/photos/allaboutgeorge/416291403/<br />
Syrian refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vienna <strong>on</strong> way to Germany: Josh Zakary<br />
https://www.flickr.com/photos/joshzakary/21197311260<br />
Romani <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Urkra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Romani_people_Lviv_Ukra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.jpg<br />
Amish family: Ernest Mettendorf<br />
https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amish_family,_Lyndenville,_New_York.jpg<br />
Native Americans: Derek Bridges<br />
https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JF100423_DSB_Fais_Do_Do_Native_American_Stage_2.jpg<br />
Anti-racism: Robert Thivierge<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Protest_Racism_<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>_the_Kens<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>_community_of_Calgary_Alberta_2007.jpg<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese sign<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Guil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>glish2007.jpg<br />
Snake charmer by Jean-Lé<strong>on</strong> Gérôme, The Clark Art Institute<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jean-L%C3%A9<strong>on</strong>_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_-_Le_charmeur_de_serpents.jpg<br />
McD<strong>on</strong>alds Times Square: Jim Lambert<br />
http://www.flickriver.com/photos/jim-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-times-square/tags/restaurants/<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 2.4.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48838
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
3: USING LANGUAGE<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the complexity of how language relates to culture<br />
Appreciate how language use is embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
Be able to discuss how languages are structured <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how they vary<br />
Be knowledgable about approaches to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
3.1: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE<br />
3.2: SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING<br />
3.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TECHNOLOGY<br />
3.4: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
☰<br />
3.1: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In 1915, Edm<strong>on</strong>d Laforest, a prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent Haitian writer, stood up<strong>on</strong> a bridge, tied a<br />
French Larousse dicti<strong>on</strong>ary around his neck <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leapt to his death. This symbolic, if<br />
fatal, gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gesture, dramatizes the relati<strong>on</strong> of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural identity (p. 65)<br />
The story of Laforest's death is told by Claire Kramsch <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>mark study of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1998). Writers have<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tense <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate relati<strong>on</strong>ship to language; it is the essential tool of their trade. But we all have a very real c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong><br />
between the language we speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how we see the world. It is likely that the importance of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g essential<br />
parts of our selves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> our worldviews is someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g most people have not c<strong>on</strong>sidered. That is particularly the case for<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guals, those who know <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e language. Like culture, language is all around us <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> we may take it for granted, just<br />
as we do the values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors that make up our cultural identity. This may be more the case for native speakers of<br />
English, a language whose worldwide prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence may lead to the sense that English is the default, neutral way of see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reality. Many people who have not thought about the nature of language are likely to assume there is a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of<br />
natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> logical c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between the word "tree" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the big leafy object <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their local park. But languages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
English, d<strong>on</strong>'t work that way – they are not an objective, culturally neutral way to describe the world. "Tree" is an arbitrary<br />
symbol, not c<strong>on</strong>nected logically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any way to the object it describes. In this unit we will be exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the nature of language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the crucial role it plays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>. That will entail a discussi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersecti<strong>on</strong>s of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culture; the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g world languages; the nature of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the role of English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's world. We<br />
will c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue our exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next chapter as well, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at language usage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>: How we process the world around us<br />
The Haitian writer Edm<strong>on</strong>d Laforest, who drowned with a French dicti<strong>on</strong>ary around his neck, was mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a symbolic gesture<br />
of his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>denture to the French language, that is to say his dependence <strong>on</strong> that language for his writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. French was the language<br />
of the col<strong>on</strong>izers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> oppressors, who had brought African slaves to the isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, from whom Laforest was descended. There<br />
was for Laforest a tragic disc<strong>on</strong>nect between the language he used to describe the world <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to embody his literary<br />
imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> racial reality of Haiti <strong>on</strong> the other. Laforest's l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic identity was further<br />
complicated by the fact that his first language was not st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard French, but Haitian Creole, a language based largely <strong>on</strong> 18thcentury<br />
French with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence from Portuguese, Spanish, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> West African languages.<br />
Figure<br />
: Edm<strong>on</strong>d Laforest<br />
<br />
The existence of a hybrid language such as Haitian Creole is <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong> of the significant l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culture. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s are rarely used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their "pure", st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard form. Speakers adapt l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically to others around them. If we<br />
come often enough <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our everyday lives with groups of speakers of other languages, that is likely to have an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> our own use of language. That may manifest itself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary. The English language has such a rich<br />
vocabulary because it has borrowed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated words from many different languages over the centuries. In Germany<br />
today, the large number of Turkish immigrants has led to the comm<strong>on</strong> use of particular Turkish expressi<strong>on</strong>s such as lan for<br />
mate/man or valla for h<strong>on</strong>estly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> everyday speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> German. Creoles develop when there are significant numbers of<br />
speakers of different languages who <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract <strong>on</strong> a regular basis. In the US state of Louisiana, the mix of different nati<strong>on</strong>alities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic backgrounds created Louisiana Creole (Kréyo La Lwizyàn), a versi<strong>on</strong> of French mixed with elements of Spanish,<br />
African, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Native American languages.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
☰<br />
Figure : Three Creole Girls, Louisiana, 1935<br />
Such language hybrids have often developed through the process of col<strong>on</strong>ializati<strong>on</strong>, with the power <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of the<br />
col<strong>on</strong>izers' language lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous populati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g elements of that language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their own speech.<br />
Evangelizati<strong>on</strong> has had a similar impact. In Nagal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northeastern India, the spread of Christianity led to the development<br />
of a comm<strong>on</strong> Nagamese creole (also "Naga Pidg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>") am<strong>on</strong>g the different 16 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous tribes. Creoles can be full-fledged<br />
languages, functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a mother t<strong>on</strong>gue. Pidg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, are simplified versi<strong>on</strong>s of a language, used for special<br />
purposes, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade. The existence of hybrid languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world provides evidence of how language<br />
use reflects cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts, adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as needed to accommodate the communicati<strong>on</strong> needs of everyday life.<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural anthropologists emphasize the importance of our native language <strong>on</strong> our view of the world. The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture was famously described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the work of Benjam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Whorf <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Edward Sapir. The Sapir-Whorf<br />
hypothesis postulates that your native language has a profound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> how you see the world, that you perceive reality<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the language you have available to describe it. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Sapir (1929), "The 'real world' is to a large extent<br />
unc<strong>on</strong>sciously built up <strong>on</strong> the language habits of the group. The world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which different societies live are dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct worlds, not<br />
merely the same world with different labels attached" (p. 162). From this perspective, all language use – from the words we<br />
use to describe objects to the way sentences are structured – is tied closely to the culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which it is spoken. In 1940, Whorf<br />
wrote:<br />
<br />
The background l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic system (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other words, the grammar) of each language is<br />
not merely a reproduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument for voic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ideas but rather is itself the shaper of<br />
ideas, the program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guide for people's mental activity, for their analysis of<br />
impressi<strong>on</strong>s, for their synthesis of their mental stock <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trade. Formulati<strong>on</strong> of ideas is<br />
not an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent process, strictly rati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the old sense, but is part of a<br />
particular grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> differs, from slightly to greatly, am<strong>on</strong>g different<br />
grammars...We dissect nature al<strong>on</strong>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es laid down by our native languages (p. 231).<br />
Whorf studied native American languages such as Hopi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was struck by differences to English which po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to different<br />
ways of view<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the world, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how time is expressed. Taken to its extreme, this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ism<br />
would prevent native speakers of different languages from hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same thoughts or shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a worldview. They would be,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sense, captives of their native language, unable to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different perspectives <strong>on</strong> reality. More widely accepted today is the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic relativity, mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that language shapes our views of the world but is not an absolute determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er of how<br />
or what we th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. After all, translati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact possible, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism exists, both of which phenomena should be<br />
problematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a strict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. It is also the case that many cultures are multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual, with<br />
children grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up exposed to multiple languages without suffer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture shock when mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g am<strong>on</strong>g languages.<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ism: language c<strong>on</strong>trols thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cul-ture.<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic relativity: language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore differences am<strong>on</strong>g languages cause<br />
differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the thoughts of their speakers.<br />
Hua (2014), p. 176<br />
- L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic relativity: language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> worldviews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore differences am<strong>on</strong>g languages cause<br />
differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the thoughts of their speakersL<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Steven P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ker's (2007) research has shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact language is not the<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
<strong>on</strong>ly exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g means of thought. It is possible for us to picture reality through mental images or shapes. In recent years, there<br />
have ☰been a number of studies <strong>on</strong> the percepti<strong>on</strong> of colors related to available color words. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area.<br />
Some, for example, do not have separate words for blue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> green. In the Tarahumara <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous language of Mexico, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle word, siy<strong>on</strong>ame, is used for both colors (Kay & Kempt<strong>on</strong>, 1984). Such studies, as well as similar exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts such as numbers, shapes, generally have shown that "language has some effect <strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong>, but it does not def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>." (Hua, 2014, p. 178). In fact, experiments have shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases, where specific terms for colors do not<br />
exist, that does not prevent color recogniti<strong>on</strong>: "although the Dani, a New Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea tribe, use <strong>on</strong>ly two colour terms . . . it was<br />
found that they could recognize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish between subtle shades of colours that their language had no names for (e.g.<br />
pale blue vs. turquoise)" (Holmes, 2001, p. 324). This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with current l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic thought that there is a more complex,<br />
reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ship between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture.<br />
Figure<br />
: Tarahumara women, Mexico<br />
One of the reas<strong>on</strong>s l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists have moved away from a str<strong>on</strong>gly causal relati<strong>on</strong>ship between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture is due to the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of Noam Chomsky's c<strong>on</strong>cept of universal grammar. Chomsky argued that there is a universality to human thought<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that language is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> biologically determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Chomsky, every human is born with a "language<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong> device" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, which enables us to c<strong>on</strong>struct the grammar of a language (Chomsky, 1965). Chomsky argued<br />
that children acquire l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic generalizati<strong>on</strong>s that experience al<strong>on</strong>e, i.e. c<strong>on</strong>tact with the language, could not teach them. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of generative grammar, as developed by Chomsky <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others, states that from a basic set of rules (mostly deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with word order) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite set of elements, a language can c<strong>on</strong>struct an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite number of new sentences. Chomsky's ideas<br />
have been hugely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades there has been renewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the social aspects of<br />
language. While Chomsky downplayed envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors, "neo-Whorfian" l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced by new studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
psychology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics – especially <strong>on</strong> multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism – have taken a fresh look at language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>texts. Daniel Everett, for example, studied the culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language of the Pirahã people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brazil (2009,<br />
2012) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> argued that language is a tool that evolves out of the human need to solve problems.<br />
Another development that has changed l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists’ views <strong>on</strong> the nature of human language has come through work exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
actual language use, as recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transcribed. This has enabled the collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis of large bodies of texts, both<br />
written <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spoken, called a language corpus (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017b). Usage-based views of language have developed out of<br />
that research that show that language is based less <strong>on</strong> rules than it is <strong>on</strong> patterns – word group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or set comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar (Tomasello, 2000).<br />
<br />
How language reflects culture<br />
No matter what l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic theory <strong>on</strong>e may hold to be valid, there is little argument that the vocabulary of a language does <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact reflect important aspects of everyday life. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Anna Wierzbicka (2013) provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g examples of expressi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from the Australian aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al language of Warlpiri:<br />
japi — "entrance to sugar ant’s nest"<br />
laja — "hole or burrow of lizard"<br />
kuyu — "meat; meated animal" [<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g edible birds, but not other birds]<br />
karnpi — "fat under the sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of emu"<br />
papapapa-ma — "to make the sound of a male emu call<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to its chicks"<br />
yulu — "limp, relaxed—of sla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> kangaroo whose h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dleg have been broken (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> preparati<strong>on</strong> for cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g)"<br />
From a Warlpiri speaker’s po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of view, these s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle words po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to important features of the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, as potential<br />
sources of shelter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> food, but there are no corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> European languages or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most other languages.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
Wierzbicka comments:<br />
☰<br />
As these examples illustrate, the words of a language reflect the speakers’ special<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests. For the speakers of a particular language, their words "fit the world" as<br />
they see it—but how they see it depends, to some extent, <strong>on</strong> what they want to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
what they pay attenti<strong>on</strong> to. This is true also of European languages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> English is no<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong>, either. The c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong> that the words of our native language fit the world as<br />
it really is, is deeply rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of many people, particularly those who<br />
have never been forced to move, existentially, from <strong>on</strong>e language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to another <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
leave the certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ties of their home language (p. 6).<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language leads <strong>on</strong>e early <strong>on</strong> to appreciate the fact that there may not be a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
between words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another. While the dicti<strong>on</strong>ary def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s (denotati<strong>on</strong>) may be the same, the<br />
actual usage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any given c<strong>on</strong>text (c<strong>on</strong>notati<strong>on</strong>) may be quite different. The word amigo <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spanish is the equivalent of the<br />
word friend <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, but the relati<strong>on</strong>ships described by that word can be quite different. Even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, a Facebook<br />
"friend" is quite different from a childhood "friend". The German word Bier, refers as does the English "beer", to an alcoholic<br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k made from barley, hops, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> water. In a German c<strong>on</strong>text, the word is used to describe an everyday dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumed with meals or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other social situati<strong>on</strong>s. In the American English c<strong>on</strong>text, usage of the word, "beer," immediately<br />
br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to the fore its status as alcohol, thus a beverage that is strictly regulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> restricted.<br />
Figure<br />
: Beer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany: a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k like any other<br />
Differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> available words to describe everyday phenomena is immediately evident when <strong>on</strong>e compares languages or<br />
exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es vocabulary used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular situati<strong>on</strong>s. That might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a specific small culture, such as dog lovers or sail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
enthusiasts, for example, who use a much more extensive vocabulary to describe, respectively, dog breeds or parts of a ship,<br />
than would be familiar to most people, no matter whether they are native speakers of the language or not. Sometimes, a special<br />
language is developed by a group, sometimes labeled a jarg<strong>on</strong>, which often references a specialized technical language. A<br />
related term is an argot, a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of secret language designed to exclude outsiders, such as the language used by crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al gangs.<br />
<br />
Less immediately evident than vocabulary differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g languages are differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammatical structures. Some<br />
languages, for example, have no clear verb tense for the future. A TED talk by Keith Chen expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s how that feature might be<br />
tied to social behavior by speakers of "futureless" languages. Another example expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s what the absence of subjunctive verb<br />
forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a language might mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of human behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s (see resource list for more examples). Cauti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
called for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g without questi<strong>on</strong> the validity of such claims. Piller (2017) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out, for example, how some textbooks<br />
simplify the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture through draw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mislead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al characteristics such as communicati<strong>on</strong> styles. She cites an example from a textbook <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> (Chaney & Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2013); "In the German language, the verb often comes at the end of the sentence. In oral<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, Germans do not immediately get to the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t" (cited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Piller, 2017, p. 45). This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of<br />
grammar (the placement of the verb depends <strong>on</strong> the sentence structure) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> makes the false assumpti<strong>on</strong> that the "po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t" of a<br />
sentence necessarily comes through word order (not through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> or other means).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
In any case, if we learn to speak a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, it provides unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to what it is that is valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that culture.<br />
Students ☰ of Korean, for example, learn early <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their studies that there is not just a dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> between familiar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal<br />
"you", as exists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many languages, but that the code of respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> politeness of Korean culture dictates different vocabulary,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech patterns depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e's relati<strong>on</strong>ship to the addressee. This can extend to n<strong>on</strong>verbal c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
well, such as bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al space.<br />
Sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: Study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Use<br />
From the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the process, sec<strong>on</strong>d language students learn that the target language likely has different verbal (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal) c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s for participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> aspects of everyday life such as greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, leave-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, apologiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
requests. Such speech acts were described <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> studied by John Searle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> John Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1960’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1970's (Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1973;<br />
Searle, 1969). These are uses of language to perform acti<strong>on</strong>s or to generate specific activities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they can vary substantially<br />
from language to language. The field of sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics deals with speech acts, as well as with other aspects of how language<br />
is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social c<strong>on</strong>texts. An important aspect of this field of study is the exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages, such as<br />
dialects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al differences. This can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve clear cultural dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s such as the existence of high prestige <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> low<br />
prestige versi<strong>on</strong>s of a language. High prestige language varieties are those that ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream societies c<strong>on</strong>sider correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard. Typically, dialects are seen as low prestige. The relative status of a language is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by c<strong>on</strong>text, namely the<br />
audience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the situati<strong>on</strong> (Eckert & Rickford, 2002). L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists also study language variati<strong>on</strong> related to age, gender, or<br />
occupati<strong>on</strong>. C<strong>on</strong>tact between cultures is another important area studied by sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists. Such c<strong>on</strong>tact can br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about change,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new variati<strong>on</strong>s of a language, or even new languages, such as creoles. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists today do not believe that any<br />
language or language variety is more pure or superior to any other (Fasold & C<strong>on</strong>nor-L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>, 2006).<br />
Today, there is c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how language is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapted to <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e envir<strong>on</strong>ments, such as<br />
microblogg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Twitter), text messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social networks. Ph<strong>on</strong>e-based messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example, has been shown to be<br />
more like spoken than written language (see l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist John McWhorter's TED talk). Sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists emphasize the chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
nature of language, as it comes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>tact with social reality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with new ways of communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. As new language<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary become established, there are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably voices which decry language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novati<strong>on</strong>s as corrupti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Some speakers of a language might object to neologisms (newly co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed words), different uses of exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words, or deviati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard grammar. This is known as l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic prescripti<strong>on</strong> or prescripti<strong>on</strong>ism. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
descriptive approach to language, observ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how language is actually used. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s develop organically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> defiance of official rules. While there may be governmental or private group efforts to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a "pure" versi<strong>on</strong> of a<br />
language, it is not proven possible to restrict the natural evoluti<strong>on</strong> of language through rules or regulati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The textbooks used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> rarely c<strong>on</strong>vey to students the dynamic character of language. Textbooks<br />
present st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do not often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language patterns that reflect different social, regi<strong>on</strong>al, or<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts. This is d<strong>on</strong>e for practical, pedagogical reas<strong>on</strong>s, with the goal of hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students learn basic vocabulary<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> essential structural elements. Dialogues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> textbooks typically present the speech of educated, well-behaved native<br />
speakers, who wait till their c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partners are f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ished before speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These are idealized native speakers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent <strong>on</strong><br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g agreeable, c<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to exchange <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d c<strong>on</strong>sensus. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists know how far removed such<br />
exchanges are from real life. Actual dialogs are full of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupti<strong>on</strong>s, false starts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repetiti<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s rarely focus <strong>on</strong><br />
transmitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. Interacti<strong>on</strong>s may be c<strong>on</strong>tentious, with open c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> raw emoti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> display. In any case, the<br />
language used will likely not resemble the nicely cooperative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammatically correct sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a textbook. The use of<br />
discourse analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics – transcrib<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of real c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s – has shown how varied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sp<strong>on</strong>taneous human speech really is (see Gee, 2014). A TED talk by Elizabeth Stokoe provides examples of how c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
analysis reveals not <strong>on</strong>ly how people actually talk, but also the significance of such frequent speech phenomena as hesitati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
repetiti<strong>on</strong>s, or brief silences.<br />
In many c<strong>on</strong>texts today, another characteristic of real language use often emerges – code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or the mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
languages together with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. This can be simply substitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an occasi<strong>on</strong>al word of another language or, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
cases, it can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve a back <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> forth between languages for the entire c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. As globalizati<strong>on</strong> has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>tact, more frequent travel has taken more people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to unfamiliar cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the explosi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of<br />
social networks has exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed exposure to multiple languages, code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a phenomen<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g numbers of<br />
people are likely to experience. Claire Kramsch describes this phenomen<strong>on</strong> as ‘language cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs’ (1998). She provides<br />
examples which highlight complex manifestati<strong>on</strong>s of identity enactment; the sample c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s she analyzes show how<br />
choice of language with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s can be clear markers of group membership or social distanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Code switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
e used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a playful way or to express social solidarity. In some sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, language cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be used to c<strong>on</strong>test or resist<br />
authority ☰ (see sidebar). Such language cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are not limited to bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual groups, but are particularly evident <strong>on</strong> the Internet,<br />
where discussi<strong>on</strong> forums <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media frequently mix <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> match languages. The extensive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequent mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
languages <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e has led to the use of the term "translanguag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" to describe the fluid transiti<strong>on</strong> of languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e use<br />
(García & Wei, 2014).<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> as resistance<br />
English by Pakistani youngsters, native speakers of English, as a strategy to resist the authority of their Anglo teacher<br />
(BR) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a British school.<br />
BR: attenti<strong>on</strong> gents<br />
Asif: yeh alright<br />
Alan: alright<br />
Asif: yeh<br />
In the typical language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment, it is not possible to expose learners to all the varieties of language use they<br />
might encounter. However, it certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly is possible to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease learners’ awareness of socio-cultural issues. One of those is the<br />
existence of language registers, the idea that we adjust the language we use – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of formality, t<strong>on</strong>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even vocabulary<br />
– <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d ourselves. Learners need to be aware of how language use could be adjusted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
formal face-to-face sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a work envir<strong>on</strong>ment, to highly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, such as Facebook post<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. This<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d grammatical correctness to language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> use. Pragmatics, another field of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics,<br />
deals with the nature of language as it occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> actual social use. The mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of what is said <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> may be quite<br />
different from the literal mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the words used. A statement made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an ir<strong>on</strong>ic, sarcastic, or humorous t<strong>on</strong>e may, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact,<br />
have a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g diametrically opposed to its surface mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "oh, sure" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American English to a statement or<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> can be a positive affirmati<strong>on</strong> or be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to ridicule what the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor has said. Such nuances are important for<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target culture. This k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of sociocultural competence is not easy to acquire, as pragmatics does not<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a fixed set of rules. Rather, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tuiti<strong>on</strong> play a major role, as can emoti<strong>on</strong>s as well. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of<br />
the dynamics of language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> can help <strong>on</strong>e be a better <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> literate speaker of any language.<br />
Pragmatic competence is particularly important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the n<strong>on</strong>-verbal cues signal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
attitude are not available.<br />
In recent years there has been a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> that culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language cannot be separated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that culture permeates<br />
all aspects of language. (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2016). If, for example, a language has different pers<strong>on</strong>al pr<strong>on</strong>ouns for direct address,<br />
such as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal tu <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the formal vous, both mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ‘you’, that dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> is a reflecti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e aspect of the<br />
culture. It <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that there is a built-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significance to social differentiati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that a more formal level of<br />
language use is available. Native speakers of English may have difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how to use the different forms of address<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French, or as they exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other languages such as German or Spanish. Speakers of American English, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed towards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal modes of address, mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a first-name basis as so<strong>on</strong> as possible. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal address<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriately can cause c<strong>on</strong>siderable social fricti<strong>on</strong>. It takes a good deal of language socializati<strong>on</strong> to acquire this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of<br />
pragmatic ability, that is to say, sufficient exposure to the forms be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used correctly. While native speakers of English may<br />
deplore the formality of vous or its equivalent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other languages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures where these dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s exist, they provide a<br />
valuable device for ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social distance when desired, for clearly dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g friends from acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tances, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
preserv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social harm<strong>on</strong>y <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Typically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic knowledge is presented as st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> universal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given culture,<br />
much as language is presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the model of educated speakers us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardized, grammatically correct language forms.<br />
This can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a somewhat unrealistic representati<strong>on</strong> of the target culture. Foreign cultures are often viewed as m<strong>on</strong>olithic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>variable, with dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> age, occupati<strong>on</strong>, or locality either glossed over or presented as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>trigu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, exotic<br />
outliers (‘what a strange dialect’). The reality of identity creati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's world is quite different, with globaliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the spread of social media lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to multifaceted pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural identities which may come to the fore at<br />
different times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different situati<strong>on</strong>s. The nati<strong>on</strong>al culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which a pers<strong>on</strong> is raised is an important factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong>e’s values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habits, but there are multiple additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences, com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example, from membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority group, gender identificati<strong>on</strong>, participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities, the work/liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment, or a chosen free time<br />
activity. ☰<br />
Bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism<br />
The complex identities created through the forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong>, mass migrati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the growth of social media, have also<br />
resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic complexity (Piller, 2017). Individuals are much more likely than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past to be exposed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> or<br />
<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, to speakers of other languages. The plurality of languages may well happen with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e’s own family. As travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
migrati<strong>on</strong> have brought more people from different cultures together, there has been a growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which parents have<br />
different mother t<strong>on</strong>gues. Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such households are likely to be brought up speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both languages, becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual. Bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism may as well result from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals or families migrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to speak the language of their<br />
home culture, while learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that of the host country. Studies have shown that not <strong>on</strong>ly do bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guals have the advantage of<br />
likely fluency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two languages, but that the process of grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual also has a positive effect <strong>on</strong> bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> development<br />
(Albert & Obler, 1978).<br />
Bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guals may differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their level of proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the languages they speak. Normally a bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual will have <strong>on</strong>e dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant<br />
language (Grosjean, 2001). It may be, for example, that children speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the language of their parents at home may not<br />
develop a good read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that language. Some schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> universities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there are large numbers of<br />
such "heritage" speakers, often have specially designed courses which help such students develop full capabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those<br />
languages. People who know more than <strong>on</strong>e language have been shown to be more adept at language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Kaushanskaya<br />
& Marian, 2009).<br />
In most parts of the world today, most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals have at least some capability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sec<strong>on</strong>d language: "The majority of the<br />
world's populati<strong>on</strong> uses more than <strong>on</strong>e language <strong>on</strong> a regular basis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>ol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism is by <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> large a historical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Angloph<strong>on</strong>e anomaly" (Piller, 2017, pp. 71-72). This is a matter of necessity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries such as Luxembourg, Nigeria, or<br />
Ind<strong>on</strong>esia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there are multiple languages coexist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> geographically close quarters. Inhabitants of smaller countries,<br />
with their own nati<strong>on</strong>al languages, such as Denmark, Est<strong>on</strong>ia, or Nauru (an isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> country <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Micr<strong>on</strong>esia) will, due to<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practical c<strong>on</strong>cerns, typically learn the language of larger neighbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this c<strong>on</strong>text as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
others, political <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>alist issues may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g choices.<br />
Many countries have more than <strong>on</strong>e officially recognized nati<strong>on</strong>al language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Canada (English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> French),<br />
Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (French, German, Italian, Romansch), South Africa (11 languages), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India (22 languages). It’s not the case that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual societies all speakers are necessarily multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual. Particular languages may be spoken predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>, as is the case for French <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Canada or Italian <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In other cases, language use may be distributed accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to ethnic heritage, as can be seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gapore or Malaysia. In some countries, there may be different versi<strong>on</strong>s of a comm<strong>on</strong><br />
language, as is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Switzerl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with Swiss German <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard German. This phenomen<strong>on</strong> is known as diglossia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which there is a comm<strong>on</strong> spoken vernacular language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a more formal versi<strong>on</strong>. This is the case for Arabic, with the "high"<br />
versi<strong>on</strong> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Modern St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard Arabic, used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal speech, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the many regi<strong>on</strong>al, colloquial versi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Egyptian, Maghrebi, Pen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sular, etc.). In some countries or regi<strong>on</strong>s, there may not be this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of functi<strong>on</strong>al dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
language choice, but rather a mix of languages spoken determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the language is used. This<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong>, known as ambil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism is seen particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> smaller countries (such as Luxembourg), border areas (such as<br />
Alsace, France) or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban areas aggregat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different communities (Johannesburg, South Africa).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Tamil, English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di name board at the Tirusulam suburban railway stati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chennai.<br />
<br />
World languages<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of ways. Not all languages, for example, have a written form. Those that do use a variety of<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systems. Russian uses the Cyrillic alphabet, while H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di uses Devanagari. Modern Korean offers a rare example of a<br />
successfully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vented written language, Hangeul (see sidebar). Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese has a particularly ancient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rich written language,<br />
with many thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of pictographic characters. Because of the complexity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> variety of Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese characters, there is a<br />
simplified equivalent called P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, which enables Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese characters to be referenced us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> alphabet. This is of<br />
particular usefulness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic communicati<strong>on</strong>. The arrival of touch-enabled smartph<strong>on</strong>es has been of great benefit to<br />
languages with alternative writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systems such as Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese or Arabic (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017d). Smartph<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> word<br />
processors can now support writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systems that write right to left such as Hebrew.<br />
Sample text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Korean (Hangeul)<br />
. .<br />
Translati<strong>on</strong><br />
All human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are born free <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dignity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rights. They are endowed with reas<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>science <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should<br />
act towards <strong>on</strong>e another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
Article 1 of the Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of Human Rights<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s evolve over time. Historical l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists trace these changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> describe how languages relate to <strong>on</strong>e another.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> families group languages together, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to similarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, grammar, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a same family derive from a comm<strong>on</strong> ancestor, called a proto-language (Nowak & Krakauer, 1999). Membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
given family is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through comparative l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, i.e., study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the characteristics of the languages<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists use the metaphor of a family tree to depict the relati<strong>on</strong>ships am<strong>on</strong>g languages. One of the largest<br />
families is Indo-European, with more than 4000 languages or dialects represented. Indo-European languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude Spanish,<br />
English, H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di/Urdu, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Punjabi, each with over 100 milli<strong>on</strong> speakers, followed by German,<br />
French <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Persian. Nearly half the human populati<strong>on</strong> speaks an Indo-European language as a first language (Skirgård, 2017).<br />
How the languages are related can be shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the similar terms for "mother" (see sidebar).<br />
Mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Indo-European languages<br />
Sanskrit matar<br />
Greek mater<br />
Some regi<strong>on</strong>s have particularly rich l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic traditi<strong>on</strong>s, such as is the case for Africa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India. In India, there are not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
Indo-European languages spoken (H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di, Punjabi), but also languages from other families such as Dravidian (Telugu, Tamil),<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
Austroasiatic, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o-Tibetan, Tai-Kadai, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a few other m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or language families. Papua/New Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea has a particularly rich<br />
vareity ☰ of languages; with over 850 languages, it is the most l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically diverse place <strong>on</strong> earth. In such cultures, most people<br />
are multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual, often speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 3 or more languages, al<strong>on</strong>g with a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca - a comm<strong>on</strong> denom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ator -, such as Swahili<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> parts of Africa, English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, or Tok Pis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, an English-based creole, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea.<br />
There are languages which do not bel<strong>on</strong>g to families, known as language isolates (Campbell, 2010). Well-known examples<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude Basque, a language spoken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the border area between France <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Korean. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolates tend to<br />
develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> geographical isolati<strong>on</strong>, separated from other regi<strong>on</strong>s, for example, through mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ranges or the sea. In some<br />
cases, geographical features such as dense forests may result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different dialects or even languages spoken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas which are<br />
actually quite close to <strong>on</strong>e another. A dialect refers to a variety of a language that is used by particular group of speakers,<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed normally regi<strong>on</strong>ally, but could be related to social class or ethnicity as well. Dialects are closely related to <strong>on</strong>e another<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> normally mutually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligible.<br />
It is estimated that there are between 5000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 7000 human languages. It is difficult to provide an exact count, as<br />
differentiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g languages from dialects is often difficult. It is also the case that languages die, as the number of speakers<br />
dw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dle. That is particularly the case with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Americas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia. Endangered languages can<br />
become ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> today this is happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at an alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate, for multiple reas<strong>on</strong>s; often cited are globalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rise<br />
of English as a world language. Several TED Talks highlight the work of field l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists (a branch of anthropology) to capture<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of endangered languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effort at preservati<strong>on</strong> (see resource list). Modern technology makes it much easier to<br />
document <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> archive language use. However, those same technological advances br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the outside world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to formally<br />
isolated areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the spread of dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant languages such as Spanish, Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> English.<br />
Figure<br />
: L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Gregory Anders<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews a Koro speaker <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.1.9 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42973
☰<br />
3.2: Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Approaches to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
For the many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous languages threatened with ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>, modern technology can provide an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>valuable service, through<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to capture high-quality audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video of native speakers. This enables as well the preservati<strong>on</strong> of cultural artifacts<br />
such as traditi<strong>on</strong>al stories, folklore, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the natural world. Field l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists use the record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs al<strong>on</strong>g with other<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> gathered to analyze the target language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, from which they develop dicti<strong>on</strong>aries, grammars, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ethnographic studies. Ethnography – the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> descripti<strong>on</strong> of the customs of a particular group – has been widely used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
anthropology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, as it supplies authentic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about a culture. It's also a tool that can be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with study abroad or community-based learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Ethnographic studies typically entail c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews with<br />
"<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formants", i.e. local <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants, collect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g samples of language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. Informal ethnographic studies<br />
can be d<strong>on</strong>e today by students through the use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>expensive record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g devices or mobile ph<strong>on</strong>es.<br />
The language data collected by ethnographers can be a valuable resource for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Dual-language dicti<strong>on</strong>aries,<br />
grammar tutorials, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sample dialogs are typically digitized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made available <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Such resources are especially<br />
important for less comm<strong>on</strong>ly taught languages (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2013). For many world languages, there may not be any locally<br />
available learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resources such as classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> or native speakers. There may be few language textbooks or other<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t materials available as well. There are several sites which collect <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e resources for less comm<strong>on</strong>ly taught languages<br />
such as the University of Pittsburgh Less-comm<strong>on</strong>ly-taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Center or the University of Ariz<strong>on</strong>a's Critical<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s Program.<br />
While digital resources for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g proliferate today, the traditi<strong>on</strong>al access to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials is the<br />
textbook. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the early 19th century textbooks have provided the essential structure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent for both teacher-led <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
self-taught language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The rich multimedia envir<strong>on</strong>ment for language learners is a fairly recent phenomen<strong>on</strong> (see Otto,<br />
2017). The use of audio for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for expos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g learners to more native speaker<br />
speech began with the advent of magnetic tape recorders <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1950s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1960s. This corresp<strong>on</strong>ded to the popularity of the<br />
audiovisual method of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, which stressed work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g closely, often memoriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, model dialogs. This behaviorist<br />
approach to language pedagogy, emphasiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rote learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar through drills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repetiti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the early stages of computer-assisted language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (CALL) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1960s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1970s. A major<br />
breakthrough <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> CALL arrived with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporati<strong>on</strong> of digital audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to pers<strong>on</strong>al computers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1980s. This<br />
enabled programmatically guided r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om access to record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video to be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> much more creative<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pedagogically effective ways. Quite sophisticated multimedia learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs were developed which featured authentic<br />
video, gam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g elements, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> branch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g storyl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> learner acti<strong>on</strong>s (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017a).<br />
Figure<br />
: Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g German at the Smarter <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Academy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nigeria<br />
<br />
Chomsky's c<strong>on</strong>cept of universal grammar led to theories of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> that postulated the existence of a "natural<br />
order of acquisiti<strong>on</strong>" (Krashen, 1982, p. 15), that is, that there is for all languages a set, optimal sequence of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities.<br />
This led to an emphasis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> grammatical rules acquired through psychol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic/cognitive processes.<br />
However, research from Hymes (1972) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics scholars began to emphasize a different aspect of language,<br />
namely its social aspect. From this perspective language is not just an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal, psychologial process, but has a crucial sociocultural<br />
role – it is the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal means we have to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with others. We learn our first language from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with those<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42974
around us, our families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers. This dimensi<strong>on</strong> of language began to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly recognized as important as well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d ☰ language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This has led to a decreased emphasis <strong>on</strong> purely cognitive approaches such as drill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice<br />
exercises or memorizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more emphasis <strong>on</strong> cultural aspects of language. This functi<strong>on</strong>al view of language puts more of a<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> social practices such as request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apologiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the structure of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s (i.e. turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or set questi<strong>on</strong>answer<br />
sequences). More emphasis is placed <strong>on</strong> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language through use. That may mean, for example, learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new<br />
vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidentally through extensive read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or other language c<strong>on</strong>tact, not through memoriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g word lists.<br />
This communicative approach to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emphasizes the need to go bey<strong>on</strong>d learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar, to<br />
develop practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pragmatically appropriate speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability (Savign<strong>on</strong>, 1983). The emphasis is <strong>on</strong> use of functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real communicative c<strong>on</strong>texts, often us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a task-based approach. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students use real world<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s to practice language. There is a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recogniti<strong>on</strong> that for most learners, functi<strong>on</strong>al ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sec<strong>on</strong>d language<br />
should be the goal, that is, an ability to use the language appropriately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a broad range of c<strong>on</strong>texts. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves not just<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g grammar, but cultural strategic knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategic competence as well, i.e., what's appropriate to say <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
Most current theories of Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acquisiti<strong>on</strong> (SLA) advocate a sociocognitive approach, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cognitivemechanical<br />
practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socially-based learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (see Larsen-Freeman, 2018). <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are both such<br />
complex phenomen<strong>on</strong>a, that there is not likely to be <strong>on</strong>e "right" way or best approach to SLA (see Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2018). The<br />
diversity of learner backgrounds, available learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> level of need/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest mean that no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual is likely to<br />
learn a new language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> precisely the same way. This has led to a great deal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how language development can be<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>alized to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual learners (see Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017c; Ortega, 2017). That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the power of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d language to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual lives: "A foreign language is not simply someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to add to our repertoire of skills, but<br />
a pers<strong>on</strong>alized tool that enables us to exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> express our identity or sense of self <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<br />
new k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of people" (Ushioda, 2011, p. 204). Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new language broadens our experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> horiz<strong>on</strong>s, provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
access to new sources of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially a "transformati<strong>on</strong> of self" (Larsen-Freeman, 2018, p.<br />
62).<br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the nature of language<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to how language works. Many m<strong>on</strong>ol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guals are likely to assume that the<br />
difference between languages is largely semantic, that is to say that mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from <strong>on</strong>e language to another is simply a matter<br />
of substitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words. We have seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the example of Warlpiri how far that can be from reality. In fact, the very same word<br />
equivalents can be put together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> very different ways. Some languages such as Arabic make rich use of metaphorical<br />
language, for example. In all languages there are idioms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fixed expressi<strong>on</strong>s that have mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d the literal<br />
denotati<strong>on</strong>s of c<strong>on</strong>stituent words. One of the ways words are used differently is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collocati<strong>on</strong>s – group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of words that<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally go together. In English, for example, we say "make your bed" but "do your homework", with the verbs not<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terchangeable despite similarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The lexical approach to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emphasizes the study of<br />
vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g collocati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> idiomatic expressi<strong>on</strong>s (Lewis, 1993).<br />
How sentences are put together can vary significantly by language. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g German, for example, will expose learners to<br />
syntax (word order) that is quite different from the way sentences are put together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many languages, i.e. subject – verb –<br />
object (SVO). In German, that word order can be used, but it is comm<strong>on</strong> to have someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other than the subject at the<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the sentence. At the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of newscasts <strong>on</strong> German televisi<strong>on</strong>, it is comm<strong>on</strong> to hear the phrase, Ihnen e<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>en<br />
guten Abend, literally "to you (formal you) a good even<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g". German <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates the role of a noun or pr<strong>on</strong>oun <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sentence<br />
not by its placement but by its form or end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These morphological variati<strong>on</strong>s – changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs – are crucial to<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what a sentence says. German is not unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this respect. Some languages add end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to the end of words<br />
(suffixes) as well as to the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (prefixes). Some Eskimo-Aleut languages build what are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other languages complex<br />
sentences by add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> many prefixes or suffixes to a root word (see example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sidebar).<br />
Sample Inuit word (Eskimo-Aleut language)<br />
ᑐᓵᑦᓯᐊᕈᓐᓇᖖᒋᑦᑐᐊᓘᔪᖓ<br />
Tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga<br />
I can't hear very well.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42974
This l<strong>on</strong>g word is composed of a root word tusaa- 'to hear' followed by five suffixes:<br />
☰<br />
-tsiaq- "well"<br />
-junnaq- "be able to"<br />
-nngit- negati<strong>on</strong><br />
-tu(q) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicative third-pers<strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gular<br />
-alu(k)-: augmentative ("very")<br />
-u-: "be"<br />
-junga: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicative first-pers<strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gular (itself composed of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicative morpheme -ju- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first pers<strong>on</strong> mark -<br />
nga)<br />
Inuit grammar/Wikipedia<br />
In some languages, learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sometimes subtle variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> can be crucially important. In M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese, for<br />
example, there are four t<strong>on</strong>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which syllables are pr<strong>on</strong>ounced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the exact same ph<strong>on</strong>eme (m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal unit of sound) can<br />
have four different mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the t<strong>on</strong>e (high, low, ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). The syllable “ma” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> could<br />
be mā (mother), má (to bother), mǎ (horse), mà (to scold), or ma (neutral t<strong>on</strong>e, used as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrogative particle). One of the<br />
helpful tools l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists have created <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of ph<strong>on</strong>etics (the producti<strong>on</strong> of sounds) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ph<strong>on</strong>ology (how sounds are put<br />
together) is the IPA, the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Ph<strong>on</strong>etic Alphabet (MacMah<strong>on</strong>, 1986). It allows an accurate representati<strong>on</strong> of sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
all human languages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the variety of clicks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some African languages. In some cases, the IPA transcripti<strong>on</strong> is easy to<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, for example, “good” as [gud]. In other cases, symbols are used that are not part of the regular alphabet, for<br />
example, thicker as [θɪkə] or child as [tʃaɪld].<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The degree of difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language can vary depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a number of factors, such as motivati<strong>on</strong>, time<br />
commitment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate ability to learn. Some learners are able to imitate very closely the sounds of a native speaker; others<br />
have great difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that area, particularly if they start learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the language later <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> life. The critical period hypothesis<br />
claims that there is an ideal time w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow for acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language, namely as children or adolescents (Harley & Wang, 1997).<br />
This is particularly true for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g native-like pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fluent oral communicati<strong>on</strong> skills. Older learners, <strong>on</strong> the<br />
other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, tend to do well with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> structure, the analytical aspect of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The degree of<br />
difficulty is also dependent <strong>on</strong> the level of fluency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accuracy <strong>on</strong>e hopes to atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. People learn languages for different<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some learners may just need a read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability.<br />
Immigrants sometimes reach a level of ability that provides basic functi<strong>on</strong>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the language. At that po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t they may stop<br />
formal tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>scious efforts to improve, their pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "fossilized" at the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al level achieved (Act<strong>on</strong>, 1984). In the field of SLA today, a major field with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, it is recognized that<br />
language learners vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that not every learner needs to develop native-like<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> or perfect grammar. The st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard for most learners is likely to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibility, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to make <strong>on</strong>eself<br />
understood. In some cases, mispr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual sounds is less important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibility then <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
idiomatic word choice. Unfortunately, the public at large does not share the perspective of SLA, so that those who speak with a<br />
noticeable accent or use faulty grammar can face prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, despite be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g em<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligible.<br />
One of the other determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ease or difficulty is the similarity or dissimilarity of the sec<strong>on</strong>d language to<br />
<strong>on</strong>e's native t<strong>on</strong>gue. It is clearly much easier for a native English speaker to learn Spanish or German than to learn Arabic or<br />
M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. For those languages, a completely different writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system must be learned. It's also the case that Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
German, like English, are members of the same language family of Indo-European, which means that they have similar<br />
genealogies. As a result, there are similarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary. A high number of cognates – words which<br />
resemble each other – between the two languages can be very helpful, especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the early stages of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Ultimately, if or how well learners acquire a sec<strong>on</strong>d language depends <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. One's attitude is a crucial factor. If<br />
<strong>on</strong>e is highly motivated to learn because of extr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sic factors, such as a migrant's need for functi<strong>on</strong>al ability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an adopted<br />
country, that can lead to more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tense <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> faster learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. There may be compell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g professi<strong>on</strong>al reas<strong>on</strong>s for need<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to learn a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d language, such as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g posted to a foreign country. Intr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sic motivat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g factors may play a role. Those might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a<br />
desire to learn more about another culture to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or establish a c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to <strong>on</strong>e's ethnic heritage. Polyglots, speakers of<br />
multiple languages, are motivated to learn as many languages as possible (see resource list for examples).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42974
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Author JRR Tolkien knew many languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vented lan-guages<br />
In any case, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a positive attitude is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> generally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is of great benefit as<br />
well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. A spirit of openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curiosity is needed. If <strong>on</strong>e is will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to use the language learned to engage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> with other learners or native speakers, faster progress is likely. The author of a well-known textbook <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> entitled <strong>on</strong>e of the chapters "<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a barrier" (J<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, 2012). In fact, the opposite is true,<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language is a gateway <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to another culture, the most effective way to get an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side track <strong>on</strong> the perspective<br />
from which speakers of the language view the world.<br />
<br />
English as a world language<br />
Often there is a close <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between the language <strong>on</strong>e learns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture represented by that language. In<br />
fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target culture may be the start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new language. In some cases, there is a tighter<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle culture than for others. Learners of Japanese, for example, are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a different positi<strong>on</strong> from learners of<br />
Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that there are fewer regi<strong>on</strong>al variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e nati<strong>on</strong>-state where Japanese is spoken. From that perspective,<br />
English is even more diverse culturally than Spanish. That derives not just from the fact that English is the official language of<br />
a variety of countries, but that it also functi<strong>on</strong>s as the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca for exchanges between people with different native<br />
languages. In fact, it's estimated that there are today a larger number of people worldwide who speak English as a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language than as a native language (Crystal, 2003). English is seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries as an essential tool for social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic advancement. At the same time, English is sometimes seen as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument of cultural imperialism, given the<br />
history of col<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong>, evangelizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, spread of US c<strong>on</strong>sumer/popular culture from the Angloph<strong>on</strong>e world. The spread of<br />
English is often accompanied by Western, more specifically Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> cultural values.<br />
The role that English as a language plays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given culture may vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably. Given its history as a former English<br />
col<strong>on</strong>y, H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g, for example, is a city <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there are many people who speak English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their everyday lives. H<strong>on</strong>g<br />
K<strong>on</strong>gers use English "quite comfortably with <strong>on</strong>e another when they are at school or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the office. It is c<strong>on</strong>sidered strange,<br />
however, to use it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>" (Scoll<strong>on</strong>, Scoll<strong>on</strong> & J<strong>on</strong>es, 2012, p. 6). This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gapore, India, or<br />
South Africa, where there may be speakers of a variety of other languages so that English is needed as a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca. In<br />
H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g, by c<strong>on</strong>trast, English is not needed, as native H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>gers speak Cant<strong>on</strong>ese. Scoll<strong>on</strong>, Scoll<strong>on</strong> & J<strong>on</strong>es (2012)<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> H<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g outside of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs carries with it social significance:<br />
[This is] based partly <strong>on</strong> the groups of people that use it such as teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
authority figures as well as n<strong>on</strong>-Cant<strong>on</strong>ese speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “foreigners,” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so by<br />
appropriat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to casual c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> with another Cant<strong>on</strong>ese speaker, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
might be claim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong> with those groups of people, or <strong>on</strong>e might be<br />
thought by the people to whom <strong>on</strong>e is talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be claim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g such an affiliati<strong>on</strong>, to be<br />
“show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of ,” or, at the very least, to be act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unduly formal (p. 6).<br />
The different social significance of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English across cultures po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent cultural forces language embodies<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a means of communicati<strong>on</strong>. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> choice can be a way to positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>eself socially. In many cultures,<br />
English may be an important comp<strong>on</strong>ent of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> agency.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42974
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English has resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a boom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries. At the same time, there has been a shift <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
how ☰English is taught as a sec<strong>on</strong>d language. It is no l<strong>on</strong>ger the case that learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English is tied necessarily to learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as well<br />
about the culture of Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or the USA. The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of English taught may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact not be either British English or North<br />
American English, but rather a versi<strong>on</strong> which adapts to a local variety of English or strives to model Internati<strong>on</strong>al or World<br />
English. The latter c<strong>on</strong>cept has evolved out of the desire to m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imize cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences from North America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as well as to deal with differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> usage (spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, vocabulary, pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>) am<strong>on</strong>g Englishes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Angloph<strong>on</strong>e countries. There have even been attempts, such as Basic Global English, to create a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of neutral, bare-b<strong>on</strong>es<br />
versi<strong>on</strong> of the language (Grzega, 2006). On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, there have been efforts locally to teach English with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
of a local culture. That has been the case, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vietnam (Kramsch & Sullivan, 1996) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pakistan (Malik, 1993).<br />
Many people are learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English for highly utilitarian reas<strong>on</strong>s, to advance socially or professi<strong>on</strong>ally. As a result, there is a lot<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "English for Special Purposes," English classes tailored to those with particular professi<strong>on</strong>al needs, such as<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, tourism, or a highly technical field. This may lead to a limited proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a narrow semantic field.<br />
An example is Aviati<strong>on</strong> English, called AirSpeak, the versi<strong>on</strong> of English universally used by pilots <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> air traffic c<strong>on</strong>trollers<br />
(Internati<strong>on</strong>al Civil Aviati<strong>on</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong>, 2003). There have been some c<strong>on</strong>cerns expressed that pilots with AirSpeak-level<br />
English proficiency can deal very well with rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e situati<strong>on</strong>s that occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the air, but might have some difficulty describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
unusual events <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English. The example given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sidebar illustrates potential issues with language, but also possibly with<br />
sociocultural factors, namely the possible reluctance of a pilot to admit ignorance.<br />
Example: Airspeak<br />
On August 2, 1976, a Boe<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 707 cargo flight departed from Tehran to Seoul <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collided with the mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> due to a<br />
wr<strong>on</strong>g turn. The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> between Air Traffic C<strong>on</strong>troller (ATC) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pilot. St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard Instrument<br />
Departure (SID) is published flight procedure followed by aircraft immediately after takeoff from an airport<br />
ATC to Pilot: “Follow SID 11”<br />
Pilot to ATC: “What is SID 11?”<br />
ATC to Pilot: “St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard Instrument Departure 11”<br />
Pilot acti<strong>on</strong>: Silence<br />
Hazrati & Touiserkani (2016)<br />
In the early days of the Internet there was c<strong>on</strong>cern that English would crowd out all other languages. That has not, however,<br />
been the case. Statistics show much faster Internet growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries where English is not the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant language (Internet<br />
World Stats, 2017). In 1996, more than 80 percent of Internet users were native English speakers. By 2010, that percentage had<br />
dropped to 27.3 percent. Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e services are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple languages, Wikipedia <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 295 languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Facebook <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 101 (Ortega, 2017). However, it rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a reality that English growth may lead to the decl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of other languages.<br />
In some countries, private universities have opened up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the language of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> is English. The popularity s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
2012 of MOOCs (massively open <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e courses), which have predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly been offered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, from US universities,<br />
has led some to worry about that form of distance learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English replac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g local educati<strong>on</strong>al resources (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
2014). Whether the cause is or is not the spread of English, it does rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that a large number of the world's languages are<br />
today threatened with ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> (Choi, 2014). Given the close c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> we have discussed here between language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culture, los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language communities also means a loss of human cultural capital, which is irreplaceable. For the majority of<br />
the world languages which do not have a written language, los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the last rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speakers can mean the disappearance of<br />
the spoken stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>s. It can also mean a significant loss of knowledge of the natural world. Los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words for native<br />
plants can mean loss of knowledge of how that plant can be used for medic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al or other purposes. Ultimately, los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
language entails los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a unique view of our world.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42974
3.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Technology<br />
Today <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e resources have become <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>valuable for all language learners. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> learners may be us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a formal school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or they may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a sec<strong>on</strong>d language. For the latter, there are a variety of opti<strong>on</strong>s available. There are <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
such is DuoL<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>go or Mango <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. These typically provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to basic<br />
language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, also offer access to other learners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or native speakers. These are typically commercial services, which<br />
usually offer a free trial. They vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness. A free alternative is to c<strong>on</strong>nect <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with other<br />
language learners through a site such as the Mixxer. One of the methods that has been popular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years is t<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>em<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which two learners of each other's language serve as c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> native <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formants, shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g equally<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> time spent practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with each language (Brammerts, 1996).<br />
Informal language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the Internet has become <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly popular, as it offers just-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-time learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, anytime<br />
access, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> low cost. Depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the tool or service used, it also offers the possibility of creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships with other<br />
learners or native speakers. This can provide valuable venues for real language use. Often classroom language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> or practice for actual communicati<strong>on</strong>, but the Internet provides opportunities for authentic communicati<strong>on</strong>. It<br />
supplies both opportunities for language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the opportunity for cultural learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g real<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with real people (face-to-face or <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e) can be a powerful learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g motivator. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g languages<br />
<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e has the potential to expose learners to both high volumes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diverse ranges of language. This is an ideal envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The current view of language has been shaped by research based <strong>on</strong> corpus l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, discourse analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related fields,<br />
which see language above all as a set of patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al word group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017b). Studies exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
real language exchanges show that language use is characterized by repetiti<strong>on</strong>, reuse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re-purpos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of chunks of language<br />
(Ellis, 2017). This c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>-based view of language means that it is essential for the learner to have access to a sufficient<br />
volume of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different c<strong>on</strong>texts to be able to identify patterns, as well as to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to how usage can vary<br />
accord-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to formality or other c<strong>on</strong>texts. The need is for exposure to real language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful c<strong>on</strong>texts. That, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact, is the big advantage of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> substantial communicative activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
authentic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful c<strong>on</strong>texts, supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both more volume <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more variety than is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed language<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In this way, language is learned through mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful experiences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language structures emerge from repeated use<br />
(Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2018).<br />
How <strong>on</strong>e might use technology for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g depends to a large extent <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e's level of proficiency, time available,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the purpose for want<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to learn the language. For tourists, there are phrase books, virtual guided tours, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic form. These are typically available as apps for mobile access (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2017d). Also<br />
popular are flashcard programs for vocabulary learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as well as basic grammar tutorials. For those focused <strong>on</strong> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
read <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another language, dual-language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> annotated texts are available, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up<strong>on</strong> the L1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L2 comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>. Also<br />
possible are four-skill <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e courses or software programs for many languages. These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude freely available Internet courses<br />
such as MOOCs or (paid) for-credit university classes.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/1/2021 3.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48841
Figure<br />
: Ad for Rosetta St<strong>on</strong>es promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social benefits<br />
<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the self-directed language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g software packages, <strong>on</strong>e of the better-known products is Rosetta St<strong>on</strong>e. It features a<br />
sequenced presentati<strong>on</strong> of the target language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> phrases <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> short sentences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> gradually to larger<br />
language chunks. It <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practice as well as speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feedback through automatic speech<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong>. Rosetta St<strong>on</strong>e has been criticized for not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a cultural comp<strong>on</strong>ent: the same generic sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
stock illustrati<strong>on</strong>s are used for all languages. Moreover, it shares with other dedicated language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g software the<br />
disadvantage of not supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g opportunities for language use bey<strong>on</strong>d simple phrases <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences. One recent study of the<br />
use of Rosetta St<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary Spanish found that students had ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed c<strong>on</strong>siderable knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of vocabulary<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar (Lord, 2015). However, they had c<strong>on</strong>siderable difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g even a basic c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spanish.<br />
They lacked strategic competence, the ability to negotiate c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s through rephras<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for explanati<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
repetiti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/1/2021 3.3.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48841
☰<br />
3.4: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice...<br />
– D<strong>on</strong>'t expect your language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g progress to be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ear. The typical language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experience is more like a spiral<br />
than a straight l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, with lots of starts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stops. One often has the feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g still or even mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 1 step forward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2<br />
steps back, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stages of advanced novice (CEFR level A2) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termediate (B1 to B2). It can happen at the<br />
upper levels as well. This is normal, that progress comes through fits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> starts. Often you are learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g without realiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it,<br />
build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up your store of language until it reaches a po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t where what you've accumulated starts to come together.<br />
– Textbook language is not real. In real-life use, be prepared to encounter language differences from what's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language<br />
textbooks. This is <strong>on</strong>e of the advantages of explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g L2 use through <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges, gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a taste of authentic language<br />
use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
– <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> everyday use is culturally determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. This means that how we carry out rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e tasks such as exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for a favor, or express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g thanks can vary significantly from culture to culture. In these "speech acts" be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
grammatically correct is not nearly as important as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culturally appropriate.<br />
– Explore language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the Internet. As described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this chapter, there are rich opportunities for language study, both<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <strong>on</strong> the Internet. Some may work for you better than others – there are many different tools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
services, which use quite different approaches.<br />
For discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
1. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> human behavior<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talks by Chen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tran...<br />
How do you judge the validity of the claims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the videos that the structure of a language (such as the presence or absence of a<br />
particular verb tense) can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence human behavior? When you are us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, do you feel you see the world<br />
differently?<br />
2. Words<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talks by Curzan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shargaa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to (or read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the transcript of) the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> with John<br />
McWhorter...<br />
Do words matter? Is it a problem if some<strong>on</strong>e uses a word <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a n<strong>on</strong>-st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard way? Are there particular c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which word usage is important? What's your view <strong>on</strong> the use of "awesome" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "thug", as discussed by Shargaa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
McWhorter?<br />
3. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talks by D<strong>on</strong>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>sdale <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the piece by Foer:<br />
What have been for you the most effective approaches to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g? What mechanisms have you found for<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g your sec<strong>on</strong>d language abilities? How would you judge the approaches advocated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these videos? If you have tried<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese, what is your assessment of the "Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>easy" approach?<br />
4. English as a world language<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Ryan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Walker TED talks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the articles by Pullum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> McWhorter...<br />
Are we mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g towards <strong>on</strong>e language = English? What are the advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disadvantages if that were to be the case? Why<br />
English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not another language, particularly Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese? What's your take <strong>on</strong> McWhorter's statement that "...if the Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese rule<br />
the world, they will likely do so <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English"? Is it a problem (culturally), that, as Pullum discusses, higher educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
number of n<strong>on</strong>-English speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries is mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g towards English as the language of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>?<br />
5. Endangered languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED talks by Davis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Plotk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>...<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
Is it important to preserve the world's languages? Isn't it crucially important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual advancement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any country to<br />
speak ☰ English? Does it matter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that case that a native language disappears?<br />
Key C<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
Accent: Versi<strong>on</strong> of language dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guished by pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ambil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism: Situati<strong>on</strong> when two are more languages are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terchangedly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>lgy r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly by an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community<br />
Argot: A secret language used by a group to prevent outsiders from underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g [from French argot, mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g slang]<br />
Behaviorism: Emphasizes the role of envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (rather than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate factors); learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through repeated stimulus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
Cognate: A word hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic derivati<strong>on</strong> as another; from the same orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al word or root<br />
Collocati<strong>on</strong>: The frequent juxtapositi<strong>on</strong> of a particular word with another word or words with a frequency greater than<br />
chance<br />
Communicative approach: Languge learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pedagogy which stresses mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> real communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g learners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of authentic texts<br />
Comparative l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: Branch of historical l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics c<strong>on</strong>cerned with compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g languages to establish their historical<br />
relatedness<br />
Computati<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: Branch of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes automatic speech recogniti<strong>on</strong>, computer-assisted<br />
translati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other uses associated with the use of computers to predict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret human communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>notati<strong>on</strong>: Comm<strong>on</strong>ly understood cultural associati<strong>on</strong> of a word, rather than its literal mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (denotati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Creole: Full-fledged language that orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated from a pidg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of other languages<br />
Denotati<strong>on</strong>: A word's explicit or literal mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Descriptive l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: the study of the grammar, classificati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrangement of the features of a language at a given<br />
time, without reference to the history of the language or comparis<strong>on</strong> with other languages.<br />
Dialect: A language variety associated with a particular regi<strong>on</strong> or social group<br />
Diglossia: Situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which two languages or dialects are regularly spoken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community<br />
Discourse analysis: A general term for a number of approaches to analyze language use, usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual units, which are studied for their mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
Endangered language: A language that is at risk of fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g another<br />
language<br />
Ethnography: The scientific descripti<strong>on</strong> of the customs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual peoples <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures<br />
Field l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: An applied area that collects data <strong>on</strong> little-studied languages, particularly those with few speakers that are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> danger of dy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out<br />
Fossilizati<strong>on</strong>: Refers to the loss of progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of a L2 follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a period where learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g occurred, despite<br />
regular exposure to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with the L2<br />
Generative grammar: A l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic theory that sees grammar as a system of rules that generates comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s of words<br />
that form grammatical sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given language (orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by Noam Chomsky)<br />
Grammar: The mental representati<strong>on</strong> of a speakers' l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic competence; what a speaker knows about a language.<br />
Historical l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: Study of the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, development <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships of various languages<br />
Idioms: Whole phrases that extended the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d the literal mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the words<br />
Indo-European: A large language family of related languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dialects orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eurasia, with the most widely<br />
spoken languages be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Spanish, English, H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Persian, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Punjabi<br />
IPA: The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al ph<strong>on</strong>etic alphabet, a set of symbols <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diacritics represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>emes of the world's languages<br />
Jarg<strong>on</strong>: A set of words/terms that are shared by those with a comm<strong>on</strong> professi<strong>on</strong> or experience<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>: A systematic set of sounds, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with a set of rules, for the purpose of communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> family: A group of languages related through descent from a comm<strong>on</strong> ancestor<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolate: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> with no known relati<strong>on</strong>ship with other languages or membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a language family<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> socializati<strong>on</strong>: Gradual development of skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected ways of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> variety: The way a particular group of people uses language<br />
Lexical approach: Method of teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g foreign language stress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> producti<strong>on</strong> of lexical phrases as<br />
chunks<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca: Comm<strong>on</strong> language used by speakers of different languages<br />
☰L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ism: The hypothesis that the differences am<strong>on</strong>g languages are reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
worldviews of their speakers<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic relativity: Theory that the way <strong>on</strong>e th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the language <strong>on</strong>e speaks<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: The scientific study of language, specifically its structure, development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship with other languages<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual: A pers<strong>on</strong> who speaks <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e language<br />
Morpheme: In a language, the smallest unit that carries mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)<br />
Morphology: Branch of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics with a focus <strong>on</strong> morphemes, the basic unit of mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a language<br />
Mutual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibility: The ability of two people to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> each other when speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Neologism: A newly co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed word or phrase<br />
Noam Chomsky: United States l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist whose theory of generative grammar redef<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the field of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics (born 1928)<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>eme: Smallest unit of sound, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong>ant or vowel<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>etics: Descripti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> classificati<strong>on</strong> of sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study of their producti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> percepti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>ology: Study of sound systems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sound change, usually with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular language or family of languages.<br />
Pidg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: A simplified language that develops as a means of communicati<strong>on</strong> between two or more groups that do not have a<br />
language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comm<strong>on</strong><br />
Polyglot: A pers<strong>on</strong> who knows <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is able to use several languages<br />
Pragmatics: The study of how language is actually used <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the effect that language has <strong>on</strong> human percepti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
behaviors<br />
Pragmatic competence: The ability to use language effectively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>textually appropriate fashi<strong>on</strong><br />
Prefix: An affix that is attached to the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a morpheme or stem<br />
Prescriptive grammar: Rules of grammar brought about by grammarians' attempts to legislate what speakers'<br />
grammatical rules should be, rather than what they are<br />
Proto-language: Hypothetical parent language from which actual languages are derived<br />
Prestige: In sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, the level of respect normally accorded to a specific language or dialect with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular<br />
speech community, relative to other languages or dialects<br />
Register: A variety of a language used for a particular purpose or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular social sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Root: The morpheme that rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s when all affixes are stripped from a complex word<br />
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The propositi<strong>on</strong> that the structure of a language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences how its speakers perceive the world<br />
around them.<br />
Semantics: Systematic study of mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language, especially word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentence mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
SLA: Sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Acquisiti<strong>on</strong>: References both the process of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language as well as the academic<br />
field deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with that process<br />
Sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: The study of how language is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its differences am<strong>on</strong>g cultures, age groups,<br />
genders, social class, etc.<br />
Speech act: An utterance that has performative functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Strategic competence: A speaker's ability to adapt use of language to compensate for communicati<strong>on</strong> problems caused by<br />
a lack of underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Suffix: An affix that is attached to the end of a morpheme or word<br />
Symbol: Arbitrarily selected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned stimulus represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else<br />
Syntax: Systematic ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which words comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to create phrases, clauses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences<br />
T<strong>on</strong>e: The use of pitch <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language to dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish lexical or grammatical mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g – that is, to dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish or to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flect<br />
words<br />
Universal grammar: Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a comm<strong>on</strong> underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g structure<br />
Variati<strong>on</strong>: A characteristic of language: there is more than <strong>on</strong>e way of say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Speakers may vary<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>, word choice, or morphology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> syntax<br />
Resources<br />
Books: language autobiographies<br />
Grosjean, F. (2010). Bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual: life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reality. Harvard University Press.<br />
Hoffman, E. (1998). Lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> translati<strong>on</strong>: A life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new language. R<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om House.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
Kaplan, A. (1994). French less<strong>on</strong>s: A memoir. University of Chicago Press.<br />
☰Rodriguez, R. (1983). Hunger of memory: The educati<strong>on</strong> of Richard Rodriguez: An autobiography. Bantam.<br />
Movies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language or l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists<br />
Apocalypto, 2006; filmed entirely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Yucatec Maya language (with subtitles)<br />
Arrival, 2016; science ficti<strong>on</strong> that centers <strong>on</strong> translati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>, with a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist as the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> protag<strong>on</strong>ist<br />
Grammar of Happ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, 2012; follows the story of Daniel Everett am<strong>on</strong>g the Amaz<strong>on</strong>ian Piraha tribe<br />
Do you speak American?, 2005; documentary about different versi<strong>on</strong>s of English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US<br />
Ghost Warrior,1984; A deep-frozen 400-year-old samurai is shipped to Los Angeles, where he comes back to life, speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
an ancient Japanese dialect<br />
Nell, 1994; wild woodswoman <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a who speaks a strange unknown language<br />
P<strong>on</strong>typool, 2010; a virus spreads through a community <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist can solve the mystery<br />
The Interpreter, 2005; political thriller about a UN <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter (Nicole Kidman)<br />
The L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists, 2008; documentary film about language ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> documentati<strong>on</strong><br />
The Term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al, 2004; feature film (Tom Hanks) explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new language <strong>on</strong> the fly<br />
W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dtalkers, 2002, <strong>on</strong> the use of the Navajo language as a secret code dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g World War II<br />
Blogs <strong>on</strong> language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Log L<strong>on</strong>g-runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative blog from the U. of Pennsylvania<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca Associated with the Chr<strong>on</strong>icle of Higher Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
The World <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> words Podcast about language, from PRI's The World<br />
The nature of language<br />
Keith Chen: Could your language affect your ability to save m<strong>on</strong>ey?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "What can ec<strong>on</strong>omists learn from l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists? Behavioral ec<strong>on</strong>omist Keith Chen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduces a fasc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
pattern from his research: that languages without a c<strong>on</strong>cept for the future — 'It ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tomorrow,' <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of 'It will ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tomorrow' — correlate str<strong>on</strong>gly with high sav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs rates."<br />
Can Your <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Influence Your Spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Smok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Habits? from the Atlantic largely support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the claims as<br />
does the piece by David Berreby, Obese? Smoker? No Retirement Sav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs? Perhaps It's Because of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> You Speak,<br />
while a post <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>Log, Keith Chen, Whorfian ec<strong>on</strong>omist, expresses skepticism<br />
Phuc Tran: Grammar, Identity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Dark Side of the Subjunctive<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Phuc Tran grew up caught between two languages with oppos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural perspectives: the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicative reality<br />
of Vietnamese <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the power to image endless possibilities with English. In this pers<strong>on</strong>al talk, Tran expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s how both shaped<br />
his identity."<br />
Comments from reddit readers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Quora (express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skepticism)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society<br />
Anne Curzan: What makes a word "real"?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "One could argue that slang words like ‘hangry,’ ‘defriend’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘adorkable’ fill crucial mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gaps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
English language, even if they d<strong>on</strong>'t appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dicti<strong>on</strong>ary. After all, who actually decides which words make it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to those<br />
pages? <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> historian Anne Curzan gives a charm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g look at the humans beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d dicti<strong>on</strong>aries, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the choices they make."<br />
Jill Shargaa: Please, please, people. Let's put the 'awe' back <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'awesome'<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Which of the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is awesome: your lunch or the Great Pyramid of Giza? Comedian Jill Shargaa<br />
sounds a hilarious call for us to save the word "awesome" for th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that truly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spire awe."<br />
The Racially Charged Mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d The Word 'Thug'<br />
NPR's Melissa Block speaks to John McWhorter, associate professor of English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparative literature at Columbia<br />
University, about the use of the word "thug" to describe Baltimore rioters.<br />
Comments from NPR listeners <strong>on</strong> McWhorter's views <strong>on</strong> "thug"<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiple languages<br />
☰<br />
Mia Nacamulli: The benefits of a bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
It’s obvious that know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than <strong>on</strong>e language can make certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs easier — like travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g movies without<br />
subtitles. But are there other advantages to hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual (or multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual) bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>? Mia Nacamulli details the three types of<br />
bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shows how know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than <strong>on</strong>e language keeps your bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> healthy, complex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> actively engaged.<br />
Patricia Kuhl: The l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic genius of babies<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Patricia Kuhl shares ast<strong>on</strong>ish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about how babies learn <strong>on</strong>e language over another — by listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the humans around them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g statistics" <strong>on</strong> the sounds they need to know. Clever lab experiments (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scans)<br />
show how 6-m<strong>on</strong>th-old babies use sophisticated reas<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their world."<br />
Tim D<strong>on</strong>er: Break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the language barrier<br />
Young polyglot talks about superficial view of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the media; expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s "method of loci" (memory palace) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
experiment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with other methods; about language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture<br />
Benny Lewis: Hack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Polyglot expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s his method for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; about polyglots; emphasizes motivati<strong>on</strong>TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "'Some people<br />
just d<strong>on</strong>'t have the language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gene.' To prove that this statement is patently untrue is Benny Lewis's life missi<strong>on</strong>. A<br />
m<strong>on</strong>oglot till after leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g university, Benny now runs the World's most popular language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blog <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Egyptian Arabic which will be language number twelve, or maybe thirteen. But who's count<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?"<br />
On language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Sid Efromovich: 5 techniques to speak any language<br />
Polyglot expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s his approaches to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. His first rule: make sure you make mistakes<br />
ShaoLan: Learn to read Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese ... with ease!<br />
For foreigners, learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to speak Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese is a hard task. But learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to read the beautiful, often complex characters of the<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese written language may be less difficult. ShaoLan walks through a simple less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ideas beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the<br />
characters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from a few simple forms to more complex c<strong>on</strong>cepts. Call it Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>easy.<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>easy? Not Victor Mair (prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese language professor) <strong>on</strong> this approach (not a fan)<br />
Chris L<strong>on</strong>sdale: How to learn any language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> six m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
How he became fluent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
Victor Mair is skeptical: Fluency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> six m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
How I learned a language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 22 hours<br />
Article from the Guardian by Joshua Foer<br />
It's not easy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it takes time. Comments <strong>on</strong> Joshua Foer's article<br />
English as a world language<br />
What the World Will Speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2115<br />
Article from the Wall Street Journal by John McWhorter<br />
Jay Walker: The world's English mania<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Jay Walker expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s why two billi<strong>on</strong> people around the world are try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to learn English. He shares photos<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e-t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g audio of Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese students rehears<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English, 'the world's sec<strong>on</strong>d language', by the thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s."<br />
Jamila Lyiscott: 3 ways to speak English<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Jamila Lyiscott is a 'tri-t<strong>on</strong>gued orator;' <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her powerful spoken-word essay "Broken English," she<br />
celebrates — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> challenges — the three dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct flavors of English she speaks with her friends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with her<br />
parents. As she explores the complicated history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> present-day identity that each language represents, she unpacks what it<br />
means to be 'articulate'."<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
Patricia Ryan: D<strong>on</strong>'t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sist <strong>on</strong> English!<br />
☰<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In her talk, l<strong>on</strong>gtime English teacher Patricia Ryan asks a provocative questi<strong>on</strong>: Is the world's focus <strong>on</strong><br />
English prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the spread of great ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other languages? (For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance: what if E<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> had to pass the TOEFL?) It's a<br />
passi<strong>on</strong>ate defense of translat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ideas."<br />
Suzanne Talhouk: D<strong>on</strong>'t kill your language<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "More <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more, English is a global language; speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it is perceived as a sign of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g modern. But —<br />
what do we lose when we leave beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d our mother t<strong>on</strong>gues? Suzanne Talhouk makes an impassi<strong>on</strong>ed case to love your own<br />
language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to cherish what it can express that no other language can. In Arabic with subtitles."<br />
There Was No Committee<br />
Article by Geoffrey Pullum (from the L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua Franca blog) <strong>on</strong> the rise of English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> world-wide<br />
The speech accent archive<br />
Fasc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g archive of American English accents<br />
Play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity<br />
Trevor Noah - Live at the Apollo - L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
The South African comedian <strong>on</strong> his identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the role of languages<br />
Heta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Patel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yuyu Rau: Who am I? Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "How do we decide who we are? Heta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Patel's surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g performance plays with identity, language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
accent -- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> challenges you to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k deeper than surface appearances. A delightful meditati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> self, with performer Yuyu<br />
Rau, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spired by Bruce Lee."<br />
TED talks <strong>on</strong> endangered languages<br />
Wade Davis: Dreams from endangered cultures<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "With stunn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Geographic Explorer Wade Davis celebrates the extraord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
diversity of the world's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous cultures, which are disappear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the planet at an alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate."<br />
Mark Plotk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: What the people of the Amaz<strong>on</strong> know that you d<strong>on</strong>'t<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "'The greatest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most endangered species <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Amaz<strong>on</strong> ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forest is not the jaguar or the harpy eagle,'<br />
says Mark Plotk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 'It's the isolated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unc<strong>on</strong>tacted tribes.' In an energetic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sober<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g talk, the ethnobotanist br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs us <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
the world of the forest's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous tribes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>credible medic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al plants that their shamans use to heal. He outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the<br />
challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perils that are endanger<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their wisdom — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> urges us to protect this irreplaceable repository of<br />
knowledge."<br />
On the nature of TED talks<br />
Terry Moore: Why is 'x' the unknown?<br />
Why is 'x' the symbol for an unknown? In this short <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> funny talk, Terry Moore gives the surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g answer.<br />
Debunk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Terry Moore's TED talk<br />
The Sound of TED: A Case for Distaste<br />
The case for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skeptical of TED talks<br />
References<br />
Act<strong>on</strong>, W. (1984). Chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fossilized pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>. TESOL Quarterly, 18, (1), 71-85.<br />
Albert, M. L., & Obler, L. K. (1978). The bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Neuropsychological <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> neurol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic aspects of bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism.<br />
New York: Academic Press.<br />
Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, J. L. (1973). Speech acts. The Ed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>burgh Course <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Applied L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics, 1, 37-53.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 3.4.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48840
Campbell, Lyle (2010, August 24). "<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Isolates <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?". Annual Meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the<br />
Berkeley ☰ L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics Society, 36(1), 16–31.<br />
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CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
4: CONVERSING AND RELATING<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the complexity of language as related to human relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
Discuss different communicati<strong>on</strong> styles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> issues of gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language<br />
Know about theories related to communicati<strong>on</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong><br />
Discuss different sources of miscommunicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics of language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social c<strong>on</strong>texts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
4.1: COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE<br />
4.2: LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY<br />
4.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - CONVERSING AND RELATING ONLINE<br />
4.4: CONVERSING AND RELATING (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
4.1: Communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Practice<br />
Eden Jacobowitz is a student at the University of Pennsylvania. His studies were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupted by a noisy crowd of students, many black <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> female. He yelled out his<br />
w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dow, "Shut up, you water buffalo." He is now charged with racial harassment<br />
under the university's Code of C<strong>on</strong>duct. The school offered to dismiss the charge if he<br />
would apologize, attend a racial sensitivity sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar, agree to dormitory probati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accept a temporary mark <strong>on</strong> his record which would br<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> him as guilty. He was<br />
told the term "water buffalo" could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted as racist because a water buffalo is<br />
a dark primitive animal that lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa. That is questi<strong>on</strong>able semantics, dubious<br />
zoology, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct geography. Water buffalo live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asia, not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa. This from<br />
the University of Pennsylvania. Mr. Jacobowitz is fight<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g back. The rest of us,<br />
however, are still <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> trouble. The language police are at work <strong>on</strong> the campuses of our<br />
better schools. The word cops are march<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g under the banner of political correctness.<br />
The culture of victimizati<strong>on</strong> is hunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for quarry. American English is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> danger of<br />
los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its muscle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> energy. That's what these bozos are do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to us. (Kors &<br />
Silverglate, 1999).<br />
This is a commentary by US news anchor John Chancellor <strong>on</strong> NBC news. A number of North American universities have<br />
explicit "speech codes" which seek to regulate what is perceived as harmful or hateful speech. These policies have been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>troversial, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the restricti<strong>on</strong>s they place <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual freedom of speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fracti<strong>on</strong>s are dealt<br />
with. Eden Jacobowitz defended his use of the term "water buffalo" as not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to be a racial slur, but com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from<br />
Hebrew slang, behema (behemoth), used by Jews to refer to a loud, rowdy pers<strong>on</strong>. The charges aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Jacobowitz were<br />
eventually dropped. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident highlights the volatility of verbal exchanges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the opportunities for miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>flict, particularly between <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals from different ethnic or racial groups. In this unit we will be look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tergroup use. That will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude gender-related communicati<strong>on</strong> patterns, as well as cultural<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic issues as they relate to friendships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> romantic relati<strong>on</strong>ships. C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al exchanges will be discussed from<br />
the larger l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic c<strong>on</strong>text of speech communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> styles.<br />
Figure<br />
: Free speech: Speaker <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hyde Park, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><br />
<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Eelati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
Human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are social animals. We live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> community with others <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tend to see ourselves through the relati<strong>on</strong>ships we<br />
have. These relati<strong>on</strong>ships vary significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of importance, permanence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> roles. We have l<strong>on</strong>g-last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
with family members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> brief encounters with strangers; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> between are friends, schoolmates, work colleagues, romantic<br />
partners, Facebook "friends", Twitter followers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a host of other possible relati<strong>on</strong>ships. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how such<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships are established <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how significant a role they play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's life. Courtship practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mate selecti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
for example, can be quite different. In the US, men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women "go <strong>on</strong> dates" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it's likely that many Americans assume this<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
is a universal human c<strong>on</strong>cept. But <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reality this practice – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the whole idea of "dat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" as practiced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US – may be<br />
foreign, even to close cultural neighbors, such as Western Europeans.<br />
Figure<br />
: Courtship practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Michael Agar reports <strong>on</strong> his experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard. There is a set ritual around "dat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, which is different from<br />
how Western European Europeans establish male-female relati<strong>on</strong>ships, where mixed gender group out<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are preferred over<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e visits to a restaurant, movie, or club. In other cultures, dat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g might be seen as an even more foreign c<strong>on</strong>cept, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
countries where arranged marriages are the norm, for example. The term is tied so closely to specific cultural patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
US c<strong>on</strong>text that f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a precise equivalent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages other than American English is a challenge.<br />
But what is a date?<br />
<br />
Recently an Austrian friend of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e came to Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> to teach <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> study at Georgetown University. She could tack<br />
through English grammar with the best of them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had a better vocabulary than most of the native-born undergraduates<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> my lecture class. After a couple of m<strong>on</strong>ths I met her for d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asked her how everyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. "F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e," she<br />
said, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then, after a moment’s hesitati<strong>on</strong>, "But what is a ‘date’?" She knew how to use the word <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sentence – "I'm<br />
go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a date"; "How about a date?" She wasn’t c<strong>on</strong>fused because the word also means a number <strong>on</strong> a calendar or a<br />
sweet piece of fruit. But n<strong>on</strong>e of that expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed what a "date" was. I started to answer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the more I talked the more lost<br />
I became <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how Americans see men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women, how they see relati<strong>on</strong>ships, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timacy - a host of c<strong>on</strong>nected assumpti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that I’d never put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to words before. And I was <strong>on</strong>ly try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>le straight dates. It was quite different from her<br />
Austrian underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what they are to each other. For a while she looked at me as if I’d just<br />
stepped out of a fly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g saucer, until she f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally decided I was serious.<br />
Agar, 1994, p. 16<br />
The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of language we use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can vary as much as the nature of our relati<strong>on</strong>ship. We speak quite differently<br />
with family members, than we do with work colleagues. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal language used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> text messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is far removed from the<br />
formal register (language level/t<strong>on</strong>e) we might use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a letter apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for a job. Sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists study how we use<br />
language to accomplish tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to negotiate relati<strong>on</strong>ships. The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of language used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requests or express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
gratitude – what l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists call speech acts – can reveal quite a lot about the nature of our relati<strong>on</strong>ships. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al forms<br />
(i.e., "Could you please…") softens a request <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>text where politeness is called for to express respect or to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
harm<strong>on</strong>y. This tends to vary significantly across cultures. In some Asian cultures, for example, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g extensive use of<br />
"please" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "thank you" with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a family envir<strong>on</strong>ment is seen as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it creates distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expresses a sense<br />
of obligati<strong>on</strong> that is counter to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, car<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human relati<strong>on</strong>ship (D'Souza, 1988). The role that language plays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs is complex. It not <strong>on</strong>ly c<strong>on</strong>veys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, but it also serves to build <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships. It can also divide<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> antag<strong>on</strong>ize, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the example of the "water buffalo" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cident.<br />
We tend to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of communicati<strong>on</strong> as send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g messages (Rogers & Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt, 1999). Spoken messages,<br />
however, may not have the same degree of efficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> transmissi<strong>on</strong> as written communicati<strong>on</strong>s. A letter usually will have<br />
clearly understood c<strong>on</strong>tent. In speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the message may not be received <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the way we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tend. There may be specific<br />
language issues which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the recepti<strong>on</strong> of the message. These may be both <strong>on</strong> the speaker's end — talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g too fast or<br />
too quietly, for example,– or <strong>on</strong> the listener's side – knowledge gaps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>attenti<strong>on</strong>, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance. In speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, we<br />
need to pay attenti<strong>on</strong> not <strong>on</strong>ly to the c<strong>on</strong>tent of what we are say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but also to how we are transmitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that c<strong>on</strong>tent. That<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of our mode of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but also of the likely communicative abilities of our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor. From that<br />
perspective, communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effectively depends <strong>on</strong> our ability to establish a relati<strong>on</strong>ship with the other pers<strong>on</strong>:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
Successful ‘communicati<strong>on</strong>’ is not judged solely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the efficiency of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> exchange. It is focused <strong>on</strong><br />
establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships. In this sense, the efficacy of communicati<strong>on</strong> depends up<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language to<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strate <strong>on</strong>e’s will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to relate, which often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>directness of politeness rather than the direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘efficient’<br />
choice of language full of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> (Byram, 1997, p.3).<br />
In other words, we need to take <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account how our messages are likely to be received, based <strong>on</strong> the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> style <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> styles<br />
Social scientists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists have been study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for some time how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract through language, both<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> between languages. They have sought to discover how <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why language uses vary. One of the<br />
pi<strong>on</strong>eers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area was Basil Bernste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, who found through his research that "with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same society there can be different<br />
social groups or social classes whose communicative practices differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> important ways" (Philipsen & Albrecht, 1997, p. 122).<br />
In the US, for example, there are dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech patterns between African-Americans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> European-Americans.<br />
Bernste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1964) described two essential patterns of speech, which he labeled elaborated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> restricted codes. Elaborated<br />
code refers to c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which virtually all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>veyed through the words spoken. Some<strong>on</strong>e overhear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor or the c<strong>on</strong>text would nevertheless be able to have a good<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the communicati<strong>on</strong> tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g place. Restricted code, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, refers to c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, if overheard,<br />
would not be understood because of a lack of background <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
These different modes of communicati<strong>on</strong> are often placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally made by Edward Hall (1976)<br />
between low-c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high-c<strong>on</strong>text communicati<strong>on</strong>s. In low-c<strong>on</strong>text messages, little (or "low") c<strong>on</strong>text is needed for<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> because the essence of the communicati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>veyed by the words used. That might at first blush seem to<br />
cover all human c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. But <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, there are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which much of the message is c<strong>on</strong>veyed by gestures (like<br />
bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), body language (mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away from the speaker), or through the t<strong>on</strong>e of voice (yell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). High-c<strong>on</strong>text messages refer<br />
to situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which factors other than the actual words used may be vital to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. There can be c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g groups where silence is valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> itself sends a message (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Native American cultures, for example) or where<br />
hierarchies dictate social behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. While specific cultures are often identified as high or low c<strong>on</strong>text, it's more<br />
useful to apply such labels to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> specific c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
High-c<strong>on</strong>text messages generally align with restricted speech codes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that a lot of verbiage is unnecessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, what is<br />
not said may be as important as what is explicitly expressed. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, elaborated code is needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> low-c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s where little <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>veyed by n<strong>on</strong>verbal means. Restricted codes are most often associated with cultures<br />
labeled collectivistic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the status of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractants dictates who says what to whom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how it is said. Restricted<br />
codes are also often found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "closed" communities such as the military or pris<strong>on</strong>, but can also develop with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any social group<br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual who share social identificati<strong>on</strong>s, i.e. am<strong>on</strong>g spouses, coworkers, or fraternity brothers. People who spend a lot of<br />
time together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably develop shorth<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways of communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In some cases, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
gangs or religious cults, a specific verbal code may be developed to further group cohesi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exclude outsiders.<br />
Interacti<strong>on</strong>s between c<strong>on</strong>versants us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g oppos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speech modes can lead to misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or c<strong>on</strong>flict. L<strong>on</strong>g pauses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> may be normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts, but can be uncomfortable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others. A study by Stivers et<br />
al. (2009) compared ten languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how l<strong>on</strong>g it took native speaker to resp<strong>on</strong>d to a yes/no questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> found differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the average gap before answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Jump<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to end awkward pauses may limit the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s<br />
ability to speak or to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al topics. Different cultural traditi<strong>on</strong>s may have different expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of<br />
turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or the acceptability of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In Mediterranean countries, for example, it's comm<strong>on</strong> to hear overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
utterances; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Northern European countries, there's a greater likelihood that c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al turns end before some<strong>on</strong>e else<br />
speaks. North American l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Deborah Tannen (1984) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to regi<strong>on</strong>al differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g between New Yorkers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Californians dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. The former speak fast with no pauses:<br />
The result is that the East Coast speakers c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ually take the floor, the West Coast<br />
participants wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> va<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> for a pause they deem l<strong>on</strong>g enough for them to start<br />
talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Whereas the ‘fast’ speakers th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k that the others have noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to say, the<br />
‘slow’ <strong>on</strong>es feel that they are not given a chance to talk (Günther, 2007, p. 132).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
The New Yorkers' turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rules reflect their way of show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>, while this is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted by<br />
the Californians as rudeness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a reluctance to let others speak.<br />
Speech communities can also vary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how direct speakers are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views. In some cultures, speakers may hide their<br />
real <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent or pers<strong>on</strong>al op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>, by, for example, giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an ambiguous or mislead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resp<strong>on</strong>se to a request or to a yes-no<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>. This may occur out of feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of respect, politeness, or war<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct verbal behavior is often associated<br />
with Asian cultures. The Japanese versi<strong>on</strong> of "yes" (Hai ) does not necessarily mean "yes" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sense of agree<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It is used often to equivocate, to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate to the speaker that you are listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but not necessary express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an<br />
affirmati<strong>on</strong>. Other cultures prefer an explicit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> overt verbal style. Germans, for example, are often given as an example of a<br />
direct speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g style, with a reputati<strong>on</strong> of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blunt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t. An awareness of different c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al styles can be<br />
helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al faux-pas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hurt feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Cauti<strong>on</strong> is needed, however, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g universally to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals generic speech patterns. Individual speakers may have developed their own habits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences which differ<br />
from those of others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that particular cultural group:<br />
We must be cautious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not assume that every<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular part of the world<br />
behaves <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways. For example, not all Japanese favour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct styles of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, just as not all Germans have a very direct style of communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Not all Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess executives prefer a formal style of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, just as not all American executives adopt an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal style <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. The degree of directness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> formality may vary am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
(Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2014, p. 95).<br />
It is also the case that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals may well alter communicati<strong>on</strong> styles to adjust to c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
partners.<br />
Figure<br />
: In the US there have been c<strong>on</strong>flicts between Korean store-keepers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> African-American customers<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> styles may derive from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g members of ethnic groups with different<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> styles. In <strong>on</strong>e study of an immigrant Korean shopkeeper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an African-American customer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Los Angeles,<br />
the clash of styles is evident (Bailey, 1997). In a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> Bailey analyzes, the African-American customer uses a "high<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement style", featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>al language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effort to establish a pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to the Korean<br />
shopkeeper. He uses swear words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> volunteers pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about himself. The shopkeeper, however, rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
detached <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impers<strong>on</strong>al, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unsatisfy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. This is not unusual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such encounters, as Bailey<br />
comments:<br />
<br />
The seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g avoidance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <strong>on</strong> the part of immigrant Koreans is frequently<br />
seen by African Americans as the disda<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrogance of racism. The relative stress<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement am<strong>on</strong>g African Americans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> service encounters is<br />
typically perceived by immigrant Korean retailers as a sign of selfishness,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al impositi<strong>on</strong>, or poor breed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Bailey, 1997, p. 353).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
Such clashes are not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frequent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> service encounters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess transacti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world. C<strong>on</strong>flicts may be<br />
related to different communicati<strong>on</strong> styles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> given situati<strong>on</strong>s. The extent to which <strong>on</strong>e engages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small<br />
talk <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such c<strong>on</strong>texts, for example, varies significantly. Customers, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the example above, may engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small talk as<br />
a way to establish a pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>, but that may not be reciprocated.<br />
Figure<br />
: Small talk plays different roles across cultures<br />
In some c<strong>on</strong>texts, such as at the workplace, small talk may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve a power negotiati<strong>on</strong>. In c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ates,<br />
higher-ups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the company may decide to what extent engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small talk is acceptable or encouraged. Engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> humor<br />
or tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g jokes can be equally problematic across cultures. Humor depends <strong>on</strong> cultural c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relies<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderably <strong>on</strong> the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic ability of a listener. As a result, jokes often do not work when transferred from <strong>on</strong>e culture or<br />
language to another. Here aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social or ec<strong>on</strong>omic hierarchies may come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to play, with those higher up the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
ladder enjoy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the privilege of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g jokes, which may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate for subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ates (Dwyer, 1991).<br />
<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same society, there can be quite different speech patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal behaviors. In different situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<br />
different people, how we use language may vary c<strong>on</strong>siderably. How <strong>on</strong>e speaks can also depend <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e's gender. Gerry<br />
Philipsen's l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>mark study <strong>on</strong> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "like a man," <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "Teamsterville" (his code name for a blue-collar, low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come<br />
neighborhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chicago) illustrates that (1975). He discovered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his research that there were clearly def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed patterns of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community.<br />
Figure<br />
: Talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g like a man <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Teamsterville<br />
In his study, Philipsen describes the c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which high volumes of speech am<strong>on</strong>g men are expected, namely when<br />
c<strong>on</strong>gregated <strong>on</strong> street corners or at local bars. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, a high quantity of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there is a hierarchical or social distance between the speakers. These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude relati<strong>on</strong>ships with a wife,<br />
child, boss, outsider, or men of different ethnicity. In some situati<strong>on</strong>s, Teamsterville men's verbal code calls for no speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at<br />
all, but rather silence, n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior, or even violent acti<strong>on</strong>s (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sults, for example). The study<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strates the different verbal styles assigned to different c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trasts the speech patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Chicago bluecolor<br />
neighborhood with others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US:<br />
<br />
In Teamsterville, talk is negatively valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many of the very situati<strong>on</strong>s for which<br />
other American communities most highly prize speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is a<br />
culturally prized resource for male role enactment by black Americans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban<br />
ghettos; the black man who speaks as a strategy for deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with outsiders or females<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
is enact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the male role appropriately accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of his speech<br />
community. The white collar man who can “talk th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs through” with his wife, child,<br />
or boss is us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally sancti<strong>on</strong>ed ways. (p. 21)<br />
This is a sampl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of different speech communities just with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the USA. Mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d the US borders, <strong>on</strong>e can appreciate<br />
the immense diversity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech behaviors worldwide, po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the rich opportunities for miscommunicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g like a man <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Teamsterville<br />
Teamsterville’s cultural (i.e., shared, tacit) underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about the value of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are sharply def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> susceptible<br />
of discovery, although they are not written down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> native treatises <strong>on</strong> effective communicati<strong>on</strong>, nor can native <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formants<br />
necessarily verbalize them. One manifestati<strong>on</strong> of cultural outlook is the local view of the appropriateness of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
versus other acti<strong>on</strong>al strategies (such as silence, violence, or n<strong>on</strong>-verbal threats) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> male role enactment or selfpresentati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how well a man performs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a manly way is a pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal criteri<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Teamsterville for judg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
whether his behavior is appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> proper to the social identity, “male.” Manl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess is a theme of much neighborhood<br />
talk about self <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Teamsterville man is aware that his social performances will be judged frequently as to<br />
their manl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. To know how to perform, or present <strong>on</strong>eself, “like a man” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Teamsterville as elsewhere is to be privy to<br />
implicit underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs shared by members of the speech community, i.e., it is to have access to the culture.<br />
Philipsen (1975), pp. 13-14.<br />
Philipsen's study dem<strong>on</strong>strated how Teamsterville men adapted their communicati<strong>on</strong> style (amount of speech, emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement, n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior) to the c<strong>on</strong>text of the encounter (physical locati<strong>on</strong>, gender/age/ethnicity/social status of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versant). One is likely to be more aware of the necessity of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of adjustments if <strong>on</strong>e is abroad. That may<br />
mean, of course, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a different language, but it could also mean, adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicative habits. A Japanese woman who<br />
lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mexico for a number of years reported <strong>on</strong> changes she found to be necessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her communicati<strong>on</strong> style (see sidebar).<br />
The changes described here can be challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, both l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>ally. Part of the difficulty is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such cases<br />
there are no written norms to go by. One learns through experience, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mistakes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> outcomes of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. One of the benefits of such an approach is that <strong>on</strong>e comes to learn about <strong>on</strong>e's own communicati<strong>on</strong> style, as the<br />
Japanese woman <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case became c<strong>on</strong>scious of her "childish" speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g voice. That k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of awareness is crucial to the<br />
ability to make adjustments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters, which will make communicati<strong>on</strong> more effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> satisfy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for both<br />
sides.<br />
Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g like a woman <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mexico<br />
First th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g I noticed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mexico is the difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the types of voice we use. In Japanese society, especially young<br />
women, use a relatively high pitch voice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tend to speak somehow ‘childish’. ‘Childish’ behaviour of a woman, not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly the type of voice but also her behaviour itself, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered as someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ‘cute’ or ‘favourable’, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> very widely<br />
accepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our society. In Mexican society, however, they use a lower <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deeper t<strong>on</strong>e of voice than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan; it is<br />
required for both men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> act as ‘adult pers<strong>on</strong>’, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> every sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> naturally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In Mexican society, to use a childish voice, as many Japanese women do, could be a disadvantage, not someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
‘favourable’, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g so it is possible that you will not be treated properly. After a couple of m<strong>on</strong>th[s] of y liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Mexico I noticed about this fact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> started to try us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of voice, deeper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> softer <strong>on</strong>e, so that I am<br />
treated as an adult pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Hua, 2014, p. 224<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
Communicati<strong>on</strong> Accommodati<strong>on</strong><br />
In accommodat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our communicati<strong>on</strong> style to our c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partner, we tend to make adjustments automatically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
naturally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unc<strong>on</strong>scious effort to make ourselves better understood. Our efforts are likely to be most successful if we have<br />
some awareness of both our own culturally-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced approach to communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the nature of the speech<br />
community of the pers<strong>on</strong> with whom we are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Indeed, social scientists have studied ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which speech<br />
communities differ, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they also have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated comm<strong>on</strong> strategies for overcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those differences. One of the<br />
approaches that is widely known is the communicati<strong>on</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong> theory, developed by Howard Giles (1973; Street &<br />
Giles, 1982). It describes the ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which people adjust their speech, vocal patterns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures to accommodate others.<br />
Giles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his colleagues found that people use a variety of changes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate of speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, patterns of paus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
length of utterances, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of gestures, facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> body language. It assumes that such accommodati<strong>on</strong> varies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its degree of appropriateness.<br />
The theory postulates two ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accommodati<strong>on</strong> processes, c<strong>on</strong>vergence – adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the extent possible the other's<br />
communicative behaviors – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divergence – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the differences are acknowledged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. A third opti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves not mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any adjustments at all. In most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of cross-cultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>vergence is<br />
recommended, i.e., listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g actively for how the other pers<strong>on</strong> is communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
behavior accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a n<strong>on</strong>-native speaker, for example, might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the use of slang, avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>alisms or country-specific references, slow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rate of speech, articulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g clearly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or simplify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocabulary.<br />
Helpful as well is the use of affirm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>verbal gestures such as nodd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. C<strong>on</strong>vergent behaviors are normally<br />
positively received by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor, which tends to make c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s run more smoothly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generate positive feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<strong>on</strong> both sides. This can reduce social distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tribute to a sense of solidarity (Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2014). The process of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d language aids development of the awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the importance of communicati<strong>on</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong>, as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
experiences <strong>on</strong>eself the difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with more proficient speakers of the target language.<br />
There are situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which divergence is appropriate, for example, when there is a significant gap <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social status or power<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship. Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <strong>on</strong>e's physician, for example, might be a c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which c<strong>on</strong>vergence is unlikely. An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview<br />
situati<strong>on</strong> might also be such a case. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural situati<strong>on</strong>s, the degree of power distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture represented by <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partner may play a role as well. In cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which social hierarchies are acknowledged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accepted, it is<br />
normal practice to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> divergence, for example, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g respectful language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior with elders or socially<br />
highly-placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
For the most part, people engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>vergence with good <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to facilitate communicati<strong>on</strong> across different<br />
communicative styles. However, it is possible to go too far <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accommodat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the other speaker, a process known as<br />
overaccommodati<strong>on</strong> (Street & Giles, 1982). This might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve oversimplify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's speech, exaggerat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g enunciati<strong>on</strong>, or<br />
slow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g excessively the rate of speech. One example is the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of "baby talk" caregivers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nurs<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g homes might use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with their elderly patients, sometimes labeled "elderspeak" (Kemper, 1994). Overaccommodati<strong>on</strong> can be patr<strong>on</strong>iz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> demean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can detract from communicative effectiveness. There is also the phenomen<strong>on</strong> known as "<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tergroup<br />
overaccommodati<strong>on</strong>", <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which particular groups are treated based <strong>on</strong> general stereotypes, rather than members be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g treated<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
as unique <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals (Gallois, Ogay & Giles, 2005). That might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ments based <strong>on</strong><br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong>s that every<strong>on</strong>e liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g there – <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a US <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner-city or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a French banlieu, for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance – is socially <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior.<br />
Another perspective <strong>on</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong> is offered by New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sociol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Alan Bell, who emphasizes<br />
the free agency of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partners:<br />
We do not always speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistently the same way. In fact we are shift<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the way<br />
we speak c<strong>on</strong>stantly as we move from <strong>on</strong>e situati<strong>on</strong> to another. On different occasi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
we talk <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different ways. These different ways of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g carry different social<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. They represent our ability to take up different social positi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they<br />
affect how we are perceived by others (Bell, 2007, p. 95).<br />
Bell’s c<strong>on</strong>cept of speech style aligns with c<strong>on</strong>temporary views <strong>on</strong> identity formati<strong>on</strong> which emphasize the idea of<br />
"transportable identities," as we take <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e of an array of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic subject positi<strong>on</strong>s accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>text (Van De Mieroop & Clift<strong>on</strong>, 2012). At the same time, power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hierarchical relati<strong>on</strong>ships may limit<br />
the extent to which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals can enact particular identity positi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Accommodati<strong>on</strong> will often be necessary for native speakers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> with n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers. The extent of that<br />
accommodati<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text (type <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>, locati<strong>on</strong>, respective social positi<strong>on</strong>s) as well as <strong>on</strong><br />
the proficiency level of the speaker. In multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual envir<strong>on</strong>ments, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which n<strong>on</strong>-native English speakers are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, there may be different dynamics at work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsequently different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of accommodati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that occur. In such "l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s", participants may will differ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual language proficiencies.<br />
Studies have shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these situati<strong>on</strong>s, there is typically a str<strong>on</strong>g cooperative element (Meierkord, 2000), as participants<br />
use a variety of n<strong>on</strong>verbal means (smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, gestur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paral<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic devices (laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, paus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g frequently) to smooth<br />
over possible verbal miscues. The nature of such c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s stresses communicative efficiency over l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic accuracy<br />
(Ehrenreich, 2010). These k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of exchanges occur more frequently today, particularly am<strong>on</strong>g n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers of English.<br />
They also occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
Uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty management<br />
When we encounter some<strong>on</strong>e for the first time, we are likely to form op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> very little c<strong>on</strong>crete <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
such situati<strong>on</strong>s, we tend to use what little knowledge we do have to place the pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a particular category, based <strong>on</strong> age,<br />
appearance, name, or other observable or known characteristics. Optimally, we approach the stranger with an open m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
an awareness that the stereotypes we have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our heads may not fit this particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. In any case, the paucity of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> we have about the other pers<strong>on</strong> can lead to uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <strong>on</strong> our part, possibly generat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of nervousness or<br />
anxiety, due to the unpredictability of the encounter. This is particularly the case when meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e from a different<br />
culture. Charles Bergen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Richard Calabrese (1975) developed an approach to communicati<strong>on</strong> called uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
theory. Their fundamental assumpti<strong>on</strong> is that when strangers meet, our primary goal is to reduce uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
predictability.<br />
Figure<br />
: Anxiety is comm<strong>on</strong>ly associated with uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-ty<br />
<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to this theory, uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty reducti<strong>on</strong> can be both proactive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> retroactive. Proactively, we can take measures such<br />
as decid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to adjust our speech based <strong>on</strong> the expectati<strong>on</strong> that the pers<strong>on</strong> may not be a native speaker of our language. In that<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
case, we may elect to use a language register accessible to n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers. Retroactively, we can analyze an encounter to<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unexpected behavior, based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed through the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> or from external sources. If, for example,<br />
the other pers<strong>on</strong> avoided eye c<strong>on</strong>tact, that might be a result of pers<strong>on</strong>al shyness, but it could also be cultural, an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended signal<br />
of respect or recogniti<strong>on</strong> of social st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. One might also c<strong>on</strong>sider the fact that those from high-c<strong>on</strong>text cultures tend to be<br />
more cautious <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what they talk about with strangers. Those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals accustomed to high-c<strong>on</strong>text communicati<strong>on</strong> might also<br />
feel uncomfortable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> not hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> important to that communicative style, namely the social,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al, or ec<strong>on</strong>omic status of the other pers<strong>on</strong>, as well as the family background. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, if <strong>on</strong>e is more used to lowc<strong>on</strong>text<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, it is more likely that <strong>on</strong>e would have the tendency to ask a lot of questi<strong>on</strong>s to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, rather<br />
than focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior or social identity.<br />
Another researcher, William Gudykunst, developed this approach further through what he called anxiety/uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty<br />
management (1988). This theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates the c<strong>on</strong>cept of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dfulness. M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dfulness refers to the extent to which we are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>scious of our attitudes, behavior, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> judgments. Rather than rely<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> automatic resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of categorizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful behavior explicitly addresses the unique experience of an encounter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> makes adjustments as<br />
appropriate. Gudykunst po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that to be m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful, people must recognize that strangers may have quite different<br />
perspectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative approaches. We can't assume that our messages will necessarily be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted as we mean<br />
them to be. Instead, <strong>on</strong>e needs to negotiate mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with strangers, adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our perspective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language to what is needed<br />
for effective communicati<strong>on</strong>. If we ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rigid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flexible categorizati<strong>on</strong>s, our uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anxiety will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> will break down.<br />
Sources of miscommunicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s can derive from a wide variety of sources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>s. In cross-cultural encounters,<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a fundamental knowledge of the language is a necessary but not sufficient c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> for effective communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocabulary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammar, as well as ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> written communicati<strong>on</strong> provide the basic tools<br />
for communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. But what needs to accompany these essential build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g blocks is knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
language is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real-life situati<strong>on</strong>s. This is true even of speakers of the same language who speak<br />
different language varieties. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> pragmatics highlights the social c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which members of a community use<br />
language for specific communicative purposes. How <strong>on</strong>e appropriately makes requests, issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong>s, or extends pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
complements can vary significantly. There are large number of approaches for explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what speakers "do" with words, what<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s ensue, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how listeners resp<strong>on</strong>d. One of the challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area is that, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic fields such as<br />
syntax, ph<strong>on</strong>ology, or semantics, there are no hard-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-fast rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of language use. Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
pragmatics happens through observati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong>. Children are socialized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to appropriate language use, which<br />
becomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large part a matter of implicit or unc<strong>on</strong>scious knowledge, an awareness of a set of unwritten rules for a given<br />
community.<br />
One of the issues that that can arise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> is what is known as pragmatic transfer. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce pragmatic<br />
language use is deeply <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior, speech acts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other manifestati<strong>on</strong>s of culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language are<br />
regularly transferred by speakers from their native language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a sec<strong>on</strong>d language. If we are used to see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g particular<br />
languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given situati<strong>on</strong>, our natural expectati<strong>on</strong> is to see that repeated, even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different locales. That<br />
might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e as an offer of coffee after a meal, which, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sidebar, might not have<br />
the expected significance. In this example of the offer of coffee, the difficulty does not lie <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the<br />
words, but rather with the cultural significance of the offer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the particular c<strong>on</strong>text of hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a meal at a friend's home. The<br />
example po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the reas<strong>on</strong>s for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of pragmatic transfer, as it can lead to awkwardness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
miscommunicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
An offer of coffee: what does it really mean?<br />
In some cultures an offer of coffee after a meal is generally recognized as a polite way to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate to the guests that they<br />
ought to leave so<strong>on</strong> if they do not wish to outstay their welcome. In other cultures, an offer of coffee <strong>on</strong> a similar occasi<strong>on</strong><br />
is just an act of the host's k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness (or even an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong> to the guests to stay a little bit l<strong>on</strong>ger than they had <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended). If<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractants from different cultural backgrounds are unaware of the differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their respective mental sets,<br />
misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are likely to occur. Misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of this sort <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve the carryover of culture-specific knowledge<br />
from a situati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tra-cultural communicati<strong>on</strong> to a situati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.9 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
Žegarac & Penn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, 2000, p. 169<br />
Pragmatic failure often derives from errors which can be traced to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put of <strong>on</strong>e's native language <strong>on</strong> the use of a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language. We may not be aware of the pragmatic or emoti<strong>on</strong>al value that roughly equivalent expressi<strong>on</strong>s carry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another<br />
language. Native speakers of Russian, for example, may use the expressi<strong>on</strong> "of course" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pragmatically<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate ways as, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exchange between a native English speaker (A) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a native Russian speaker (B):<br />
A: Is it a good restaurant?<br />
B: Of course [Gloss (for Russian speaker): Yes, (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed) it is. For English listener: what a stupid questi<strong>on</strong>!]<br />
Thomas, 1983, p. 102<br />
The Russian word k<strong>on</strong>esco (конечно) has the same dicti<strong>on</strong>ary def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> as English "of course" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is used, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate agreement or acceptance. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts, the English phrase refers to someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g obvious. The<br />
use of the phrase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text above could be perceived as peremptory or possibly even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, which was certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly not the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent of the speaker.<br />
Swear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English<br />
I very rarely swear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nish but ‘oh shit’ or ‘fuck’ can easily escape my mouth even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> quite trivial occasi<strong>on</strong>s - they just<br />
do not feel that serious to my (or my hearers’) ears, even though I know they would sound quite horrible to a native<br />
speaker (milder English swear words like ‘damn’ for example do not even sound like swear words to me). If I would<br />
happen to hit myself with a hammer the words com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out of my mouth would def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itely be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nish.<br />
Dewaele, 2004, p. 213<br />
An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance where cauti<strong>on</strong> is m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of swearwords. These have a str<strong>on</strong>g emoti<strong>on</strong>al value, which for n<strong>on</strong>-native<br />
speakers may not transfer (see sidebar). Recent research <strong>on</strong> multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gualism (Paulenko, 2005; Dewaele, 2010) has shown that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, multil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual speakers may make language choices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> code-switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g based <strong>on</strong> the emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
import that expressi<strong>on</strong>s carry <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular language.<br />
In this area, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all matters perta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to cultural values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors, care is needed to avoid overgeneralizati<strong>on</strong>. While<br />
there may be identifiable patterns of social behavior related to language with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community, that does not necessarily mean<br />
that a given behavior will be replicated by each member of the community. It is helpful to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
pragmatic transfer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other cultural-l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic awkwardness occurs as rich po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters, namely<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we do not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the source of c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> or c<strong>on</strong>flict (Agar, 1994). Such rich po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts can be<br />
explored for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about social expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typical behaviors, but also for underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual perspectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
deviati<strong>on</strong>s. Rather than automatically characteriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents as culturally stereotypical, cultural anthropologists encourage<br />
the use of thick descripti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidents, that is, go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d the surface manifestati<strong>on</strong>s to discover deeper mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> flesh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out the full cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts of what occurred (Bennett, 1998). The example often given is<br />
the significance of a w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k:<br />
The same physical act of some<strong>on</strong>e "rapidly rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lower<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their right eyelid"<br />
could be a nervous twitch, a deliberate w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k to attract attenti<strong>on</strong> or communicate with<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e, or an imitati<strong>on</strong> or mockery of some<strong>on</strong>e else with a nervous twitch or<br />
w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It all depends <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text, the aims of pers<strong>on</strong> the perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the acti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how these were understood by others (Knowles, 2011).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.10 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
A "th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> descripti<strong>on</strong>" would record <strong>on</strong>ly the physical act <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thereby not be very <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative. The idea is to look further than<br />
the stock, stereotypical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> try to discover the true mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of observed phenomena.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.1.11 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42978
4.2: <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society<br />
Culturally Embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
One of the tools for work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out the cultural undercurrents present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal exchanges is c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> analysis. Scholars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this area look at real speech as recorded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video, which is then transcribed. Exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g transcribed c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
reveals how different actual speech is from the model dialogues supplied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language textbooks. Real-life language use is<br />
typically a complex set of stops <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> starts, not the orderly, logical back-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-forth exchange of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e might assume.<br />
Sets of transcribed c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, such as represented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the British Nati<strong>on</strong>al Corpus <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other language corpora (organized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyzed collecti<strong>on</strong>s of texts), have shown that real language use is "often messy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> untidy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> embedded deeply <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultural underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of various k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds" (Carter, 1998, p. 48). Carter (1998) provides the example of a brief exchange <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a fish<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chips shop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>:<br />
[In a fish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chip shop]<br />
A: Can I have chips, beans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sausage?<br />
B: Chips, beans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sausage.<br />
A: Yeah.<br />
B: Wrapped up?<br />
A: Open, please (p. 48, taken from the British Nati<strong>on</strong>al Corpus)<br />
Carter po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the cultural significance here of the word "open" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oppositi<strong>on</strong> to "wrapped up"; it "carries<br />
a specific cultural mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of food be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g served <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> paper so that it can be eaten immediately, even perhaps while walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
home" (p. 48). The exchange is short <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t; it is transacti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature, i.e. related to gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>crete<br />
accomplished through language, namely buy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner. Full sentences are not used, but rather abbreviated forms, called<br />
ellipsis or elliptical c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>s. The evidence provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language corpora show this to be very comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> everyday<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. Carter po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of bareb<strong>on</strong>es exchange is appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this particular c<strong>on</strong>text as "anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al would be out of place because there are normally l<strong>on</strong>g queues of hungry customers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the shop"<br />
(p. 49). However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other service encounters — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many everyday c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s – it is likely that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al elements<br />
will play a significant role, mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d transacti<strong>on</strong>al language through the additi<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affective language.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> analysis has also revealed that there tend to be repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g patterns, namely certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
turn tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se. They have also identified adjacency pairs (also called "fram<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pairs") that generally<br />
occur together, such as compliment – resp<strong>on</strong>se, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong> – acceptance, greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g – greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In English, the greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "How are<br />
you" is normally followed by the formulaic "F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, thanks", while a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is signaled by a pair of utterances,<br />
such as "I’ve got to go" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "OK, see you later". While there are likely to be many variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the specific language<br />
used, the pattern of supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resp<strong>on</strong>se to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> of an adjacency pair is a social norm. Not do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g so may<br />
cause awkwardness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> or can even be c<strong>on</strong>sidered rude. British philosopher of language Paul Grice (1975)<br />
identified such c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al practices as part of what he termed the "cooperative pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciple", that is, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social practice<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech which is cooperative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> characterized by c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al usage.<br />
While the patterns are typical across many languages, the specifics of such speech can be quite different. The field of crosscultural<br />
pragmatics studies how that works out <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice across cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> languages. The culturally embedded nature of<br />
language po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge that go bey<strong>on</strong>d purely<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic competence, i.e. grammar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary. Pragmal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic competence is needed, the ability to use language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culturally appropriate ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech acts like requests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apologies (Grice, 1975). Also<br />
needed is sociopragmatic competence, know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what is appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular speech community. That might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
issues such as politeness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respect for social c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s such as taboo topics (Gilmore, 2011).<br />
Cultural schemas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scripts<br />
A speech act such as a compliment may be received <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a very different manner, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the cultural traditi<strong>on</strong> or cultural<br />
schema, i.e., the expected language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior based <strong>on</strong> experience (Nishida, 1999). The cultural schema or cultural model<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
(Qu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n & Holl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1987) provide guides to behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular c<strong>on</strong>texts. The c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> below between an Iranian<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an Australian teacher illustrates a mismatch <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural schemas.<br />
Lecturer: I heard you’ve w<strong>on</strong> a prestigious award. C<strong>on</strong>gratulati<strong>on</strong>s! This is fantastic.<br />
Student: Thanks so much. I haven’t d<strong>on</strong>e anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. It is the result of your effort <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> your knowledge. I owe it all to you.<br />
Lecturer: Oh, No!!! D<strong>on</strong>’t be ridiculous. It’s all your work.<br />
Sharifian, 2005, pp. 337-338<br />
The professor sees the situati<strong>on</strong> as an example of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual merit but accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the researcher, the Iranian student draws <strong>on</strong><br />
the Persian traditi<strong>on</strong> of shekasteh-nafsi, which "motivates the speakers to downplay their talents, skills, achievements, etc ....<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also encourages the speakers to reassign the compliment to the giver of the compliment, a family member, a friend, or<br />
another associate" (Sharifian, 2005, p. 337). Giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g compliments is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> which can unfold differently<br />
across cultures. It's not uncomm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-Western cultures, for compliments to be deflected, rather than accepted.<br />
Social situati<strong>on</strong>s which normally call forth normalized behavior us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stock language practices are sometimes referred to as<br />
cultural scripts (Yule, 2008). One learns these "scripts" — ways of act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — through observati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
experience. Jacks<strong>on</strong> (2014) gives the example of the expected cultural script for visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a public bath <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan (see sidebar).<br />
One learns cultural scripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> norms associated with certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>texts through enculturati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socializati<strong>on</strong>. This is a gradual<br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>es own cultural upbr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is largely unc<strong>on</strong>scious. While cultural scripts offer important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to local<br />
practices, they should not be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted as prescriptive:<br />
A cultural script is not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended as a descripti<strong>on</strong> of actual behaviour, but as a<br />
depicti<strong>on</strong> of shared assumpti<strong>on</strong>s about how people th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Individuals may or may not follow the cultural guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es; they may follow them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
some situati<strong>on</strong>s but not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others; they may defy, subvert or play with them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various<br />
ways; but even those who reject or defy culturally endorsed modes of th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
modes of acti<strong>on</strong> are n<strong>on</strong>etheless aware of them (Goddard, 2004, pp. 7-8).<br />
Visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a bath house <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan<br />
In Tokyo, for example, a visit to a public bath house (sentō) might start with the payment of an entrance fee to the<br />
attendant, followed by disrob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a change room that is reserved for members of <strong>on</strong>e’s sex. Then, <strong>on</strong>e may sit <strong>on</strong> a stool<br />
near faucets where <strong>on</strong>e washes <strong>on</strong>eself. It is <strong>on</strong>ly after <strong>on</strong>e is thoroughly clean that <strong>on</strong>e steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the communal bath<br />
(same sex), which is usually quite hot. One may chat with other bathers or simply relax <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> silence. After soak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <strong>on</strong>e gets<br />
out of the water, r<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ses, dries off, gets dressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> heads home. Embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this schema are noti<strong>on</strong>s of what is proper <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this c<strong>on</strong>text. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals who are new to the sentō <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not used to public nudity, this may be a shock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g event! A trip<br />
to a public bath house <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other parts of the world (e.g. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Germany, Hungary, South Korea, Turkey) would not be<br />
the same experience due, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part, to different ‘event sequences’ or procedures that stem from variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> etiquette<br />
(norms of politeness) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes towards such aspects as sex, nudity, cleanl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> (2014), p. 59<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
One may be aware of expected behaviors, or language used, but for pers<strong>on</strong>al, philosophical, political or religious reas<strong>on</strong>s not<br />
act accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s. Whether that is associated with any social sancti<strong>on</strong>s will depend <strong>on</strong> the particular<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text (Mosby, 2009).<br />
Gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
If, as the Teamsterville study dem<strong>on</strong>strated, there are speech habits identifiable for men <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
milieux, there are also patterns of communicati<strong>on</strong> often identified with women. It's frequently claimed that women, at least <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the US, use language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a more deferential <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-effac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g manner than is typically the case for male speech. The use of<br />
ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> at the end of sentences (not just questi<strong>on</strong>s) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "tag questi<strong>on</strong>s" (us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "...d<strong>on</strong>'t you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k?" or similar<br />
phrases) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this directi<strong>on</strong>. One of the phenomena frequently exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years is the use of "vocal fry" by young<br />
women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, sometimes associated with the Kardashian clan (a family famous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a reality TV show).<br />
This refers to the habit of pr<strong>on</strong>ounc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g particular words or phrases, especially at the end of a sentence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of deep,<br />
guttural voice that's often described as "creaky". Dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g habits of women are often seen as symptomatic of<br />
women's awareness of their subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate status <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a male-dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated culture. Speech habits such as vocal fry, an overly<br />
deferential t<strong>on</strong>e, or "valley speak" (Californian social dialect featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exaggerated ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>), all associated with<br />
women, are often seen as hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g women back professi<strong>on</strong>ally, as they are regarded as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a formal bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment, where the t<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language codes are set by men.<br />
Figure<br />
: Do men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women talk differently?<br />
<br />
In fact, there are a variety of perspectives <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong> of the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctiveness of language use between men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Deborah Tannen (1990), "male-female c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is cross-cultural communicati<strong>on</strong>" (p. 42) . In her view, there<br />
are clear differences between how men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women speak, namely that women tend to use language to build rapport <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> men<br />
to report <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. Because men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women use language differently, Tannen suggests they are speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different dialects,<br />
or what she calls "genderlects".<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
For most women, the language of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is primarily a language of rapport: a<br />
way of establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships. Emphasis is placed <strong>on</strong><br />
display<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g similarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experiences...For most men, talk is primarily a<br />
means to preserve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> status <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a hierarchical<br />
social order. This is d<strong>on</strong>e by exhibit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skill, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g center<br />
stage through verbal performance such as story-tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, jok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or impart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> (1990, p. 16).<br />
This theory assumes that men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women subc<strong>on</strong>sciously communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different ways, without be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of how we<br />
differ. It suggests that both communicati<strong>on</strong> styles should be respected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful of the difference can make us<br />
more tolerant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s between genders.<br />
Other scholars <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area emphasize how women's speech tends to be undervalued, due to a power structure favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g men.<br />
Deborah Camer<strong>on</strong>, for example, addresses this issue of why it is popularly assumed that women talk more than men (see<br />
sidebar). Another perspective is offered by "st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t theory" which takes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> the power positi<strong>on</strong> of men <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. Advocates of this view ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alized communities provides the<br />
perspective that should be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong>, rather than what is c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally used, namely the perspective<br />
of privileged white males. In this view, marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alized people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g women, see the world differently. The difference<br />
between men <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> women is seen as largely the result of cultural expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the treatment each group receives from the<br />
other. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with the muted group theory discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter two, with the idea be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that women are a muted group,<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce language used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public sphere does not reflect well their experience.<br />
'Many women, many words; many geese, many turds'<br />
If it does not reflect reality, why is the folk-belief that women talk more than men so persistent? The fem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ist Dale<br />
Spender <strong>on</strong>ce suggested an explanati<strong>on</strong>: she said that people overestimate how much women talk because they th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k that,<br />
ideally, women would not talk at all. While that may be rather sweep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, it is true that belief <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> female loquacity is<br />
generally comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with disapproval of it. The statement 'women talk more than men' tends to imply the judgment<br />
'women talk too much'. (As <strong>on</strong>e old proverb charm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly puts it: 'Many women, many words; many geese, many turds.')<br />
The folk-belief that women talk more than men persists because it provides a justificati<strong>on</strong> for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed social<br />
prejudice.<br />
Camer<strong>on</strong>, 2007, Do women really talk more than men secti<strong>on</strong>, para. 7<br />
These theories <strong>on</strong> gender-related communicati<strong>on</strong> deal for the most part with Western societies. The social positi<strong>on</strong> of women<br />
varies significantly across cultures. In many cultures, women's lower social positi<strong>on</strong> results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> significantly fewer opportunities<br />
for express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views or hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s taken seriously. That is accompanied often by fewer educati<strong>on</strong>al or career<br />
opportunities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases, less choice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mate selecti<strong>on</strong>. Equally varied from culture to culture are attitudes towards<br />
homosexuality. In the US, gay marriage has become socially acceptable, but not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world. An awareness of<br />
the existence of different views <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> male-female relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identities can be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
encounters.<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pers<strong>on</strong>al Relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
We started this chapter stat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that as social animals humans tend to build many different relati<strong>on</strong>ships. How we communicate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those relati<strong>on</strong>ships can vary a good deal, from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate, familiar talk with friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family to formal, arm's-length<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with strangers. The language that we use depends as well <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> purpose of the encounter. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
cultures vary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the nature of relati<strong>on</strong>ships, communicati<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those relati<strong>on</strong>ships differs as well.<br />
Some cultures have traditi<strong>on</strong>s of welcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strangers, while others view outsiders with suspici<strong>on</strong>. Religious beliefs as well as<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al attitudes may play important role. In some cases, outsiders become accepted members of communities <strong>on</strong>ly after l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
periods of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scrut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y. US Americans tend to be open <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receptive to strangers, often divulg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
much more so than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures. One <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US observed:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
One th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that was very different from what I was used to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Icel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was that people,<br />
even people that I didn't know at all, were tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g me their whole life stories, or so it<br />
felt like. Even some women at the checkout l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e at the supermarket were talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about<br />
how many times they had been married or divorced or about the m<strong>on</strong>ey they had,<br />
which, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> my culture, we are not used to just tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any<strong>on</strong>e about (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Nakayama, 2010, p. 394).<br />
That openness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>or may not extend to all strangers; depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the country of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the recepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US may<br />
well be much more circumspect. In most cultures appropriate topics for c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with strangers do not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
histories or family relati<strong>on</strong>ships. In traditi<strong>on</strong>al cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Arab world, for example, ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about a man's wife is taboo. In<br />
many cultures, religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> politics are subjects to avoid.<br />
If relati<strong>on</strong>ships c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue over time, some develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to friendships. Studies have shown, not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, that what draws<br />
people together is less demographic similarities of race, age, or class, but rather comm<strong>on</strong>ality of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values (Hammer,<br />
1986). That seems to be accentuated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e relati<strong>on</strong>ships, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we tend to c<strong>on</strong>struct "communities of practice" around<br />
those with similar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests, whether that be particular k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of music, hobbies such as garden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or political c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s. In<br />
those <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities, we care less — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are likely unaware of — factors such as race or ethnicity. Some lament the fact<br />
that <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e relati<strong>on</strong>ships, al<strong>on</strong>g with our grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g obsessi<strong>on</strong> with c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uously with those communities, has<br />
weakened our face-to-face relati<strong>on</strong>ships (Turkle's Al<strong>on</strong>e Together, 2011). In the US, this has been noted for some time, with<br />
the growth of social media, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with other social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic developments, to disengage many from their local<br />
communities. The book Bowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Al<strong>on</strong>e (Putnam, 2000) provides a metaphor for that loss of community <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. Whether we<br />
lament or celebrate the rise of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities, they seem unlikely to lose their importance anytime so<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For many of us today, we are likely to have separate groups of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e friends/communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> face-to-face relati<strong>on</strong>ships. As<br />
we do <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all relati<strong>on</strong>ships, the respective degree of importance of each is likely to change over time. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships become closer, we are likely to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-disclosure of private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, whether that be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> or<br />
<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. The more we reveal about ourselves, the closer we are likely to grow to <strong>on</strong>e another. The social penetrati<strong>on</strong> theory<br />
(Altman <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Taylor, 1973) proposes that, as relati<strong>on</strong>ships develop, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong> moves from shallow,<br />
superficial topics to more pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate subjects. In the process of form<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g deeper relati<strong>on</strong>ships, issues of diversity<br />
become less important. To what extent self-disclosure occurs depends <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual as much as it does <strong>on</strong> cultural<br />
backgrounds.<br />
Figure<br />
: Switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over to friendship <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany<br />
How friendship is understood varies as well. US Americans tend to have many "friends," but that relati<strong>on</strong>ship is not as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate or str<strong>on</strong>g as that term c<strong>on</strong>notes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other cultures. In Germany, for example, <strong>on</strong>e tends to have few friends<br />
(Freunde) but many acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tances (Bekannte). It would not be unusual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany for some<strong>on</strong>e we have known for years to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be a Bekannter, not a Freund. Becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Freund might mean switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the familiar you (du) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each other by first names. Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally there is even a short cerem<strong>on</strong>y (Brüderschafttr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ken), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
together.<br />
<br />
In many cultures, such as Germany, friends are those with whom we have a special emoti<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship. Collier (1996)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated what friendship means for different groups with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. She found that for Hispanics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> African-Americans, it<br />
took c<strong>on</strong>siderably l<strong>on</strong>ger to develop a real friendship than was the case for European-Americans. She also found differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
what the groups c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> friendships: "Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os emphasized relati<strong>on</strong>al support, Asian Americans<br />
emphasized a car<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, positive exchange of ideas, African Americans emphasized respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anglo<br />
[European] Americans emphasized recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals” (p. 315). In Asian countries, friendships tend to take<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to be more l<strong>on</strong>g-last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US (Carrier, 1999). They also tend to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve obligati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
another.<br />
In Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, the c<strong>on</strong>cept of guanxi () often plays <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> important role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> friendships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships (Yeung & Tung,<br />
1996). Guanxi refers to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal network of social c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s built <strong>on</strong> shared identity such as k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ship, place of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>. The system is particularly important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a for gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs d<strong>on</strong>e, such as access to the right school or<br />
neighborhood, or f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a good job. It's built <strong>on</strong> a n<strong>on</strong>-reciprocal obligati<strong>on</strong> system – some<strong>on</strong>e always owes someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e else (a favor, a c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>). Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Jane Yum (1988), this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of unequal balance helps ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to the Western c<strong>on</strong>cept, comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, of short term <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> symmetrical<br />
reciprocity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships. From this perspective, if I owe someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to some<strong>on</strong>e (a favor, m<strong>on</strong>ey), I am not comfortable until<br />
that debt is repaid, so that we are "even". In that way, each of us ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the same <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the relati<strong>on</strong>ship. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with Collier's f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (1996) show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that white Americans' emphasis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> friendships is <strong>on</strong> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
needs.<br />
Romanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate friendships develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more, namely romantic relati<strong>on</strong>ships. How that develops varies. Some<br />
scholars suggest that there is a natural human tendency to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d mates who are similar to us <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some way. The similarityattracti<strong>on</strong><br />
hypothesis (Byrne, 1971) expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s that we are likely to seek partners with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-groups. If we share beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
values, that provides cognitive c<strong>on</strong>sistency, coalesc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g around comm<strong>on</strong> views <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experiences (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Nakayama, 2010).<br />
Deeply-held religious, political, or philosophical beliefs may come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to play. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural relati<strong>on</strong>ships, there may be a<br />
different dynamic at work. It may be the case that what we f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d attractive may be the differences, not the similarities.<br />
They're so exotic<br />
I th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k they're so exotic. Really, what c<strong>on</strong>cerns me about the girl is the eyes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asian women have beautiful eyes, the<br />
form <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the shape of them. It’s a plus for me. I had another Asian girl friend before. And I like their sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color, tannish,<br />
not just white, white, white. A girl with color. It's just different; it’s more sexual, its not just like pla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jane.<br />
“Talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g About Race,” 2000, p. 59<br />
St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of beauty tend to be largely cultural, def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed often by images <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advertis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream US culture,<br />
for example, the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard for female beauty tilts towards white women with bl<strong>on</strong>de hair. One study showed that 90% of<br />
models <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US magaz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es are white (Frith, Shaw & Cheung, 2005). At the same time, Asian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asian-American women are<br />
often portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US as ideal mates. On the <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, they are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Orientalist style as exotic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sexually available.<br />
On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, they are seen as submissive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obedient (Uchida, 1998). This is how Asian women are characterized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
mail-order bride bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess which has experienced a boom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet age. The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g advertisement from such a site<br />
illustrates this imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
Why choose a Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a? Women from the Philipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es are noted for their beauty, grace, charm <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> loyalty. With their sweet<br />
nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shy smiles, Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a ladies possess an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner beauty that most men f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d irresistible. Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a women are by their<br />
nature family-orientated, resourceful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> devoted (Piller, 2011, p. 123)<br />
In an ir<strong>on</strong>ic twist, Asian women often protect themselves from the sun, so as to have a paler complexi<strong>on</strong> or, more radically,<br />
have eye surgery so as to look more Western (Frederick et al., 2016).<br />
To what extent romantic love plays a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the choice of a mate can vary. In many parts of the world, love <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
passi<strong>on</strong> may play a much dim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ished role compared to socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status, k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ship/group membership, or religious beliefs.<br />
In Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, for example, it is normal for couples to wait until regular jobs have been secured, as well as until appropriate<br />
hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g becomes available (Ham<strong>on</strong> & Ingoldsby, 2003). In India, although the caste system is officially no l<strong>on</strong>ger <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> place,<br />
many Indians, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural areas, marry <strong>on</strong>ly with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their own caste (Uberoi, 1994). The bride wanted secti<strong>on</strong> from the<br />
Sunday Times of India (May 15, 2016) highlights the importance of caste <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a mate. However, also listed as categories<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the "Times Soulmate" secti<strong>on</strong> are professi<strong>on</strong>s, religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language. There's also a category of "caste no bar". Shaadi.com<br />
is a popular web site for f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an Indian mate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the process.<br />
In many cultures, it is comm<strong>on</strong> to use a trusted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termediary to help f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d an appropriate mate (Ahuvia & Adelman, 1992).<br />
Parents or other relatives may play a role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g matches. Many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western countries are likely to recoil at the idea of an<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
arranged marriage. However, studies have shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact love <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> arranged marriage tends to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease over time, but<br />
decreases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> love matches (Gupta & S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gh, 1982). Given the high percentage of divorces am<strong>on</strong>g free choice matches, <strong>on</strong>e<br />
might questi<strong>on</strong> whether that form of mate selecti<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact optimal. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, arranged marriages may be<br />
problematic as well, particularly if <strong>on</strong>e or other of the partners has no say <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the match. The forced marriages of underage girls<br />
is unfortunately still a reality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some parts of the world (Ouattara, Sen & Thoms<strong>on</strong>, 1998).<br />
Until 1967 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States, marry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e from a different racial group was illegal. In that year, laws outlaw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that<br />
practice were declared void through the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>mark case of Lov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vs. State of Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia. Today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Pew<br />
Foundati<strong>on</strong> (Passel, Wang & Taylor, 2010), about <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> seven new marriages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terracial or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terethnic. That does<br />
not mean that such uni<strong>on</strong>s are universally accepted, nor does their frequency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that they are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably successful. In<br />
fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terracial marriages may be stressful, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part due to differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> value orientati<strong>on</strong>s or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> group habits/traditi<strong>on</strong>s. One of<br />
the frequent sources of c<strong>on</strong>flict can be <strong>on</strong>e's family or friends, who may disapprove of the match. Foeman & Nance (2002)<br />
have shown that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terracial or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terethnic marriages the partners create a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of third culture, blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
together <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new hybrid their respective cultures.<br />
Figure<br />
: Mildred & Richard Lov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/5/2021 4.2.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42979
4.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - C<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Onl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
In today's world the Internet is used extensively to build <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships. Social media such as Facebook play a<br />
central role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lives of many people across the globe. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic media varies with the medium, from very<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, abbreviated language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> text messages to more grammatically correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spellchecked writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
blogs or fanficti<strong>on</strong> sites. L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guists have po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted out that text messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g its brevity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality, is actually<br />
closer to spoken language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its essential characteristics (Choudhury et al, 2007).<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d-language learners can use <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong> to develop language skills. Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with native speakers<br />
<strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e provides opportunities for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocabulary, but also for enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural<br />
knowledge. In such exchanges, there's an opportunity as well to view <strong>on</strong>e's own culture from the perspective of those outside.<br />
This can be an eye-open<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes disturb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experience, but <strong>on</strong>e that can lead us to reflect <strong>on</strong> our own cultural<br />
values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to questi<strong>on</strong> received wisdom. Studies of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g collaborative projects for language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reveal some of the<br />
issues that may arise due to cultural differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s. A project <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g French<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> US students, for example, saw c<strong>on</strong>flicts arise due to the US students favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges to build relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
through small talk, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the French students' preference for serious discussi<strong>on</strong> of the topics at h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. There were also differences<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what mode or genre of writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the two groups used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
The French write <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> perfectly correct English, but without the social legitimati<strong>on</strong> nor the trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of fellow native<br />
speakers of English. What happens is not a case of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but a clash of cultural frames caused by the<br />
different res<strong>on</strong>ances of the two languages for each group of speakers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their different underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of appropriate genres.<br />
The French academic discourse expressed through the English language is perceived by the Americans not as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the r<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of scientific truth, but as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unduly aggressive by display<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ‘nati<strong>on</strong>alist reacti<strong>on</strong>s’. The American <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gratiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
discourse expressed through the French language is not perceived by the French as enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of their<br />
authors, but as lack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scientific rigour (Kramsch & Thorne, 2002, pp. 94-5).<br />
The French students used a form of discourse that aspires to be objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
scientific, while the US students struck a highly pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
t<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Such c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchanges are not uncomm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can<br />
arise through different perspectives <strong>on</strong> particular topics but also, as here, through<br />
clashes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rhetorical styles. C<strong>on</strong>flict can sometimes be uncomfortable for the<br />
participants, but how problems arise can also provide a valuable learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experience,<br />
provided the participants talk out the difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> approach the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
an open m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tolerance for both differences of op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> styles.<br />
This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> highlights the process of language socializati<strong>on</strong> that can take place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e envir<strong>on</strong>ments. The experience of<br />
the French learners provides an example of "legitimate peripheral participati<strong>on</strong>" (Scoll<strong>on</strong>, at al., 2012), namely how<br />
newcomers participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially peripheral i.e. more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an observer role, but legitimate, i.e. acceptable.<br />
If they rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community, they become socialized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outs of the community norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> processes. On the<br />
other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it's possible that novices will resist socializati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular if that c<strong>on</strong>flicts with exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g norms or beliefs. One<br />
way to resist or negotiate <strong>on</strong>e's identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community is through language. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> learners tend to do this with language<br />
play (Cook, 2000). The sidebar provides an example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the teacher was try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to have students provide examples of<br />
collocati<strong>on</strong>s us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese equivalent of to l<strong>on</strong>g for, to look forward to, (qīdài).<br />
L<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Jennifer to mo<strong>on</strong>-bathe with him<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>: a M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class of 13-year-olds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Newcastle. T: female teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her forties. B: a boy.<br />
T: <br />
What can you say with qidai (l<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for)? L<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for a united motherl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>; l<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for family reuni<strong>on</strong>; l<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
peace <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> friendship.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48843
B: xxx (name of another boy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the class) <br />
xxx is l<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Jennifer to mo<strong>on</strong>-bathe with him.<br />
(All laugh)<br />
Translati<strong>on</strong> is someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rarely used as a teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tool, at least <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States, despite the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights it provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to deeper underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the target language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture. Compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g results from Google Translate<br />
with other mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e translators (or do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reverse look-ups based <strong>on</strong> the given translati<strong>on</strong>s) can provide surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formative results. Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or translat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g samples from the great variety of user forums <strong>on</strong> the Web provides both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights as well as valuable l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Sources might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude YouTube comments, Amaz<strong>on</strong> reviews, blog<br />
commentaries, or newspaper forums. A reader’s post to an article <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the French daily Le Parisien provides an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
example. It’s a comment about a news story c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a four-year-old named Jihad (born <strong>on</strong> September 11th) who is sent to<br />
preschool wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a shirt read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Je suis une bombe (literally mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “I am a bomb” but colloquially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French, “I am<br />
fantastic”). The story itself is rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts: Muslims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> France, French restricti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> traditi<strong>on</strong>al Muslim dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
public spheres, the French traditi<strong>on</strong> of secularism (laïcité), freedom of speech as a universal value, the role of dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural<br />
identity, am<strong>on</strong>g others. The letter offers even richer c<strong>on</strong>tent:<br />
Je m’appelle Jihad, j’ai fait des études et je n’ai aucun problème dans ma vie. Jihad<br />
n’est pas un prénom né le 11 septembre, vous êtes au courant? Il est d<strong>on</strong>né depuis des<br />
millénaires. Le mot jihad à la base veut dire lutte c<strong>on</strong>tre ses péchés. (Le Parisien,<br />
Dec. 1, 2012)<br />
[My name is Jihad, I’m a university graduate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have never had any problems [with<br />
my name]. Jihad is not a name created by September 11th, did you know that? It’s<br />
been used for millennia. The word jihad means to fight to overcome <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequacies. ]<br />
The use of such forums designed for native speakers can be challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for language learners, but they can be, as here, rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
colloquial language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>tent.<br />
One of the sources for miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e is the fact that communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emails, blog post, or other written<br />
messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g formats exclude the expressive elements that come from gestures, body language, or t<strong>on</strong>e of voice. Despite<br />
preparatory work, telecollaborati<strong>on</strong> projects can result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, hurt feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement of negative<br />
stereotypes. The problems may arise from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sufficient language skills, lack of knowledge of the other culture, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sensitivity. It’s also the case that <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e speech lacks the paralanguage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal clues that can be vital to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
speakers’ real <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent. There are c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to compensate— punctuati<strong>on</strong> (!), emotic<strong>on</strong>s (sad face), netspeak<br />
(lol) or typ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all caps (I'M SHOUTING)—but they pale <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to the variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> power of human n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
One of the realities of <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong> today is that many people may be communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, not their<br />
mother t<strong>on</strong>gue. In theory, computer-mediated communicati<strong>on</strong> (CMC) offers a "level play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g field," <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which every<strong>on</strong>e is seen<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> treated equally. It offers, for example, the opportunity for shy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals to have their voices heard <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a way that is<br />
unlikely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> face-to-face c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. Turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is predictable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore less stressful, at least <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> written exchanges. In<br />
practice, CMC is not as neutral as it may seem. Pasfield-Neofitou po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out (2013) that <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e exchange is affected by a<br />
number of factors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language ability, social relati<strong>on</strong>ships, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer dexterity/typ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ability. If the software<br />
program or computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terface is unfamiliar or difficult to learn, that may put the novice user at a dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct disadvantage<br />
compared to more experienced users, someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which can have a significant impact <strong>on</strong> communicative effectiveness.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-native speakers may prefer CMC over face-to-face encounters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it provides an envir<strong>on</strong>ment which allows for<br />
reflecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a slower pace of exchange. In spoken discourse, issues of accent such as pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
sometimes are problematic. Informal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammatically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct language is generally more acceptable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers may face communicati<strong>on</strong> issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> CMC related to cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pragmatic issues. They may not use, for example, the appropriate forms of address or language register. A study by Stroińska<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.3.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48843
& Cecchetto (2013) provides an example of university students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Canada who are n<strong>on</strong>-native English speakers. They often<br />
used unacceptable language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> email exchanges with professors, not abid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by the expectati<strong>on</strong>s of politeness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> written<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, namely use of polite forms of address, st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard English, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respectful forms of request. Often, the foreign<br />
students used no formal greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their emails <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made requests that were too direct. The authors of the study po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriate language behavior for written communicati<strong>on</strong> can be important later <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/29/2021 4.3.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48843
4.4: C<strong>on</strong>vers<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice…<br />
In efforts to avoid culture or gender bias, some of the strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
- Be a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful listener, particularly when communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g actively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for n<strong>on</strong>verbal cues to assist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> judg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriateness. It's important to keep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d possible<br />
different c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the role of silence or rules for turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In some cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expected; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others it's expected that <strong>on</strong>e defer to elders or other members of the community.<br />
- Adjust your speech (rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> register) as appropriate. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to rephrase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> simpler terms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
potentially culturally sensitive areas. Safe topics are typically food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> music; problematic are often politics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religi<strong>on</strong>. At<br />
the same time, <strong>on</strong>e should be aware of the dangers of over-accommodat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Sensitivity is desirable; patr<strong>on</strong>iz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is not.<br />
– Discover your own speech mode. Through encounters with others, both face-to-face <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, you can experience a wide<br />
variety of language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal styles. This can provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to your own use of language. It's important to reflect <strong>on</strong><br />
the extent to which you use typical male or female subject positi<strong>on</strong>s when speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or to what extent you are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
modify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g your language register when encounter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a n<strong>on</strong>-native speaker.<br />
Key C<strong>on</strong>cepts<br />
Adjacency pair: A unit of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> that c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s an exchange of <strong>on</strong>e turn each by two speakers<br />
Anxiety/uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty management: Theory by W. Gudykunst to def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e how humans effectively communicate based <strong>on</strong><br />
their balance of anxiety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social situati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Cognitive c<strong>on</strong>sistency: A psychological theory that proposes that humans are motivated by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a desire to<br />
change them<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong> accommodati<strong>on</strong> theory: Theory developed by H. Giles which explores the various reas<strong>on</strong>s why<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals emphasize or m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imize the social differences between themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutors through verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>vergence: The process through which an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual shifts his or her speech patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> so that they more<br />
closely resemble the speech patterns of speech partners<br />
Corpus / corpora: Collected sets of texts that are systematically collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically tagged<br />
Cultural schema: The familiar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted knowledge <strong>on</strong>e uses when enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a familiar situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his/her own<br />
culture<br />
Cultural script: Particular set of behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language used c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
Direct style: Manner of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g where <strong>on</strong>e employs overt expressi<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong><br />
Divergence: A l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic strategy whereby a member of a speech community accentuates the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic differences between<br />
his or herself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor<br />
Elaborated code: A cultural c<strong>on</strong>text where<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the speakers of a language have a variety of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic opti<strong>on</strong>s open to them<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to explicitly communicate their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent via verbal messages<br />
Ellipsis / elliptical c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>: The omissi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e or more words from a clause without affect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Genderlect: A variety of speech or c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al style used by a particular gender (orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by D. Tannen)<br />
High c<strong>on</strong>text: Cultural orientati<strong>on</strong> where mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are gleaned from the physical, social, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychological c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
Indirect style: Manner of speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g where<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s of the speakers are hidden or <strong>on</strong>ly h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted at dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Interlocutor: Pers<strong>on</strong> with whom <strong>on</strong>e speaks<br />
Low c<strong>on</strong>text: Cultural orientati<strong>on</strong> where mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are encoded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the verbal code<br />
M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dfulness: Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attentive, sensitively c<strong>on</strong>scious, n<strong>on</strong>-judgmental, ready to resp<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract appropriately (T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-<br />
Toomey)<br />
Overaccomodati<strong>on</strong>: Exaggerat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g accommodat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e else's verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> style<br />
Paral<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics: Aspects of spoken communicati<strong>on</strong> that do not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve words, i.e., sigh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, etc.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 4.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48842
Pragmal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic competence: The ability to perform speech acts such as apologies or requests appropriately us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
range of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic expressi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Pragmatic failure: The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of what is said<br />
Pragmatic transfer: The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of learners' pragmatic knowledge of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture other than the target<br />
language <strong>on</strong> their comprehensi<strong>on</strong>, producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of l2 pragmatic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
Register: A variety of a language used for a particular purpose or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular social sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Restricted code: A cultural c<strong>on</strong>text where<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the speakers of a language are limited as to what they can say or do verbally. a<br />
restricted code is a status-oriented system.<br />
Rich po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t: We realize that a culture is different from ours when we face some behaviors which we do not underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>; rich<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts are those surprises, those departures from an outsider’s expectati<strong>on</strong>s that signal a difference between source<br />
language/culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> target language/culture<br />
Self-disclosure: Process of communicati<strong>on</strong> by which <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> reveals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about himself or herself to another<br />
pers<strong>on</strong><br />
Similarity-attracti<strong>on</strong> hypothesis: The idea that similarity leads to attracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Sociopragmatic competence: The ability to use correct l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic forms with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular speech communities<br />
Small talk: Polite c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> about unimportant or unc<strong>on</strong>troversial matters, especially as engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> social occasi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Speech code: Any rule or regulati<strong>on</strong> that limits, restricts, or bans speech bey<strong>on</strong>d the strict legal limitati<strong>on</strong>s up<strong>on</strong> freedom<br />
of speech or press found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the legal def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of harassment, sl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> libel<br />
Speech community: A group of people who share a set of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s with regard to how their<br />
language should be used<br />
Speech style: A particular approach to how <strong>on</strong>e expresses <strong>on</strong>eself<br />
St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t theory: Central c<strong>on</strong>cept is that an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's own perspectives are shaped by his or her social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political<br />
experiences<br />
Subject positi<strong>on</strong>: The idea that participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular discourse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a particular perspective which<br />
allows full access to the discourse community<br />
Thick descripti<strong>on</strong>: Descripti<strong>on</strong> of a human behavior that expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s not just the behavior, but its c<strong>on</strong>text as well, such that<br />
the behavior becomes mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful to an outsider<br />
Third culture: Process of cultural adaptati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which representatives of different cultures merge together aspects of their<br />
cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a new hybrid (different from c<strong>on</strong>cept of "third culture kid", children raised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture other than their parents'<br />
for extended period of time<br />
Turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A type of organizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourse where participants speak <strong>on</strong>e at a time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
turns<br />
Uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty: The amount of predictability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a communicati<strong>on</strong> situati<strong>on</strong><br />
Uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty reducti<strong>on</strong> theory: Theory whose major premise is that when strangers first meet, their primary goal is to<br />
reduce uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Resources<br />
Books<br />
Seth, Riva (2008), First Comes Marriage: Modern Relati<strong>on</strong>ship Advice from the Wisdom of Arranged Marriages. Sim<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Schuster.<br />
Chua, Amy (2011). Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother. Pengu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Books.<br />
Analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
Steven P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ker: What our language habits reveal<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guist Steven P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ker looks at language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how it expresses what goes <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds - <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how the<br />
words we choose communicate much more than we realize"<br />
Elizabeth Stokoe: The science of analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, sec<strong>on</strong>d by sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Prof. Elizabeth Stokoe takes a run <strong>on</strong> what she terms the 'c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al racetrack' the daily race to<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> each other when we speak—<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s how to avoid hurdles that trip us up <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cause c<strong>on</strong>flict. Stokoe developed<br />
the C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> Analytic Role-play Method (CARM), an approach based <strong>on</strong> evidence about what sorts of problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
roadblocks can occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>, as well as the techniques <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies that best resolve these problems"<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 4.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48842
What a difference a word can make: How a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle word can change your c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
TED (essay) descripti<strong>on</strong>: "British psychologist Elizabeth Stokoe studies the patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk that most of us d<strong>on</strong>’t even notice.<br />
She expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s how her research can be used to tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> people to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract more effectively."<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
Book chapter by Jessica Robles (From Kurylo, Inter/Cultural Communicati<strong>on</strong>: Representati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>)<br />
with nice examples of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> analysis<br />
What It's Like to Work at the Waffle House for 24 Hours Straight<br />
Interest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the perspective of restricted codes<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
Megan Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>: Why I live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mortal dread of public speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Megan Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e of Australia's premier s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger/s<strong>on</strong>gwriters. And, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce childhood, she has had a<br />
stutter. In this bold <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al talk, she reveals how she copes with this speech impediment—from avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the letter<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> “st” to trick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> by chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her words at the last m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute to, yes, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs she has to say rather<br />
than speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them."<br />
Susan Ca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>: The power of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troverts<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In a culture where be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outgo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are prized above all else, it can be difficult, even shameful, to<br />
be an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>trovert. But, as Susan Ca<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> argues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this passi<strong>on</strong>ate talk, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troverts br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g extraord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary talents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> abilities to the<br />
world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be encouraged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> celebrated."<br />
Julian Treasure: 5 ways to listen better<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In our louder <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> louder world, says sound expert Julian Treasure, "We are los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g." In this<br />
short, fasc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g talk, Treasure shares five ways to re-tune your ears for c<strong>on</strong>scious listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — to other people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world<br />
around you."<br />
Gender <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Who sounds gay?<br />
About voice stereotypes, short film by David Thorpe (NY Times)<br />
Filmmaker And Speech Pathologist Weigh In On What It Means To 'Sound Gay' NPR <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview with Terry Gross<br />
Open Letter to Terry Gross By Mark Liberman <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>log<br />
The Vocal Fry epidemic<br />
Vocal Fry May Hurt Women's Job Prospects<br />
Vocal fry probably doesn't harm your career prospects<br />
Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g electr<strong>on</strong>ically<br />
John McWhorter: Txtng is kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language. JK!!!<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Does text<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mean the death of good writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills? John McWhorter posits that there’s much more to<br />
text<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g — l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically, culturally — than it seems, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it’s all good news."<br />
Stefana Broadbent: How the Internet enables<br />
On the "democratizati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timacy" - are we return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to an old pattern of how relati<strong>on</strong>ships were ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed while at work?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "We worry that IM, text<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Facebook are spoil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timacy, but Stefana Broadbent's research shows<br />
how communicati<strong>on</strong> tech is capable of cultivat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g deeper relati<strong>on</strong>ships, br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g love across barriers like distance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
workplace rules."<br />
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Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 4.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48842
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Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 4.4.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48842
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Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 4.4.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48842
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
5: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Compare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-verbal codes<br />
Discuss n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide examples across cultures<br />
Discuss the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of semiotics<br />
5.1: BODY LANGUAGE<br />
5.2: NONVERBAL MESSAGING<br />
5.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - SEMIOTICS AND THE INTERNET<br />
5.4: COMMUNICATING NONVERBALLY (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
☰<br />
5.1: Body <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In 2015, the "Bost<strong>on</strong> bomber", Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, was sentenced to death. He <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his brother had placed bombs near the<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of the Bost<strong>on</strong> Marath<strong>on</strong>, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple deaths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries. At the trial, his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the bombs<br />
was not at issue; he admitted his guilt. The questi<strong>on</strong> was if he would be sentenced to life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pris<strong>on</strong> or to death. That decisi<strong>on</strong><br />
rested with the jury <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their percepti<strong>on</strong> of Tsarnaev. Character witnesses, family members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bomb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g survivors testified.<br />
The defense tried to make the case that he was act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g under the c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of his older brother. The prosecuti<strong>on</strong><br />
portrayed him as a heartless terrorist. A key factor for the jury was to evaluate Tsarnaev's character. His body language dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the trial was not helpful to the defense. He seemed un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bored. He showed no emoti<strong>on</strong>al reacti<strong>on</strong> to the horrific<br />
scenes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories from the bomb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> narrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> court. He didn't look at the jury or make eye c<strong>on</strong>tact with those <strong>on</strong><br />
the witness st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream US culture, an averted gaze could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted as an admissi<strong>on</strong> of guilt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shame, while<br />
the lack of emoti<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>se po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to an absence of remorse. The jury was also shown a picture from a surveillance camera<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> jail <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which Tsarnaev held up his middle f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a gesture of defiance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hostility. The jury also was given the text of<br />
tweets Tsarnaev had sent, as well as the anti-US manifesto he had written <strong>on</strong> the side of the boat where he was captured. The<br />
messages no doubt c<strong>on</strong>demned him <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the eyes of the jury, but certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly his bear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> court c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the jury's ultimate<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>. N<strong>on</strong>verbal signals rarely decide life or death, but they do play a central role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human communicati<strong>on</strong>. In this unit we<br />
will be exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how that plays out <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure<br />
: Tsarnaev, from a jail surveillance camera<br />
<br />
The nature of n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> can take many different forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can vary significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its manifestati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> usage across<br />
cultures. Its relati<strong>on</strong> to verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> is complex. Verbal language is based <strong>on</strong> abstract symbols, arbitrarily designated<br />
to represent objects or c<strong>on</strong>cepts. There's no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent, logical c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between "cat" or (or the German Katze or Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e animal. We learn the significance of the symbols over time. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, much of n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves signs or signals that are natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voluntary. Smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or frown<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example, are not learned behaviors<br />
but naturally occurr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human acti<strong>on</strong>s. This is not the case for <strong>on</strong> all n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong>; gestures for greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sults, for example, are symbolic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural. Verbal language can be analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> described by a set of rules. For n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> there are unwritten rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s but no formal grammar or syntax. The rules for n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> are learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally through socializati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Gestures or facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s can send messages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent of language. In fact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some c<strong>on</strong>texts, those messages (i.e.,<br />
anger, joy) can be transmitted more effectively by n<strong>on</strong>verbal means. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes vocal qualities, such as the t<strong>on</strong>e of voice or<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s such as cry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Often n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> accompanies speech. In such cases, the relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between the two can vary. Body language can re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>force or emphasize the verbal message – smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example, while<br />
complement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e. Gestures can also substitute for speech – nodd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or shak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the head for yes or no. On occasi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal gestures might repeat verbal messages, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s, through po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the way to go.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Sometimes words are not needed, as the body language here shows<br />
Sometimes, a pers<strong>on</strong>'s n<strong>on</strong>verbal message might c<strong>on</strong>tradict what is said. A pers<strong>on</strong> appear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g downcast might resp<strong>on</strong>d "Oh,<br />
noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g," <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to the questi<strong>on</strong> "What's the matter?", but the body language may send a different signal. In such<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s, the n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong> is likely to be perceived as the authentic message, not the stock verbal resp<strong>on</strong>se. N<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> is seen as more h<strong>on</strong>est <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reveal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it is often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unc<strong>on</strong>scious. Recent research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> (M<strong>on</strong>tepare 2003; Patters<strong>on</strong>, 2003) has dem<strong>on</strong>strated that some n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors fulfill universal<br />
human social needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tribute to social cohesi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> b<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Widely used n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors can help identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>group<br />
membership.<br />
It is likely that most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals would be surprised to learn how important n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>vey<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g messages<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. The comm<strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong> is that what we are mostly pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> to are the words be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g said. We tend<br />
to be unaware of the many other factors that can impact the nature of a verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>. The relative importance of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes varies with c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, but some estimates of what weight is c<strong>on</strong>veyed by n<strong>on</strong>verbal versus verbal<br />
means gives a much higher percentage to n<strong>on</strong>verbal. Albert Mehrabian (1971) asserted that we develop our attitude towards<br />
the other pers<strong>on</strong> (like or dislike) overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly through n<strong>on</strong>verbal means. In fact, he claimed that 93% of that process<br />
happens n<strong>on</strong>verbally, through vocal t<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures (38% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 55% respectively), rather than through the literal mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
the words (7%). The important role that n<strong>on</strong>verbals play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g across cultures is dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fact that the<br />
study of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the "silent language" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "hidden dimensi<strong>on</strong>s" of time<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> space <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> (titles of sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al books by Edward Hall, 1959, 1966). One might questi<strong>on</strong> Mehrabian's formula<br />
as it applies to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular cultures. One can imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a doctor's<br />
office or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the essence of the communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the affective impact are carried substantially by language.<br />
Given the importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ubiquity of written digital messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, c<strong>on</strong>temporary communicati<strong>on</strong> is often electr<strong>on</strong>ically mediated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> occurs with no n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes, except for emoji or embedded media.<br />
<br />
Send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Signals without Words<br />
There are a number of human <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s which occur largely without the use of language or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which language plays a<br />
clearly sec<strong>on</strong>dary role. That's the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rituals, a clearly def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed set of acti<strong>on</strong>s performed <strong>on</strong> particular occasi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
symbolic significance. Greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> departures, for example, have rituals that are largely n<strong>on</strong>verbal, such as shak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s or<br />
wav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These tend to vary across cultures. In Japan, for example, it is comm<strong>on</strong> to bow when greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e, with the<br />
nature of the bow (how deep <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how l<strong>on</strong>g) be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the nature of the occasi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. In some cultures, kiss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the cheek is the usual greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, although how many times the kisses are<br />
exchanged <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which sexes are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded can vary. In other parts of the world there may be hugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> kisses, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship. In Arab countries it is comm<strong>on</strong> to bow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> touch the forehead <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chest (the salaam) when meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e. The Wai is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other Asian cultures, c<strong>on</strong>sist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a bow with the palms pressed together. In<br />
other cultures, people rub noses, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the h<strong>on</strong>gi, a traditi<strong>on</strong>al greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the Maori people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Knowledge<br />
of such rituals can be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g awkwardness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> first encounters.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
☰<br />
Figure<br />
as apologies<br />
<br />
: The bow is comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan as a greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other c<strong>on</strong>texts, such<br />
Figure<br />
h<strong>on</strong>gi<br />
<br />
: David Beckham receives a<br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal signals come not just from body movements such as h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>shak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but also through the presence (or<br />
absence) of pers<strong>on</strong>al objects or artifacts. Those may be articles of cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, jewelry or accessories we wear or hold, or might be<br />
physical items surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us. Signals may be sent by more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tangible means such as smell or sound. There may be a complex<br />
array of n<strong>on</strong>verbal factors at play, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this example of n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior at a military checkpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t:<br />
A Sunni driver com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up to a security post he believes is under Shia c<strong>on</strong>trol should<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly have the right ID to h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, but should also push <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a tape play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Shia<br />
religious s<strong>on</strong>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn up the volume. He should hang a picture of Imam Ali, the<br />
s<strong>on</strong>-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-law of the Prophet Muhammad <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the most revered figure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Shia faith,<br />
from the rear-view mirror. He might also slip <strong>on</strong> the large silver r<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g worn <strong>on</strong>ly by<br />
Shias, especially those c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be descendants of the Prophet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perhaps<br />
carry a “torba”, the round piece of clay that Shias often place <strong>on</strong> their foreheads<br />
when they bow down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prayer. These <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y tips are given <strong>on</strong> the Iraqi<br />
Rabita website, designed to advise Sunnis <strong>on</strong> how to get through Shia checkpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts<br />
(Checkpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts, 2007).<br />
The situati<strong>on</strong> is not likely <strong>on</strong>e most of us will ever encounter, but it dramatizes the importance of n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts. In such situati<strong>on</strong>s, n<strong>on</strong>verbals can play a significant role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> eas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tensi<strong>on</strong>s. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate<br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior can easily have the opposite effect, exacerbat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g potential tensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> caus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g open c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
Gestures across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
One of the areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there is c<strong>on</strong>siderable cultural variati<strong>on</strong> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of gestures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> body movements. This area of<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> is called k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esics, with the two ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of acti<strong>on</strong>s labeled emblems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrators (Ekman & Frieden,<br />
1969). Emblems are h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures that have by themselves a direct mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult gestures like the raised middle<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger. Illustrators are h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or arm gestures that accompany speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which accentuate or complement what is said.<br />
Pound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a podium with <strong>on</strong>e's fist while giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a speech is an example of an illustrator. Emblems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrators are used for a<br />
variety of social functi<strong>on</strong>s, such as greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, leave-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directi<strong>on</strong>s/comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, or issu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g warn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware<br />
of cultural differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area can be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural encounters.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
One of the richest array of gestures are for communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sults <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obscenities. Insult gestures tend to vary across cultures<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ☰are different as well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the extent to which they are used. In Greece, for example, the mountza (μούντζα) or moutza<br />
(μούτζα) is a comm<strong>on</strong>ly seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult gesture. It c<strong>on</strong>sists of spread<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gers (<strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or both) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them outwards,<br />
towards the other pers<strong>on</strong> (as if fl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unpleasant). In other cultures, the arm-thrust (bras d'h<strong>on</strong>neur) is used,<br />
forg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a fist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> slapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it upwards under the biceps of the arm. Such gestures can be highly offensive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are often<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered obscene. Other gestures may c<strong>on</strong>vey skepticism or disbelief, such as the French m<strong>on</strong> oeil (my eye), us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger<br />
to pull down the lower eyelid. The gesture is also used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan, known as the Akanbe ().<br />
Figure<br />
protesters<br />
<br />
: Moutza aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the parliament by Greek<br />
Figure<br />
Japan<br />
<br />
: Akanbe gesture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The cauti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gestures extends to those which may be widespread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret as universal.<br />
The North American A-OK sign (circled thumb <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger, with the other f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gers spread out) is an obscene gesture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
many European cultures. Likewise, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>verted peace sign – two f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gers fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>wards is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Engl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Australia.<br />
The thumbs-up gesture signals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America well d<strong>on</strong>e; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Greece <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries, it is equivalent to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "Up<br />
yours!" (Cott<strong>on</strong>, 2013). US President George W. Bush famously used the hook ‘em horns gesture of the Texas L<strong>on</strong>ghorn<br />
football team to signal his approval of the march<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the University of Texas. In Italy, that gesture is well-known, but it<br />
doesn't signal fan enthusiasm or let's rock. It is called il cornuto, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the other pers<strong>on</strong> is a cuckold, that is, that his<br />
wife is cheat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> him (Cott<strong>on</strong>, 2013).<br />
Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the foref<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger is a gesture North Americans frequently use. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that gesture to po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t at people is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
cultures extremely rude. Likewise, the beck<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gesture with palm turned upward <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger or the whole h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
is c<strong>on</strong>sidered an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries. There are a variety of beck<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gestures, In Afghanistan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Philipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, for example, <strong>on</strong>e moti<strong>on</strong>s downward with the palm of the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ground (Cott<strong>on</strong>, 2013). Emblems have<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been culture-specific. However, the forces of globalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> technology have exposed people worldwide to<br />
gestures used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> popular media (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2012). Through the greater availability globally of North American<br />
televisi<strong>on</strong> shows <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> movies, as well as the popularity of social media such as Facebook <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> YouTube, some North American<br />
gestures, such as those for greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> departure, have become familiar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other cultures. (Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2014).<br />
Figure<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult<br />
<br />
: Thumbs-up may be an<br />
Figure<br />
Bush<br />
<br />
: US President George<br />
Another k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of gesture is an adaptor, a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>etic acti<strong>on</strong> used to satisfy a psychological or physical need, such as tapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
feet or play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a pen. Some are learned behaviors, such as cover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's mouth when sneez<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, while others, such as<br />
scratch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, are automatic or biological. Most do not affect communicati<strong>on</strong>, as they are not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to send a message.<br />
However, some are c<strong>on</strong>sidered rude <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular cultures; examples are: "never chew gum <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> France; whistl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g under<br />
any circumstances <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India is c<strong>on</strong>sidered impolite; po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Arab world is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a rude gesture; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult or a sexual propositi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pakistan" (T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-To<strong>on</strong>ey, 1999, p. 126). Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
adaptors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the wr<strong>on</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>text or at the wr<strong>on</strong>g time can be awkward or embarrass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
The universality of facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Some ☰ cultures tend to be much more expressive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rich <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their use of body language than others. Italians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mediterraneans<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general are normally placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that category, while northern Europeans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asians are seen as more restra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their use<br />
of gestures. It is often claimed that facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s – called affects displays – tend to be universal, the idea be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that<br />
express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basic emoti<strong>on</strong>s is an elemental, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive behavior comm<strong>on</strong> to all humans. This idea goes back to Charles Darw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(1872) who claimed all humans express emoti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same way. This was later c<strong>on</strong>tradicted by anthropologists such as<br />
Margaret Mead (1975). It wasn't until the 1960s that so-called "universality studies" were c<strong>on</strong>ducted by Paul Ekman <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
others. In a series of experiments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g participants from a variety of cultures, they showed that there were six universal<br />
expressi<strong>on</strong>s — anger, disgust, fear, sadness, happ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surprise (Ekman, 1972). Later, a seventh expressi<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>tempt,<br />
was added (Ekman & Heider, 1988). As the studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved people from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrialized countries, who may have learned to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret faces from mass media, other studies were c<strong>on</strong>ducted am<strong>on</strong>g tribal groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Gu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ea, which came to similar<br />
results (Ekman & Friesen, 1971). An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experiment c<strong>on</strong>ducted with bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d athletes produced the same results as their<br />
sighted colleagues (Matsumoto & Will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gham, 2009). Because the bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d athletes could not have learned the behaviors, <strong>on</strong>e can<br />
assume there is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate capacity to display facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Figure<br />
: Joy is expressed the same across cultures<br />
What causes particular emoti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensity can be quite different, both pers<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally. It is also<br />
the case that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many c<strong>on</strong>texts we are able to assert c<strong>on</strong>trol over our expressi<strong>on</strong>s. Codes of general c<strong>on</strong>duct, politeness, or<br />
social harm<strong>on</strong>y may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the public display of emoti<strong>on</strong>s. This was shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cross-cultural experiment (Matsumoto &<br />
Ekman, 1989), which studied expressi<strong>on</strong>s of Japanese <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> US students while watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emoti<strong>on</strong>ally disturb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g films. When<br />
both groups of young people were am<strong>on</strong>g themselves, they showed the same expressi<strong>on</strong>s. However, when the Japanese<br />
students were with an older, male observer, they displayed neutral expressi<strong>on</strong>s or even smiled, while the US students c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
to display the same negative emoti<strong>on</strong>s. Ekman <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Friesen (1969) co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the term cultural display rules to describe such<br />
cultural differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s. The c<strong>on</strong>cept expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressi<strong>on</strong>s of the Japanese students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
experiment, as due to the cultural m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan of manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expressi<strong>on</strong>s of feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the presence of a<br />
third party. In Japan it is culturally appropriate to hide unhapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess by smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or embarrassment by laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. While weep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public is c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Middle Eastern or Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American cultures it is normal to express <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>s openly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visibly.<br />
<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>cept of cultural display rules, Matsumoto (1990) developed a theory of the expressi<strong>on</strong> of emoti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates Hofstede's tax<strong>on</strong>omies, particularly as they relate to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism versus collectivism. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the theory,<br />
because <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic cultures encourage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reward self-expressi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those cultures are free to express fully<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctively their feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, whether they be positive or negative. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collectivistic cultures are<br />
bound by c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s of the collective good <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social harm<strong>on</strong>y to regulate their expressi<strong>on</strong> of emoti<strong>on</strong> when not al<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
Matsumoto also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates the c<strong>on</strong>cept of power distance:<br />
High power-distance cultures endorse displays of emoti<strong>on</strong> that re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>force hierarchical<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>s (i.e., status rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ders), such as show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g anger toward a low-status pers<strong>on</strong><br />
or appeas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a high-status pers<strong>on</strong> (e.g., smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). Low power-distance cultures<br />
embrace egalitarian values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach the importance of treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people as equals.<br />
Thus, there is less pressure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these cultures for members to adjust displays of emoti<strong>on</strong><br />
accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the status of another pers<strong>on</strong>. (Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al., 2014)<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
High power distance cultures tend also to be labeled collectivistic; that would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude most Middle-Eastern, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American,<br />
African ☰ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> southern European countries. Low power/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic cultures are c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be South Africa, North<br />
America, Australia, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> northern Europe (Hofstede, 1980). As always, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such broad-stroke generalizati<strong>on</strong>s, cauti<strong>on</strong> is needed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these labels to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals. While dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant cultural forces may be powerful, they may be c<strong>on</strong>tradicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
potentially negated by values associated with group membership, whether those be ethnic, regi<strong>on</strong>al, or other. It is also the case<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual pers<strong>on</strong>alities play a significant role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the degree to which emoti<strong>on</strong>s are displayed or suppressed. The patterns<br />
we've identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior should be seen as examples not as absolutes. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of such potential variati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suspend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g judgments.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al space<br />
One of the acti<strong>on</strong>s which can affect the course of the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> is for <strong>on</strong>e or the other of the c<strong>on</strong>versants to move closer or<br />
further away. Edward Hall (1966) pi<strong>on</strong>eered the study of proxemics, the percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of physical space, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
territoriality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al space. Territoriality refers to the actual physical space, while pers<strong>on</strong>al space is perceptual or<br />
psychological – the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of space bubble that we perceive around us. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts from both Arab <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> US students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a North American university sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, O.M. Wats<strong>on</strong> (1970) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated the n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior of the two groups. He found<br />
that the US students viewed the Arabs as pushy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rude, while the Arabs c<strong>on</strong>sidered the US students to be distant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rude.<br />
He discovered that a substantial part of the problem were different c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s of pers<strong>on</strong>al space, with the US students feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the Arab students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their bubbles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Arab students see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the US students as unfriendly because they were<br />
keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their distance. Hall (1966) developed a four-level classificati<strong>on</strong> of social distance. For the US, he def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate<br />
space, reserved for highly pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships, as 9 to 18 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ches (23 to 45 cm), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al distance ("arm's length") at 1.5<br />
to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 m), the normal spac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. Social distance he established at between 4 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 feet (1.2 to 3.6<br />
m), the spac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> casual gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work envir<strong>on</strong>ments. Public distance he def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 12 feet (3.6 m) or<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger, used for public speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or large gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Researchers have identified particular cultures as "high c<strong>on</strong>tact", mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that there is a preference for a closer proximity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a high degree of physical c<strong>on</strong>tact (Aiello, 1987). Examples frequently<br />
given are Arabs, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Americans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> southern Europeans, who all tend to use closer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> distances then <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> so-called<br />
low c<strong>on</strong>tact cultures (USA, northern Europe, Australia). There are other factors besides regi<strong>on</strong>al culture which may affect<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al distance, such as gender, age, ethnicity, or topic of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure<br />
: In some cultures, people like to keep their distance<br />
<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al distance is sometimes associated with smell. The study of smell <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> humans is called olfactics. In some cultures (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Africa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East, for example) there's a preference for st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g close enough to a pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> to be able<br />
to detect body odor. Odor is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such cases to categorize people accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to status, power, or social class. In many<br />
cultures wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an expensive perfume or cologne can signal status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wealth. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the smell of sweat or str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
body odor is likely to suggest manual labor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lower social status. Some smells are associated with particular ethnic groups<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may lead to prejudicial treatment. The smell of curry, l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to South Asians, has been used as a basis for discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
such as refus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to rent apartments to Indians or Pakistani (Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 2014). Although some smells seem to be universally<br />
attractive (jasm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, lavender, roses) others may vary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how they are perceived across cultures. The smell of <strong>on</strong>i<strong>on</strong>s, for<br />
example, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered unpleasant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cultures, but the Dag<strong>on</strong> people of Mali f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the smell attractive, even to the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of<br />
rubb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>i<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> their bodies (Neuliep, 2006).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: The smell of roses seems universally positive<br />
<br />
Physically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others<br />
There are also cultural c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s related to if <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partner should be touched. This area of n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, tactile communicati<strong>on</strong> or the use of touch, is known as haptics. Touch c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s vary significantly across<br />
cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are dependent as well <strong>on</strong> age, gender, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ship. In some Arab cultures, it is comm<strong>on</strong> for men to hold h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular situati<strong>on</strong>s. Some cultures have a taboo <strong>on</strong> touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the top of some<strong>on</strong>e's head, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> patt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a child, as the head is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered sacred. Another taboo, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, the Middle East, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa, is the use of the left h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social situati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Cooper, Calloway-Thomas & Sim<strong>on</strong>ds (2007) provide a set of rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to touch <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thai culture:<br />
D<strong>on</strong>’t touch any<strong>on</strong>e’s head for any reas<strong>on</strong>. The head is the most important part of the body. It is the seat of the soul.<br />
Do not touch a female <strong>on</strong> any part of her body.<br />
The feet are c<strong>on</strong>sidered the “dirtiest” part of the body. They are used <strong>on</strong>ly for walk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Thus, it is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sult to rest your feet<br />
<strong>on</strong> some<strong>on</strong>e else’s backrest, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ema or <strong>on</strong> a tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Women must never touch a m<strong>on</strong>k or his robe. Even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a bus or tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Women cannot sit next to a m<strong>on</strong>k.<br />
Always accept th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with your right h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The left h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is used to Wash the posterior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is therefore regarded as unclean<br />
(p. 138).<br />
Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of such taboos <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g another culture can make seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly strange behavior underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>able <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help to avoid<br />
embarrass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g faux-pas.<br />
Eye c<strong>on</strong>tact is often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded as a topic with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> proxemics as it tends to regulate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al distance. Direct eye c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
tends to shorten the sense of distance, while an averted gaze <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases it. In many cultures, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many Asian countries,<br />
avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g eye c<strong>on</strong>tact c<strong>on</strong>veys respect. In some situati<strong>on</strong>s, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g eye c<strong>on</strong>tact communicates that <strong>on</strong>e is pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off eye c<strong>on</strong>tact can be a signal of dis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest or even rudeness. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, different ethnic groups have been<br />
found to follow different norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of eye c<strong>on</strong>tact to regulate c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. African-Americans ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> eye c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
when speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but avert their gaze when listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but just the opposite is true for European Americans (LaFrance & Mayo,<br />
1978). This dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> can lead to c<strong>on</strong>flict:<br />
Interethnic expectancy violati<strong>on</strong>s exist when African Americans expect the European<br />
Americans to look them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the eyes when speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead receive “n<strong>on</strong>resp<strong>on</strong>siveness”<br />
or “<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>difference” cues. European Americans, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, may<br />
view the direct eye gaze dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as “c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tati<strong>on</strong>al” or “aggressive” (T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-<br />
Toomey, 1999, p.126).<br />
In both pluralistic societies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural encounters, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful of variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area is important. Nora<br />
Dresser's book, Multicultural Matters (2005), chr<strong>on</strong>icles how Korean-American shopkeepers, who did not make eye c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
with their customers, were perceived as disrespectful, someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the open c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tati<strong>on</strong> tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US<br />
urban centers between some Asians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> African-Americans. In some c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> urban areas am<strong>on</strong>g teens<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> young adults, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directly at some<strong>on</strong>e can be seen as a provocati<strong>on</strong>, reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the term "mad-dogg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" (Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et<br />
al., 2015).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Groups may have different expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g eye c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 5.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42983
5.2: N<strong>on</strong>verbal Messag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Paralanguage: C<strong>on</strong>vey<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through ways of Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Body language is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g signals dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. So-called regulators are n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong>s or behaviors<br />
which serve to direct or manage c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. Of significant importance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural communicati<strong>on</strong> are aspects of<br />
paralanguage, such as t<strong>on</strong>e of voice, rate of speech, or loudness. T<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> can have a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect <strong>on</strong> the<br />
message c<strong>on</strong>veyed, turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a statement, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a sarcastic comment. The volume, fluency, or rhythm of speech can<br />
transmit to the listener <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> such as degree of c<strong>on</strong>fidence, nervousness, or even perceived trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of the<br />
speaker. Our cultural backgrounds tend to lead us to make assumpti<strong>on</strong>s about another pers<strong>on</strong>'s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s or feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs based <strong>on</strong><br />
paral<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic clues. Harry Tri<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>is (1994) provides a dramatic example of mis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocal clues:<br />
In January, 1991, James Baker, then the United States Secretary of State, met with<br />
Tariq Aziz, the Foreign M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister of Iraq. They met <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effort to reach an agreement<br />
that would prevent a war. Also present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the room was the half-brother of Saddam<br />
Husse<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, whose role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded frequent calls to Husse<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with updates <strong>on</strong> the talks.<br />
Baker stated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard calm manner, that the US. would attack if Iraq did not<br />
move out of Kuwait. Husse<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ’s half-brother heard these words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reported that “The<br />
Americans will not attack. They are weak. They are calm. They are not angry. They<br />
are <strong>on</strong>ly talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.” Six days later Iraq saw Desert Storm <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the loss of about 175,000<br />
of their citizens. Tri<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>is argued that Iraqis attend to how someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is said more<br />
than what is said. He further suggests that if Baker had pounded the table, yelled, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
shown outward signs of anger, the outcome may have been entirely different (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
& Nakayama, 2010, p. 277).<br />
The voice qualities of a speaker can be as important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>vey<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a message as the semantic value of the words spoken. If<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e is articulate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coherent, we tend to form a favorable impressi<strong>on</strong>, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the pers<strong>on</strong> is<br />
trustworthy. If some<strong>on</strong>e is hesitant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imprecise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speech, we may ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unfavorable op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>, no matter what it is that the<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> says. Scholars who engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> analysis have shown even slight modificati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> voice t<strong>on</strong>e or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
can send a message to the listener. John Gumperz (1982), for example, provides a number of examples of misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
between Indians speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> native Brit<strong>on</strong>s due to prosody, or the vocalic shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of utterances, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pitch,<br />
volume, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tempo.<br />
One of the phenomena that c<strong>on</strong>tributes to manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> are vocalizati<strong>on</strong>s, sounds that do not carry <strong>on</strong> their own any<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These might be fillers or vocalized pauses, such as "er" or "uh-huh" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English or "Este…" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spanish. Often they are<br />
used as c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al backchannels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the speaker that we are listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In some cases, vocal regulators may be<br />
mis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts. The Japanese filler hai hai is often used by natives <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of "I hear you",<br />
but given that hai literally means "yes" there may be misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a n<strong>on</strong>-native assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a positive affirmati<strong>on</strong>, rather<br />
than merely an acknowledgement of hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g heard the speaker. Vocalizati<strong>on</strong>s may also provide guidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that a listener is ready to move <strong>on</strong> to another topic.<br />
Manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
One of the role vocalizati<strong>on</strong>s play is to functi<strong>on</strong> as a backchannel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, a way for a listener to send messages to the<br />
speaker (Yngve, 1970). This may c<strong>on</strong>sist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English o sounds such as "uh-huh" or "hmm", or words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> phrases like "yes" or<br />
"go <strong>on</strong>". Backchannel resp<strong>on</strong>ses play different roles; they may encourage the speaker to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate the extent of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest, or assess the speaker's statements, i.e., agree<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ("Right”) or express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g doubt ("Do you really th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k so?”). There may<br />
be more than simple words or phrases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved, namely l<strong>on</strong>ger utterances complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the speaker's sentences, request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
clarificati<strong>on</strong>, or attempt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to take the floor. Background communicati<strong>on</strong> occurs across cultures, but may vary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s, which can cause c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> or awkwardness.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
How c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s flow varies with culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text. In situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which a strict hierarchy is present or when the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> is highly formal, there may be fixed patterns for manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> signal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g when it is over. In such<br />
situati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a speaker may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate. There are c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al norms which may play a role. In particular<br />
cultures, it is comm<strong>on</strong>, even expected, for others to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupt a speaker frequently. In France, for example, this is seen as part<br />
of what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a good c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
[Interrupti<strong>on</strong>s] signal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other’s remark, which merits a commentary, a<br />
word of appreciati<strong>on</strong>, denial, protest, or laughter–<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> short, a reacti<strong>on</strong> without which<br />
the remark would ‘fall flat.’ The ball is tossed to be caught <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tossed back. Where<br />
there is no ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupti<strong>on</strong>,’ when each pers<strong>on</strong> speaks sedately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn (as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the French), the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> never ‘takes off’; it rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
polite, formal, cold (Carroll, 1988, p. 37).<br />
While this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of sp<strong>on</strong>taneity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequent back-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-forth is seen by the French (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures) as stimulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, it may<br />
be seen by some as chaotic or rude.<br />
Some paral<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic behaviors are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive, others are learned. South Koreans, for example, are socialized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g loud<br />
speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public. In some cultures, the use of silence can be an important aspect of communicati<strong>on</strong>. In the US,<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g pauses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s are awkward. In F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some Asian cultures, silence is valued as offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for<br />
thought or reflecti<strong>on</strong>, or as a sign of respect, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terlocutor to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish. In his ethnographic study of the<br />
Western Apache Native American tribe, Keith Basso (1970) reported that silence was used for "unscripted" social situati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as unforeseen encounters, talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with strangers, first dates, times of mourn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those who had been away for<br />
an extended period of time. Later, Charles Braithwaite (1999) exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the study of the role of silence to a variety of cultures,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which silence tends to be part of the communicative pattern. He c<strong>on</strong>firmed Basso's f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that silence is seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there is uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty, ambiguity, or unpredictability. He also found that silence is often used<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the participants represent different positi<strong>on</strong>s of power or authority.<br />
One of the aspects of speech which affect listener percepti<strong>on</strong> is the speaker's accent. N<strong>on</strong>-native accents can often stigmatize<br />
the speaker, evok<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stereotypes associated with social class, ethnic background, ec<strong>on</strong>omic status, or level of educati<strong>on</strong>. In<br />
some cases, a particular accent, such as a British accent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, is perceived positively. In most cases, however, accents are<br />
perceived negatively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may have real-world c<strong>on</strong>sequences for the speaker <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters<br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Physical appearance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dress<br />
One of the important n<strong>on</strong>verbal signals all humans send comes through our appearance, i.e. how we dress, arrange our hair, or<br />
use body art. Many cultures have rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s for dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appearance, established through custom or religious<br />
beliefs. Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Muslim countries, for example, dress so that their hair is covered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases, also their bodies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
faces. In some cases, dress can provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about social/ec<strong>on</strong>omic positi<strong>on</strong>, marital status, or age. In Japan, women's<br />
komodos vary accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the time of year <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> occasi<strong>on</strong>, but also based <strong>on</strong> marital status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> age. For the Masai tribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Kenya, earr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> necklaces designate the marital status of women, while men wear earr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arm r<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that show their<br />
social status, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whether they are elders or warriors (V<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ehey, Buergh & Krueger, 1996). In rural northern India, the<br />
level of a woman's veil over her face can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate romantic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest or dis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest (Lambert & Wood, 2005). Dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical<br />
appearance can be important identifiers for membership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular groups. Members of motorcycle gangs wear black leather<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> heavy boots. Japanese bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>essmen ("salarymen") wear dark, c<strong>on</strong>servative suits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ties. Japanese tourists often<br />
wear a resort hotel's yukata (a lightweight komodo) signal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the town their role (T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey, 1999). In this way,<br />
forms of dress serve as identity markers. Certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> uniforms signal professi<strong>on</strong>s, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of police officers or members of<br />
the military, while also c<strong>on</strong>vey<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sense of authority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> power.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
Figure<br />
: Woman wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a niqab (veil)<br />
Body pierc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tattoos, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> byg<strong>on</strong>e days, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators of low-prestige socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic status (sailors, carnival workers), have<br />
become ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream am<strong>on</strong>g young people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere. Older people are likely to reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the images from the past<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may have a negative view of heavily tattooed or pierced young people. One of the persistent stereotypes is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regards to<br />
women's dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appearance. Young women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i skirts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tank tops, especially if bl<strong>on</strong>de, may be perceived as flighty<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligent. Muslim women wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a hijab face prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many n<strong>on</strong>-Muslim countries, which is<br />
even more pr<strong>on</strong>ounced for those wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a whole body burqua. In some Western countries, wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traditi<strong>on</strong>al Muslim female<br />
dress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools has been banned. In the US, hooded sweatshirts (hoodies) are often associated with young black<br />
men. In Florida, a young black man, Treyv<strong>on</strong> Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, was wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a hoodie when shot dead by a white "neighborhood watch"<br />
member as he was return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from a c<strong>on</strong>venience store. The white man found Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "suspicious", due to his sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
attire.<br />
<br />
Figure<br />
: Tattoos have become ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cultures<br />
Appearance messages are generally the first n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes we process, siz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up the other pers<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color,<br />
appearance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The first impressi<strong>on</strong> might determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e our attitude towards another pers<strong>on</strong>, help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
whether we want to get to know that pers<strong>on</strong> or not. Sometimes, some features of the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s appearance might lead to<br />
specific pre-judgments. One of those might be the particular shade of sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Black people with darker sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> are sometimes<br />
viewed as somehow less attractive or hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g lower status than Blacks with lighter sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Light-sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ned Blacks may feel<br />
discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st as well (see sidebar). In South American countries such as Brazil, there is a rich mix of ethnicities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
races, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a wide range of sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> colors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a complex social hierarchy, built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part <strong>on</strong> the particular shade of <strong>on</strong>e's sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Different Shades of Black Identity<br />
<br />
If you are a light-sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ned Black pers<strong>on</strong>, you are looked up<strong>on</strong> as "uppity" or th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that you’re too good. This is<br />
someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g I have come across a lot. For my first year of college, I attended the first historically Black college, L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>coln<br />
University. It was my first time be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g around that many African Americans (the high school I attended was mostly<br />
Caucasian). I am naturally shy, so I would walk around not speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to any<strong>on</strong>e. In many cases I would walk around<br />
look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the ground or just with no expressi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> my face whatsoever. I was viewed as the "uppity" light-sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ned girl<br />
who thought she was too good for every<strong>on</strong>e else. - Ami<br />
Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al., 2014, p. 149.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
In some cases, we are c<strong>on</strong>scious of the dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctive views we may have towards those with a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> appearance. Many US<br />
Americans, for example, have heard so much s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 2001 about Muslims <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terrorism, that some<strong>on</strong>e perceived to be Muslim<br />
by their appearance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dress likely triggers already well-established <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-acknowledged views <strong>on</strong> Muslims. The largely<br />
negative stereotypes can have tragic c<strong>on</strong>sequences, as the acts of violence towards Muslims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere has<br />
shown. In some cases, the perceived target may not even represent the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended group. The first victim of revenge kill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the US follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the September 11, 2001 attacks was not a Muslim, but a Sikh gas stati<strong>on</strong> manager <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ariz<strong>on</strong>a shot down by a<br />
man vow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to kill "towel heads" (Basu, 2016).<br />
In many cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals may not be aware of the negative attitudes towards others. Humans naturally tend to categorize, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that process <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes group<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together other humans. We likely do that with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals we meet without be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of this<br />
process of implicit bias. This is a phenomen<strong>on</strong> that scientists have been study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for some time, namely that even wellmean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
people have hidden prejudices aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st those of other races. Studies have shown subtle biases are widespread <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
US, especially aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st Blacks, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lead to discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, professi<strong>on</strong>al life, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(Yudk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at al., 2016). In the US recently, the issue has arisen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with white police officer's us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
unarmed young black men. Studies have shown that "implicit bias can be overcome with rati<strong>on</strong>al deliberati<strong>on</strong>" (Yadk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Van<br />
Bavel, 2016). Many police departments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US have begun the process of mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g police officers aware of their biases.<br />
Project Implicit from Harvard university provides an <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e process for analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's possible biases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of areas,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attitudes towards race, sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> t<strong>on</strong>e, religi<strong>on</strong>, sexuality, Arab/Muslims, age, disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> weight. These are all areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which implicit bias may be present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. Other cultures are likely to have some of the same biases, al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with others. In recent years, corporati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> North America have begun to offer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to employees to make them aware of<br />
hidden biases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an effort to treat their customers equitably, regardless of race or ethnicity. Whether such tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is effective –<br />
particularly when offered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e-time short tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ars — is questi<strong>on</strong>able (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2018).<br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal expectancy violati<strong>on</strong> theory<br />
As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other areas tied to cultural values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors, people develop an expectati<strong>on</strong> of c<strong>on</strong>formity with the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
the culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case with the unwritten rules of n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior. In the US, we d<strong>on</strong>'t expect women to wear headscarves<br />
as normal everyday attire. We do expect to shake h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s up<strong>on</strong> meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e for the first time, which may not happen if, as<br />
a n<strong>on</strong>-related man, we are meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Muslim woman. Such occurrences are, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the formulati<strong>on</strong> of Judee Burgo<strong>on</strong> (1978),<br />
violati<strong>on</strong>s of n<strong>on</strong>verbal expectancy. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to this theory, people have expectati<strong>on</strong>s about the appropriateness of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior, which is learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally driven. When these expectati<strong>on</strong>s are violated, it produces a reacti<strong>on</strong> she<br />
describes as "arousal", which can be physiological or cognitive, positive or negative. Our reacti<strong>on</strong> depends <strong>on</strong> the severity of<br />
the violati<strong>on</strong>, the nature of the pers<strong>on</strong> (such as attractiveness), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the implicit message associated with the violati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pers<strong>on</strong> will determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e our reacti<strong>on</strong>. If a pers<strong>on</strong> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g too close at a party (thereby violat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al space)<br />
is attractive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> well groomed, the reacti<strong>on</strong> is likely to be quite different than if that pers<strong>on</strong> is perceived as slovenly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
unattractive.<br />
Reacti<strong>on</strong>s to violati<strong>on</strong>s of n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes depend as well <strong>on</strong> the nature of our communicative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural envir<strong>on</strong>ment. If we<br />
are accustomed to high-c<strong>on</strong>text communicati<strong>on</strong>s, we may be more dependent <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>verbal messages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are therefore more<br />
adept at decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior. In that case, for example, silence might be evaluated positively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perceived quite<br />
differently than it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures where periods of silence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> run counter to expectati<strong>on</strong>s. In <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>texts, violati<strong>on</strong>s of expectati<strong>on</strong>s by a n<strong>on</strong>-native could be seen as naïve/endear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or strange/rude<br />
depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> how we view that pers<strong>on</strong>. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Hofstede's cultural categories, Burgo<strong>on</strong> po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that violat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> high<br />
uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty avoidance cultures is likely to be less acceptable. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, countries with lower power distance may be<br />
more flexible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of rules about verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors.<br />
In the South Asian countries, sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <strong>on</strong>e’s back towards some<strong>on</strong>e older <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> age or authority, or hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the soles of <strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
feet face some<strong>on</strong>e older <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> age or stature or authority, or books – the source of knowledge, or the altar, is c<strong>on</strong>sidered very rude<br />
(Malik, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, September 18, 2017). That is the reas<strong>on</strong> why <strong>on</strong>e is unlikely to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d book shelves or altars at<br />
the feet of the bed or aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st or <strong>on</strong> the wall fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the feet of the bed. It is also c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate to have an altar or,<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>aly, the photographs of <strong>on</strong>e’s ancestors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a bedroom that is likely to be used as a c<strong>on</strong>jugal bedroom.<br />
One of the cultural norms that may lead to adverse reacti<strong>on</strong>s is the public display of affecti<strong>on</strong>. In most Western cultures, there<br />
has l<strong>on</strong>g been acceptance of heterosexual couples touch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> kiss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public. The degree to which this occurs differs.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
Researchers have found that this is more comm<strong>on</strong>, for example, am<strong>on</strong>g French <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Italian young couples than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US<br />
(Field, 1999; DiBiase & Gunnoe, 2004). Acceptance of homosexual couples is widespread today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many Western countries,<br />
but not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other parts of the world. In most Muslim cultures, the strict separati<strong>on</strong> of unmarried people disallows even<br />
heterosexual c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public. In India, some public displays of affecti<strong>on</strong> are taboo. In 2007, US actor Richard Gere faced<br />
widespread c<strong>on</strong>demnati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, after kiss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Indian actress Shilpa Shetty at a televised fund-rais<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g event. A photo of the<br />
kiss made fr<strong>on</strong>t-page news across India, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effigies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> photos of both Gere <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shetty were burned. An Indian court issued<br />
an arrest warrant for Gere, as he had "transgressed all limits of vulgarity" (Indian Court, 2007).<br />
Figure<br />
: Richard Gere kisses Shilpa Shetty<br />
It is of course not possible to know all the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outs of n<strong>on</strong>verbal transgressi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> every country. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, it is<br />
certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly possible to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed about the cultural practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries which we plan to visit or am<strong>on</strong>g local communities<br />
with whom we are likely to have c<strong>on</strong>tact. To the extent possible, we should act <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with the cultural expectati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
That might mean tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off shoes before enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a home, or dress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more modestly then we would normally. On the other<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, we may oppose particular practices for religious, political, or philosophical reas<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sciously refuse to adapt to<br />
local customs. That might mean, for example, women not accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the prescribed cultural role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior, bear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or dress<br />
expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a particular culture. In general, it is good practice to anticipate n<strong>on</strong>verbal expectati<strong>on</strong>s to the degree possible. Even<br />
if we d<strong>on</strong>'t know the specifics of expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given culture, we can certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly observe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn. Burgo<strong>on</strong>'s theory suggests<br />
that if we are well-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ed, yet unaware of specific practices, it is likely others will be lenient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> overlook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
transgressi<strong>on</strong>s. In fact, it may be that expectati<strong>on</strong>s for foreigners <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this regard are different than they are for natives. Koreans,<br />
for example, would likely not expect foreigners be familiar with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tricacies of bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as they <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terface with Korean social<br />
hierarchies.<br />
<br />
Music: Another way to communicate n<strong>on</strong>verbally<br />
Music is a "universal language" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it is understood without the need for language. Music plays many different roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
human society – enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, comfort<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, socializ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more. It can br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people together (anthems, c<strong>on</strong>cert<br />
venues, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together, celebratory music) or pull them apart (protest s<strong>on</strong>gs, generati<strong>on</strong>al differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> taste,<br />
distasteful/hateful lyrics). Two examples from Germany illustrate that c<strong>on</strong>trast. The Horst Wessel Lied was the anthem of Nazi<br />
Germany, celebrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hatred. Beethoven's Ode to Joy (the last movement of the 9th Symph<strong>on</strong>y, based <strong>on</strong> a poem<br />
by Friedrich Schiller) has been adopted as the unofficial anthem of the European Uni<strong>on</strong>. It celebrates brotherhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
solidarity. Our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest here is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> music as a marker of cultural identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a n<strong>on</strong>-verbal form of c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
across cultures.<br />
Ethnomusicology is the study of music <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>text. Like <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong>, the field <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from many different discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es. From the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a major focus has been <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>-Western music, with many practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnographic fieldwork. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> document<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the music, language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural practices<br />
of underrepresented ethnic groups. One of the pi<strong>on</strong>eers of this field was Alan Lomax, who recorded folk music <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1940s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1950s. His work c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the folk music revival of that time. Today, there are efforts underway<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
to preserve endangered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous music traditi<strong>on</strong>s, just as there are to save languages from ext<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>. Cather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Grant's<br />
book, Music Endangerment (2004) chr<strong>on</strong>icles some of those efforts.<br />
Figure : Record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Blackfoot chief Mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chief <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1916<br />
In recent decades, ethnomusicologists have been particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the effects of globalizati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> music traditi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
worldwide. The popularity of rock 'n' roll music <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the late 20th century, for example, spread not <strong>on</strong>ly the English language<br />
worldwide, but also particular values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices of Anglo-American youth culture. Globalizati<strong>on</strong> has resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
development of many hybridized musical forms. Traditi<strong>on</strong>al folk music <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> am<strong>on</strong>g diaspora<br />
communities, is often mixed with modern musical genres, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> new musical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural mixes. Immigrant<br />
communities will often have complex music practices. Young people are likely to listen to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream popular music but also<br />
be exposed to traditi<strong>on</strong>al music of their culture by way of religious, celebratory, or family events. Older members of the<br />
community may try to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a "pure" musical traditi<strong>on</strong> as a means to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their culture with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an encompass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g foreign<br />
culture with different values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language.<br />
Fock (1997) exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the complexity of such an immigrant community <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case of Turks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Copenhagen, Denmark. She<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>icles how Turkish music is viewed differently when heard <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different locales. If played <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Turkish restaurant, for<br />
example, Turkish music is received favorably by Danes, as a c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to an appropriately "exotic" atmosphere. However,<br />
hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Turkish music played at a street kiosk may be perceived negatively, giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the "Danish customers the feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of not<br />
bel<strong>on</strong>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" (Fock, 1997, p.56). A third encounter might be even more irritat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for Danes:<br />
<br />
Out <strong>on</strong> the street aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> you might hear heavy Turkish pop from a car driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by.<br />
Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the result probably is irritati<strong>on</strong>, but now comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
directi<strong>on</strong> of social rejecti<strong>on</strong>: ‘They are giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Danish society the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger’. Carblast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
is a normal phenomen<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth culture, yet when it is performed by<br />
youngsters with Turkish background it is often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a special cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provocative way (p. 56).<br />
In fact, the young Turks are likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent not <strong>on</strong> irritat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Danes, but <strong>on</strong> attract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the attenti<strong>on</strong> of those of their own<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>, especially girls.<br />
Music has been a vital part of worldwide youth cultures s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce at least the 1950s. Today, musical genres easily cross political<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic boundaries. In some cases, imported musical genres are subsequently adapted to local c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. That is the<br />
case for hip-hop or rap music. It orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Br<strong>on</strong>x secti<strong>on</strong> of New York City, so<strong>on</strong> mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to urban centers <strong>on</strong> both the<br />
east <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> west coast of the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then around the globe. Hip-hop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves not just music, but also socio-political narratives<br />
about poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> street life. It is also associated with certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> forms of dress – low hang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pants, gaudy jewelry, caps worn<br />
sidewise, dark glasses. From the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, hip-hop culture was l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to place, with DJ's (disc jockeys) hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their own<br />
"territory" (Sorrells, 2015). It was also early associated with the use of gang-derived "tagg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" (mark<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g territory), transformed<br />
eventually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to graffiti.<br />
As hip-hop has found its way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to other cultures, the local characteristics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated. In Germany, for<br />
example, some of the best known rap music has been created by Turkish Germans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> touches <strong>on</strong> issues of identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>. Similar trends are evident elsewhere:<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
While the communicative practices of hip hop cultures around the world are clearly<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to the African diasporic col<strong>on</strong>ial experience, they also rework the qualities of<br />
flow, layer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rupture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their place-based specificity as global forces c<strong>on</strong>verge<br />
with local forces...Hip hop culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> styles develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> France <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Italy provide<br />
spaces to address local issues of racism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>cerns over police brutality. In<br />
Sweden, the hip hop scene am<strong>on</strong>g ethnic m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities focuses <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>struct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
collective oppositi<strong>on</strong>al identity to resist the White sk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>head youth culture...For Maoris<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> New Zeal<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, rap music groups speak out for the rights of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous groups<br />
around the world. Hip hop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan is often used as a means of identity dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
youth who want to mark themselves as different from the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture (Sorrells,<br />
2015, pp. 85–86).<br />
The use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other c<strong>on</strong>texts of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> forms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US black <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner-city envir<strong>on</strong>ments raises the issue of<br />
cultural appropriati<strong>on</strong>. Some may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it disrespectful or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>authentic for white rappers to borrow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rework Black cultural<br />
practices, developed out of a struggle for recogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ghetto communities. Others may po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact rap<br />
music is today a profit-mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this commodificati<strong>on</strong> of an art form liberates it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some way from be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bound to<br />
its orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. However that may be, rap has become so <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the music scene <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> so many countries as to make its orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
mute. The music itself reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s many critics, who may accept the music as supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a voice to those <strong>on</strong> the fr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ges of society,<br />
but who still f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that many rappers c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to perpetuate unfortunate stereotypes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prejudices around communities of<br />
color, violence, misogyny, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> homophobia (Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2014).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/22/2021 5.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42984
5.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - Semiotics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet<br />
One of the trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years is to view language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a larger c<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not just the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
structure of language, but how it is used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wider social c<strong>on</strong>texts, sometimes referred to as language ecology. This is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
with an approach to culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g known as semiotics, the study of how mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is c<strong>on</strong>veyed through signs. A "social<br />
semiotic" view of language has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced the approach to language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, view<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it as a social, dialogic process of<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes different media, modes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> symbols. Claire Kramsch expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s:<br />
Whereas folk noti<strong>on</strong>s of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g see it as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cremental accumulati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
atomistic structures that moves the learner from word to sentence, from sentence to<br />
paragraph, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from paragraph to text, a social semiotic approach c<strong>on</strong>siders<br />
language as a holistic network of various signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
gestures, silences, body postures, graphic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other visual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acoustic symbols,<br />
which shape a c<strong>on</strong>text of mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vite us to resp<strong>on</strong>d to it. (2002)<br />
This multimodal approach to language is particularly apt given the nature of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet age. With the<br />
enhanced multimedia capabilities of mobile ph<strong>on</strong>es, everyday communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates n<strong>on</strong>verbal resources<br />
such as photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos. Mobile apps like Instagram are used to communicate through images <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video clips. Instagram<br />
users <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn can c<strong>on</strong>nect their accounts to social network services such as Facebook, Twitter, or Flickr. Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, we are<br />
see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multimodal communicati<strong>on</strong> mediated through networked devices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services. Users may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> a<br />
wearable device such as an Apple Watch (maybe send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a heartbeat), follow up with photos from a smartph<strong>on</strong>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> later<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Facebook <strong>on</strong> their tablet or laptop.<br />
Semioticians look not <strong>on</strong>ly at language use, but also exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the significance of cultural phenomena such as advertisements,<br />
films, or graffiti. One of the key figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this field was Ferd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> de Saussure, who dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guished between a signifier (such<br />
as a word like "tree") <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the signified (the natural object <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the forest). The sign is the comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of the signified <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
signifier, establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the two. Semioticians po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the fact that different cultures might have<br />
different relati<strong>on</strong>ships between the signifier <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the signified. One might, for example, show respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e culture by avert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong>es gaze, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another culture <strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>veys the same mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to some<strong>on</strong>e's eyes.<br />
Semoiticians today frequently use the c<strong>on</strong>cept of "symbiotic resources":<br />
[I] def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e semiotic resources as the acti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> artifacts we use to communicate,<br />
whether they are produced physiologically – with our vocal apparatus; with the<br />
muscles we use to create facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures, etc. – or by means of<br />
technologies – with pen, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paper; with computer hardware <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> software; with<br />
fabrics, scissors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, etc. Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally they were called ‘signs’. For<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, a frown would be a sign of disapproval, the color red a sign of danger, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
so <strong>on</strong>. Signs were said to be the uni<strong>on</strong> of a signifier – an observable form such as a<br />
certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> facial expressi<strong>on</strong>, or a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> color – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a signified – a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g such as<br />
disapproval or danger. The sign was c<strong>on</strong>sidered the fundamental c<strong>on</strong>cept of<br />
semiotics...In social semiotics the term ‘resource’ is preferred, because it avoids the<br />
impressi<strong>on</strong> that ‘what a sign st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for’ is somehow pre-given, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not affected by its<br />
use (van Leeuwen, 2005, p. 3).<br />
This noti<strong>on</strong> that signs are dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> change over time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different c<strong>on</strong>texts, highlights the transformative nature<br />
of communicati<strong>on</strong>. On the Internet we are not just c<strong>on</strong>sumers but creators. From a symbiotic perspective, we are sign-makers<br />
who shape <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e semiotic resources to reflect our own <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests. We might do mashups of YouTube videos (substitut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
our own soundtrack), write fanficti<strong>on</strong> transform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g anime storyl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, or use Google Photos to create <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stant image-based<br />
narratives to share. One of the <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e activities young people favor is play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplayer games, which br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together a<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/8/2021 5.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48846
variety of semiotic resources, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g history, eye-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>, language ability (to chat with other gamers),<br />
strategic reas<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a host of other resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills.<br />
Explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the multiple dimensi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which cultures express mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identity is facilitated by the media capture<br />
capabilities now available <strong>on</strong> mobile devices. One can explore the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly rich cultural diversity of many urban<br />
"l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes" through captur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g street signs, store displays, graffiti, billboards, posted pers<strong>on</strong>al ads,<br />
community bullet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> boards, or restaurant menus. Such "realia" have l<strong>on</strong>g been a staple resource <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
they also offer rich fodder for cultural study. Scholars such as J<strong>on</strong> Bloomeart have explored how the study of the variety of<br />
signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a neighborhood can reveal its history, ethnic makeup, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tergroup dynamics (2013). Students of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culture can go bey<strong>on</strong>d captur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g images <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> take advantage of the audio/video features of mobile devices to film street scenes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> capture c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. A particularly rich source of cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews with residents, which<br />
could be weaved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to compell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g digital stories. "Digital storytell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" is a powerful tool for explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al experiences<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> histories, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos. In cross-cultural studies, this offers an opportunity to capture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflect <strong>on</strong><br />
"rich po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts", those experiences that are revelatory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of both the other culture or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's own values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
perspectives.<br />
The built-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> GPS capabilities of today's smart ph<strong>on</strong>es allows images <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos to be geo-tagged, enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the creati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>alized maps, place-based photo stories, or narrated city tours. That capability has been used to create <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative mobile<br />
games for language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The ARIS platform (for Augmented Reality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interactive Storytell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) enables<br />
sophisticated mobile game creati<strong>on</strong> featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g augmented reality, the ability to overlay textural or other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> overviews<br />
captured by a ph<strong>on</strong>e camera (Holden & Sykes, 2011). The tool allows for creati<strong>on</strong> of games with quite <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g features, that<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e a virtual envir<strong>on</strong>ment with real-world locati<strong>on</strong>s. QR (Quick Resp<strong>on</strong>se) codes, for example, can be posted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
designated areas, which, when scanned with a camera, provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> that locati<strong>on</strong> or further game directi<strong>on</strong>s. Game<br />
players have access with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the app to record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g audio <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there is even an image match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g functi<strong>on</strong>ality, which<br />
compares photos taken with those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the game, trigger<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g possible game events. One game created with ARIS is Mentira,<br />
which comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es virtual experiences with real-world visits to locati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Albuquerque, New Mexico. The object of the game is<br />
to solve a murder mystery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves users ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> from site visits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with n<strong>on</strong>-play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the game. Another game created with ARIS is Chr<strong>on</strong>o-Ops. The game has an ecological theme: players are<br />
tasked with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability projects to save the planet. Directi<strong>on</strong>s are given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e of three different languages. As part<br />
of the game process, users write texts, record audio, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shoot video, all of which can become assets for future players. All<br />
ARIS games can be downloaded from the project site.<br />
Another aspect of language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which images can play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> important role is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary development. It has been<br />
known for some time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d-language acquisiti<strong>on</strong> that for many learners associat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words with pictures aids <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g flashcards with pictures rather than L1 equivalents can be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bypass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g native language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terference. One of the<br />
memory techniques that has proven to be highly successful is the use of images associated with words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to create<br />
a "memory palace". It <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a walk-through of the rooms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with which <strong>on</strong>e is well acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted (or can<br />
imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> detail) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each item <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the room with a memorable image which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some way c<strong>on</strong>jures the word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it<br />
is mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. To recall an item, <strong>on</strong>e walks back mentally through the rooms. One of the memory techniques psychologists have<br />
shown to be effective is known as "spaced repetiti<strong>on</strong>". The idea is that there is a particular optimal rhythm for review<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items<br />
to be learned until they are committed to l<strong>on</strong>g-term memory. Instead of study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or test<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e’s knowledge of a set of items<br />
every day, it is better to study them <strong>on</strong>e day, wait perhaps 3 days to study them aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, then wait another 7 days after that.<br />
Programs that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporate spaced repetiti<strong>on</strong> are set up to keep records of work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with sets of words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> automatically<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g review at optimal times. There are a number of digital flashcard programs which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude that functi<strong>on</strong>ality.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/8/2021 5.3.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48846
5.4: Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g N<strong>on</strong>verbally (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice...<br />
Here are some c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> respect to n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters:<br />
– Be cautious <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assumpti<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong>s. The same gestures may have quite different mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
different cultures. We often tend to assume body language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures are universal, but that is not the case.<br />
– Try to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultural values attached to n<strong>on</strong>verbal c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s. In follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the technique of "thick descripti<strong>on</strong>s"<br />
of cultural phenomena, try to penetrate beneath the surface of the behavior. C<strong>on</strong>sider as well whether the behavior may be<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> idiosyncratic, rather than cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typical.<br />
– Watch <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imitate as appropriate. In some cases, adopt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the different n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior might be easy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
straightforward, for example, bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan. In other cases, divergence might be more appropriate, for example, refra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from kneel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>g with Muslims <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prayer services.<br />
For discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
1. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED videos by Amy Cuddy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> R<strong>on</strong> Gutman, address the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
In your view, what effect do n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors, like smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or body posture, have <strong>on</strong> relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others? Are<br />
they important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> work spaces, school, or family envir<strong>on</strong>ments? What are, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> your op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> the most effective n<strong>on</strong>verbal<br />
strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> work or school? Discuss any experiences you have had<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area.<br />
2. Violat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g n<strong>on</strong>-verbal norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the "N<strong>on</strong>-verbal expectancy violati<strong>on</strong> model" (see the secti<strong>on</strong> of the text with this title), describe some cultural or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural violati<strong>on</strong> you have experienced or witnessed (as the <strong>on</strong>e who violated others' expectati<strong>on</strong>s, or as the <strong>on</strong>e whose<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s were violated).<br />
Does the violati<strong>on</strong> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "arousal"?<br />
How does the pers<strong>on</strong> perceiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the violati<strong>on</strong> evaluate the acti<strong>on</strong>? The communicator?<br />
What is the pers<strong>on</strong>'s resp<strong>on</strong>se?<br />
What factors might lead to a positive or negative resp<strong>on</strong>se to a violati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
What are the strengths <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limitati<strong>on</strong>s of the theory?<br />
3. Appearance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assumpti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
After read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Salbi essay <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the talk by Abdel-Magied..<br />
Salbi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abdel-Magied give examples of assumpti<strong>on</strong>s made about women wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g headscarves. What other cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items or<br />
style of dress may lead to automatic judgments about the wearer? How about percepti<strong>on</strong>s of those with significant body<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s (tattoos, pierc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs)? What role, if any, do percepti<strong>on</strong>s vary based <strong>on</strong> age, gender, nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, or other<br />
factors?<br />
4. Images <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic communicati<strong>on</strong> After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the talks by el Kaliouby <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Uglow..<br />
What's your take <strong>on</strong> "emoti<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligent technology"? The Apple Watch allows users to "share an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate moment with a<br />
close friend or family member by send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them your heartbeat"; would you want to go further <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> send "emoti<strong>on</strong> streams"<br />
from a smartwatch or other device? How important are images (photos <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how you currently communicate<br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ically? To what extent can images (or emoji?) play the role of shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emoti<strong>on</strong>s? Can you imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e additi<strong>on</strong>al k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of<br />
media or devices bey<strong>on</strong>d those described by Uglow that would allows us to access <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially also feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs?<br />
Key terms<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 5.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48845
Adaptors: Mostly unc<strong>on</strong>scious n<strong>on</strong>verbal acti<strong>on</strong>s that satisfy physiological or psychological needs, such as scratch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an<br />
itch<br />
Affect displays: N<strong>on</strong>-verbal presentati<strong>on</strong>s of emoti<strong>on</strong>, primarily communicated through facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Cultural appropriati<strong>on</strong>: The adopti<strong>on</strong> or use of the elements of <strong>on</strong>e culture by members of another culture<br />
Digital storytell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Short form of digital media producti<strong>on</strong>, typically depict<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some aspect of some<strong>on</strong>e's life story<br />
Display rules: A social group's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal norms about when, where, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <strong>on</strong>e should express emoti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Emblems: Primarily h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures that have a direct verbal translati<strong>on</strong>; can be used to repeat or to substitute for verbal<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Ethnomusicology: The study of music <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its cultural c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
Eye c<strong>on</strong>tact: The act of look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <strong>on</strong>e another's eyes<br />
Gesture: A form of n<strong>on</strong>-verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which visible bodily acti<strong>on</strong>s communicate particular messages, either <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
place of, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with, speech<br />
Haptics: N<strong>on</strong>-verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> through physical c<strong>on</strong>tact or touch<br />
Illustrators: Primarily h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arm movements that functi<strong>on</strong> to accent or complement speech<br />
Implicit bias: The attitudes or stereotypes that affect our underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, acti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unc<strong>on</strong>scious manner,<br />
especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to other people<br />
K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esics: General category of body moti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emblems, illustrators, affect displays, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptors<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape: Study of languages <strong>on</strong> public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commercial signs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given area<br />
Mashup: Web resource that uses c<strong>on</strong>tent from more than <strong>on</strong>e source to create a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle new service displayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
graphical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terface<br />
Prosody: The patterns of stress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a language<br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal expectancy violati<strong>on</strong>s theory: Theory that posits that people hold expectati<strong>on</strong>s about the n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior<br />
of others. When these expectati<strong>on</strong>s are violated, people evaluate the violati<strong>on</strong> positively or negatively, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the<br />
source of the violati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Olfactics: The percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of smell, scent, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> odor<br />
Paralanguage: Characteristics of the voice, such as pitch, rhythm, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensity, volume, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rate<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al space: The physical space immediately surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to which any encroachment may feel threaten<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
or uncomfortable<br />
Proxemics: The percepti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of space, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g territoriality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al space<br />
Regulators: Behaviors/acti<strong>on</strong>s that govern, direct, or manage c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Semiotics: Study of signs, symbols, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significati<strong>on</strong>; how mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is created<br />
Signal: A sign naturally c<strong>on</strong>nected to its referent<br />
Signifier: A sign's physical form (such as a sound, pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted word, or image) as dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct from its mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Signified: the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or idea expressed by a sign, as dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct from the physical form <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which it is expressed<br />
Spaced repetiti<strong>on</strong>: Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g technique that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals of time between subsequent review of<br />
previously learned material <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to exploit the psychological spac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effect<br />
Symbol: An arbitrarily selected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned stimulus represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else<br />
Territoriality: How people use space to communicate ownership/occupancy of areas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Vocalizati<strong>on</strong>: Mostly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voluntary vocal utterances such as laugh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, cry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, sigh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Resources<br />
Books<br />
Carroll, R. (1988). Cultural Misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. The French-American Experience, U. of Chicago Press.<br />
Dresser, N. (2005). Multicultural Matters. John Wiley.<br />
Grant, C. (2014). Music endangerment: How language ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance can help. Oxford University Press.<br />
Bust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Mehrabian Myth<br />
"Can words really account for <strong>on</strong>ly 7 percent of the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a spoken message? This short video animati<strong>on</strong> puts<br />
'Mehrabian's rule' under the magnify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g glass."<br />
Mehrabian <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> Is communicati<strong>on</strong> really mostly n<strong>on</strong>-verbal?<br />
About N<strong>on</strong>verbal Communicati<strong>on</strong>s General <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong>, with lists of types of behavior for each k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of acti<strong>on</strong><br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 5.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48845
Explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g N<strong>on</strong>verbal Communicati<strong>on</strong> Test how well you can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret n<strong>on</strong>-verbal behavior<br />
Comprehensive list of h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures From Wikipedia<br />
N<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Multiple examples<br />
Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> N<strong>on</strong>verbal Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
The F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger Insult <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other gestures across cultures<br />
R<strong>on</strong> Gutman: The hidden power of smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "R<strong>on</strong> Gutman reviews a raft of studies about smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reveals some surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g results. Did you know<br />
your smile can be a predictor of how l<strong>on</strong>g you'll live - <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that a simple smile has a measurable effect <strong>on</strong> your overall wellbe<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?<br />
Prepare to flex a few facial muscles as you learn more about this evoluti<strong>on</strong>arily c<strong>on</strong>tagious behavior."<br />
Pamela Meyer: How to spot a liar<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "On any given day we're lied to from 10 to 200 times, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the clues to detect those lie can be subtle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
counter-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tuitive. Pamela Meyer, author of Liespott<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, shows the manners <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'hotspots' used by those tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to recognize<br />
decepti<strong>on</strong> - <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> she argues h<strong>on</strong>esty is a value worth preserv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g."<br />
Amy Cuddy: Your body language shapes who you are<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Body language affects how others see us, but it may also change how we see ourselves. Social psychologist<br />
Amy Cuddy shows how 'power pos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g' - st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a posture of c<strong>on</strong>fidence, even when we d<strong>on</strong>'t feel c<strong>on</strong>fident - can affect<br />
testoster<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cortisol levels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> might even have an impact <strong>on</strong> our chances for success."<br />
How to kill your body language Frankenste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spire the villagers<br />
TED talk by Scott Rouse<br />
Yassm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abdel-Magied: What does my headscarf mean to you?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "What do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k when you look at this speaker? Well, th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. (And then aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.) In this funny,<br />
h<strong>on</strong>est, empathetic talk, Yassm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Abdel-Magied challenges us to look bey<strong>on</strong>d our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial percepti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to open doors to new<br />
ways of support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others."<br />
Za<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ab Salbi: The Stories of a Headscarf<br />
TED essay: "Za<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ab Salbi argues that the global fixati<strong>on</strong> with a Muslim woman's decisi<strong>on</strong> to wear a headscarf - or not - is<br />
overly simplistic - <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> irrelevant."<br />
Tom Uglow: An Internet without screens might look like this<br />
Are there new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different - <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural - ways for us to gather <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Designer Tom Uglow is creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a future <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which humanity's love for natural soluti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> simple tools<br />
can coexist with our need for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the devices that provide us with it. 'Reality is richer than screens,' he says. 'We<br />
can have a happy place filled with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> we love that feels as natural as switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> lightbulb.'"<br />
Rana el Kaliouby: This app knows how you feel - from the look <strong>on</strong> your face<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Our emoti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence every aspect of our lives - how we learn, how we communicate, how we make<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s. Yet they're absent from our digital lives; the devices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apps we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with have no way of know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how we<br />
feel. Scientist Rana el Kaliouby aims to change that. She demos a powerful new technology that reads your facial expressi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> matches them to corresp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emoti<strong>on</strong>s. This 'emoti<strong>on</strong> eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e' has big implicati<strong>on</strong>s, she says, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could change not just<br />
how we <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with mach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es - but with each other."<br />
Semiotics for Beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ners Good <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> to the topic<br />
(What) Are we learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 'l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes'? Interest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g explorati<strong>on</strong> of the topic<br />
Digital Storytell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Introducti<strong>on</strong> to the c<strong>on</strong>cept<br />
How to build a "memory palace" Step by step <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by Spaced Repetiti<strong>on</strong> Explanati<strong>on</strong> of the method<br />
References<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 5.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48845
Aiello, J. (1987). "Human spatial behavior", In D. Stokols <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> I. Altman (eds.), H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>book of envir<strong>on</strong>mental psychology. New<br />
York: John Wiley & S<strong>on</strong>s, pp. 359-504.<br />
Basso, K. H. (1970). " To Give up <strong>on</strong> Words": Silence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western Apache <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology,<br />
26(3), 213-230.<br />
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Photo credits<br />
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image=19714&picture=woman-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-roses<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 5.4.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48845
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
6: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Compare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast envir<strong>on</strong>ments'seffects <strong>on</strong> speech<br />
Discuss issues of space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time orientati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
Discuss the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural c<strong>on</strong>text of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess/professi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
6.1: ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.2: PROFESSIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXTS<br />
6.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - PROFESSIONAL DISCOURSE AND PRIVACY<br />
ONLINE<br />
6.4: CONTEXTUALIZING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
6.1: Envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Wal-Mart is the largest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most successful retailer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. It offers low prices through ec<strong>on</strong>omies of scale, an efficient<br />
purchas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> delivery system, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> low employee wages. Its home base is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, but it operates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries across the<br />
globe. In many of those markets, Wal-Mart has been successful, for example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Great Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> South America. However,<br />
Wal-Mart has been less successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan, Korea, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India. Given the locati<strong>on</strong> of those markets, <strong>on</strong>e might be tempted to<br />
assign Wal-Mart's lack of success to differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asian cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sumer preferences. However, Wal-Mart has been<br />
largely successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a. Moreover, it has not been universally successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures closer to that of the US. Germany<br />
provides the clearest example.<br />
Figure<br />
: A closed Wal-mart store <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany<br />
There are many differences between Germany <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, but they share a number of cultural traits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a str<strong>on</strong>g work<br />
ethic, a generally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic orientati<strong>on</strong>, a fundamentally egalitarian social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political structure, a m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic time<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a shared l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic family (Germanic language group with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Indo-European family). However, it was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fact largely cultural issues that led to Wal-Mart's failure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the German market. The stores <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany were run very much<br />
like those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that was the cause of many of the problems that arose. Here are the most important cultural factors:<br />
<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sumers. Wal-Mart stores had smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "greeters" at their entrances. The company <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed cashiers to smile at<br />
customers. Germans do not tend to smile at strangers. German c<strong>on</strong>sumers found the pers<strong>on</strong>al greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of the smil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
greeters offensive – this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal chatt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with strangers is not the norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. The smiles from the<br />
cashiers were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted as mock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or flirtatious.<br />
Products. The product l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e did not match the cultural habits <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences of German c<strong>on</strong>sumers. Meats, for example,<br />
were prepackaged; many Germans prefer to have meat cut <strong>on</strong> dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Products were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases packaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large<br />
quantities. Storage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> refrigerators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cupboards <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany is much more limited than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US; German c<strong>on</strong>sumers<br />
tend to buy smaller quantities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shop more often. Local or regi<strong>on</strong>al products were not offered. To achieve ec<strong>on</strong>omies<br />
of scale, Wal-Mart tends to carry the same products across all stores. Germans often identify closely with their home<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>, which often will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude specific food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beverage preferences (sausage or beer, for example). German<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumers are used to putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g purchased items <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to bags they themselves have brought to the store, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they found Wal-<br />
Mart's practice of bagg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g products for c<strong>on</strong>sumers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to plastic bags unfamiliar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> undesirable.<br />
Employees. It's comm<strong>on</strong> practice at Wal-Mart's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US to have employees engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> group chants before the store<br />
opens, designed to build store morale <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> company loyalty. This practice is not comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was perceived<br />
negatively by Wal-Mart employees. Because of regi<strong>on</strong>al differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family relati<strong>on</strong>ships, most Germans prefer to<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> near the area <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they grew up. Wal-Mart expected employees – especially managers – to be will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
relocate based <strong>on</strong> company needs. In the US, it's not uncomm<strong>on</strong> for some<strong>on</strong>e to seek employment far from <strong>on</strong>e's home<br />
base; that's less likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. The anti-uni<strong>on</strong> policy of Wal-Mart also ran up aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st the German traditi<strong>on</strong> of str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
trade uni<strong>on</strong>s. It's also the norm <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> German companies that there be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>alized employee <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to company<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>-mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. That was not the case at Wal-Mart Germany.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> loams large <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess; companies ignore cultural issues at their peril. The example of Wal-Mart <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Germany dem<strong>on</strong>strates that a reliable model <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e culture does not necessarily work world-wide. In this chapter we will be<br />
look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at issues which arise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts. This will<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude some discussi<strong>on</strong> of issues related to physical space, such as privacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time orientati<strong>on</strong>. Also discussed will be the<br />
role of translati<strong>on</strong>/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>. We c<strong>on</strong>clude the chapter with an exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of cross-cultural issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
excursi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> car culture across cultures.<br />
The impact of the Envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>on</strong> C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
The nature of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s is determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> partner, the purpose of the encounter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
it occurs. Germans who went to Wal-Mart were there to buy goods, not to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with strangers. Those same<br />
Germans may have a quite different attitude towards talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with strangers if they happen to be sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the same table with<br />
tourists at a local beer garden. How they talk with those tourists will be quite different than a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> over a beer with<br />
friends or co-workers. Where a c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> takes place can have a significant effect <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of language used. In a beer<br />
garden, <strong>on</strong>e may have to speak louder than normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, because of the mixed clientele, be prepared to speak us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a simplified<br />
versi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e's native t<strong>on</strong>gue or English. The language used will likely be quite different from that at the workplace, more<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal, with quite different subjects discussed.<br />
Quiet, isolated envir<strong>on</strong>ments are likely to lead to different c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> dynamics than a crowded, noisy envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental psychologist Albert Mehrabian devised a theory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which he emphasizes the vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> rates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
different envir<strong>on</strong>ments (1977). Informati<strong>on</strong> rate is the amount of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed or perceived per a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unit of time;<br />
the more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> available to process, the greater the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> rate. An envir<strong>on</strong>ment with a high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> rate is said<br />
to have a high load. Examples would be a busy airport or popular restaurant at lunch time. Envir<strong>on</strong>ments with a low load<br />
might be a library read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room or a Japanese garden. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Mehrabian, the higher the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> load, the higher the<br />
anxiety, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to discomfort <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possibly anxiety. Those feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are exacerbated by the presence of people we d<strong>on</strong>'t know,<br />
particularly if they are from a different culture. It's likely that most people would avoid whenever possible high load situati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
From that perspective, encounters with strangers work best if carefully managed, with small numbers of c<strong>on</strong>versants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a quiet<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Figure : Crowded airport <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zurich, with a high load Figure : Japanese garden, with a low<br />
load<br />
<br />
<br />
Some cultures purposely create spaces with low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> loads for particular purposes or cultural practices. Japanese<br />
gardens are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to facilitate silent c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meditati<strong>on</strong> (Itoh, 1981). They feature carefully designed l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes<br />
with flow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g streams, rock formati<strong>on</strong>s, me<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g walkways, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> well-placed benches or other seat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The impressi<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal natural beauty. In reality, everyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Japanese garden is carefully planned out to create impressive views <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
perspectives. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the US "backyard" is a sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for socializati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sport. Typically, there will be an extensive lawn,<br />
well-ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room for outdoor activities. This might be used for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal social gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g meats<br />
cooked <strong>on</strong> the grill. The overall impressi<strong>on</strong> of an American backyard is of an envir<strong>on</strong>ment created by man, while that of a<br />
Japanese garden is a harm<strong>on</strong>ious blend of natural elements. There will clearly be a different dynamic at work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an American backyard compared to a Japanese garden. In fact, a Japanese garden is more an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong> to silence<br />
(highly valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that culture) than to c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. The different spaces also po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views of the relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between man <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> nature. Western culture tends to want to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate nature. Asian cultures look to harm<strong>on</strong>ize with<br />
nature.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
Figure<br />
: A US backyard featur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g games & socializ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<br />
Built envir<strong>on</strong>ments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> patterns<br />
The design of built envir<strong>on</strong>ments, such as private homes or office build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs also has a significant effect <strong>on</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The traditi<strong>on</strong>al design of Japanese homes po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to particular cultural norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values, as well as typical communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan. Because the Japanese believe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>y with nature, traditi<strong>on</strong>ally Japanese homes are<br />
unobtrusively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scape. The most important room, the sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room, typically opens up <strong>on</strong>to the garden,<br />
with wide doors which can be opened to elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate the barrier between house <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> garden. Often the garden offers its best views<br />
from the multiple open spaces al<strong>on</strong>g the outside of the house. One has the impressi<strong>on</strong> that the garden <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the house flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to<br />
<strong>on</strong>e another. The sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room of a traditi<strong>on</strong>al Japanese family home is typically large <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be subdivided us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g semitransparent<br />
screens called shoji. This allows c<strong>on</strong>siderable versatility, with divisi<strong>on</strong>s of the rooms easily changed. This<br />
modularity carries over to the traditi<strong>on</strong>al floor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Japanese homes. Straw mats called tatami are used for sitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or sleep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
The flexibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> arrang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quarters accommodates the easy sub-divisi<strong>on</strong> of space to allow for additi<strong>on</strong>al members of an<br />
extended family. It also enables creati<strong>on</strong> of semi-private space as needed. In that way, it satisfies the need for social space for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> as well as the possibility of withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to silence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong>. Japanese society has changed<br />
significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades, becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g less homogeneous <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> less traditi<strong>on</strong>al, under Westerniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences. That has<br />
affected hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g styles as well. Research has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated however that the majority of Japanese still favor a traditi<strong>on</strong>al style<br />
(Ueda, 1998), with elements of traditi<strong>on</strong>al design typically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to modern homes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> office space whenever<br />
possible.<br />
Figure<br />
: Japanese house <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> harm<strong>on</strong>y with the surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g garden<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast to the semi-fixed featured space of traditi<strong>on</strong>al Japanese homes, houses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany tend to favor fixed-featured<br />
space <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which room divisi<strong>on</strong>s are permanent. These dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms were made by Edward Hall (1966) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
often used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> descripti<strong>on</strong>s of built envir<strong>on</strong>ments. Germans tend to divide up space accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to its functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an ordered space for all household objects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possessi<strong>on</strong>s. Important is that there be clear divisi<strong>on</strong>s, with the ability<br />
to close doors to all rooms, secure w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dows with heavy shutters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surround the garden with tall hedges, fences, or walls.<br />
The house design reflects cultural aspects of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. There tends to be a str<strong>on</strong>g sense of orderl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> German society<br />
(reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the German say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ordnung muss se<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> – order is a must), with a strict adherence to rules. In accordance with that<br />
respect for order, Germans expect commitments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promises to be kept. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes agreements regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet-ups; Germans are punctual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expect others to be as well. That sense of order carries over to pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Germans seek clarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>s with others, which is reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the careful differentiati<strong>on</strong> of people with whom <strong>on</strong>e uses a<br />
formal level of address (the formal you Sie) from those with whom <strong>on</strong>e is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal (du form). In c<strong>on</strong>trast to other cultures<br />
which also have formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal modes of address (French, Spanish), Germans tend to be more rigid <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their use of those forms. It's not unusual for Germans to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Sie form even with close work colleagues. The desire for<br />
clarity tends to lead Germans to use a very direct style of communicati<strong>on</strong>, with the reputati<strong>on</strong> of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sometimes overly blunt,<br />
lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to charges of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sensitivity.<br />
Figure<br />
: Tall hedge surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g house <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Höfen, Germany<br />
Greg Nees, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his cultural study of Germans (2000), draws a c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between the cultural theme of order <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the design of<br />
space (see sidebar). These two examples illustrate the c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between envir<strong>on</strong>ments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong>, but they by no<br />
means exhaust the opti<strong>on</strong>s for liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ments to be found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human cultures. Another opti<strong>on</strong> discussed by Hall is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal space, with no permanent divisi<strong>on</strong>s or walls. Informal space plays a major role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the everyday liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experiences of<br />
people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa, parts of the Middle East, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural areas world-wide, where outdoor space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-permanent hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
becomes an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegral <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vital aspect of work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family life. Liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a tent or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a communal space clearly can have a major<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<br />
Close that door! You're <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany<br />
The mutual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences of clarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> order re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>force <strong>on</strong>e another <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help create a str<strong>on</strong>g tendency toward compartmentalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all areas of their lives, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side their dwell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. The open architecture typical of American<br />
houses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apartments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the fr<strong>on</strong>t door opens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room is not comm<strong>on</strong>. Walk <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a traditi<strong>on</strong>al German<br />
home or apartment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> you will usu-ally f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d yourself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small, closed corridor, or Gang. This corridor provides access<br />
to the other rooms of the house or apartment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the doors to these other rooms will gen-erally be closed. This<br />
c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>sidered order-ly...Doors rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> closed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most German public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of-fice build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, where a closed<br />
door does not mean a pri-vate meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g place, but <strong>on</strong>ly that the door is closed as German noti<strong>on</strong>s of orderl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clear bound-aries dictate (p. 48).<br />
Privacy across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Although human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are by nature social animals, we all also need time al<strong>on</strong>e. The degree to which people seek <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> value<br />
solitude varies across cultures, as does the means <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mechanisms for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e. Know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g privacy can be important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> encounters with others. The extent to which <strong>on</strong>e's home is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a private sphere,<br />
for example, can vary. In the US, guests <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited over for a d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner party are likely to be given a "house tour" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be shown even<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timate space such as a master bedroom. Guests will often c<strong>on</strong>gregate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the kitchen to c<strong>on</strong>verse while the host or hostess is<br />
prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the meal. They are likely to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited to help themselves to a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k from the family's refrigerator. The d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner party<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
is likely to play out quite differently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures. In the two envir<strong>on</strong>ments discussed above, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany, guests<br />
are likely to see <strong>on</strong>ly the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rooms for guest enterta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. They will likely not be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited to roam freely throughout the<br />
house, or to use space designed for family use (except for the toilet). Guests are unlikely to socialize <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the kitchen, which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
both countries is a smaller space than is typical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. In both countries, that space is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended for the dedicated use of<br />
food preparati<strong>on</strong>, traditi<strong>on</strong>ally the doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the housewife. The kitchen is not viewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any case as an appropriate locati<strong>on</strong><br />
for extended c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality of communicati<strong>on</strong> patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US allows for great flexibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> where casual<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s can take place. In other cultures, more formal rules of etiquette <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s will limit the range of<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s. In Germany <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular, social space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s are carefully compartmentalized, with clear dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
divisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> place. Separat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off <strong>on</strong>e's garden with a hedge or fence, for example, signals that the space is reserved for family<br />
use.<br />
Germany <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan are densely populated countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which privacy is particularly valued. There are different ways to<br />
achieve that privacy. Architectural scholar J<strong>on</strong> Lang (1987) identified four types of privacy: a) solitude, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which <strong>on</strong>e is free<br />
from observati<strong>on</strong> by others; b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timacy, or shared privacy; c) an<strong>on</strong>ymity, go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unnoticed by others especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a crowd;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) reserve, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which <strong>on</strong>e uses psychological means to create imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed isolati<strong>on</strong>. Liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tokyo (or other large<br />
metropolitan areas), office workers <strong>on</strong> the morn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g commute are likely to seek "an<strong>on</strong>ymity" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crowded buses or subway cars.<br />
Once at the office, they may use "reserve", the <strong>on</strong>ly means of achiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g privacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cubicled office envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Once back<br />
home, the office worker might seek "solitude" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a specifically Japanese cultural way, by retreat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the bathroom. In<br />
Japanese houses, the bathroom is separated from the toilet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typically c<strong>on</strong>sists of two dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct areas, <strong>on</strong>e for bath<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
shower <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> soap) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e for soak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (the tub). The space is kept absolutely clean <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made as attractive as possible, with the<br />
soak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g water often scented with flowers or lem<strong>on</strong>s. It can be a place for private relaxati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meditati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure<br />
: Wireless toilet c<strong>on</strong>trol panel <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan<br />
The toilet offers the worker another opportunity for privacy, a valued commodity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture that places high value <strong>on</strong> social<br />
harm<strong>on</strong>y, c<strong>on</strong>sensus build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teamwork, all activities call<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for c<strong>on</strong>tact with others. The toilet itself po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to another key<br />
aspect of c<strong>on</strong>temporary Japanese culture, the fasc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> with gadgets <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ics. Many Japanese toilets are high-tech,<br />
with a sophisticated c<strong>on</strong>trol panel allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for seat warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, massag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cleans<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sprays. It may also play sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
music. Soft music may help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relaxati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong>, while louder sounds may mask from others the pers<strong>on</strong>al activity<br />
occurr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. That latter feature dem<strong>on</strong>strates that even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the search for privacy, Japanese tend to take <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> those<br />
around them. Privacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a culture is fleet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore is all the more sought <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cherished.<br />
Naked? "This is Brazil. No <strong>on</strong>e cares"<br />
<br />
When I lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brazil, I was <strong>on</strong> the Amaz<strong>on</strong> river...The envir<strong>on</strong>ment clearly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracted with everyday life. Daily<br />
temperatures were usually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 90s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100s F. [35-40 C.], with a very high humidity. When you show up at some<strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
home, they offer you a shower <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of a dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. You take off your clothes, hop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the shower to cool down (but never<br />
after eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, because faz mal [“it harms you”]), then put <strong>on</strong> the same clothes. One time, I went to the shared shower-shed<br />
between the houses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g area (a wooden shed with a garden hose hang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down). There was a wood plank<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
miss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. I went back <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asked my host, “What do you wear to shower here?” He laughed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> said, “Noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, of course!”<br />
“But there’s a board miss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,” I said. “John,” he replied—“this is Brazil. No <strong>on</strong>e cares.” This leads to the noti<strong>on</strong> that,<br />
because of climate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social factors, the noti<strong>on</strong> of modesty was also quite different...Many of my friends thought noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my cologne, my toothpaste., even my toothbrush...Because of crowdedness, especially am<strong>on</strong>g the work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
classes, privacy is c<strong>on</strong>ceptualized differently. If I stayed at a friend’s house, I would expect to br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my own hammock<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> str<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it across the liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room—often with other family members<br />
Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2008<br />
Noti<strong>on</strong>s of privacy are related to the sense of private ownership, which can also differ markedly across cultures. In the US,<br />
with a str<strong>on</strong>g traditi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private ownership rights, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream cultural norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude sharp divisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between <strong>on</strong>e's own possessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> those of others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a family envir<strong>on</strong>ment. In other cultures, there are traditi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal ownership, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Native American co-cultures. John Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, a US scholar of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> recounts his pers<strong>on</strong>al experiences of privacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes towards pers<strong>on</strong>al possessi<strong>on</strong>s while liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brazil<br />
(see sidebar). Brazil has a great variety of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g spaces, with immense differences between life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Amaz<strong>on</strong>ian ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> forest<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> major metropolitan areas like Rio de Janeiro or São Paulo. One of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous tribes are the Meh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>aku Indians. They<br />
live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communal villages with no privacy. Their huts house families of ten or twelve people. They have no w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dows or<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal walls, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have doors that open unto an open area that is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>stant view. The family members sleep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hammocks,<br />
suspended from a comm<strong>on</strong> house pole. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to anthropologist, Thomas Gregor (1980), "Each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's whereabouts<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities are generally known to his relatives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often to the community as a whole. A Meh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>aku has little chance of<br />
stay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out of the public eye for any length of time" (p. 67). To be al<strong>on</strong>e, villagers have <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e opti<strong>on</strong>, to leave the village.<br />
Figure<br />
: Xavante villagers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brazil<br />
<br />
Cultural Spaces<br />
There is clearly a c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between the spaces humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habit <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultural practices which take place there. Liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
Amaz<strong>on</strong>ian village will dictate behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> patterns quite different from those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an urban envir<strong>on</strong>ment such<br />
as Paris. D<strong>on</strong>ald Carbaugh (1999) describes the practice of "listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" (silent c<strong>on</strong>templati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meditati<strong>on</strong>) of the Native<br />
American Blackfeet tribe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sacred locati<strong>on</strong>s or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spired by certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sky c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s or l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scapes. The practice illustrates the<br />
Indian sense of c<strong>on</strong>nectedness of humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all of life with nature. N<strong>on</strong>-Indians are not likely to have the equivalent<br />
experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same physical sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (see sidebar). Thus, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> groups may experience the same physical space<br />
very differently. Paris, for tourists, is a place of w<strong>on</strong>der <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discovery. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants of the Parisian suburbs (banlieux <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
French), where many Muslim immigrants live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> crime-ridden high-rise apartment build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, Paris might have a very different<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a life of poverty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hopelessness. For bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people, Paris represents a center of commerce <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic opportunity. In recent years, Paris has served as a place for terrorists to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> brutal attacks for maximum<br />
visibility.<br />
D<strong>on</strong>'t eat lunch there – it's sacred<br />
Recent discourse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture studies have rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ded us how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>timately cultural worlds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discursive practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>deed<br />
are… Without know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the place, we are unsure how to act. Discourses of place thus suggest cultural acti<strong>on</strong>s, yet any <strong>on</strong>e<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
place might suggest multiple cultural discourses. We may th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k we know someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, through a discourse, get this<br />
know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g may be somewhat out of its cultural place, as when <strong>on</strong>e ascends a small hill for lunch, <strong>on</strong>ly to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d later that<br />
<strong>on</strong>e's lunch site is a secret burial mound. In retrospect, we f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d our habitual acti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural knowledge are somehow<br />
out of place.<br />
Carbaugh, 1999, p.251<br />
The example of Paris rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds us of the complexity of modern urban spaces. Villages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rural spaces tend to be m<strong>on</strong>ocultural,<br />
an envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which strangers are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frequently encountered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be ignored (see Rogers & Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt, 1998). With the<br />
advent of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustrial age, beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 18th century Engl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, there's been a major demographic shift <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries, as<br />
rural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants move to cities to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d employment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more opportunities for themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. In the process,<br />
cities have absorbed groups represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a variety of cultural backgrounds. In the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the late 19th <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> early 20th centuries,<br />
ethnic or racial neighborhoods were created with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g largely separated from ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream communities. These<br />
neighborhoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ghettos were often created through segregati<strong>on</strong>, not through the wishes of the group members. In San<br />
Francisco, for example, racial politics isolated Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese immigrants with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atown:<br />
The sense of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g physically sealed with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the boundaries of Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atown was<br />
impressed <strong>on</strong> the few immigrants com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the settlement by frequent st<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
which occurred as they came up Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong> or Clay Street from the piers. It was<br />
perpetuated by attacks of white toughs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the adjacent North Beach area <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> downtown<br />
around Uni<strong>on</strong> Square, who amused themselves by beat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese who came<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to these areas (Nee & Nee, 1974, p. 60).<br />
Patterns of discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> separati<strong>on</strong> have persisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, with African-Americans, Hispanics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cocultures<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular neighborhoods. That process occurs worldwide. In Europe, Turkish communities occupy particular<br />
districts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> German cities, as do North Africans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French cities. This dynamic can vary with the particular ethnic group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
city.<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nakayama (2010) discuss the c<strong>on</strong>cept of "postmodern cultural spaces" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which city neighborhoods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> boundaries<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many places are becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more flexible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fluid (see sidebar). This k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of fluidity st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trast to the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
noti<strong>on</strong>s of fixed space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time, just as <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communities today, too, challenge noti<strong>on</strong>s of fixed terrestrial <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> temporal<br />
boundaries. In the process, identities have become more complex, as we navigate discourses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different locati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts, both physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> virtual.<br />
Polish-Americans today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Phoenix, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a<br />
The ideology of fixed spaces <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> categories is currently be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g challenged by postmodernist noti<strong>on</strong>s of space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> locati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Phoenix, for example, which became a city relatively recently, has no Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atown, or Japantown, or Koreatown, no Irish<br />
district, or Polish neighborhood, or Italian area. Instead, people of Polish descent, for example, might live anywhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
metropolitan area but c<strong>on</strong>gregate for special occasi<strong>on</strong>s or for specific reas<strong>on</strong>s. On Sundays, the Polish Catholic Mass<br />
draws many people from throughout Phoenix. When people want to buy Polish breads <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pastries, they can go to the<br />
Polish bakery <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also speak Polish there. Ethnic identity is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e of several identities that these people negotiate.<br />
When they desire recogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> based <strong>on</strong> their Polish heritage, they can meet that wish. When they seek<br />
other forms of identificati<strong>on</strong>, they can go to placs where they can be Phoenix Suns fans, or community volunteers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so<br />
<strong>on</strong>. Ethnic identity is neither the sole factor nor necessarily the most important <strong>on</strong>e at all times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their lives.<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nakayama (2010), p. 296<br />
The cultural space we experience grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up typically has a marked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> our pers<strong>on</strong>al identities. We all start<br />
somewhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the local <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regi<strong>on</strong>al characteristics of that locale impr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong> us <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> profound ways. The regi<strong>on</strong>al accent or<br />
dialect will likely stay with us, even if just as a family or emoti<strong>on</strong>al l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic resource. I never knew a colleague of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e was<br />
from L<strong>on</strong>g Isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, New York, until I heard him talk to members of his family, when the neutral US East Coast English yielded<br />
to a str<strong>on</strong>g L<strong>on</strong>g Isl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accent. That accent reappeared later when I overheard him <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an angry c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his office. Our<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
tastes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> food <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k may be shaped by our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial home base, as are other values, habits, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preferences. The house or<br />
apartment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially is likely to leave cultural res<strong>on</strong>ances which relate to privacy, orderl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, cleanl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al space orientati<strong>on</strong>. Many of these values relate to socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic class – how neatly we want (or can afford to)<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the house/furniture/garden/car.<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial cultural space makes a mark but does not def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e us – as we grow we encounter overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural spaces which<br />
provide different perspectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subject positi<strong>on</strong>s. This will affect the language we use:<br />
A cultural space is not simply a particular locati<strong>on</strong> that has culturally c<strong>on</strong>structed<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. It can also be a metaphorical place from which we communicate. We can<br />
speak from a number of social locati<strong>on</strong>s, marked <strong>on</strong> the 'map of society,' that give<br />
added mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to our communicati<strong>on</strong>. Thus, we may speak as parents, children,<br />
colleagues, sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, customers, Nebraskans, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a myriad of other 'places.' All of<br />
these are cultural spaces (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nakayama, 2010, p. 287).<br />
Today, the cyberspaces we visit or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habit provide still another layer of space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourse.<br />
Car <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
When we talk about human liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g spaces today, <strong>on</strong>e of those difficult to ignore is the automobile. Most of us spend large<br />
blocks of time driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or rid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the car. Any<strong>on</strong>e who has d<strong>on</strong>e much travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside <strong>on</strong>e's home country has likely been<br />
struck by the difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> car cultures, driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traffic patterns. In the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the UK, for example, drivers<br />
generally follow traffic rules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an orderly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> predictable way. In other countries, such as Nigeria, traffic regulati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are largely ignored. In that country, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa, cars must compete for space <strong>on</strong> the road with vehicles of all<br />
k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to pedestrians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> street hawkers. In India, cows roam freely over roads, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the Indian equivalent<br />
of major, divided highways.<br />
As is the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses, driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors often reflect aspects of nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures. North American <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
German drivers, for example, will assume that they have the freedom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual right to claim the right-of-way if<br />
traffic rules allot it to them. They are likely to be upset if others do not respect that right <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> go out of turn or cut them off. The<br />
pattern of driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures deemed collectivistic is quite different. In Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, for example, drivers behave<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a very different fashi<strong>on</strong>, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others to merge or turn, even if that goes counter to the right of way or to traffic<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong>s. For those used to Western patterns of driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the seemly chaotic flow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> merge of traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India may seem<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>explicable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dangerous. Yet <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India, it is a functi<strong>on</strong>al chaos which actually does have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal rules of order. Precedence<br />
is given by size of vehicle, with pedestrians yield<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to bikes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carts, bikes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carts to cars, cars to buses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> buses to<br />
trucks.<br />
Figure<br />
: Road traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India - functi<strong>on</strong>al chaos.<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
It's not just how we drive that may be different, but as well what it is we use our cars for. Europeans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general see cars as a<br />
dedicated means of transportati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g focus exclusively <strong>on</strong> that activity, with the goal of gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from A to B as<br />
quickly as possible. US Americans, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, see their cars as extensi<strong>on</strong>s of their pers<strong>on</strong>al liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as an<br />
appropriate locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which to carry out all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of everyday activities, from eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to dat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In the US, drivethroughs<br />
are available for all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of activities, from pick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up medicati<strong>on</strong>s at a pharmacy to gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g married (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Las Vegas).<br />
Edward Hall commented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hidden Dimensi<strong>on</strong>s (1966) <strong>on</strong> the size of American automobiles, c<strong>on</strong>trast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it with French cars:<br />
The French automobile is designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to French needs. Its small size used to<br />
be attributed to a lower st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> higher costs of materials; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> while<br />
there can be no doubt but that cost is a factor, it would be naive to assume that it was<br />
the major factor. The automobile is just as much an expressi<strong>on</strong> of the culture as is the<br />
language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, therefore, has its characteristic niche <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cultural biotope. Changes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the car will reflect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> changes elsewhere. If the French drove<br />
American cars, they would be forced to give up many ways of deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with space<br />
which they hold quite dear. The traffic al<strong>on</strong>g the Champs-Elysées <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> around the Arc<br />
de Triomphe is a cross between the New Jersey Turnpike <strong>on</strong> a sunny Sunday afterno<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Indianapolis Speedway. With American-size autos, it would be mass suicide<br />
(p. 145).<br />
Today, globalizati<strong>on</strong> has affected the automobile <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry, as it has all others. The same k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of cars are sold <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> driven all<br />
over the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their nati<strong>on</strong>al prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ence is difficult to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, as parts typically come from suppliers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple<br />
countries, with manufactur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g plants also spread worldwide.<br />
Time orientati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divide up space <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different ways. This is true of time as well. The different percepti<strong>on</strong>s of time, such as the<br />
importance of punctuality, can be a source of fricti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters. Edward Hall (1959) dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guished between<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> polychr<strong>on</strong>ic orientati<strong>on</strong>s to time. In the former, time is carefully regulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> highly compartmentalized,<br />
with schedules <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punctuality be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stressed. So-called "M-time" (m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic) oriented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals prefer to perform <strong>on</strong>e<br />
activity at a time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prioritize keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a schedule. Tard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> missed appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tments are a source of anxiety. Time is seen<br />
as a limited commodity. The needs of people are subservient to the dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of time. Plans are not easily changed. People live<br />
by an external clock.<br />
Those grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture with a m<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic time orientati<strong>on</strong> are likely to see this view of time as natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> universal.<br />
In fact, it is culturally determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned. In such cultures, like the US or Germany, children are taught early, at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school, the importance of time, schedul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promptness. In polychr<strong>on</strong>ic time oriented cultures, however, the attitudes<br />
towards time are very different. Representative cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude southern Europe, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, Africa, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Middle East.<br />
Schedules are less important, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punctuality is not c<strong>on</strong>sidered an essential virtue. "P-timers" are used to hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than <strong>on</strong>e<br />
activity or c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> at the same time. Individuals are more tolerant of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d scheduled<br />
time. Time is bent to meet the needs of people, with the attitude that there is always more time. C<strong>on</strong>sequently, plans are fluid.<br />
People live by an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal clock. Greater importance is placed <strong>on</strong> the natural progress of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a prearranged<br />
schedule. Life is lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moment, not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to a schedule. Because multiple activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> simultaneously is an accepted part of P-time culture, space is often designed accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, with large comm<strong>on</strong> spaces.<br />
In M-time cultures, it's more likely that office or government build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs will be c<strong>on</strong>structed with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual private offices. In<br />
those smaller spaces, more restricted c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s are likely.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/12/2021 6.1.9 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42988
6.2: Professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Instituti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
Different percepti<strong>on</strong>s of time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular schedul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> punctuality, can be important factors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess.<br />
Differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> time percepti<strong>on</strong> can also affect negotiati<strong>on</strong>s of agreements or c<strong>on</strong>tracts. Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people from M-time cultures<br />
are likely to have pre-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed deadl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, either fixed mentally or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This may be problematic if deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a P-<br />
time culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which negotiati<strong>on</strong>s are seen as tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whatever time is needed for completi<strong>on</strong>. There are likely to be significant<br />
differences am<strong>on</strong>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the framework for negotiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess relati<strong>on</strong>ships. In low-c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
cultures, like northern Europe, the bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses are likely to have a preference for beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g substantive c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
immediately. In other cultures, especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> high-c<strong>on</strong>text cultures, such as Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a, the Middle East, or Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, there<br />
may be a desire to establish first a pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship between the parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved, before beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g serious bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s. This might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal "small talk" unc<strong>on</strong>nected to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess or gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g together socially, for a meal or<br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks. Only after c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other party, al<strong>on</strong>g with a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree of familiarity, are established will a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ship be possible.<br />
In general, bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other professi<strong>on</strong>al cultures mirror the values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture of the country.<br />
In high power distance cultures, hierarchies are expected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accepted, with clear divisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privileges accorded to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> their social rank, status, or background. This will typically be reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess culture, which<br />
will be status c<strong>on</strong>scious with top-down communicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>-mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small power distance cultures,<br />
like the US, there's likely to be a more participatory style of management, with employees be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g asked their op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> workrelated<br />
issues. Communicati<strong>on</strong> styles used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess transacti<strong>on</strong>s mirror as well predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture at large.<br />
Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people from India <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, for example, are likely to use quite different verbal styles. The US representatives are<br />
likely to be direct, address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issues forthrightly. If there is a problem or c<strong>on</strong>tentious issue, the Americans will expect an open<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> detailed discussi<strong>on</strong>. Indians might well be more circumspect, preferr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct style <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which disagreements are<br />
glossed over or postp<strong>on</strong>ed for discussi<strong>on</strong> at a later time.<br />
With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses or other organizati<strong>on</strong>s there is likely to be a system of shared values which determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e how people behave<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the organizati<strong>on</strong>. This "organizati<strong>on</strong>al culture" reflects the culture at large, but at the same time may vary depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
the type <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> size of the organizati<strong>on</strong>, the locati<strong>on</strong> of its home-office, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the type of activity bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they engage.<br />
The organizati<strong>on</strong>al culture of a small NGO (n<strong>on</strong>-governmental organizati<strong>on</strong>) will likely be quite different from that of a large<br />
mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al company. Trompenaars <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hampden-Turner (1997) developed a framework for characteriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
cultures, based <strong>on</strong> a large-scale survey <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g employees from 43 countries. The model of cultural differences they<br />
developed has five dimensi<strong>on</strong>s for how people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract, plus <strong>on</strong>e deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with time (sequential versus synchr<strong>on</strong>ic) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the envir<strong>on</strong>ment (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terior versus exterior c<strong>on</strong>trol):<br />
Individualism versus communitarianism<br />
Generally, communitarian organizati<strong>on</strong>s make decisi<strong>on</strong>s through group c<strong>on</strong>sensus, with more attenti<strong>on</strong> paid to teamwork<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social cohesiveness. Organizati<strong>on</strong>s from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic cultures, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seek out <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reward <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high achievers.<br />
Universalism versus particularism<br />
Universalists deploy the same ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices everywhere, while particularists adjust to c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> circumstances.<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al cultures with high particularism such as Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a place a greater emphasis <strong>on</strong> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships.<br />
Neutral versus emoti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Neutral cultures hold emoti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> check (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Japan, for example), while high emoti<strong>on</strong> cultures (Mexico, Israel) expect<br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>s to be displayed openly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fully, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
Specific versus diffuse<br />
This dimensi<strong>on</strong> deals with the questi<strong>on</strong> of whether organizati<strong>on</strong>al roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> titles c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to play out <strong>on</strong> the outside<br />
(high-diffuse cultures) or whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals are treated differently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private spheres (specific cultures). See<br />
the sidebar for an example.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
Achievement versus ascripti<strong>on</strong><br />
In ascripti<strong>on</strong> cultures, respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> success may be accorded based <strong>on</strong> birth or k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ship, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> achievement cultures, the<br />
basis for judgment is hard work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual success.<br />
As always with such broad categories, these too need to be viewed as patterns, not absolutes. Organizati<strong>on</strong>s may well embrace<br />
different values from the surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultures for a variety of reas<strong>on</strong>s, such as market<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (counter-cultural hipness), the<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al views of the owners (fundamentalist Christian values) or due to the size or diversity of the organizati<strong>on</strong>al members.<br />
The effects of globalizati<strong>on</strong> have had a varied impact <strong>on</strong> organizati<strong>on</strong>al cultures. In some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances nati<strong>on</strong>al or regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>al cultures have c<strong>on</strong>verged with Anglo-American practices, while <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cases forces of nati<strong>on</strong>alism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence (patriotism, historical traditi<strong>on</strong>s, ec<strong>on</strong>omic self-sufficiency, political c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s) result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a rejecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
imported organizati<strong>on</strong>al ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices.<br />
"Herr Professor Doktor Schmidt" or "Bob"?<br />
An example of these specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> diffuse cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s is provided by the United States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany. A U.S.<br />
professor, such as Robert Smith, PhD, generally would be called “Doctor Smith” by students when at his U.S. university.<br />
When shopp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, however, he might be referred to by the store clerk as “Bob,” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he might even ask the clerk’s advice<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some of his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended purchases. When golf<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Bob might just be <strong>on</strong>e of the guys, even to a golf partner who<br />
happens to be a graduate student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his department. The reas<strong>on</strong> for these changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> status is that, with the specific U.S.<br />
cultural values, people have large public spaces <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often c<strong>on</strong>duct themselves differently depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> their public role.<br />
At the same time, however, Bob has private space that is off-limits to the students who must call him “Doctor Smith” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class. In high-diffuse cultures, <strong>on</strong> the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, a pers<strong>on</strong>’s public life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private life often are similar. Therefore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Germany, Herr Professor Doktor Schmidt would be referred to that way at the university, local market, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g alley<br />
—<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even his wife might address him formally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public.<br />
Luthans & Doh (2012), pp. 126–127<br />
Equity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethics<br />
An area where divergence is evident is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the role <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment of women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Some cultures, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the traditi<strong>on</strong>al roles of women as housewives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mothers, with women work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>antly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "nurtur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" professi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
such as healthcare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>. Worldwide, women are underrepresented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> leadership <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political arenas. In some countries, this is recognized as a major problem, given the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice of the situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the practical result of elim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g half the populati<strong>on</strong> from c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g important societal roles. Entrenched<br />
centers of power ("old boys networks") tend to perpetuate the status quo. In some European countries, this has led to<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong> which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stitutes quotas for women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> positi<strong>on</strong>s of authority, such as members of the legislature or <strong>on</strong> corporate<br />
govern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g boards.<br />
Figure<br />
: Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> leadership roles is rarely seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cultures.<br />
Some issues of equality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethical behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s may be settled by law. Many more, however, are not<br />
legislated, but are the products of custom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are regulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities. One practice which<br />
differs across cultures is gift giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In many cultures, it is an accepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expected behavior to offer or<br />
exchange gifts. This may be a token gift of little m<strong>on</strong>etary value, such as a br<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed or traditi<strong>on</strong>al item or cul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary specialty<br />
from <strong>on</strong>e's home country or regi<strong>on</strong>. Difficulties might arise if items have un<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended cultural values <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other's home<br />
culture, such as a symbolic value attached to a color, number, item of cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or food. Certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> items may run counter to<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
cultural taboos — a bottle of w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, for example, or a food item c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pork or beef. Includ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gifts for family members<br />
may be seen as a friendly attempt at build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a relati<strong>on</strong>ship, but could run <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to difficulty if cultural norms see family members<br />
as a private sphere, not to be brought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with strangers.<br />
Potentially more problematic are situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which expectati<strong>on</strong>s go bey<strong>on</strong>d simple gift giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bribes. In some<br />
parts of the world, giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bribes is a normal part of c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, as it is a fact of everyday life for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>habitants of that country. Foreign bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people may run <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area for a number of reas<strong>on</strong>s. They may be<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethically opposed to bribery, see<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it as a form of corrupti<strong>on</strong> that rewards those already privileged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
society. Even if they want to pay, it may be difficult to negotiate a reas<strong>on</strong>able amount if <strong>on</strong>e is not c<strong>on</strong>versant with the local<br />
norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices. Payment of bribes may also not be permitted by company policy or may be forbidden by law. US<br />
bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people, for example, must observe the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977.<br />
On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, large, powerful mult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>al corporati<strong>on</strong>'s may not act fairly when c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> foreign<br />
countries. US companies have been especially guilty of exploit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ec<strong>on</strong>omies. While<br />
especially egregious cases occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 19th <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20th centuries by fruit companies do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America, today<br />
Western companies c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to exploit workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> garment, electr<strong>on</strong>ics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustries. The US government itself has<br />
been guilty of foster<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g projects that enrich the wealthy rather than help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the poor. Rogers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt (1999) catalog how<br />
many USID projects of the 20th century fit that pattern. In fact, the recogniti<strong>on</strong> of the need for greater cross-cultural<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the part of employees of the US Department of State. Susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able development projects can <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
successful if they take <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account local cultural values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social structures.<br />
The Importance of Names<br />
An important issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g good relati<strong>on</strong>s cross-culturally is to use appropriate forms of address. This is as prom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent<br />
an issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships. In the US, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality guides modes of address.<br />
In university sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, sometimes students are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vited to address their professors us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g first names. In bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, it is not<br />
uncomm<strong>on</strong> for subord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ates to be <strong>on</strong> a first name basis with their bosses. In sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up new bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess relati<strong>on</strong>ships, US bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
people are likely to prefer mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a first name basis as quickly as possible. That may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
discourteous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other cultures. There may be an expectati<strong>on</strong> not <strong>on</strong>ly to use a more formal mode of address, but also to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
titles or h<strong>on</strong>orifics, as appropriate. Mexicans, for example, make heavy use of h<strong>on</strong>orific titles to show respect. New<br />
acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tances met at a party are addressed as señor, señora, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> señorita. In bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, people address managers with titles like<br />
director, doctor, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>geniero (eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eer), or licienciado (some<strong>on</strong>e who has a higher educati<strong>on</strong> degree).<br />
Pr<strong>on</strong>ounc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the counterpart's name correctly can be important as well. That might prove problematic depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>es<br />
knowledge of the language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. That's likely to be the case for h<strong>on</strong>orifics as well, especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures such as Korea.<br />
Gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the name right might be difficult <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries like Russia, where names are grammatically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flected, al<strong>on</strong>g with all<br />
nouns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where patr<strong>on</strong>ymics are widely used. The knowledge of the language of <strong>on</strong>e's bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess partner can of course be<br />
crucially important, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic ability of the partner, as well as the availability of a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca such as<br />
English.<br />
How <strong>on</strong>e addresses counterparts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, how the relati<strong>on</strong>ship develops may relate to both the formality of a given culture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the degree of importance of social hierarchies, i.e. the extent to which it is a high power distance culture. In cultures that<br />
subscribe to a hierarchical view of social status, status is normally ascribed by birth, appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tment, or age. Differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> status<br />
are made obvious through protocols that govern many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organizati<strong>on</strong>al activities. In a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
problematic relati<strong>on</strong>s can quickly develop if the participants adhere to c<strong>on</strong>flict<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g views <strong>on</strong> egalitarianism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hierarchy. The<br />
behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>s of representatives from hierarchical cultures are frequently dictated by culture-bound rules relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
status. Recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the possible differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area can be crucially important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective relati<strong>on</strong>ships.<br />
Communicative genres<br />
The particular c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which human speech occurs may determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e parameters of what is said <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how it is<br />
expressed. For particular occasi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a given locati<strong>on</strong> there may be culturally specific expectati<strong>on</strong>s for the language used, as<br />
well as for other acti<strong>on</strong>s, such as dress, affects displays, or body language. Günthner (2007) lists a number of such<br />
communicative genres <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a range of situati<strong>on</strong>s from compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prayers to bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess negotiati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> university lectures. In<br />
some c<strong>on</strong>texts, there are c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al pre-patterned forms of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior expected, which guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractants'<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s. Communicative genres are “historically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally specific c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideals accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to which<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
speakers compose talk or texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recipients <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret it“ (Günthner, 2007, p. 129). They operate as orientati<strong>on</strong> frames which<br />
limit the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of speech used, help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g speaker <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> audience by def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretive possibilities.<br />
There may be situati<strong>on</strong>s which call for a particular genre. Kotthoff (1991) gives the example of toasts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Caucasian Georgia<br />
which use a limited can<strong>on</strong> of topics: "peace, the guests, the parents, the dead, the children, friendship, love, the women whose<br />
beauty embellishes the table" (p. 251). Foreigners unaware of the limited can<strong>on</strong> could cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> embarrassment to themselves<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to their hosts by ventur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside that can<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Communicative genres are particularly salient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Miller (1994) discusses bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from this perspective. For US bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people, meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are "thought to be the appropriate place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which to<br />
persuade people or try to change their m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds" (p. 224). This is the venue for mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess decisi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g deals.<br />
Miller po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that this is quite different for what Japanese bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people c<strong>on</strong>sider to be the purpose of meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. For them<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus is reached before the actual meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal discussi<strong>on</strong>s, often tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g place at bars or cafes. The meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g's<br />
purpose is to express formal acceptance of the results of the negotiati<strong>on</strong>s, decided <strong>on</strong> beforeh<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Similarly, Li (1999) found<br />
that frustrati<strong>on</strong> between Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western European bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess people derived from different approaches to the genre of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess negotiati<strong>on</strong>s. For the Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese, develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g good <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships was vital, while for the<br />
Europeans mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quickly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> directly to negotiati<strong>on</strong>s was central. Not be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aware of the different repertoires <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s for a given communicative genre can generate misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
Aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> court: An unfamiliar communicative genre<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-Aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Australians are not familiar with the pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>s, lexical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grammatical choices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discourse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
pragmatic c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s of Aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al Australians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the latter are unfamiliar with the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s such as the court...The state imposes St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there is a widely shared language<br />
ideology that St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard English is the ‘natural’ way of express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>eself before a court. Coupled with Aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
people’s frequent ignorance of St<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard English, this language ideology means that Aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al people before the law are<br />
oftentimes effectively barred from giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence, from present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their character <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a clear <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> detailed way, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
generally from engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> court proceed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Pillar (2017, p. 91)<br />
Günthner (2007) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that cultural differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> genre related knowledge can have particularly unfortunate<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences if they their occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> "gate-keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, for example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>, healthcare, or legal matters.<br />
Scoll<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scoll<strong>on</strong> (1981) provide examples of courtroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Alaska <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which jail sentences are c<strong>on</strong>siderably<br />
l<strong>on</strong>ger for Alaskan Natives that for Whites. In study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g court testim<strong>on</strong>y, the authors found that Native Alaskans failed — <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast to white defendants — to speak of positive plans for the future. This, however, is an expected behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> US courts,<br />
namely that defendants commit themselves to self-improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social betterment. Pillar (2017) found a similar situati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to aborig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Australia (see sidebar).<br />
Translati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong><br />
Issues of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> are likely to be raised <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all professi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts. In health care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal envir<strong>on</strong>ments,<br />
effective communicati<strong>on</strong> between parties can be of life or death importance. In both of these areas, translators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters<br />
play major roles. Interpreters are c<strong>on</strong>cerned with spoken language, translators focus <strong>on</strong> the written word. While simultaneous<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (translated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> t<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>em with the speaker) is used widely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or c<strong>on</strong>ferences, more comm<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
work envir<strong>on</strong>ments is sequential translati<strong>on</strong>. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves short translati<strong>on</strong>s after the speaker pauses. This is what is used<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> law courts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hospitals. In some healthcare c<strong>on</strong>tacts, as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other envir<strong>on</strong>ments, chuchotage may be<br />
used, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter whispers simultaneous translati<strong>on</strong> to a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle client.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
Figure<br />
: An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter for chess player Garry Kasparov us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g chuchotage<br />
Interpreters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> translators typically translate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their mother t<strong>on</strong>gue. Even so, the process is complex <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficult. One must<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> faithful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of c<strong>on</strong>tent, but is expected as well to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voke the same emoti<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>se. This is difficult for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters who are asked to work impartially for two parties. The goal is to provide pragmatic equivalence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the<br />
utterance is re-created with all the nuances of the source. This might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve depart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g substantially from the literal word<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al. It necessitates <strong>on</strong> the part of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter significant knowledge of how both languages are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> real<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, i.e. a good comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of language pragmatics.<br />
<br />
There are ethical issues that arise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, namely to the extent that <strong>on</strong>e functi<strong>on</strong>s as an advocate for a given client.<br />
Although impartiality is expected of court <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters, the power, language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture divisi<strong>on</strong>s between a n<strong>on</strong>-native client<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the justice system make it difficult to work objectively, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not to offer clarify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or justify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>serti<strong>on</strong>s or asides. This<br />
might be all the more an issue with clients who are poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illiterate, therefore unlikely to be able to express themselves<br />
effectively, even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their native language.<br />
Another temptati<strong>on</strong> for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters is to serve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the role of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al gatekeepers. This is especially the case <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> health<br />
care, where the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter might use his/her own judgment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> not pass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> to the physician all the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> supplied by<br />
the client, view<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some statements as irrelevant. Professi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is needed to be able to carry out roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
health care <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effectively. Unfortunately, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cases the scarcity of professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters leads to the use of<br />
untra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed native speakers.<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
In many countries, schools have become more diverse <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their student populati<strong>on</strong>s, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> competence am<strong>on</strong>g teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> staff. Like bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess establishments, educati<strong>on</strong>al facilities reflect the cultures<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they are located. Prejudices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> all too frequently follow children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the classroom. Children soak up<br />
cultural values around them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes the negative stereotypes they might hear from family members or other adults.<br />
The same k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of potential c<strong>on</strong>flicts which may arise from mix<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different ethnic, racial, religious groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture at<br />
large can occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools as well. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce prejudices are formed early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> life, it is important to counteract hatred <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hostility <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school envir<strong>on</strong>ments.<br />
In multicultural classrooms, there is likely to be a mix of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g styles. Am<strong>on</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong>al theorists it's well-known that<br />
each student may have a preferred learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g style, whether that be visual, auditory, or k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esthetic. Those learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g styles may be<br />
culturally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced. Particular characterizati<strong>on</strong>s are often associated with ethnic or nati<strong>on</strong>al groups. Asian students, for<br />
example, are said to rely <strong>on</strong> rote memorizati<strong>on</strong>, exhibit passive behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be extr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sically motivated.<br />
Western learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, by c<strong>on</strong>trast, tends to be learner-oriented, with an emphasis <strong>on</strong> the development of learner aut<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
active, even assertive learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom. Often, these descripti<strong>on</strong>s favor Western approaches to educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom behavior. Active learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is generally seen as preferable, with students pro-actively engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, through<br />
volunteer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to answer questi<strong>on</strong>s or enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to dialogue with teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peers. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quiet or reserved is seen as<br />
problematic (Hua, 2013). An additi<strong>on</strong>al dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multicultural classrooms is the power differential between native <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>native<br />
speakers of the language of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. It is problematic to view generalizati<strong>on</strong>s about learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g styles as applicable to<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
every <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual student. This results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students from m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority/immigrant communities or n<strong>on</strong>-native speakers be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
automatically relegated to an underachiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g status <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> treated accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly.<br />
Figure<br />
: Multicultural school group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Paris<br />
An example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which a perceived Western educati<strong>on</strong>al practice has become normative is Kaplan's descripti<strong>on</strong> of rhetorical<br />
styles. His mapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of how different ethnic groups write essays looks like this:<br />
<br />
Figure : Kaplan's descripti<strong>on</strong> of rhetorical styles. Kaplan (1966), p. 14<br />
The Anglo-Sax<strong>on</strong> English approach is to get straight to the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, while Semitics zigzag, those from Romance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Russian<br />
languages go <strong>on</strong> tangents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> "Orientals" circle around the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t. The characterizati<strong>on</strong>s are problematic for a variety of<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s, not just due to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herent cultural caricatures. Kaplan draws his c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s from essays written by ESL students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
an academic sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their sec<strong>on</strong>d language. One analysis gives this summary:<br />
<br />
[Kaplan's descripti<strong>on</strong>s] implicitly re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forced an image of the superiority of English<br />
rhetoric <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istic view of sec<strong>on</strong>d language (particularly English) learners<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals who <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably transfer rhetorical patterns of their L1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L2 writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Furthermore, the b<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary images of rhetoric c<strong>on</strong>structed by the field, i.e., English is<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ear, direct, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> logical whereas other languages are circular, digressive, or n<strong>on</strong>logical,<br />
parallel col<strong>on</strong>ial dichotomies between the col<strong>on</strong>izer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the col<strong>on</strong>ized<br />
(Pennycook, 1998), suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the hidden political or ideological nature of the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al knowledge created by c<strong>on</strong>trastive rhetoric (Kubota & Lehner, 2004, p.<br />
9).<br />
It happens seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably that theories <strong>on</strong> cultural difference orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with Western scholars favor explicitly or<br />
implicitly Western approaches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors.<br />
One of the c<strong>on</strong>flicts which may arise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multicultural classrooms comes from parents of immigrant or m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ority communities<br />
who have views of teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different from the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict with how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
is c<strong>on</strong>figured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools. In some cases, there may be excessive pressure from parents for the children to achieve academically,<br />
with expectati<strong>on</strong>s that students spend all their free time study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, so as to perform well <strong>on</strong> exams. That behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US is<br />
often associated with Asian-American families. At the other extreme are parents from lower socioec<strong>on</strong>omic backgrounds who<br />
themselves had scant or negative school experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who d<strong>on</strong>'t c<strong>on</strong>vey to their children the importance of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g well <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
school. Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al. (2015) gives the example of a Cambodian-American family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the parents view the teacher as<br />
parental substitutes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate for themselves to play an active role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school affairs. She menti<strong>on</strong>s the<br />
role as well that religi<strong>on</strong> may play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a case. As Khmer Buddhists, the Cambodian family likely sees fate as a guid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciple <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> human development, thus mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it superfluous for children to exert undue efforts to better themselves through<br />
study. In such a situati<strong>on</strong>, teachers need to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sensitivity to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the issues aris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shape<br />
communicative strategies with the family accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42989
6.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - Professi<strong>on</strong>al discourse <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> privacy <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
The rapid rise of the Internet, with the new communicati<strong>on</strong> possibilities it enables, has wrought changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s occur. The ubiquitous availability of free or low-cost communicati<strong>on</strong> through the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some areas leveled the play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g field am<strong>on</strong>g compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses. It has also changed dramatically some<br />
branches of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commerce. Physical music stores have g<strong>on</strong>e out of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess through the competiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> price,<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>venience of digital music. A similar process is play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out with movies. Amaz<strong>on</strong> has put many book stores<br />
out of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet has also allowed all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses to outsource their labor pool or their customer relati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The Internet changes not <strong>on</strong>ly how products <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services are sold <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provided, it also radically changes how companies<br />
communicate with their customers. The affordances of the Internet have led to the expectati<strong>on</strong> of greater transparency <strong>on</strong> the<br />
part of companies. It also leads to the need for fast resp<strong>on</strong>ses to develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g situati<strong>on</strong>s. Bad reviews or negative news stories<br />
can spread rapidly, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the need for companies to keep tabs <strong>on</strong> social media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> popular web sites, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to have a<br />
rapid resp<strong>on</strong>se to counteract bad publicity. Companies rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ely have a presence <strong>on</strong> the web <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to<br />
provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>, build customer relati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide a channel for their own take <strong>on</strong> reports <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories.<br />
The important role that digital communicati<strong>on</strong>s plays today <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all branches of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other professi<strong>on</strong>s has led to new job<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advancement opportunities for those skilled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong>. It has also led to changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
nature of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess communicati<strong>on</strong>. Both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> external communicati<strong>on</strong> is now d<strong>on</strong>e digitally. This change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> mode has brought about a change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> style. Communicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet tend to be more<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unstructured than is the case with traditi<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess communicati<strong>on</strong>s such as an exchange of letters. The<br />
dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant style <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet is closer to the nature of oral rather than written communicati<strong>on</strong>. That style <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vites greater<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formality, al<strong>on</strong>g with a greater degree of freedom of expressi<strong>on</strong>. In some cultures, this might not signal a significant change,<br />
but it can mean a quite different dynamic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> countries where communicati<strong>on</strong> tends to be more stylized <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal, with wellentrenched<br />
rules or traditi<strong>on</strong>s for pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. Communicati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with it a sense of<br />
an<strong>on</strong>ymity which tends to equalize social status. Junior executives may feel empowered through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet communicati<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
bypass traditi<strong>on</strong>al approaches or barriers to communicati<strong>on</strong> with higher-ups. In some cases this could lead to a change not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> but also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> corporate culture. In places like India the Internet may become a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of equalizer s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce it is hard<br />
to assess a pers<strong>on</strong>’s status, rank, credibility, or caste membership <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.<br />
Just as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet has made public much of what happens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> corporati<strong>on</strong>s, it has d<strong>on</strong>e the same for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, namely<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g much of what happens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our lives knowable by any<strong>on</strong>e with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet access. This lack of privacy has become a<br />
serious issue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries more than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others. In has been a big c<strong>on</strong>cern <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many European<br />
countries. There is an EU regulati<strong>on</strong> that Europeans have the "right to be forgotten" <strong>on</strong> the Internet. This provides the<br />
opportunity for citizens to submit requests to operators of search eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es (pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipally Google) to have items removed from<br />
searches. There is a similar regulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Argent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a. Many people are likely to have a lot of pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> show up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet searches. That can come from a variety of sources, such as posts <strong>on</strong> social media, photos submitted to shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sites,<br />
official transacti<strong>on</strong>s such as court proceed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or real estate transacti<strong>on</strong>s, reports <strong>on</strong> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> clubs, sports or other free<br />
time activities, written assignments from school or university classes, etc. In some cases <strong>on</strong>e would likely prefer to have some<br />
of that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> not shared, especially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases where we do not appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the most flatter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g light. Employers are now<br />
often c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Google search <strong>on</strong> job applicants, so that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet rants or naked pics might prove problematic. It's good to<br />
be aware of the fact that your identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> today's world is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g created by your <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e activities.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/1/2021 6.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48849
6.4: <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>ualiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice...<br />
Here are some c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> respect to communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different envir<strong>on</strong>mental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>texts:<br />
Adjust your language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> style to the envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which you are located. In familiar sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, this is<br />
likely someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g you do automatically – speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formally with friends over lunch, while us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a more formal style <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a professor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom. However, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfamiliar sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, this may not come as easily. Heightened<br />
cultural sensitivity is especially needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sites of significant cultural importance – places of worship, m<strong>on</strong>uments.<br />
Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g loud <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a hallowed space, like the top of a holy mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate, as is snapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g selfies of yourself<br />
naked.<br />
Beware of pragmatic transfer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> formal sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In most bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al situati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of<br />
the world, a more formal language register is expected. This means not <strong>on</strong>ly us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g formal modes of address <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typical<br />
politeness formulas, but also watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out, if you are not speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g your native language, for keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the formulati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
"speech acts" (like greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or leave-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with cultural norms. We often will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctively translate word for<br />
word set phrases we use all the time, but that can sometimes cause miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> or awkwardness.<br />
For discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
Time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g H<strong>on</strong>oré's "In praise of slowness" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Zimbardo's "Psychology of time"...<br />
What is your assessment of the c<strong>on</strong>cepts of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speed presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the videos? How does time effect your life (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terms of relati<strong>on</strong>ship build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, work, school)? What do you make of the "slow" movement? Are you aware of schools or<br />
companies "slow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time" or enabl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more free time? Comment <strong>on</strong> experiences you have had related to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts/traditi<strong>on</strong>s of space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time across cultures<br />
Alternative approaches to built spaces<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videos <strong>on</strong> space <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> architecture by Kéré, Hardy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Phillips...:<br />
Are we victims of "groupth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>formity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g design? How do you assess the importance of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials? How does liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the communities discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the videos effect the way of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultural values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors? How do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the design of the 2 schools discussed, the "Green School" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bali <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
G<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o school <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso may effect learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experiences of students? What are your experiences, if any, with<br />
cultures hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g arrangements, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, bathroom cultures?<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses<br />
Comment <strong>on</strong> experiences you have had related to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess, for example, different k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of c<strong>on</strong>sumer<br />
practices, changes that US companies make <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad (i.e., McD<strong>on</strong>alds, Wal-Mart)<br />
Key terms<br />
Built envir<strong>on</strong>ment: Adaptati<strong>on</strong>s to the terrestrial envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g architecture, hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, light<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>scap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Chuchotage: Form of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s or sits al<strong>on</strong>gside a small target audience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> whispers a<br />
simultaneous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> of what’s be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g said; the term chuchotage is French for whisper<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
C<strong>on</strong>secutive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Interpreters wait for the speaker to pause before <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreter may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret after<br />
every sentence, or may take notes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret several m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes of speech at <strong>on</strong>ce<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>text: The geographical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychological locati<strong>on</strong> of communicati<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cultural c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
Fixed-feature space: Space bounded by immovable or permanent fixtures, such as walls<br />
Gatekeep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: The process through which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is filtered for transmissi<strong>on</strong> or dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
Guanxi: Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese for relati<strong>on</strong>ship or c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>, refers to the importance of pers<strong>on</strong>alized networks of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess community<br />
High load: A situati<strong>on</strong> with a high <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> rate<br />
Informal space: Space def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the movement of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractants<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48848
Informati<strong>on</strong> rate: The amount of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed or perceived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment per some unit of time<br />
Low load: A situati<strong>on</strong> with a low <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> rate<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic time orientati<strong>on</strong>: Cultural temporal orientati<strong>on</strong> that stresses the compartmentalizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segmentati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
measurable units of time<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ochr<strong>on</strong>ic time orientati<strong>on</strong>: Time as l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ear, progressive, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g capable of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g compartmentalized<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>al culture: An organized pattern of values, beliefs, behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> channels held by the<br />
members of an organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Polychr<strong>on</strong>ic time orientati<strong>on</strong>: Time as cyclical, people perform multiple tasks simultaneously<br />
Pragmatic equivalence: Refers to words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two languages hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same effect <strong>on</strong> the reader/listener <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both languages<br />
Semifixed-feature space: Space bounded by movable objects, such as furniture<br />
Simultaneous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Process which allows people to communicate directly across language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural boundaries<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specialized technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters who are tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to listen to <strong>on</strong>e language while speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
simultaneously <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another<br />
Taiso: Tai (body) + so (harden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) is a generic Japanese term for c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or exercis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a regular part of the daily<br />
rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many Japanese factories<br />
Resources<br />
Diébédo Francis Kéré: How to build with clay... <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Diébédo Francis Kéré knew exactly what he wanted to do when he got his degree <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> architecture… He<br />
wanted to go home to G<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Burk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Faso, to help his neighbors reap the benefit of his educati<strong>on</strong>. In this charm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g talk,<br />
Kéré shows off some of the beautiful structures he's helped to build <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his small village <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the years s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce then, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an<br />
award-w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g primary school made from clay by the entire community."<br />
Elora Hardy: Magical houses, made of bamboo<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "You've never seen build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs like this. The stunn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bamboo homes built by Elora Hardy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> her team <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Bali twist, curve <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> surprise at every turn. They defy c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> because the bamboo itself is so enigmatic. No two poles of<br />
bamboo are alike, so every home, bridge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bathroom is exquisitely unique. In this beautiful, immersive talk, she shares the<br />
potential of bamboo, as both a susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able resource <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spark for the imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>. 'We have had to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vent our own rules,' she<br />
says."<br />
Dan Phillips: Creative houses from reclaimed stuff<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In this funny <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sightful talk, builder Dan Phillips tours us through a dozen homes he's built <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Texas<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recycled <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reclaimed materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> wildly creative ways. Brilliant, low-tech design details will refresh your own<br />
creative drive."<br />
Philip Zimbardo: The psychology of time<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Psychologist Philip Zimbardo says happ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> success are rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a trait most of us disregard: the way<br />
we orient toward the past, present <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> future. He suggests we calibrate our outlook <strong>on</strong> time as a first step to improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our<br />
lives."<br />
Carl H<strong>on</strong>oré: In praise of slowness<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Journalist Carl H<strong>on</strong>ore believes the Western world's emphasis <strong>on</strong> speed erodes health, productivity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
quality of life. But there's a backlash brew<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, as everyday people start putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the brakes <strong>on</strong> their all-too-modern lives."<br />
Jennifer Golbeck: The curly fry c<strong>on</strong>undrum: Why social media “likes” say more than you might th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Do you like curly fries? Have you Liked them <strong>on</strong> Facebook? Watch this talk to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d out the surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Facebook (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others) can guess about you from your r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om Likes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shares. Computer scientist Jennifer Golbeck<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s how this came about, how some applicati<strong>on</strong>s of the technology are not so cute — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why she th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks we should<br />
return the c<strong>on</strong>trol of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to its rightful owners."<br />
Juan Enriquez: Your <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e life, permanent as a tattoo<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "What if Andy Warhol had it wr<strong>on</strong>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g famous for 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes, we’re <strong>on</strong>ly an<strong>on</strong>ymous for<br />
that l<strong>on</strong>g? In this short talk, Juan Enriquez looks at the surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly permanent effects of digital shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> our pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48848
privacy. He shares <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight from the ancient Greeks to help us deal with our new 'digital tattoos.'<br />
More than words | Laura Burian, Miguel Garcia & Barry Olsen<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Can you dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish language translati<strong>on</strong> from language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>? In what may be the first ever tril<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual<br />
TEDx talk, Laura Burian, Barry Olsen, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Miguel Garcia dem<strong>on</strong>strate the power of human cogniti<strong>on</strong> as they expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the subtle but important differences between professi<strong>on</strong>al translators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreters"<br />
Margaret Heffernan: Why it's time to forget the peck<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g order at work<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Organizati<strong>on</strong>s are often run accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to “the superchicken model,” where the value is placed <strong>on</strong> star<br />
employees who outperform others. And yet, this isn’t what drives the most high-achiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teams. Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess leader Margaret<br />
Heffernan observes that it is social cohesi<strong>on</strong> — built every coffee break, every time <strong>on</strong>e team member asks another for help —<br />
that leads over time to great results. It's a radical reth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of what drives us to do our best work, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what it means to be a<br />
leader. Because as Heffernan po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out: 'Companies d<strong>on</strong>’t have ideas. Only people do.'"<br />
Ricardo Semler: How to run a company with (almost) no rules<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "What if your job didnâ€t c<strong>on</strong>trol your life? Brazilian CEO Ricardo Semler practices a radical form of<br />
corporate democracy, reth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g everyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from board meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to how workers report their vacati<strong>on</strong> days (they d<strong>on</strong>â€t<br />
have to). Itâ€s a visi<strong>on</strong> that rewards the wisdom of workers, promotes work-life balance — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> leads to some deep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight<br />
<strong>on</strong> what work, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> life, is really all about."<br />
Ernesto Sirolli: Want to help some<strong>on</strong>e? Shut up <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> listen!<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "When most well-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ed aid workers hear of a problem they th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k they can fix, they go to work. This,<br />
Ernesto Sirolli suggests, is naïve. In this funny <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impassi<strong>on</strong>ed talk, he proposes that the first step is to listen to the people<br />
you're try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to help, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tap <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to their own entrepreneurial spirit. His advice <strong>on</strong> what works will help any entrepreneur."<br />
Country Profiles - Global Guide to <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Customs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Etiquette Free Internati<strong>on</strong>al Etiquette Guides from Kw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tessential<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Etiquette, Manners, & <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> From cyborl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k.com<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, LLC<br />
Cultural Awareness Internati<strong>on</strong>al (relocati<strong>on</strong> services)<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> Success<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> C<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Institute Numerous presentati<strong>on</strong>s by IC comm scholars <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others<br />
References<br />
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pp. 126–127<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, J. N., Nakayama, T. K. (2010). <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>text</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. 5th Ed. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill<br />
Mehrabian, A. (1977). Public Places <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Private Spaces. New York: Basic Books.<br />
Nee, V. G., & Nee, B. (1974). L<strong>on</strong>gtime Californ’: A documentary study of an American Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atown. Bost<strong>on</strong>: Hought<strong>on</strong><br />
Miffl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Nees, G. (2000). Germany: Unravel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an Enigma. Yarmouth, Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e: <strong>Intercultural</strong> Press<br />
Pennycook, A. (1998). English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the discourses of col<strong>on</strong>ialism. New York/L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Routledge.<br />
Piller, I. (2017). <strong>Intercultural</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>: A critical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong>. Ed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>burgh: Ed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>burgh University Press.<br />
Reml<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, M. S., J<strong>on</strong>es, T. S., Foeman, A., & Arévalo, D. R. (2014). <strong>Intercultural</strong> communicati<strong>on</strong>: A peacebuild<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
perspective. Wavel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Press.<br />
Rogers, E. & Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt, T. (1998). <strong>Intercultural</strong> Communicati<strong>on</strong>. Wavel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Press<br />
Scoll<strong>on</strong>, R. & Scoll<strong>on</strong>, S. (1981). Narrative Literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Face <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Interethnic Communicati<strong>on</strong>. Norwood: Ablex.<br />
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Photo credits<br />
Exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess cards by Naoto Anazawa, http://www.kadena.af.mil/News/Photos...to/2000907780/<br />
Walmart Germany: Clemens Franz, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wal-Mart_Pattensen_Germany.jpg<br />
Zurich airport: Siqbal, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Zurich_Airport_Arrivals_Lounge.jpg<br />
Japanese garden: Berichard, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>_Japanese_Garden.jpg<br />
US backyard: Dave Herholz, https://www.flickr.com/photos/dherholz/2527315698<br />
Japanese house <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> garden: Frederikto, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shofuso_Japanese_House_<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>_Garden.jpg<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al Japanese home: Jay Walsh,<br />
https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alternate_detail_of_traditi<strong>on</strong>al_Japanese_home_at_Japanese_garden,_Hunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>_<br />
Library,_Art_Collecti<strong>on</strong>s_<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>_Botanical_Gardens.jpg<br />
Hedge around house <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Germany, Steffen He<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>z, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:H%C3%B6fen_hecke1.jpg<br />
Tokyo subway: Tim Adams, https://www.flickr.com/photos/36217981@N02/13155481125<br />
Japanese toilet: Chris 73, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wireless_toilet_c<strong>on</strong>trol_panel_w._open_lid.jpg<br />
Xavante village: Priscila Gervasio Teixeira, http://portaldoprofessor.mec.gov.br/fichaTecnicaAula.html?aula=55695<br />
Bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess Interacti<strong>on</strong> Group <strong>on</strong> Mexico: Suiza Davos-Klosters, https://www.flickr.com/photos/presidenciamx/12105092246<br />
Chuchotage: Raim<strong>on</strong>d Spekk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, https://comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Garry_Kasparov_-<br />
_Klaus_Bednarz_at_lit_Cologne_2007_-_(6784).jpg<br />
Medical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Brian D. J<strong>on</strong>es, http://www.hqmc.mar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es.mil/Photos/igphoto/198836/<br />
Women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> leadership: Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kIT<br />
https://www.th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kitassociati<strong>on</strong>.org/media/65813/women-<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-leadership1.jpg<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.4.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48848
Multicultural school group: Eurobas<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Susta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>able_development_exhibiti<strong>on</strong>_Plan%C3%A8te_mode_d%27emploi_at_Paris,_24_S<br />
eptember_2009.jpg<br />
Traffic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India: Yann, comm<strong>on</strong>s.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Road_traffic,_Gwalior.jpg<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 7/15/2021 6.4.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48848
CHAPTER OVERVIEW<br />
7: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Objectives<br />
Successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> with this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated course c<strong>on</strong>tent will enable students to…<br />
Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the phenomen<strong>on</strong> of acculturati<strong>on</strong><br />
Expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>cept of "face"<br />
List <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e different styles of c<strong>on</strong>flict communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> name the stages of culture shock<br />
Discuss aspects of mediated cultural encounters<br />
7.1: COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES<br />
7.2: MOVING AMONG CULTURES<br />
7.3: TECHNICALLY SPEAKING - REFLECTIVE WRITING<br />
7.4: ENCOUNTERING OTHER CULTURES (SUMMARY)<br />
1 8/26/2021
☰<br />
7.1: Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g across <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>s professor John Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2015a) cites this story, emailed to him from a student participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a study abroad<br />
experience:<br />
I found your email to be most practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> helpful. I've kept <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> touch with my family<br />
[<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US] <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> like you said even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> short emails I noticed I've become more aware of<br />
a sense of frustrati<strong>on</strong> with American waste, greed, materialism, c<strong>on</strong>sumerism. I can<br />
tell especially with my brother <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sister I'm go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to have a hard time tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them<br />
about my experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural differences that I've been exposed to. In <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
emails I sent to my brother I was tell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him how it's amaz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to see the value change<br />
between the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Irel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In his resp<strong>on</strong>se to this he asked me 'Did you get to see<br />
the Superbowl?' I haven't spoken to my family, well at least my brother, after his<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Encounters with other cultures can be life-chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g experiences. They can also lead to frustrati<strong>on</strong>, as here, when our friends or<br />
family d<strong>on</strong>'t underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or are unwill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to accept the changes we have underg<strong>on</strong>e, such as acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests or po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts of<br />
view. <strong>Intercultural</strong> encounters vary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scope, c<strong>on</strong>text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcome. We may have c<strong>on</strong>tact with a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a brief<br />
exchange, or we might live <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new culture for an extended period of time. We will be discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this unit the<br />
range of experiences, as well as potential outcomes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture shock. We will also look at<br />
mediated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters, through news reports, stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al Encounters<br />
We discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a previous unit that meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people we d<strong>on</strong>'t know often results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anxiety. That uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ty is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased when we know little about the other pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have to make assumpti<strong>on</strong>s. We may act or speak based <strong>on</strong> those<br />
assumpti<strong>on</strong>s. That may prove not to be a problem, particularly if we are open to chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g our percepti<strong>on</strong>s, work to<br />
accommodate the other pers<strong>on</strong>'s communicati<strong>on</strong> style, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adjust our speech <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly. But it's also possible<br />
that the encounter leads to miscommunicati<strong>on</strong>, bruised feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> arguments. Misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict occur all the<br />
time when human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved, even am<strong>on</strong>g people we know well or are related to. The opportunity for c<strong>on</strong>flict is all<br />
the more plentiful when different languages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved.<br />
In cross-cultural encounters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g different languages, there may be quite different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of comm<strong>on</strong>ly used<br />
words or phrases. The Cultura project, orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the Massachusetts Institute of technology, c<strong>on</strong>nects students from<br />
different cultures with the aim of improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g both language proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between groups from different universities beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s with the students complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> each side questi<strong>on</strong>naires <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they give<br />
their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of particular expressi<strong>on</strong>s, such as "family" or "liberty". Some words have elicited quite different<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s from groups <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> France. The word "<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism" (French, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualisme), for example, am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
US students was associated with positive qualities of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent, free <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfettered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
acti<strong>on</strong>. The French underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was some<strong>on</strong>e different; the word was associated most comm<strong>on</strong>ly with egotism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This led to some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e discussi<strong>on</strong>s between the two groups of students (see Furstenberg et al., 2001). If we assume<br />
word mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs carry accurately across languages – a mispercepti<strong>on</strong> comm<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g m<strong>on</strong>ol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guals – this has the potential to<br />
result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
☰<br />
Figure<br />
: Word associati<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Cultura project<br />
In some cases, particular words may be associated with political orientati<strong>on</strong>s. The Republican Party <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US, for example, is<br />
likely to see "freedom" as a major comp<strong>on</strong>ent of the party's belief system, associated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their case especially with the ability to<br />
bear arms unencumbered by laws <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with the absence of government <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess transacti<strong>on</strong>s. A<br />
quite divergent view of the word "freedom" was recounted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rogers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt (1999) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which a Vietnamese woman<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed why she felt she could not live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US:<br />
The mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of any value, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g freedom, differs across cultures. An old woman <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Saig<strong>on</strong> told <strong>on</strong>e of the authors that she<br />
felt that she could not tolerate the lack of freedom <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States. In Vietnam she was free to sell her vegetables <strong>on</strong> the<br />
sidewalk without be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hassled by police or city authorities. She did not have to get a permit to fix the roof <strong>on</strong> her house. She<br />
had the freedom to vote for a communist c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate if she wanted to. She believed that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States, where her children<br />
lived, people were expected to tell others what they thought. In Vietnam she had the freedom to rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> silent. Her percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed her behavior; she refused to immigrate to the United States to jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her children (p. 84).<br />
<br />
Figure<br />
: Coal m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> West Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia<br />
<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
Adher<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rigidly to <strong>on</strong>e's own <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> of a word with str<strong>on</strong>g social significance can be problematic. The symbolic value<br />
of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ☰ phrases may be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to our belief system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> form an essential element of how we see the world. There<br />
are particular phrases which trigger str<strong>on</strong>g positive or adverse reacti<strong>on</strong>s. Counter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e advocat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a very different<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> of such a phrase may be perceived as a pers<strong>on</strong>al attack, a denial of an aspect of the other's identity. A coal m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er,<br />
for example, is likely to react quite differently to the phrase "global warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g" than an envir<strong>on</strong>mental activist. Those views<br />
may center around potential unemployment, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> loss of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>come, family tensi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potentially a dramatic change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lifestyle. In such a situati<strong>on</strong>, assert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the reality of global warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through envir<strong>on</strong>mental science, case studies, or climate<br />
statistics is likely to fall <strong>on</strong> deaf ears. Communicati<strong>on</strong> is likely to be impeded. As Alan Alda posits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a book <strong>on</strong><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> between scientists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the public (2017), <strong>on</strong>e might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such circumstances try to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d comm<strong>on</strong>alities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
areas such as similarities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al backgrounds, regi<strong>on</strong>al affiliati<strong>on</strong>, or religi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flicts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict can arise over differences of op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g substantive issues such as global warm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, they<br />
may derive from misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs based <strong>on</strong> verbal or n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> tied to cultural norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values. These can<br />
be m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or – such as not perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a given greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriately – or more serious – such as perceived rudeness based <strong>on</strong> how<br />
a request has been formulated. Missteps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most forms of n<strong>on</strong>verbal communicati<strong>on</strong> can typically be easily remedied (through<br />
observati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imitati<strong>on</strong>) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> normally do not pose major sources of c<strong>on</strong>flict. N<strong>on</strong>-natives <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> most cases will not be expected<br />
to be familiar with established rituals. Most Japanese, for example, will not expect Westerners to have mastered the<br />
complexities of bow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavior, which relies <strong>on</strong> percepti<strong>on</strong>s of power/prestige differentials unlikely for a foreigner to<br />
perceive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same way as native Japanese.<br />
Similarly, n<strong>on</strong>-natives will be forgiven mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> areas of grammar, vocabulary, or pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Russians will not expect n<strong>on</strong>-natives to have mastered the complex set of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flecti<strong>on</strong>s that accompany different grammatical<br />
cases. Native Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese will not expect a mastery of t<strong>on</strong>es. Of course, if the errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibility, there will be<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicative effectiveness. There may be, as we have discussed, some prejudice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> possible discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st those who do not have full comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of a language or who speak with a noticeable foreign accent. C<strong>on</strong>flict is less<br />
likely to come from language mechanics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more likely from mistakes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language pragmatics, most frequently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of<br />
speech acts, i.e. us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language to perform certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> acti<strong>on</strong>s or to have them performed by others. Native English speakers, for<br />
example, will typically qualify requests by prefac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them with verbs such as "would you" or "could you", as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
"Could I please have another cup of tea?"<br />
"Would you pass the ketchup when you're through with it?"<br />
The use of the modal verb "could" or the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>al form "would" is not semantically necessary – they d<strong>on</strong>'t add anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. They are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded as part of the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard way polite requests are formulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English. Ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s more directly, i.e. "Br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g me another cup of tea", would be perceived as abrupt <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impolite. Yet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many cultures,<br />
requests to strangers might well be formulated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a direct way. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>s as different from <strong>on</strong>e another as German <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ese are both more direct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> formulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requests. N<strong>on</strong>-native English speakers might will transfer those formulati<strong>on</strong>s from<br />
their native language word-for-word <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to English, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a possible percepti<strong>on</strong> of rudeness. This is known as pragmatic<br />
transfer, discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter four.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> or c<strong>on</strong>flict can arrive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases from differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> t<strong>on</strong>e or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>. D<strong>on</strong>al Carbaugh (2005) gives an<br />
example, based <strong>on</strong> work d<strong>on</strong>e by John Gumperz:<br />
As East Asian workers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cafeteria <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong> served English customers, they would ask the customers if they wanted<br />
"gravy" [sauce], but asked with fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rather than ris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>. While this fall<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tour of sound signaled a questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di, to English ears it sounded like a comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The servers thus were heard by British listeners to be rude <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriately bossy, when the server was simply try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ask, albeit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di way, a questi<strong>on</strong>. In situati<strong>on</strong>s like these, <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
habitual c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al practices can cue unwitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, yet those cues are typically bey<strong>on</strong>d the scope of <strong>on</strong>e's<br />
reflecti<strong>on</strong>. As a result, miscommunicati<strong>on</strong> is created, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a way that is largely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>visible to participants. Once known to them,<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> can take a different form. (pp. 22-23)<br />
This source of c<strong>on</strong>flict, a mispercepti<strong>on</strong> of another pers<strong>on</strong>'s acti<strong>on</strong>s or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent, here attribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rudeness to a difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> style, is <strong>on</strong>e of the more comm<strong>on</strong> occurrences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both everyday <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural encounters.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
How such c<strong>on</strong>flicts are resolved varies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals c<strong>on</strong>cerned. Communicati<strong>on</strong> scholars have<br />
identified ☰ patterns <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong>, discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next secti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict Resoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> styles represent processes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes based <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests of the parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved. These are often<br />
presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of a grid, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2015b):<br />
Figure<br />
: C<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> styles<br />
If I am <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent <strong>on</strong> reach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my own goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an encounter, I use what's called a dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or c<strong>on</strong>troll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g style. This is most<br />
often associated with cultures labeled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic, as it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's will w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over another's. On the other<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, if I am c<strong>on</strong>tent to allow others to get their way, I use an oblig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or yield<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g style. This is often related to cultures<br />
deemed collectivistic, as it favors harm<strong>on</strong>y over outcome. Stella T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey (2015) has been a lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scholar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area,<br />
with explorati<strong>on</strong>s of how to predict a given c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> style based <strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al cultures. But she cauti<strong>on</strong>s, as do others,<br />
how dependent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual behavior is <strong>on</strong> the specific c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ability of the parties to be flexible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
compromis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Flexibility <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> openness might lead to the adopti<strong>on</strong> of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or collaborat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approach, seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a soluti<strong>on</strong> that satisfies both parties. A compromis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approach provides a negotiated outcome which necessitates each<br />
party giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to reach a soluti<strong>on</strong> that provides partial ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong> each side. Avoidance or withdrawal may<br />
be appropriate if no resoluti<strong>on</strong> is likely, or there is not enough time or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to resolve the c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
Examples of c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> styles associated with different cultural orientati<strong>on</strong>s are given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Markus & L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1999). They<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US the predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate perspective traditi<strong>on</strong>ally has been that represented by European-American views:<br />
"Hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's own ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the courage of <strong>on</strong>e's c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <strong>on</strong>e's own m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's own course are<br />
powerful public mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>scribed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> everyday social practices" (p. 307). That tends to translate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the importance of<br />
assert<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's positi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>flict, rather than seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g compromise or accommodati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
<br />
With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world organized accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the tenets of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> animated by the web of associated underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
practices, any perceived c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual freedom is likely to pose immediate problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> require a resp<strong>on</strong>se.<br />
Typically the most appropriate resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>flict situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves a direct or h<strong>on</strong>est expressi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e's ideas. Indeed, it is<br />
sometimes the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualist's moral imperative, the sign that <strong>on</strong>e is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a "good" pers<strong>on</strong>, to disagree with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
unmoved by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of others. The right to disagree, typically manifested by a direct statement of <strong>on</strong>e's own views, can<br />
create social difficulties, but it is understood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced as a birthright (p. 308).<br />
The authors po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out that this perspective is far from be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared with the rest of the world, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, is not universal<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US. Asian-American, African-American, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hispanics are likely to have quite different views regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict,<br />
identified by the author as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terdependent perspective: "From an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terdependent perspective, the underly<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goal of social<br />
behavior is not the preservati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manifestati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attributes, but rather the preservati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships" (p. 311). In this approach, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual rights are superseded by group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest. Quick, decisive c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
is not the ultimate goal, but rather an outcome that serves all parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> preserves harm<strong>on</strong>y. In many communities that<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves the use of mediators. In a study of "peaceful societies", B<strong>on</strong>ta (1996) describes how such figures play a key role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which violence is rare. As an effective approach for resolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cross-cultural situati<strong>on</strong>s, Markus & L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(1999) advocate the use of face negotiati<strong>on</strong> techniques, as outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed below.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
The C<strong>on</strong>cept of Face<br />
T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey ☰ has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the forefr<strong>on</strong>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the development of a theory often applied to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural c<strong>on</strong>flict, called face<br />
negotiati<strong>on</strong> theory (T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey & Kurogi ,1998). This theory tries to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>cept of face, often<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as a pers<strong>on</strong>'s self-image or the amount of respect or accommodati<strong>on</strong> a pers<strong>on</strong> expects to receive dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with others. T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Toomey actually differentiates am<strong>on</strong>g three different c<strong>on</strong>cepts of face:<br />
Self-face: The c<strong>on</strong>cern for <strong>on</strong>e's image, the extent to which we feel valued <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respected.<br />
Other-face: Our c<strong>on</strong>cern for the other's self-image, the extent to which we are c<strong>on</strong>cerned with the other's feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Mutual-face: C<strong>on</strong>cern for both parties' face <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for a positive relati<strong>on</strong>ship develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to face negotiati<strong>on</strong> theory, people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all cultures share the need to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negotiate face. Some cultures – <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals – tend to be more c<strong>on</strong>cerned with self-face, often associated with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualism. C<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this case<br />
may become c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>tati<strong>on</strong>al, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g potentially to a loss of face for the other party. Collectivists – cultures or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals –<br />
tend to be more c<strong>on</strong>cerned with other-face <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may use strategies such as avoidance, the use of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termediaries, or withdrawal.<br />
They may also engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mutual facework (acti<strong>on</strong>s to uphold face) such as negotiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a private c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
or apologiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Face c<strong>on</strong>cerns can appear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s, but mostly come to the fore dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts of <strong>on</strong>e k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d or another. T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-<br />
Toomey predicts that certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures will have a preference for a given c<strong>on</strong>flict style based <strong>on</strong> face c<strong>on</strong>cerns. Individualistic<br />
cultures or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals will prefer a direct way of address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the chart presented earlier, a dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
style or, optimally, a collaborat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approach. The latter, however, requires that <strong>on</strong>e address a c<strong>on</strong>flict directly, someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which<br />
particular cultures or people may prefer not to do. Collectivistic cultures or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals may prefer an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct approach, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
subtle or unspoken means to deal with c<strong>on</strong>flict (avoid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, withdraw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, compromis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), so as not to challenge the face of the<br />
other.<br />
Another way to view c<strong>on</strong>flict styles resoluti<strong>on</strong> is through the <strong>Intercultural</strong> C<strong>on</strong>flict Style Inventory developed by Mitchell<br />
Hammer (2005). Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the theory beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ventory, disagreements lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to c<strong>on</strong>flict have two dimensi<strong>on</strong>s, an<br />
affective (emoti<strong>on</strong>al) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cognitive (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual or analytical) side. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Hammer, parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>flict experience an<br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>al resp<strong>on</strong>se based <strong>on</strong> the disagreement, its perceived cause, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the threat they see it as pos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. How the two parties<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract he sees as dependent <strong>on</strong> how emoti<strong>on</strong>ally expressive they tend to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how direct their communicati<strong>on</strong> styles are.<br />
This results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> four different styles, Discussi<strong>on</strong> (direct communicati<strong>on</strong> style while be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g emoti<strong>on</strong>ally reserved), Engagement<br />
(also direct but expressive emoti<strong>on</strong>ally), Accommodat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct communicati<strong>on</strong> style, emoti<strong>on</strong>ally relaxed) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dynamic<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>direct communicati<strong>on</strong> style, while emoti<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved). Hammer developed an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument that measures these four styles<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> argues that be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to identify your own style <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that of your counterpart can help better manage c<strong>on</strong>flict.<br />
One of the important ways to avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters is to be attentive to what the other pers<strong>on</strong> is<br />
communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, not just through the words spoken, but through body language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other n<strong>on</strong>verbal means. The process of<br />
active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g can be quite helpful. Rogers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fatt (1999) outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e some of the important factors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that:<br />
Active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sists of five steps: (1) hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or exposure to the message, (2)<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, when we c<strong>on</strong>nect the message to what we already know, (3)<br />
remember<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, so that we do not lose the message c<strong>on</strong>tent, (4) evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
about the message <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whether or not it is valid, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (5) resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, when<br />
we encode a return message based <strong>on</strong> what we have heard <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what we th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of it (p.<br />
158).<br />
What is c<strong>on</strong>flict good for?<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict has many positive functi<strong>on</strong>s. It prevents stagnati<strong>on</strong>, it stimulates <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curiosity. It is the medium through<br />
which problems can be aired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> soluti<strong>on</strong>s arrived at. It is the root of pers<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social change. And c<strong>on</strong>flict is often<br />
part of the process of test<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>eself. As such it may be highly enjoyable as <strong>on</strong>e experiences the pleasure of<br />
the full nd active use of <strong>on</strong>e's capacities. In additi<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>flicts demarcate groups from <strong>on</strong>e another <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help establish<br />
group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al identities.<br />
-Deutsch, 1987, p. 38<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
Despite our best <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>s as well as engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the techniques for optimiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cross-cultural encounters, c<strong>on</strong>flict is<br />
sometimes ☰ unavoidable. Scholars of c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to some positive aspects of pers<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>flict (see<br />
sidebar). C<strong>on</strong>flicts can illum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate key cultural differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus can offer "rich po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts" for underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other cultures.<br />
Cultural Schemas<br />
When c<strong>on</strong>flicts occur <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters, an awareness of the dynamics of c<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong> can be helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
issues. It is useful as well to have some awareness of the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of our social behavior. If we assume that the way<br />
our culture operates is the default human behavior worldwide, we are likely to reject alternatives as unnatural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior. In<br />
reality, what we experience as "comm<strong>on</strong>-sense" or "normal" behavior is socially c<strong>on</strong>structed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned. The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of takenfor-granted<br />
knowledge of how th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs work becomes automatic, not requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g any c<strong>on</strong>scious thought. We can th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of such<br />
behavior as cultural schemas (set patterns of behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language) which are typically learned by observ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others or<br />
perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an acti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ce. Holliday, Hyde & Kullman (2004) describe how this works:<br />
Know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the cultural schema of events such as danc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a salsa or order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a meal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
McD<strong>on</strong>ald's, is derived from empirical experience of that 'event'. It is re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forced each<br />
time that it serves as a useful guide for behaviour <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that particular c<strong>on</strong>text or 'genre'.<br />
Of course the schemas of these different genres can be very different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different<br />
countries...The problem is that if we have a schema for an event already established <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
our nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al or ethnic cultural milieu, we are likely to make the error of<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the event <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other culture should be the same – or similar. When<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s are upset <strong>on</strong>e may experience a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> degree of shock that can perhaps<br />
translate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to resentment, anger <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perhaps negative judgement of the other culture.<br />
This is because expectati<strong>on</strong>s have not been fulfilled <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e may therefore feel<br />
vulnerable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'adrift' (pp. 197-8).<br />
In our everyday lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our own cultures, we carry out tasks rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ely <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This leads to a sense that such<br />
behavior is universal. Be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ted with alternative models can be upsett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The authors give an example <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>trast<br />
between visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a pub <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brita<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (see sidebar). The example shows that we have to rebuild our schemas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
different cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to navigate our way successfully through new cultural situati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Spanish bar or an English pub: not the same<br />
In Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the schema may be: enter the bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> greet the people there with a general 'Buenos dias', go to the bar; see if<br />
there are any friends around; offer to get them dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks; order the dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks at the bar; dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accept any offers of other<br />
dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks from others; when you want to go ask how much you owe, often clarify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the barman/woman which dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks<br />
you are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for; make sure you say goodbye to every<strong>on</strong>e you know <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to those you d<strong>on</strong>'t with a general 'Hasta<br />
luego.' A Spanish man greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strangers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Engl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> would probably be disappo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack of reciprocity of<br />
his greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The locals would be suspicius or amused; the Spaniard would feel the locals are perhaps unfriendly. He may<br />
be seen as dish<strong>on</strong>est or evasive if he doesn't offer to pay for the first dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k he asks for up<strong>on</strong> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g served that dr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k. An<br />
Englishman enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Spanish bar may be seen as a little odd or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>genu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if he uses 'please' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 'thank you' all the time.<br />
These terms tend to be reserved for ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g favours <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rendered a favour, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are thus not used so 'lightly'.<br />
-Holliday, Hyde & Kullman (2004), p. 199<br />
Sometimes the cultural schema relies <strong>on</strong> a sequence of acti<strong>on</strong>s, as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a British pub, or it may be primarily related to language<br />
use. Sharifian (2005) illustrates how a particular Persian cultural schema known as sharm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>egi (sometimes translated as<br />
'be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ashamed') is rendered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a number of speech acts:<br />
Express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g gratitude: 'You really make me ashamed'<br />
Offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services: 'Please help yourself, I'm ashamed, it's not worthy of you.'<br />
Request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services: 'I'm ashamed, can I beg some m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes of your time.'<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
Apologiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: 'I'm really ashamed that the noise from the kids didn't let you sleep.'<br />
☰<br />
(p. 125)<br />
Sharifian suggests that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all cases, the sharm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>egi schema "seems to encourage Iranians to c<strong>on</strong>sider the possibility that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the company of others they may be do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or have d<strong>on</strong>e someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g wr<strong>on</strong>g or someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with the other party's<br />
dignity" (p. 125). Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the analysis by Bowe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>'s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> (2007):<br />
Sharifian relates the sharm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>egi schema to a higher level 'overarch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g' cultural schema which def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es a core value of culture<br />
related to social relati<strong>on</strong>s that he calls "adab va ehteram", roughly glossed as 'courtesy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respect' <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English. He suggests that<br />
'(t)his higher-level schema encourages Iranians to c<strong>on</strong>stantly place the presence of others at the centre of their<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ceptualizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor their own ways of th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to make them harm<strong>on</strong>ious with the esteem that they<br />
hold for others'. (p. 42)<br />
Another way to formulate this is that <strong>on</strong>e needs to learn the special discourse of the cultural event or acti<strong>on</strong>. Discourse often<br />
refers to specialized language use (as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the discourse of airl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e pilots) but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> postmodern use it often is used to go bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language. J.P. Gee (1999) describes discourse as "different ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which we humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate language with n<strong>on</strong>-language<br />
'stuff,' such as different ways of th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, valu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, believ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g symbols, tools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> objects<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the right places <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at the right times so as to enact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recognize different identities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities" (p. 13). Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
Gee, discourses are embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve the use of various "props" like books, tools, or<br />
technologies. One might need a whole host of resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> any given c<strong>on</strong>text to come up with an appropriate discourse<br />
strategy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g use of an appropriate language register, express<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the correct politeness formulas, wear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the right<br />
cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriate body language, etc.<br />
Mediated Encounters<br />
Experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other cultures can happen through pers<strong>on</strong>al encounters or travel, but it can also be a mediated experience, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which we are experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new cultures vicariously or virtually. This might be at a fairly superficial level, through read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g news reports deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with other countries. Of course, news from abroad is highly selective, often focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
dramatic or disastrous events, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitably filtered through the lens of the reporter's own culture. We tend to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> little <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to day-to-day lives through the nightly news. More <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-depth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> may be supplied by l<strong>on</strong>ger written pieces <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> serious<br />
newspapers/magaz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es or the Internet, or through TV or documentaries. We can't travel everywhere or have the opportunity to<br />
meet an endless number of people from diverse cultures. From that perspective, the sec<strong>on</strong>d-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> we obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> from<br />
mass media can provide basic knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts for serious study.<br />
More <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed views come from first-h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accounts of encounters or from pers<strong>on</strong>al cultural trajectories. Of particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<br />
are what are sometimes called language autobiographies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which others recount their process of adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
culturally to a new envir<strong>on</strong>ment. An excellent example is Eva Hoffman's memoir Lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Translati<strong>on</strong>: A Life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a New<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1989). She recounts her early life, mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with her family from Pol<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to the US when she was a child. One of the<br />
early significant cultural experiences she had was a change of her name <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that of her sister from Ewa <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Al<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a to "Eva" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
"Ela<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e":<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
☰<br />
Figure : Eva Hoffman's memoir Lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Translati<strong>on</strong>: A Life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a New <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> (1989)<br />
<br />
Noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g much has happened, except a small, seismic mental shift. The twist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our<br />
names takes them a t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y distance from us – but it's a gap <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to which the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite<br />
hobgobl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of abstracti<strong>on</strong> enters. Our Polish names didn't refer to us; they were as<br />
surely us as our eyes or h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. These new appellati<strong>on</strong>s, which we ourselves can't yet<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounce, are not us. They are identificati<strong>on</strong> tags, disembodied signs po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
objects that happen to be my sister <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> myself…[They] make us strangers to<br />
ourselves. (p. 105)<br />
The change may seem a small matter, but for Hoffman it represents a separati<strong>on</strong> from how she sees her place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world. She<br />
has become some<strong>on</strong>e unfamiliar to herself, with a name she cannot even pr<strong>on</strong>ounce correctly. Eventually, she f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds herself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychological no-man's l<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, between two languages:<br />
I wait for that sp<strong>on</strong>taneous flow of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ner language which used to be my nighttime talk<br />
with myself…Noth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comes. Polish, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a short time, has atrophied, shriveled from<br />
sheer uselessness. Its words d<strong>on</strong>'t apply to my new experiences, they're not coeval<br />
with any of the objects, or faces, or the very air I breathe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the daytime. In English,<br />
the words have not penetrated to those layers of my psyche from which a private<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> could proceed. (p. 107)<br />
She has difficulty order<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sense of the events of her life. Slowly she beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a rec<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of herself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English.<br />
Initially, this comes through listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imitat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g:<br />
All around me, the Babel of American voices, hardy midwestern voices, sassy New<br />
York voices, quick youthful voices, voices arch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g under the pressure of various<br />
crosscurrents…S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce I lack a voice of my own, the voices of others <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vade me as if I<br />
were a silent ventriloquist. They ricochet with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> me, carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
lend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g me their modulati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s, rhythms. I do not yet possess them; they<br />
possess me. But some of them satisfy a need; some of them stick to my ribs…<br />
Eventually, the voices enter me; by assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them, I gradually make them m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. (pp.<br />
219-220)<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
Step-by-step, Hoffman learns both the verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal codes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can adapt to US cultural schemas:<br />
☰<br />
This goddamn place is my home now…I know all the issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the codes here. I'm<br />
as alert as a bat to all sublim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al signals sent by word, look, gesture. I know who is<br />
likely to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k what about fem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Nicaragua <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychoanalysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Woody<br />
Allen…When I th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of myself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural categories – which I do perhaps too often – I<br />
know that I'm a recognizable example of a species: a professi<strong>on</strong>al New York woman…<br />
I fit, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> my surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs fit me (pp. 169–170).<br />
An account like that of Hoffman's provides a detailed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sider's story of cultural adaptati<strong>on</strong>. Both ficti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>ficti<strong>on</strong> can<br />
supply <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual lives, which puts a human face <strong>on</strong> the theories of cultural encounters. This is true of films as<br />
well. Life stories c<strong>on</strong>vey the emoti<strong>on</strong>al turmoil that often accompany cultural transiti<strong>on</strong>s, someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g we sometimes lose track<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scholarly studies.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.1.9 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42993
7.2: Mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Am<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Different <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's communicati<strong>on</strong> style <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>al behavior to a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual or a small group from another culture<br />
can be stressful, but it pales <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to adjustments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulties <strong>on</strong>e might encounter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an extended period<br />
of time liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a different culture. There are a variety of situati<strong>on</strong>s which might lead to such experiences. One might be an<br />
immigrant, mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g permanently to another country, or a refugee, leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's home <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voluntarily due to adverse or<br />
dangerous c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Asylum-seekers leave their countries due to the threat of political or religious persecuti<strong>on</strong>. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
refugees seek better work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g situati<strong>on</strong>s for themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. These situati<strong>on</strong>s all differ markedly from<br />
that of those who go abroad voluntarily to work or study with the expectati<strong>on</strong> of return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home after a certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> period of time.<br />
Those who stay for a l<strong>on</strong>ger time, such as 1 to 5 years, are often labeled sojourners. In comparis<strong>on</strong> to those migrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>voluntarily, sojourners tend to be wealthier <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> better educated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a more privileged situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host<br />
culture. Sojourners will often associate will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly with compatriots, form<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an expatriate, or ex-pat, community.<br />
Figure<br />
: Japanese members of a tour group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rome, an example of mass tourism<br />
Sojourners have a different experience from short-term visitors or tourists, the latter generally hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a filtered exposure to<br />
the other culture, while travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> nati<strong>on</strong>al groups largely isolated from native communities. Because of the short time frame<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-depth exposure to the new culture, tourists normally have an unproblematic relati<strong>on</strong>ship to the culture, often<br />
experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a positive light, if perhaps somewhat exoticized. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, some studies have shown that tourists<br />
may have ethnocentric views re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forced. That may occur because tourists, liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an "envir<strong>on</strong>mental bubble" (Cohen, 1972),<br />
see <strong>on</strong>ly selected aspects of a culture. The aspects of the culture encountered (food, dress, festivals) do not provide a<br />
comprehensive underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the culture as a whole, as they represent outward manifestati<strong>on</strong>s of the culture, not its hidden<br />
values <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beliefs. The result can be that tourists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> representatives of the host culture do not see each other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their entirety<br />
as human be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs:<br />
<br />
The mass tourist travels <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a world of his own, surrounded by, but not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
the host society. He meets the representatives of the tourist establishment — hotel<br />
managers, tourist agents, guides —but <strong>on</strong>ly seldom the natives. The natives, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn,<br />
see the mass tourist as unreal. Neither has much of an opportunity to become an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual to the other (Cohen, 1972, p. 175).<br />
This applies to mass tourism. Cultural tourists, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> historical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> artistic aspects of a country or regi<strong>on</strong>, may<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a fuller picture of the culture (Cohen, 1972). It's more likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that case that the tourists will have prepared for the visit<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
through some degree of study of the history <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> geography of the regi<strong>on</strong>. Optimally, that would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basics of the<br />
language as well.<br />
Topless Zulu dancers: Only for tourists?<br />
Naidu (2011a, 2011b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigates the 'topless' dance traditi<strong>on</strong> of Zulu girls <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cultural village <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> KwaZula Natal, South<br />
Africa, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> percepti<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>digenous cultural bodies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tourism. In the cultural village reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Naidu's study, a small<br />
number of Zulu-speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g girls took part <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Zulu dance as 'ethnic' performers. As unmarried virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, they wear no tops,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly beaded skirts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some jewellery when danc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Figure<br />
: The Reed Dance Festival 2006. (Public Doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>; Amada44 via Wikipedia)<br />
However, although 'topless' has been a traditi<strong>on</strong> for Zulu girls, th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are very different now. As reported by two girls<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed by Naidu (2011b), girls nowadays do not have to dance 'topless' to show that they are unmarried. Instead,<br />
they <strong>on</strong>ly do it at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when there is a special celebrati<strong>on</strong>. Nevertheless, the girls feel that this is what tourists want<br />
to see <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> danc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 'topless' is a bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess exchange, despite the fact that they f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it somewhat awkward when danc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
fr<strong>on</strong>t of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>g with tourists.<br />
Hua, 2013, p. 88<br />
<br />
Stereotypical images of a culture may be perpetuated through a desire <strong>on</strong> the part of the host country to accommodate tourist<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong>s. That may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact be a practical necessity, if the tourist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry c<strong>on</strong>stitutes a major c<strong>on</strong>tributor to a regi<strong>on</strong>'s<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy. Hua (2013) provides the example of how topless danc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a traditi<strong>on</strong>al aspect of Zulu culture, has been affected by<br />
the tourist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry (see sidebar). Tourism may have a complex relati<strong>on</strong>ship to a host culture, sometimes reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture to a<br />
commodity. Some scholars have po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to positive aspects of tourism (Jack & Phipps, 2005), as at least <strong>on</strong>e widely available<br />
means for cross-cultural c<strong>on</strong>tact. The TED talk <strong>on</strong> tourism by Aziz Abu Sarah argues that tourism can play a positive role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peace-keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Tourism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fact, may lead to activism. Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> et al. (2013) give the example of the found<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the TOMS<br />
One for One shoe company, which d<strong>on</strong>ates a pair of shoes to poor Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-American families for each pair sold. The founder got<br />
the idea <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>centive for the company while travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through Argent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a.<br />
Cross-cultural adaptati<strong>on</strong><br />
Those who have the day-to-day experience of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture are likely to have a quite different experience from tourists.<br />
This might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with bureaucracies, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out how th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs get d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
culture, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new friends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a host of other issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> potential difficulties that every<strong>on</strong>e liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that culture – native or<br />
foreigner – experiences. This process of adjustment is often referred to as acculturati<strong>on</strong>, the learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of at least<br />
some of the values, norms, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors of the new culture. This may be an easy process, or l<strong>on</strong>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficult. That depends<br />
<strong>on</strong> many factors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's age, educati<strong>on</strong>al level, familiarity with the language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture, reas<strong>on</strong>s for relocat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
support structures available (friends, family, coworkers), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the degree of difference between <strong>on</strong>e's home culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that of<br />
the new residence. Acculturati<strong>on</strong> can be fragmented; that is, <strong>on</strong>e might adapt to some parts of a culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not others. Ward<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rana-Deuba (1999) dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guish between psychological adjustment (emoti<strong>on</strong>al well-be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sociocultural adaptati<strong>on</strong><br />
(the ability to functi<strong>on</strong> day-to-day <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target culture). While psychological adjustment is largely dependent <strong>on</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social support, "sociocultural adaptati<strong>on</strong>, measured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong> to the amount of difficulty experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the performance<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
of daily tasks, is more dependent <strong>on</strong> variables such as length of residence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new culture, language ability, cultural<br />
distance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quantity of c<strong>on</strong>tact with host nati<strong>on</strong>als" (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999, p. 424). While both forms of adjustment<br />
are present dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial c<strong>on</strong>tact with the new culture, normally sociocultural problems steadily decrease over time.<br />
Psychological adjustments are more variable.<br />
The process of acculturati<strong>on</strong> can vary as well depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the purpose of the c<strong>on</strong>tact, such as col<strong>on</strong>izati<strong>on</strong>, trade, evangelism,<br />
or educati<strong>on</strong>. It can also depend <strong>on</strong> the length of time the c<strong>on</strong>tact lasts. A scholar who has studied acculturati<strong>on</strong> extensively,<br />
John Berry, has identified four pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal modes of acculturati<strong>on</strong> (Berry & Sam, 1997). Assimilati<strong>on</strong> is the loss of <strong>on</strong>e's orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
cultural identity by acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host culture. The goal is to become <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guishable from other people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that culture. Adapt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the host culture but ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the identity from <strong>on</strong>e's native culture is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>. This k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of<br />
bicultural identity is likely to provide the most successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> satisfy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g acculturative experience. In some cases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
prefer no close c<strong>on</strong>tact with the host culture. In this mode, separati<strong>on</strong>, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s his or her native identity with<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal adaptati<strong>on</strong> to the host culture, although the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual may choose for practical reas<strong>on</strong>s, such as employment, to adopt<br />
particular aspects of the host culture (speech, dress). The fourth mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> is marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals have a weak identificati<strong>on</strong> with both host <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> native cultures. This can lead to alienati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sense of<br />
ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ment. An additi<strong>on</strong>al mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> was identified by Richard Mendoza (1989). He labeled this cultural<br />
transmutati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual chooses to identify predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately with a third cultural group, such as youth culture or<br />
gay/lesbian groups.<br />
At the opposite end of the travel spectrum from tourists are those who are forced to leave their home countries, whether that be<br />
because of adverse liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (fam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, war, civil unrest) or due to the need to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ful employment for <strong>on</strong>eself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>e's family. The book Global Woman (Ehrenreich & Hochschild, 2003) describes how milli<strong>on</strong>s of women migrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to<br />
support their families, mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the global south (Philipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es, Sri Lanka, India) to the north (North America, Europe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Middle East) to work as domestics:<br />
Mexican <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> American women are the domestics for U.S. women; Asian<br />
migrant women work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> British homes; North African women work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> French homes;<br />
Turkish women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> German homes; Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>as work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Italy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Greece; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o, Indian, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sri Lankan women travel to Saudi Arabia to work (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Nakayama, 2010, p. 311).<br />
Such migrati<strong>on</strong>s raise many troubl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issues. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> issue of social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural loss, Ehrenreich &<br />
Hochschild po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the ir<strong>on</strong>ic fact that often women <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such situati<strong>on</strong>s are forced to leave their own children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the care of<br />
others while they tend to the children of their employers.<br />
Figure<br />
: Filip<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a nanny <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Canada<br />
Added to the emoti<strong>on</strong>al toll these women endure from be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g separated from their families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultures, they may not f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
social acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host communities. Typically, domestic or manual migrant laborers are treated differently from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual workers or bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess professi<strong>on</strong>als. Migrants from the same country might be treated differently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host culture:<br />
<br />
Class issues often enter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the picture. Sometimes immigrant workers are seen as<br />
necessary but are not really welcomed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the larger society because of their class<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
(which is often fused with racial differences). And sometimes the discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class issues result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict between recent migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emigrants from the same<br />
country who have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host country for a l<strong>on</strong>g time. (Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Nakayama,<br />
2010, p. 339).<br />
In the US, for example, Mexican workers who have achieved middle class status, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore some degree of acceptance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream white US society, may take a dim view of the arrival of undocumented Mexicans, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce their arrival may<br />
jeopardize their own st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (see sidebar). A crucial factor that affects social acceptance is not just the identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> status of<br />
the migrants, but as well their numbers. The large <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>flux of refugees to Europe from Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other Middle<br />
Eastern <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some African countries <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2014 through 2016 c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the backlash aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st immigrants that led to protest<br />
movements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rise of anti-immigrant political parties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Denmark, France, Germany <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other countries.<br />
Old & new immigrants: not always a good mix<br />
Mexicans have come <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g numbers to work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the carpet plants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Southeast [USA] <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the meatpack<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
plants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Midwest. This has led to tensi<strong>on</strong> between those Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os/as, who have worked hard to achieve harm<strong>on</strong>y with<br />
whites <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> middle-class status, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the newcomers, who are usually poor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have lower English proficiency.<br />
The older Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os/as feel caught between the two—ridiculed by whites for not speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g English correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> now by<br />
recently arrived Mexicans for mangl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Spanish. This resentment between old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new immigrants has always been<br />
present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America—from the arrival of the first Europeans.<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Nakayama, 2010, p. 339<br />
Refugees<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to those leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their home country <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to better themselves <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families ec<strong>on</strong>omically <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socially,<br />
many migrants leave <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to escape regi<strong>on</strong>al or nati<strong>on</strong>al danger or deprivati<strong>on</strong>. Some leave to escape discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> due to<br />
their ethnicity, religi<strong>on</strong>, or political affiliati<strong>on</strong>. In some cases, migrati<strong>on</strong> may be limited to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals, families, or small<br />
groups, as may be the case with political activists or members of small religious denom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s. In other cases, there may be<br />
mass immigrati<strong>on</strong> due to extreme c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of hardship or widespread political or religious persecuti<strong>on</strong>. In the 19th century,<br />
for example, large numbers of Irish families migrated to the US due to the potato fam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, as did many Germans to escape<br />
political prosecuti<strong>on</strong> after the failed 1848 revoluti<strong>on</strong>. Discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> towards m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances to ethnic<br />
cleans<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, can lead to mass migrati<strong>on</strong>. Large numbers of Roh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gyas, Muslims from Rakh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e State have left Myanmar (Burma)<br />
to escape mistreatment.<br />
The Roh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gyas have sought refuge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bangladesh <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Thail<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, countries located nearby. This is the normal pattern for<br />
refugees, that they tend to relocate to areas close by their home countries. This is for practical reas<strong>on</strong>s, namely ease of<br />
migrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> likely cultural similarities. Many refugees prefer to stay close to home <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hope of repatriati<strong>on</strong> after a short<br />
period away. In other cases, families may be separated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> want to stay close to enable family reunificati<strong>on</strong>. Sadly, hopes that<br />
refugees' stay will be temporary are often disappo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted. Many temporary refugee settlements become semi-permanent.<br />
Displaced Palest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ians, for example, have lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugee settlements s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the Six Days War <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1967. L<strong>on</strong>g-term refugees can<br />
be found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many other regi<strong>on</strong>s, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Africa. The quality of life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> refugee camps varies c<strong>on</strong>siderably. Generally,<br />
however, available services will be significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferior to those available to permanent residents of the country. Schools may<br />
not be available, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there will often be subst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard health care. Refugees are not usually permitted to work. Given the<br />
adverse c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, it's not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that refugee settlements often become sites of strife <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hopelessness.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
Figure<br />
: Roh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gya refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Bangladesh<br />
The relati<strong>on</strong>ship between refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanent residents is often problematic. The local populace may resent public<br />
resources be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g used to support groups of refugees. There may be fears that frustrated refugees well resort to crime.<br />
Occasi<strong>on</strong>ally, there are rumors about refugees br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> diseases. In recent years, a new worry has emerged, namely that<br />
refugees are harbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g terrorists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their midst. In some cases, backlashes aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st refugees have led to local protests or<br />
discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atory acti<strong>on</strong>s, such as not allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g refugee children to attend public schools. Sometimes, refugees are exploited as<br />
cheap labor, or women are tricked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sex <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry. In recent years there has been violence directed aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<br />
refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some countries. In Germany, for example, built or designated refugee homes have been set <strong>on</strong> fire by ars<strong>on</strong>ists.<br />
<br />
Organized efforts to help refugees exist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many countries. In some cases, these are organized by nati<strong>on</strong>al governments, often<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong> with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al groups such as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al Red Cross or the UN Refugee Agency. The help may come<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of food, cloth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Occasi<strong>on</strong>ally, social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> medical services may be offered. Educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural<br />
resources are provided less often. As it is uncerta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how l<strong>on</strong>g refugees will be present, there is often no l<strong>on</strong>g-term plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
their possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the host country. At a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum, <strong>on</strong>e should expect to have schools available for all children.<br />
Ideally, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g should be provided to enable future employment either <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host country, or wherever the refugee may end<br />
up liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> English, for example, is crucial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> virtually any country, for use as a l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gua franca <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host country, but<br />
also as an important factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> employability.<br />
Some governments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> NGOs have come up with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative ways to provide language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Today, ph<strong>on</strong>es<br />
provide a lifel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for many refugees. They provide a vital way to c<strong>on</strong>nect to families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home country as well as<br />
those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host country or <strong>on</strong> their way. A report from the European Uni<strong>on</strong> Institute for Security Studies stated:<br />
Migrants are l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to cross borders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet their basic needs. They are<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g smartph<strong>on</strong>es to share tips <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> geo-positi<strong>on</strong>al data as they cross North Africa.<br />
They rank <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rate Afghan people-smugglers, try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to hold the crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als<br />
accountable for the safe transport of family members. On Google they share tips, such<br />
as to avoid exploitative Istanbul taxi drivers or evade new EU border c<strong>on</strong>trols.<br />
(Parkes, 2016, p. 1)<br />
The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of device that migrants use will vary with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> place of orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. One account has shown that of young<br />
Syrian refugees, 86% owned a smartph<strong>on</strong>e (Parkes, 2016). A number of mobile apps have been developed by NGOs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
government agencies to help migrants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a variety of areas, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practical dayto-day<br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Some apps aid <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of migrants mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their way through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termediate countries to their f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>. InfoAid helps refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hungary, while Gherbtna is aimed at Syrians newly arrived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Turkey. The Mobile Legal<br />
Info Source helps navigate Turkey’s legal system. The Crisis Info Hub offers support for new arrivals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Greece.<br />
Mobile devices can provide tools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services which can ease the transiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the culture, but they can <strong>on</strong>ly go so far <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the adjustment process. Ultimately, the situati<strong>on</strong> of refugees depends <strong>on</strong> the recepti<strong>on</strong> they receive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the host country,<br />
the liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s provided, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the opportunities available for liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a healthy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful existence. For refugees<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.5 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
eventually granted asylum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> permanent residence, the struggle is not necessarily over. Individuals will need to go through a<br />
process of transiti<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the new culture, not always a smooth, easy, or quick process.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shock<br />
Some people tend to be more flexible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptable than others, able to suppress, at least temporarily, some aspects of their<br />
ego, develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new way of th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accord with the other culture. Others, due to pers<strong>on</strong>ality, attitude or<br />
c<strong>on</strong>textual factors have a more difficult path to satisfactory acculturati<strong>on</strong>. Those who have a difficult time with the adjustment<br />
process are said to be experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture shock. This could manifest itself <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different ways depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual, but<br />
the comm<strong>on</strong> experience is a sense of disorientati<strong>on</strong>, a feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of loss of c<strong>on</strong>trol over <strong>on</strong>e's life, lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to sadness, grief, or<br />
anger, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases even to psychosomatic or real disorders. The process of experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture shock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eventually<br />
adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the new envir<strong>on</strong>ment has traditi<strong>on</strong>ally been described us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the image of a U-curve, which suggests that travelers<br />
go through three dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct stages. This starts with a positive experience, at the top of the U, then a period of difficulty,<br />
represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the bottom of the U, before an ultimate period of adjustment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> return to the top of the U. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial period is<br />
often called the h<strong>on</strong>eymo<strong>on</strong> stage, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which <strong>on</strong>e is excited by the newness of the experience. The sec<strong>on</strong>d period, often<br />
called the crisis stage, is when the newness has worn off <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e is c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>ted by the difficulties of adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically,<br />
socially, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychologically to a new <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different way of life. Assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e is will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to stay the course, the adjustment<br />
stage follows eventually, with a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's ability to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the new culture. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> shock can be<br />
seen as a subcategory of experiences all humans encounter, namely life changes. Janet Bennett (1977) has suggested that<br />
culture shock <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptati<strong>on</strong> should be viewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of other adult transiti<strong>on</strong>s such as go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g off to study, gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
married, or mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a different regi<strong>on</strong> of the country. As such, it can be viewed as a normal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>evitable comp<strong>on</strong>ent of<br />
everyday life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all cultures<br />
The U-model of culture shock corresp<strong>on</strong>ds to what many people tend to experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of struggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to make adjustments<br />
to life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a new envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Most experience stress, which can lead to feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of alienati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> frustrati<strong>on</strong>. The U-curve<br />
model also po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts to the reality that the adjustment often takes time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that it's not realistic to expect a quick <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> easy<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>. At the same time, there are so many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual variati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> situati<strong>on</strong>s that generalizati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the U-curve<br />
model, will often be wr<strong>on</strong>g. It may be that most travelers experience the range of experience represented by the model but not<br />
necessarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same order. Some scholars have suggested other models for describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the process. Young Yun Kim (2005)<br />
sees adjustments happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cyclical pattern of stress – adaptati<strong>on</strong> – growth. She sees stress as useful for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual's<br />
growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prefers "cultural adjustment" over "culture shock". It's also the case that acculturati<strong>on</strong> is not just with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the power<br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. It also depends <strong>on</strong> the will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness of the host culture to accept (or not) the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. A physician or<br />
eng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>eer from abroad com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a new country will likely be given a much better recepti<strong>on</strong> than poor immigrants; this can<br />
have a significant impact <strong>on</strong> the adjustment process. It can be the case as well that the co-cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new country may be<br />
welcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the new arrival, if there are similarities which make acculturati<strong>on</strong> smoother, such as nati<strong>on</strong>al orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, sexual<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong>, or professi<strong>on</strong>al affiliati<strong>on</strong>s. Adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a new culture is facilitated by the presence of l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic or cultural<br />
resources l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to the home culture, such as food markets, schools, clubs. Hua (2013), cit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Neuliep (2006), lists a number<br />
of strategies <strong>on</strong>e might use to manage culture shock (see sidebar).<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
Figure : Dim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stress-adaptati<strong>on</strong>-growth over time; Kim, 2001, p. 59<br />
The return to <strong>on</strong>e's home culture is an experience many people will anticipate with high expectati<strong>on</strong>s, as did the student at the<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this chapter, look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g forward to shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's experiences with those back home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
growth <strong>on</strong>e may have experienced dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the stay. Sometimes those expectati<strong>on</strong>s are not realistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> may not be fulfilled,<br />
result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> what's sometimes called reentry culture shock. In c<strong>on</strong>trast to culture shock, which may be anticipated, reentry<br />
culture shock may come as a surprise. It may be as serious a problem of adjustment as was the experience abroad. Baldw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(2015a) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that a large number of bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess professi<strong>on</strong>als leave their companies with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a year of return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from<br />
assignments abroad, given the difficulty of readjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lack of appreciati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of their experiences.<br />
The return home does not necessitate any k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of socio-cultural adjustment, as we are already familiar with the culture, but<br />
rather a psychological adjustment. Some have suggested that the return home is another U-curve experience, with a similar<br />
pattern of high expectati<strong>on</strong>s, followed by a feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g underappreciated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> misunderstood, with a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al period of<br />
readjustment. Sometimes the two U-curves are put together to form a W-curve, illustrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g graphically the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of roller<br />
coaster ride such experiences can prove to be.<br />
<br />
Strategies for manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g culture shock<br />
Study the host culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g search<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g websites, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g friends who have travelled or lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
culture.<br />
Study the local envir<strong>on</strong>ment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> familiarize yourself with the new system.<br />
Learn basic verbal & n<strong>on</strong>-verbal language skills.<br />
Develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural friendships.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> your support network actively.<br />
Assume the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciple of difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be aware of your perceptual bias.<br />
Anticipate failure events <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Hua, 2013, p. 79<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>cept of culture shock itself is not universally accepted. It rests <strong>on</strong> the assumpti<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals have a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
"culture" <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that the same holds true for the host country. It also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves a wholesale take-it-or-leave-it approach to cultural<br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong>. In reality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals may well adopt certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> elements of the culture, but not others. In some cases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
might choose to resist the new culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> aspects of their home cultures. The situati<strong>on</strong> becomes more complex for<br />
immigrants who represent established m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>orities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new culture. Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os migrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the US, for example, will have<br />
different experiences depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> where they locate, the presence of family members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the availability of resources for<br />
immigrants such as bil<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gual schools. In some cases, Lat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>os com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the US may not be adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream US<br />
culture, but to Hispanic American culture, which has its own dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple varieties, all different from the<br />
cultures of the home countries.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.7 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
The c<strong>on</strong>cept of culture shock has been criticized for oversimplify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a complex situati<strong>on</strong>. However, it is a widely known<br />
phenomen<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e, which as Ulf Hannerz po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out (1999), has led to an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry devoted to help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g travelers deal with<br />
cultural adaptati<strong>on</strong>:<br />
I menti<strong>on</strong>ed above the c<strong>on</strong>cept of 'culture shock', diffus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g widely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the late 20th<br />
century as a way of referr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of emoti<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual unease that<br />
sometimes occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> encounters with unfamiliar mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices. Rather<br />
facetiously, I have also occasi<strong>on</strong>ally referred to the growth of a 'culture shock<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dustry'. The proper term for its practiti<strong>on</strong>ers, I should quickly note, is<br />
'<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturalists' – a new professi<strong>on</strong> of people work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g commercially as tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultants, try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach sensitivity toward cultural diversity to various audiences<br />
through lectures, simulati<strong>on</strong> games, videos, practical h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>books <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some variety of<br />
other means. From an academic vantage po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <strong>on</strong>e may be critical of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the<br />
efforts – they may seem a bit trite, somewhat <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed toward stereotyp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>ally given to exaggerat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural differences perhaps as a way of<br />
positi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terculturalists themselves as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dispensable professi<strong>on</strong>. (p. 394).<br />
Much of this k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g necessarily focuses <strong>on</strong> typical experiences, pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a quite broad brush. In reality,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual case histories are much more nuanced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
Study Abroad<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> shock has been studied extensively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> with study abroad programs (see K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger, 2008; Salisbury, An &<br />
Pascarella, 2013). Large numbers of students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally go to study at a university <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a different country for a time rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from a short-term summer or w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter program (4 to 6 weeks) to a semester or l<strong>on</strong>ger. Students may participate as part of a<br />
group, through an exchange program, or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently. The European Erasmus Exchange Program has enabled large numbers<br />
of students from European countries to study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receive university credit at other universities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe. The k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of<br />
experience <strong>on</strong>e has through study abroad varies c<strong>on</strong>siderably depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the manner <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which it is organized. Go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad<br />
with a group from <strong>on</strong>e's own culture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g special university classes together, limits the exposure to the target culture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its language. Organiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent study abroad experience is more difficult, as <strong>on</strong>e must arrange <strong>on</strong>eself for university<br />
registrati<strong>on</strong>, selecti<strong>on</strong> of courses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hous<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In the process, however, <strong>on</strong>e is likely to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> greater socio-cultural competence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the target culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent students lack the support system<br />
available to groups.<br />
Figure : Erasmus exchange students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sweden from 7 <br />
countries<br />
Whether <strong>on</strong>e engages <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> study abroad <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently or as a member of a group, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual dispositi<strong>on</strong>/pers<strong>on</strong>ality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
local c<strong>on</strong>text will determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the degree of success <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al satisfacti<strong>on</strong>. Hua (2013) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that many study abroad<br />
experiences result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oral proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> competence.<br />
However, that varies tremendously depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual. One might have the k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of limited exposure described here:<br />
Her daily rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded attendance at required classes, after which she would go<br />
immediately to the study abroad center sp<strong>on</strong>sored by her home university where she<br />
would stay until clos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g time, surf<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the English language Internet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exchang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
emails <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Instant Messages with her friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the U.S. Outside of service<br />
encounters, framed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her journal as threats to her well-be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, she<br />
made little effort to engage speakers of French, limit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her use of the language to her<br />
courses. (K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger & Belz, 2005, p. 411)<br />
In fact, the issue of technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> study abroad is c<strong>on</strong>troversial. Some have advocated a restricted use of technology while<br />
abroad, so as to maximize real-life c<strong>on</strong>tact with the members of the target culture (Doerr, 2013). Some programs go so far as to<br />
forbid use of ph<strong>on</strong>es while participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the program (Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2016). On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e access to home<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.8 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
communities can be a tremendous help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> psychological adjustment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from culture shock. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a blog,<br />
diary, or reflective journal provides a mechanism for shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> what <strong>on</strong>e discovers, as described<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last secti<strong>on</strong> of this chapter.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to study abroad, there are other avenues for university-age students to have mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful l<strong>on</strong>ger-term encounters<br />
with a foreign culture. There are opportunities to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> volunteer services abroad, through government agencies, NGOs, or<br />
religious groups. One method that has a l<strong>on</strong>g history, particularly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Europe, is to serve as an "au pair", liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a host<br />
family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with childcare <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other light domestic work. Work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other capacities is possible as well,<br />
although f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g appropriate jobs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g necessary work permits, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the country, may be difficult. All these<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s carry with them the advantage over be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a tourist or student that they tend to offer more complete <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the<br />
everyday life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the foreign country. Liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a host family or enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment automatically supplies<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tacts with members of the culture. Particularly attractive are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternships abroad, which, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work experience, offer the possibility of future employment.<br />
Figure<br />
: Columbian work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as an au pair<br />
<br />
Achiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence<br />
Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about how a different culture enacts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> talks about habitual acti<strong>on</strong>s can ease communicati<strong>on</strong>. This can help<br />
significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to speak <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> act appropriately. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Spitzberg & Cupach's work (1984) <strong>on</strong> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence, appropriateness is <strong>on</strong>e of the two major comp<strong>on</strong>ents of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence,<br />
the other be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong>, i.e., be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak c<strong>on</strong>fidently <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibly. That does<br />
not mean just be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to speak a sec<strong>on</strong>d language, but also how to relate to others through adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong> styles<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors. One might be able to be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a job sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, for example, able to get the work d<strong>on</strong>e sufficiently,<br />
but not necessarily be do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culturally appropriate manner.<br />
Other researchers argue <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> favor of different comp<strong>on</strong>ents for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural communicati<strong>on</strong> competence. In some cases, this may<br />
be a quite extensive list. Spizberg (1994), for example, gives an example of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural skills, abilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 45 elements. Such l<strong>on</strong>g checklists may not be the most effective way to categorize competence, as Sptizberg (1994)<br />
comments:<br />
While each study portrays a reas<strong>on</strong>able list of abilities or attitudes, there is no sense<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> or coherence across lists. It is impossible to tell which skills are most<br />
important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which situati<strong>on</strong>s, or even how such skills relate to each other (p. 380).<br />
Spitzberg suggests a more productive approach through an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrative model of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural competence that sees competence<br />
as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terc<strong>on</strong>nected set of competences us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same three categories discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial chapter of this book:<br />
Knowledge (cogniti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Skills (behavior)<br />
Motivati<strong>on</strong> (emoti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves not <strong>on</strong>ly hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>crete <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the history, geography, worldview, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other comp<strong>on</strong>ents of a<br />
target culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its representatives, but also how to go about locat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new knowledge. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which media<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e services tend to supply reliable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. The knowledge needed is not just about others, but also about<br />
ourselves. Enhanced self-knowledge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-c<strong>on</strong>fidence, come from hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a perspective outside of ourselves.<br />
Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve the ability to speak a language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligibly, as well as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g achieved pragmatic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategic competence – how<br />
to use appropriate expressi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disentangle <strong>on</strong>eself from communicati<strong>on</strong> breakdowns <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes n<strong>on</strong>verbal behavior. Also important is the ability to build relati<strong>on</strong>ships; how to use the<br />
appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>verbal resources depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> both the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the circumstances.<br />
Motivati<strong>on</strong> means becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g empathetic as well as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g open to new ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perspectives. Highly desirable is a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness<br />
to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> new experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relati<strong>on</strong>ships. That can translate at times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to risk tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or at least ventur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outside of<br />
<strong>on</strong>e's normal comfort z<strong>on</strong>e. These experiences can be pers<strong>on</strong>-to-pers<strong>on</strong> or <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. They might <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volve, as discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the next<br />
secti<strong>on</strong>, experiences mediated through pers<strong>on</strong>al stories.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.9 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
Through encounter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to a new culture, we ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> new thoughts, feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors, add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language/culture pers<strong>on</strong>a to our identity. That process <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn makes us more adaptable to future encounters with different<br />
cultures. This k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural transformati<strong>on</strong> provides us with more life choices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> opportunities.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/26/2021 7.2.10 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/42994
☰<br />
7.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - Reflective writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
For Eva Hoffman, the diary she kept chr<strong>on</strong>icl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her new life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US was a crucial factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sense of her experiences<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recover<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her own voice. It's significant that she did this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> written form; she expresses her new English self <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
format. Writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provides her the opportunity to reflect <strong>on</strong> her experience, as she needs to put down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> words what it is that she<br />
is experienc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This can be a valuable tool for any<strong>on</strong>e struggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with identity issues or try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to make sense of life<br />
experiences. It can be of particular importance for those study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad, as there is often a need to explore the<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of experiences, analyze how they fit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to previous experiences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what they might mean for c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to develop<br />
our cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic repertoire.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <strong>on</strong>e's own self, it may be helpful to share <strong>on</strong>e's thoughts with others. Today, the Internet supplies a<br />
host of opti<strong>on</strong>s for do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that. Blogg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about <strong>on</strong>e's experience provides an easily accessible mechanism. Includ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pictures<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> videos can provide others with more c<strong>on</strong>crete representati<strong>on</strong>s of <strong>on</strong>e's experiences. Smartph<strong>on</strong>es allow that to be d<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
any locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without the forethought <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> equipment that used to be necessary. Services like Twitter or Instagram offer<br />
those opportunities as well. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e communicati<strong>on</strong> opti<strong>on</strong>s can supply a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous channel of c<strong>on</strong>tact between the<br />
sojourner <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family back home. This can be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strumental <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others to share <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e's pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
development, thus potentially mitigat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sense <strong>on</strong> return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that no <strong>on</strong>e can underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> or appreciate what <strong>on</strong>e has<br />
experienced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learned. In her model of cross-cultural adaptati<strong>on</strong>, Young Yim Kim (2001) advocates c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> with people from <strong>on</strong>e's own culture, as they can serve as a bridge between the two worlds. She also stresses<br />
the importance of media, with <strong>on</strong>e's own culture media serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g also as a bridge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a resource up<strong>on</strong> return to reduce reentry<br />
culture shock. Pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> to host media can also help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the adjustment process.<br />
If travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g abroad as a student, <strong>on</strong>e might c<strong>on</strong>sider other ways to document <strong>on</strong>e's experience abroad. One way to do that is to<br />
create an <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e portfolio <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes written reflecti<strong>on</strong>s, as well as media <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural artifacts. There is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the academic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>al worlds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> document<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g not just formal learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-school experiences, but also<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a portfolio is <strong>on</strong>e way of do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that. One of the available tools for that purpose is the<br />
Autobiography of <strong>Intercultural</strong> Encounters, developed by the Council of Europe, which enables <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put from a variety of<br />
possible sources; it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a compani<strong>on</strong> tool for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporati<strong>on</strong> of visual media. A portfolio has the benefit<br />
of show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g development over time.<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/5/2021 7.3.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48852
7.4: Encounter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Other <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (Summary)<br />
From theory to practice…<br />
– Practice active listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dful observati<strong>on</strong>. That <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out for t<strong>on</strong>es, gestures, body language, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facial<br />
expressi<strong>on</strong>s. Pauses or silence may be send<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a message. Hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the other pers<strong>on</strong> out "gives face", show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that you respect<br />
that pers<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his/her views.<br />
– In <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters, be prepared <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to have your ego bruised <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> your worldview challenged. It's difficult<br />
for many people to be open to alternative views <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> particular areas, such as lifestyle, politics, or religi<strong>on</strong>. Successful<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters do not require you to change your views <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>victi<strong>on</strong>s, but they do require a will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to accept<br />
that others have a right to different beliefs. It's helpful to keep <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that worldviews are socially c<strong>on</strong>structed.<br />
– Have realistic expectati<strong>on</strong>s of both travel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home. Imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed journeys often have little relati<strong>on</strong>ship to the lived<br />
experience. Know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the language of the host culture can be a tremendous boost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adjust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, but it w<strong>on</strong>'t necessarily provide a<br />
seamless transiti<strong>on</strong>. You may well f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d that the language you learned <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom is quite different from what's spoken <strong>on</strong><br />
the streets. Up<strong>on</strong> your return, you shouldn't expect friends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family to be as enthusiastic as you about aspects of the culture<br />
you have experienced. Be prepared for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>difference.<br />
– Be as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed as possible about the host country (i.e. customs, geography, politics), but also about your own country. When<br />
abroad, others will see you as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formant when it comes to your own culture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expect you to have knowledge about<br />
cultural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s, politics, sports, etc. They may well expect you to have an op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong> about current events they have read<br />
about or seen <strong>on</strong> the news. Before you leave, it's good to learn basic facts about the physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural geography of the<br />
country you are visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, such as largest cities, major transportati<strong>on</strong> networks, regi<strong>on</strong>al differences.<br />
For discussi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reflecti<strong>on</strong>...<br />
On c<strong>on</strong>flict...<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the video <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural c<strong>on</strong>flict styles...<br />
How would you describe your c<strong>on</strong>flict communicati<strong>on</strong> style? Give an example of a c<strong>on</strong>flict <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what role you played <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
resoluti<strong>on</strong> (or lack of resoluti<strong>on</strong>).<br />
After read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the article, "Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g face <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a"...<br />
How would you compare the importance of "face" <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asian cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the U.S? Is respect (not gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "dissed") important<br />
to you? Is it important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> your deal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with others?<br />
Am I rootless or am I free?<br />
After read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g "Am I rootless, or am I free? ‘Third culture kids’ like me make it up as we go al<strong>on</strong>g"...<br />
What are advantages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disadvantages of grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up as a "third-culture kid"? What different perspectives might <strong>on</strong>e have<br />
grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up this way?<br />
On acculturati<strong>on</strong>...<br />
Th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a trip to another country. What preparati<strong>on</strong>s would you make to ease the acculturati<strong>on</strong> process? Have<br />
you ever experienced culture shock or reverse culture shock? Describe your experiences.<br />
On mediated encounters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Internet...<br />
After watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the TED videos by Turkle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Edry...<br />
Comment <strong>on</strong> the two different views <strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with others through the Internet, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the noti<strong>on</strong> of "I share, therefore I<br />
am". How do the views presented corresp<strong>on</strong>d to your experience us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social media?<br />
Key terms<br />
Acculturati<strong>on</strong>: The process of cultural change that results from <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tact between two or more culturally different<br />
groups<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/19/2021 7.4.1 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48851
Adjustment phase: Third stage of culture shock, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which people actively seek out effective problem-solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
resoluti<strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
Assimilati<strong>on</strong>: Mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual takes <strong>on</strong> the behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language of the host culture while<br />
rel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>quish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ties with the native culture<br />
Asylum seeker: A pers<strong>on</strong> who has left their home country as a political refugee <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g asylum <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> another<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong>: Two or more parties seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a peaceful soluti<strong>on</strong> to a disagreement am<strong>on</strong>g them<br />
Cultural schema: The familiar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-acqua<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted knowledge <strong>on</strong>e uses when enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a familiar situati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his/her own<br />
culture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> shock: The effects associated with the tensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anxiety of enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new culture, comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with the sensati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of loss, c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> powerlessness result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the forfeiture of cultural norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social rituals<br />
Discourse: C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally, the use of words to exchange thoughts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> postmodern terms, a mode of organiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
knowledge, ideas, or experience that is rooted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its c<strong>on</strong>crete c<strong>on</strong>texts<br />
Ethnic cleans<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: The systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a majority group<br />
Expatriate: A pers<strong>on</strong> who lives outside their native country<br />
Face negotiati<strong>on</strong> theory: Theory first postulated by stella t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-toomey to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how different cultures manage c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
Face: Favorable social impressi<strong>on</strong> that a pers<strong>on</strong> wants others to have of him or her<br />
Facework: Behaviors or messages (verbal or n<strong>on</strong>-verbal) that ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, restore, or save face<br />
Immigrant: Pers<strong>on</strong> who comes to live permanently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a foreign country<br />
Integrati<strong>on</strong>: Mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual develops a k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d of bicultural orientati<strong>on</strong> that successfully<br />
blends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> synthesizes cultural dimensi<strong>on</strong>s from both groups while ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an identity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each group<br />
Marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alizati<strong>on</strong>: Mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which <strong>on</strong>e bel<strong>on</strong>gs neither to the dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture nor wholly to <strong>on</strong>e's native<br />
culture<br />
Mutual-face: Respect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dignity of the group as a whole (primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collectivistic cultures)<br />
Other-face: Pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong> to the needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desires of the other party <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a c<strong>on</strong>flict<br />
Pragmatic transfer: The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of learners' pragmatic knowledge of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture other than the target<br />
language <strong>on</strong> their comprehensi<strong>on</strong>, producti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of l2 pragmatic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
Reentry shock: The effects associated with the tensi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> anxiety of return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to <strong>on</strong>e's native culture after an extended<br />
stay <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a foreign culture<br />
Refugee: A pers<strong>on</strong> who has been forced to leave their country <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to escape war, persecuti<strong>on</strong>, or natural disaster<br />
Self-face: Seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e's own <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flict (primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualistic cultures)<br />
Separati<strong>on</strong>: Mode of acculturati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which there is voluntary segregati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnic group from dom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ant culture<br />
Sojourner: Pers<strong>on</strong> stay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for an extended period of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a place as a traveler, student, or worker<br />
Speech act: An utterance that has performative functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Resources<br />
Books<br />
Alda, A. (2017). If I Understood You, Would I Have This Look <strong>on</strong> My Face? My Adventures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Art <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Science of<br />
Relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. New York: R<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om House<br />
Everett,,D. (2008). D<strong>on</strong>'t Sleep, There Are Snakes: Life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Amaz<strong>on</strong>ian Jungle. V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tage Books<br />
Hoffman, E. (1989). Lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Translati<strong>on</strong>: A Life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a New <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g>. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>: Pengu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Books.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>flict resoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>Intercultural</strong> C<strong>on</strong>flict Styles<br />
Presentati<strong>on</strong> by J<strong>on</strong>athan Stuart of Hennep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Technical College, based <strong>on</strong> theories by Mitch Hammer<br />
Aicha el-Wafi + Phyllis Rodriguez: The mothers who found forgiveness, friendship<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Phyllis Rodriguez <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Aicha el-Wafi have a powerful friendship born of unth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kable loss. Rodriguez' s<strong>on</strong><br />
was killed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the World Trade Center attacks <strong>on</strong> September 11, 2001; el-Wafi's s<strong>on</strong> Zacarias Moussaoui was c<strong>on</strong>victed of a role<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those attacks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a life sentence. In hop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d peace, these two moms have come to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respect<br />
<strong>on</strong>e another.<br />
An<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Giridharadas: A tale of two Americas. And the m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i-mart where they collided<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/19/2021 7.4.2 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48851
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Ten days after 9/11, a shock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attack at a Texas m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i-mart shattered the lives of two men: the victim <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the attacker. In this stunn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g talk, An<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Giridharadas, author of "The True American," tells the story of what happened next.<br />
It's a parable about the two paths an American life can take, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a powerful call for rec<strong>on</strong>ciliati<strong>on</strong>."<br />
V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cent Cochetel: I was held hostage for 317 days. Here's what I thought about…<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "V<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cent Cochetel was held hostage for 317 days <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1998, while work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the UN High Commissi<strong>on</strong>er <strong>on</strong><br />
Refugees <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chechnya. For the first time, he recounts the experience — from what it was like to live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a dark, underground<br />
chamber, cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to his bed, to the unexpected c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s he had with his captors. With lyricism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> power, he expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
why he c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues his work today. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 2000, attacks <strong>on</strong> humanitarian aid workers have tripled — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he w<strong>on</strong>ders what that<br />
rise may signal to the world."<br />
Kailash Satyarthi: How to make peace? Get angry<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: ""How did a young man born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a high caste <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> India come to free 83,000 children from slavery? Nobel<br />
Peace Prize Laureate Kailash Satyarthi offers a surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g piece of advice to any<strong>on</strong>e who wants to change the world for the<br />
better: Get angry at <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>justice. In this powerful talk, he shows how a lifetime of peace-mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sprang from a lifetime of<br />
outrage."<br />
Margaret Heffernan: Dare to disagree<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Most people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctively avoid c<strong>on</strong>flict, but as Margaret Heffernan shows us, good disagreement is central<br />
to progress. She illustrates (sometimes counter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tuitively) how the best partners aren’t echo chambers — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how great<br />
research teams, relati<strong>on</strong>ships <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>esses allow people to deeply disagree."<br />
Acculturati<strong>on</strong><br />
Aziz Abu Sarah: For more tolerance, we need more ... tourism?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Aziz Abu Sarah is a Palest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ian activist with an unusual approach to peace-keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Be a tourist. The TED<br />
Fellow shows how simple <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different cultures can erode decades of hate. He starts with Palest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ians<br />
visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Israelis <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> moves bey<strong>on</strong>d."<br />
Melissa Flem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Let’s help refugees thrive, not just survive<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "50 milli<strong>on</strong> people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world today have been forcefully displaced from their home — a level not seen<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce WWII. Right now, more than 3 milli<strong>on</strong> Syrian refugees are seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shelter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> neighbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g countries. In Leban<strong>on</strong>, half of<br />
these refugees are children; <strong>on</strong>ly 20% are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. Melissa Flem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the UN's refugee agency calls <strong>on</strong> all of us to make<br />
sure that refugee camps are heal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g places where people can develop the skills they’ll need to rebuild their hometowns."<br />
On travel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture shock<br />
Cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Culture</str<strong>on</strong>g> shock CNN article<br />
Traveler’s Checklist U.S. Government tips for travelers abroad<br />
After Study Abroad: A toolkit for return<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students From World Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Diaries to deal with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tercultural encounters From the "Interculture Project" at Lancaster University<br />
Mediated encounters (journalism, books, Internet)<br />
Sherry Turkle: C<strong>on</strong>nected, but al<strong>on</strong>e?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "As we expect more from technology, do we expect less from each other? Sherry Turkle studies how our<br />
devices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e pers<strong>on</strong>as are redef<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asks us to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k deeply about the<br />
new k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> we want to have."<br />
Lisa Bu: How books can open your m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "What happens when a dream you've held s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce childhood … doesn't come true? As Lisa Bu adjusted to a<br />
new life <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States, she turned to books to exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> her m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> create a new path for herself. She shares her unique<br />
approach to read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this lovely, pers<strong>on</strong>al talk about the magic of books."<br />
Maria Bezaitis: The surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g need for strangeness<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/19/2021 7.4.3 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48851
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "In our digital world, social relati<strong>on</strong>s have become mediated by data. Without even realiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it, we’re<br />
barricad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ourselves aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st strangeness — people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas that d<strong>on</strong>'t fit the patterns of who we already know, what we<br />
already like <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where we’ve already been. A call for technology to deliver us to what <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> who we need, even if it’s<br />
unfamiliar."<br />
Meera Vijayann: F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d your voice aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st gender violence<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "This talk beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s with a pers<strong>on</strong>al story of sexual violence that may be difficult to listen to. But that’s the<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, says citizen journalist Meera Vijayann: Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out <strong>on</strong> tough, taboo topics is the spark for change. Vijayann uses<br />
digital media to speak h<strong>on</strong>estly about her experience of gender violence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her home country of India — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> calls <strong>on</strong> others to<br />
speak out too."<br />
R<strong>on</strong>ny Edry: Israel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iran: A love story?<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "When war between Israel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iran seemed imm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ent, Israeli graphic designer R<strong>on</strong>ny Edry shared a poster<br />
<strong>on</strong> Facebook of himself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his daughter with a bold message: 'Iranians ... we [heart] you.' Other Israelis quickly created their<br />
own posters with the same message — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Iranians resp<strong>on</strong>ded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d. The simple act of communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spired surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Facebook communities like 'Israel loves Iran,' 'Iran loves Israel' <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even 'Palest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e loves Israel.'"<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al stories<br />
The Mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Malala Yousafzai<br />
The story of Pakistani schoolgirl Malala Yousafzai told by The Times's Adam B. Ellick, who made a 2009 documentary about<br />
her before she was an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al star.<br />
Jacquel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Novogratz: An escape from poverty<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "Jacquel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Novogratz tells a mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g story of an encounter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Nairobi slum with Jane, a former prostitute,<br />
whose dreams of escap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g poverty, of becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a doctor <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g married were fulfilled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an unexpected way."<br />
Zak Ebrahim: I am the s<strong>on</strong> of a terrorist: Here's how I chose peace<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "If you’re raised <strong>on</strong> dogma <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hate, can you choose a different path? Zak Ebrahim was just seven years old<br />
when his father helped plan the 1993 World Trade Center bomb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. His story is shock<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, powerful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, ultimately, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g."<br />
Nadia Al-Sakkaf: See Yemen through my eyes<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "As political turmoil <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yemen c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues, the editor of the Yemen Times, Nadia Al-Sakkaf, talks at<br />
TEDGlobal with host Pat Mitchell. Al-Sakkaf's <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent, English-language paper is vital for shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g news — <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a new visi<strong>on</strong> of Yemen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> of that country's women as equal partners <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> work <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> change."<br />
Asher Hasan: My message of peace from Pakistan<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "One of a dozen Pakistanis who came to TEDIndia despite security hassles enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the country, TED Fellow<br />
Asher Hasan shows photos of ord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary Pakistanis that drive home a profound message for citizens of all nati<strong>on</strong>s: look bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
disputes, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> see the humanity we share."<br />
Boyd Varty: What I learned from Nels<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ela<br />
TED descripti<strong>on</strong>: "'In the cathedral of the wild, we get to see the best parts of ourselves reflected back to us.' Boyd Varty, a<br />
wildlife activist, shares stories of animals, humans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrelatedness, or 'ubuntu' — def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as, 'I am, because of you.'<br />
And he dedicates the talk to South African leader Nels<strong>on</strong> M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ela, the human embodiment of that same great-hearted,<br />
generous spirit."<br />
Amy Choi: How stories are told around the world<br />
TED essay: "It’s said there isn’t any<strong>on</strong>e you couldn’t learn to love, <strong>on</strong>ce you’ve heard their story. Dave Isay knows that. The<br />
ability to h<strong>on</strong>or every human by listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to what they have to say about themselves is central to StoryCorps, the n<strong>on</strong>profit he<br />
founded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003."<br />
Dave Isay: 10 Real-life Love stories<br />
From storycorps record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/19/2021 7.4.4 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48851
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Photo credits<br />
Kayan woman <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tourists by Ernie & Katy Newt<strong>on</strong> Lawley<br />
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Japanese tourists: Jorge Royan,<br />
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Lost <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> translati<strong>on</strong>: Good reads, http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/177370.Lost_<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>_Translati<strong>on</strong><br />
Robert Godw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-J<strong>on</strong>es 8/19/2021 7.4.6 CC-BY-NC https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/48851
Index<br />
S<br />
strategic competence<br />
3.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Technology
Index<br />
S<br />
strategic competence<br />
3.3: Technically Speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g - <str<strong>on</strong>g>Language</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Technology
Glossary<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
Sample Word 1 | Sample Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> 1<br />
Community<br />
Tools<br />
Libraries<br />
Resources<br />
Readability