Advanced Deep Learning with Keras

Introducing Advanced Deep Learning with Keras
The rest computes the image dimensions, input_size of the first Dense layer and
scales each pixel value from 0 to 255 to range from 0.0 to 1.0. Although raw pixel
values can be used directly, it is better to normalize the input data as to avoid large
gradient values that could make training difficult. The output of the network is also
normalized. After training, there is an option to put everything back to the integer
pixel values by multiplying the output tensor by 255.
The proposed model is based on MLP layers. Therefore, the input is expected to
be a 1D tensor. As such, x_train and x_test are reshaped to [60000, 28 * 28] and
[10000, 28 * 28], respectively.
# image dimensions (assumed square)
image_size = x_train.shape[1]
input_size = image_size * image_size
# resize and normalize
x_train = np.reshape(x_train, [-1, input_size])
x_train = x_train.astype('float32') / 255
x_test = np.reshape(x_test, [-1, input_size])
x_test = x_test.astype('float32') / 255
Building a model using MLPs and Keras
After data preparation, building the model is next. The proposed model is made of
three MLP layers. In Keras, an MLP layer is referred to as Dense, which stands for
the densely connected layer. Both the first and second MLP layers are identical in
nature with 256 units each, followed by relu activation and dropout. 256 units are
chosen since 128, 512 and 1,024 units have lower performance metrics. At 128 units,
the network converges quickly, but has a lower test accuracy. The added number
units for 512 or 1,024 does not increase the test accuracy significantly.
The number of units is a hyperparameter. It controls the capacity of the network.
The capacity is a measure of the complexity of the function that the network can
approximate. For example, for polynomials, the degree is the hyperparameter.
As the degree increases, the capacity of the function also increases.
As shown in the following model, the classifier model is implemented using
a sequential model API of Keras. This is sufficient if the model requires one input
and one output processed by a sequence of layers. For simplicity, we'll use this in
the meantime, however, in Chapter 2, Deep Neural Networks, the Functional API of
Keras will be introduced to implement advanced deep learning models.
# model is a 3-layer MLP with ReLU and dropout after each layer
model = Sequential()
model.add(Dense(hidden_units, input_dim=input_size))
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