Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia North Wollo ... - FEG

Abay-Tekeze Watershed
(ATW) Livelihood Zone
A food insecure area with a
long history of food aid. The
major causes of chronic food
insecurity include erratic rains,
small landholdings, degraded
farmlands, poor soil, pest
infestation and livestock
disease. Poor physical
infrastructure is a problem in
the livelihood zone. The
dominant crops include wheat,
barley, teff, and highland
pulses. Trade across the river
valleys is minimal in the dry
season and impossible during
the kremt season.
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Amhara Livelihood Zone Reports
Meket Woreda
North Wollo Administrative Zone
North Wollo Highland Belg
(NHB) Livelihood Zone
This is a food insecure zone with
a long history of food aid. The
dominant crop is barley. Small
quantities of pulses such as
lentils and field peas are
cultivated below the frost line.
Livestock income is more
important than crop income for
all wealth groups. The narrow
margin between income and
expenditure particularly for poor
and very poor households
means that in a bad year, these
wealth groups are forced to look
for migration labor.
Contents
Map & livelihood zone description
Population by livelihood zone
Key parameters for monitoring
Livelihood zone profiles

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Amhara Livelihood Profile
Population by Livelihood Zone and Kebele (2005)
Woreda: Meket
Zone: N Wollo
Woreda population 249,742
Livelihood Zone: Livelihood Zone: Livelihood Zone:
Abay Tekeze Watershed North Wollo Highland Belg
LZ Population: 224,695 LZ Population: 25,047
Population by Kebele: Population by Kebele: Population by Kebele:
Agrit(005) 9,094 Adsegie Ab 4,386
Ansa Wuha( 2,457 Denkena(04 3,933
Arebal(028 5,228 Estayish(0 7,123
Aydefer(03 6,524 Selonajie( 6,159
Aymate(012 6,105 Wero(037) 3,446
Berkeza(01 6,004
Boya(036) 10,727
Debeko(032 9,103
Debre Kerb 4,963
Debre Zebi 10,320
Defergie(0 4,878
Giorgis (0 7,009
Hamusit(03 7,699
Hana Mekuw 6,365
Kemkem(026 5,047
Kurisa(001 6,086
Lama Debir 3,634
Maserut(01 6,681
Mekuwat(02 6,981
Mesfin(029 8,940
Sekoy Gebr 6,307
Sendej(025 3,771
Serko(006) 3,642
Seron Meda 3,756
Taguba Mes 8,429
Tajja(030) 6,007
Tebelat(01 8,154
Temtemat(0 5,705
Tiwuha(004 6,652
Wefchina(0 4,471
Wekieta(02 11,683
Werkaye Ma 9,083
Weyra Ber( 4,405
Zbie(018) 3,692
Zufan Amba 5,093

Content of the Woreda Profiles
The Woreda Profiles are a compilation of the livelihood information directly relevant to a
single woreda. They provide a map of the woreda showing the livelihood zones within
the woreda, population data by kebele and livelihood zone within the woreda, the
relevant livelihood zone profiles and the key parameters (indicators) for monitoring
within the woreda. Please note that sources of food and income, whilst typical of the
livelihood zone, might not be found in all woredas within the livelihood zone.
Urban Populations
Urban HEAs have not been completed for Ethiopia. Large urban centres are not included
in the livelihood baselines.
Source of Population Data
Note: The 2005 woreda population is that estimated by the Central Statistical Authority.
The list of kebeles in the woreda was taken from the 1994 census and each kebele's 2005
population calculated by multiplying the 1994 census figure by the increase in total
woreda population since 1994. Information from the 1994 census was used in preference
to other sources of information since this represents the main official source of
population data for the woreda. Difficulties were encountered due to changes in woreda
and kebele boundaries since 1994. Many kebeles have been combined since 1994. Where
kebeles have been renamed or combined since 1994, woreda officials were asked to
assign the old 1994 kebele to one or other new kebele in the woreda. It was sometimes
not possible to locate a kebele (e.g. because woreda officials did not recognize the name
or did not include the kebele in their list). In these cases an 'unknown' category has been
included in the population analysis. A 'not assigned' category has also been included for
livelihood zones. Kebeles included in the 'not assigned' category could not be assigned to
any of the livelihood zones in the woreda.
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Key Parameters
Abay Tekeze Watershed (ATW) - Key Parameters
Item Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter – Price
Crops • Meher Teff
• Meher Barley
• Meher Lentils
• Meher Millet
• Meher Wheat
• Trees
• Honey
Livestock production • Cows’ milk
• Cattle
• Goats
Other food and cash
income
• Chickens
• Labour – migration
• Labour Weeding/ploughing
• Labour – harvesting
North Wollo Highland Belg (NHB) - Key Parameters
• Meher Maize
• Meher Teff
• Meher Lentils
• Meher Wheat
• Trees
• Honey
• Butter sales
• Cattle
• Goats
• Chicken sales
• Labour – migration
• Labour – weeding/ploughing
• Labour – harvesting
Item Key Parameter - Quantity Key Parameter – Price
Crops • Belg Pulses
• Belg Wheat
• Belg Barley
• Belg Flax
• Trees
Livestock production • Cattle
• Cow’s milk
Other food and cash
income
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• Belg Sorghum (staple)
• Belg Barley
• Belg Flax
• Trees
• Belg Pulses
• Belg Wheat
• Butter sales
• Cattle
• Sheep • Sheep
• Labour – migration • Labour – migration

Livelihood Profile
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Abay-Tekeze Watershed Livelihood Zone (ATW) October 2007 1
Zone Description
The livelihood zone stretches from the meher
dependent woina dega area of north Wollo (Meket,
Wadla, Delanta and Dawnt woredas) to the Southeastern
part of the South Gonder Administrative Zone
(E & W Esite, Farta, Lay Gayint, Simada and Tach
Gayint woredas). The landscape has diverse
characteristics: undulating, flat or hilly surfaces, and
valleys dissecting the livelihood zone. The area is
mainly woina dega, but includes some kola and dega
agro-ecology. The vegetation includes scattered trees
and bush/shrubs like acacia species, dodenia, dedeho
(local name), Olia africana, Croton macrostacheous,
embach (local name) and eucalyptus plantations.
Major roads crossing the livelihood zone are Woreta to
Woldia and Lalibela to Alemketema. The major rivers
found in the livelihood zone are Beshilo,
Chefa, Zita, Enchika, Gazo, Deremo, Tilkit and Arushe Wonkat. Rivers bordering the livelihood zone are Tekeze, Abay
(Blue Nile) and Teleyaeyen. Major towns found in the livelihood zone are Mekaneesus, Wogeda, Arb Gebeya, Felakit,
Kone and Wogel Tena. In the livelihood zone, there are many historical places which might attract tourists such as: Este
Mekaneyesus church, the Bethlehem higher church school, Segoda Mariam church, Abune Arone, Chira Medahenialem
church. In addition the topography and views recommend themselves to ecotourism.
The population density is moderate with a scattered pattern of settlement. The rainfall pattern of the livelihood zone is
erratic and of uneven distribution. The annual rainfall amount around the livelihood zone ranges from 800 – 1500mm.
This is a mixed farming area of crop production and animal husbandry. Natural resources in the area include sands
deposited in the major river, stones, eucalyptus trees, and remnants of natural forests around the churches. Crop
production is entirely rain fed, except in very specific sites where vegetables are cultivated through traditional
irrigation. There is only one rainy season – kremt - and it is used for the cultivation of both long and short cycle crops.
In order of importance, the dominant crops of the Livelihood Zone are sorghum, teff and haricot beans. The methods of
land preparation in the livelihood zone are mainly by ox-plowing but tilling by hand occurs in the hilly areas on steeply
sloping land.
Livestock in this zone are sheep, cattle and goats – these are usually grazed, but the middle and better off also purchase
animal feed like hay and crop residues from October to January from the very poor and poor. Livestock are watered
from the major rivers in the livelihood zone in the rainy season. In the dry season, shallow hand dug wells provide
water for livestock in Estayish, Hamusit, Geregera, Mekaneyesus, Gibasra, Licha, Mikere, Agona, Lewaye, Workeye,
kurite, Agrit, Berekeza, Araabal, and Debrezebit, in addition to many small streams and spring water which has been
developed for both animal and human consumption. Water for livestock is usually free but in Meket district there is a
minimum payment for guards and the maintenance of shallow well water sources for livestock. Better of wealth group
replace their oxen and milking cows from their herd while the poor and middle wealth groups replace them through
purchase from market. Most households keep poultry. The main diseases and parasites affecting livestock are anthrax,
blackleg (cattle and equines), sheep pox, pasteurellosis (all livestock), African horse fever, lumpy skin and parasites
(tick, mange, helminthiasis, fasciolla).
Main natural constraints to accessing food and generating cash income include: drought, pest infestation and livestock
disease. Poor physical infrastructure and complete obstruction of transportation during the rainy seasons also exacerbate
the problem of accessing food and cash income.
The Safety Net program is implemented in all the woredas via both public work and direct support.
Field work for the current profile was undertaken in October 2007. The information presented refers to November 2005-October 2006 (EC Heder
1998 to Tekemt 1999), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this
profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). ). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD = 8.67 ETB.
Page 5

Based on the government policy about 20 percent of the PSNP beneficiaries receive direct support. The amount paid is
3-6 months of wheat 15kg, pulses1.5 kg and 0.45 litres of oil per month (in return for 5 days work), or cash.
About 50 – 60 percent of the people in the livelihood zone also access credit. Official credit is taken for the following
activities: sheep and cattle fattening 1000-2000 ETB, sheep rearing 600-4000 ETB and petty trade 1500-5000 ETB.
Repayment terms depend on the type of loan taken and start from one month to one year after receiving the loan.
Interest rates range from 12.5% on loans taken from cooperatives to 18% from the Amhara Credit and Saving Institute
(ACSI).
The dominant crops of the livelihood zone are wheat, barley, teff, highland pulses (faba beans, lentils, field peas,
chickpeas and vetch), highland oil crops (noug and flax), and lowland oil crops like safflower. With the exception of
the very poor who obtains their food through purchase, own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual
food requirement of all other wealth groups. In a typical year, better-off and middle households have a high reliance
upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash income. For the poor and the very poor the Safety Net is
the major source of cash income even in a typical year.
Markets
Poor physical infrastructure and the remote location of the livelihood zone are the major limiting factors that restrict
viable trade interaction between the zone and external markets as well as between different markets within the zone.
Trade interaction across the rivers valley is minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the kremt
season.
As crop production is very low, almost all agricultural products are consumed locally and whatever is produced does
not exceed the local demand. Haricot beans are the only crop supplied to external markets, mostly to the nearby town
markets (at Dejen, Mota and Debre Tabor) as well as Dessie and Addis Ababa. When grain is unavailable in the local
markets during the hunger season, maize is supplied to the livelihood zone from surplus producing areas in Gojam and
other regions.
Livestock and livestock products are sold in the major towns within the zone, based on proximity.
Approximately half of the employment is found locally, and the remaining employment is gained by migration to
Rayya Kobo, Jimma, East Shewa (Nazaret), Bale, Metemma, Humera, Pawi and Gondar.
Seasonal Calendar
Rainy Seasons Kremt
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Legend planting cons. green harvest W eeding
W heat
Barley
Teff
Highland pulses
Livestock sales
Cattle in heat
Milk production
Urban Labour
Labour Migration
Local labour
Food purchase
Hunger season
Rainfall Pattern
Dry belg
oxen shoats cattle Land prep.
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
There are 3 main seasons: Bega/dry season (January-May), kremt/rainy season (June–September) and meher/harvesting
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Abay Tekeze Watersheds Livelihood Zone

(October-December). There is a belg/small rains season (January–March) for some parts within North Wollo. Land
preparation from (February-June) and weeding (July-September) are the most laborious and time-consuming activities.
Agriculture is entirely dependent on kremt rains. Barley and teff have short, intermediate and long cycle crop varieties.
Short cycle barley is grown from June to September and the short cycle teff from July-October. Long cycle barley, teff
and wheat are grown from May/June -November/December.
Different types of livestock are sold at different times of the year. Shoats are sold around the major Christian Festivals
(New Year, Christmas and Easter) when the maximum prices are anticipated. Cattle are sold in the months when oxen
are not needed for agricultural activities. There is some control over breeding to adjust the birth time of livestock to
when sufficient feed is available.
Labour migration occurs July – December to join the agricultural activity in Raya, Metemma, Pawi, Nazrate and
Humera. From January- April/May people travel to Addis and Jimma for construction and coffee picking. Local
employment opportunities start with weeding in July and continue through to harvesting in November. The hunger
season and the period of the greatest dependence on the market for food is two-three months between August and
October.
Wealth Breakdown
V ery
P oor
H H size
Land area
cultivated
P oor 5-7 1-3 tim ad
M iddle 6-8 5-7 tim ad
B etteroff
0% 20% 40%
% of households
Livestock/asset holding O ther assets
4-6 0-2 tim ad 3-5 chickens 0-30 eucalyptus tree
6-8 7-9 tim ad
W ealth G roups C haracteristics
3-5 shoats, 0-2 ox, 0-1
cows, 3-5 chicken
10-20 shoats, 0-2 ox, 2-4
cow s, 0-2 donkey, 0-2
horse, 3-5 chicken
20-30 shoats, 1-3 oxen, 4-6
cow s, 1-3 donkey, 0-2
horse, 2-4 chicken
4 tim ads=1 hectare
50-150 eucalyptus tree
300-400 eucalyptus tree,
0-2 beehives
500-700 eucalyptus tree,
2-4 beehives
The most important determinants of wealth are the size of land owned by households, and the ownership of livestock in
general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Ownership of a pair of oxen allows better-off households to
prepare their land on time and rent-in the land of poor and very poor households on a contractual basis. The most
common contractual agreement between the better-off`/middle and poor/very poor is ‘yekul’ (‘equal’) in which 50% of
the harvest goes to each contracting party after threshing. Land holding ranges from 2-3 timad for the very poor to 5-7
timads for the better-off. The difference in volume of crop production among the different socio-economic groups is
partially attributable to the differences in land holdings and to the fact that the middle and better-off can rent in land
from the poor.
Poorer households exchange labor for ox plowing. One day of ox plowing is paid for with for two days labor and the
eventual crop residues. Constraints to crop production for the better-off include shortage of land and its poor fertility,
the limited supply of and high price of inputs (e.g. improved seeds and fertilizers), and lack of labor. Local solutions
include using compost and selected local seeds.
Livestock ownership is constrained by shortage of grazing land and feed, lack of labor to look after animals, the
prevalence of animal diseases and lack of improved breeds. The better-off resolve some of these problems by buying
crop residues and hay during the meher season, employing children from poorer households, obtaining veterinary
services from the nearby agricultural office and using better local breeds.
Eucalyptus trees are another source of income in this livelihood zone. The poor have limited land, and they lack the
equipment for digging and watering eucalyptus plantations and have limited experience of growing trees. Local
solutions adopted by poorer households are to rent equipment and get experience from the better-off.
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Abay Tekeze Watershed Livelihood Zone

Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
The contribution of own crop production
to the annual food requirement of the
different households positively correlates
with the economic status of the wealth
groups consistently increasing from the
very poor to the better-off. In a typical
year, while the middle and better-off
households cover more than 90% of their
annual food needs, the poor and very poor
can only afford to cover only about 50%
and 40% of their requirement respectively.
Main foods consumed by all wealth
groups are wheat, barley and teff. The
better off consume more teff and the poor
consume more barley.
All wealth groups, though to a different
extent, rely on the purchase of food to
make up their annual food deficit.
Consumption of livestock products is only
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food
requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per
person per day.
relevant to the better-off and middle, the better-off having the advantage of owning a larger number of livestock.
The contribution of the Safety Net is significant for poor and very poor households, and they also take payments in kind
(direct payment in grain) for casual work.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Annual
income
(ETB)
1400-1800 1800-2200 2500-3500 4000-4500
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income
according to income source.
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
Payment in kind
Safty net
Purchase
livestock prod.
There are differences in the type and
relative importance of income options
available to the different wealth groups.
Higher crop production enables the
better-off and middle households to
generate much of their cash income from
the sale of crops: highland pulses (lentils,
field peas and faba beans), teff and wheat.
The poor sell a small amount of teff.
Ownership of larger numbers of livestock
also separates the better-off and middle
households from the other wealth groups.
Thus the cash obtained through the sale of
livestock is the second most important
source of cash income for both wealth
groups. Income from the sale of animals
varies by wealth group as the poor often
sell very young sheep when facing money
shortages whilst the better off can sell
when the animal is bigger and prices are better The combined contribution of labor sales and Safety Net receipts
constitutes about 60% and more than 80% of the annual cash income of the poor and very poor respectively.
Page 8
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
self-employment
(e.g. firewood)
prod.safety nets
agr.labour
livestock sales
l/stock prod.
sales
crop sales
crops
Abay Tekeze Watersheds Livelihood Zone

Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Annual expenses are divided in eight
different categories. Expenditure on
inputs (animal drugs, seeds, fertilizer,
labor, tools) consistently increases in
proportion from the very poor to the
better-off.
The absolute amount of cash spent on
each category as well as the quantity and
quality of items purchased also varies
according to economic status.
All wealth groups, except the better-off,
purchase staple food (maize, barley,
wheat), the poor purchase sorghum. The
better-off also purchase sugar, oil and
vegetables.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
other
gifts
tax
clothes
social sev.
inputs
water
HH items
non-staple food
staple food
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to
category of expenditure.
While expenditure on staple food decreases with increasing wealth, expenditure on clothing and social services follow
the reverse trend.
Hazards
In this Livelihood Zone, erratic rains, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria are the recurring problems
affecting agricultural productivity and human wellbeing.
Erratic rains. Drought, which can include both insufficient amount of rainfall and uneven distribution over the rainy
season, is the single most important cause of acute food insecurity in the livelihood zone.
Livestock disease. These are mainly anthrax (cattle and goats), sheep and goat pox, lack leg, internal and external
parasites (cattle and goats), pasteurellosis, African horse fever and lamp skin.
Crop pests are a chronic problem in the Livelihood Zone, of which the most hazardous are stalk borer (sorghum and
maize), Wollo bush crickets (teff), Aphids (all crops), cut worm, root rot, cut worm, shoot fly (teff), African boll worm
and late blight. Striga (sorghum and maize)
Coping Strategies
Coping strategies employed by different wealth groups vary depending upon various factors including the phase and
frequency of the hazard and the asset base of households. Poor households are more likely to adopt the following
strategies:
Labor migration. Compared to the other wealth groups, poor and very poor households have few expandable options
except extending the duration of migration and involving more members of the household in it.
Loans of cash and crops taken by the poor from better-off households
The middle and the better-off are more likely to do adopt the following strategies
Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. They try to maintain
the productive assets until all efforts to avoid asset depletion fail. Sale of livestock is less of an option for the poor and
very poor who may only be able to sell a small number of additional shoats (poor) and poultry (poor and very poor).
Switching of expenditure from non-food to staple food items. This is a common strategy for expanding purchases in
a bad year, accompanied by purchasing either lower quality or small quantity. But some of this switching can have a
particularly negative effect, notably in the case of reduced expenditure on schooling or basic agricultural inputs.
Summary
The Abay-Tekeze Livelihood Zone is food insecure area with a long history of food aid assistance. The major causes of
chronic food insecurity include erratic rains (insufficient and uneven distribution), small landholdings, highly degraded
farmlands, shallow & infertile soil, pest infestation and livestock disease. Poor physical infrastructure is also a serious
problem in the livelihood zone. The dominant crops include wheat, barley, teff, and highland pulses (faba beans,
lentils, field peas, chickpeas and vetch). There is only one rainy season - kremt and it is used for the cultivation of both
long and short cycle crops. Trade interaction across the river valleys is minimal during the dry season and totally
impossible during the kremt season. Wealth is determined by the size of land owned by households as well as by herd
size in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. In a typical year, while the middle and better-off households
cover more than 90% of their annual food needs from their fields, the very poor can only manage to cover slightly
above 60% of their requirement in this way.
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Abay Tekeze Watershed Livelihood Zone

Livelihood Profile
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone (NHB) July 2007 1
Zone Description
The North Wollo Highland Belg ivelihood zone covers the
belg dependent highlands of Delanta, Dawnt, Wadla and
parts of Guba Lafto, Gidan and Meket. These all share a
similar agro-ecological setting, cultivation practices,
cropping season and crop types. The zone is an extensive
high plain bisected by the River Zjita,giving the smaller
Delanta Dawnt plateau to the south of the river and the
greater plateau north of the river stretching from the
highlands of Gubalafto in the east to the belg-dependent
areas of Meket woreda in the west.
Crop production is entirely rainfed, except in small number
of localities where the Ministry of Agriculture has recently
introduced small scale water harvesting.. There are two
distinct rainy seasons- belg and kremt. The belg season is
the most important one for the cultivation of both long and
short cycle crops. Water logging in the kremt season and
frost in October and November are the limiting factors for
the cultivation of meher crops.
In order of importance, the dominant crops of the Livelihood Zone are barley and wheat. Lentils and flax are also
cultivated in favourable localitiesof the lower dega area, below the frost line and away from colder temperatures ofthe
extreme dega areas.
Livestock in this zone heep, cattle and equines. These graze freely on common land, but better off households also
purchase straw and hay from the poorer wealth groups, particularly in April and May. The middle and better-off wealth
groups replace oxen from their herd, whilst the poor replace animals through purchase. Sheep are slaughtered during key
holidays. Oxen are used for ploughing; poorer households may also plough with horses.
Main natural constraints to accessing food and generating cash income include drought, pest infestation, water logging, and
frost, and livestock disease. Poor physical infrastructure and a complete obstruction of transportation during the rainy
seasons also exacerbates the economic problem.
The Safety Net programme exists in all the woredas in this zone, giving a combination of food (15kg wheat, 1.5kg pulse
and 0.5liter oil per month per individual) and cash, distributed for six months of the year. In addition, supplementary food
is distributed to malnourished children and lactating women. Credit packages are available for investment in livestock,
petty trade and new agricultural technologies. Loans range from 850-2000 ETB and interest rates range from 12.5% to
18% .
Markets
Poor market access is the major factor that limits trade interaction between the livelihood one and external markets. Poor
roads – most of them with only dry-weather surfaces - and the remote location of much of the zone severely restrict the
flow of goods in and out. As local inhabitants consume almost all local agricultural products, the major markets for local
grain are the woreda centres within the zone. The problems of inaccessibility are most acute in the belg and kremt rains.
Livestock and livestock products are the only items sold in external markets. Depending on the proximity of the different
parts of the livelihood zone, these items are sold Dessie and Addis Ababa (from Delanta Dawnt,) and Gonder (from
Wadla).
In both good and bad years, the poor and very poor migrate in search of paid work opportunities. Local woreda centres can
only provide very limited employment. Common destinations for migration are Addis Ababa, Dessie and Afdera (lake-salt
1 Field work for the current profile was undertaken in July 2007. The information presented refers to June 2005-May 2006 (EC
Hamle 1997 to Sene 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the
information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). The exchange rate in the
reference year was: US1=8.67 Ethiopian birr.
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North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone

industry in Afar Region). The usual period of migration is between January and May. However, while the destination
remains the same, the duration of migration is extended in a bad year.
Local grain is almost totally unavailable on the market during the hunger season (April and May), and so a large quantity
of grain (sorghum and maize) comes in from Gojam and Gonder.
Seasonal Calendar
Agriculture is entirely dependent on belg rains that last from March to May. The main crops (barley and wheat) are
harvested in June and July. Land preparation is done from the end of the kremt season (September) far ahead of the
planting in February. The consumption year starts in July after the harvest of the main crops.
Except in September when both cattle and sheep are sold, sheep are sold around the festivals of Christmas and Easter when
the maximum prices are anticipated, cattle are sold in June, October and November when there is no need for cattle for
agricultural activities. Local paid work is available only during the harvesting months of June (barley and wheat) and
November (flax).
Migration for work by the very poor and poor is usually from February to June. Although the period of food purchase
extends from February to May, the maximum dependency on the market coincides with the hunger season (April and
May).
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North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone

Wealth Breakdown
Wealth in this livelihood zone is determined by the ownership of livestock in general and the ownership of plough oxen in
particular. There is no big difference in the ownership of land between different wealth groups. Land holding ranges from 3
timad (very poor) to 4 timad (middle and better-off). The difference in crop production between the different wealth groups
is the result of renting-out and renting-in of land by very poor and better of households respectively. The most common
contractual agreement between the very poor and better-off households is share cropping (yekul -‘equal’) in which all
agricultural inputs (labor, oxen, and seed) are provided by the better-off households and half of the harvest is kept by each
contracting party.
The ownership of a pair of oxen allows better-off households to plough land on time The ownership of a substantial
number of sheep and cattle allows them both generate more cash income through the sale of livestock and livestock
products, and to enhance their diet with dairy and meat.
Middle households who own a single plough ox pair up (mekenajo) with another such household and retain all the
production from their own land since they don’t have to share land to pay for ploughing.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
The main source of food for all wealth groups
is own crop production. The contribution of
own production increases by wealth group
while contribution of purchased food
decreases by wealth. Purchase and food aid are
very important for the very poor and poor
households, the combination outweighing the
contribution of own crops. Middle and betteroff
households obtain the highest proportion of
the annual food requirement through the
combination of own crop production and the
share obtained from contractual agreement
with very poor households.
Dairy and meat are near-exclusively for the
better-off and middle households.
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In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of food requirements, taken as an
average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.
North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone

Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.
Annual
income
(ETB)
1100-
1500
1500-1700 1750-2250 3200-3700
Sources of cash income
particularly reflect the asset base
of different wealth groups. Sale of
livestock and livestock products
constitutes the highest proportion
of the cash income of poor,
middle and better-off households,
but only about one-fifth for the
very poor. Income from sale of
crops and livestock and livestock
products increases with wealth.
‘Self employment’ means petty
trade for the better-off households.
Income from the Safety Net and sale of labor (agricultural, urban and construction) is the exclusively for the poor and very
poor households..
High dependence upon sale of livestock and livestock products by the better-off and middle households in a typical year
implies special vulnerability to shocks that might affect livestock.
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Annual expenses are divided in
seven different categories: staple
food, non-staple food, household
items (pepper/salt, coffee, soap,
kerosene, utensils and milling),
inputs (seeds, animal drug cost
and fertilizers), social services
(schooling and medicine),
clothing, tax and ‘other’
(transportation, festival expenses,
social contributions.)
Expenditure on inputs increases
with wealth – with the better-off
hiring labor and restocking
livestock.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of
expenditure.
All groups except the better-off purchase staple food (maize), all groups purchase pulses, whilst the better-off purchase
some sugar. While expenditure on staple food decreases with increasing wealth, absolute expenditure on clothing and
social services increases with wealth.
Hazards
Chronic hazards of the livelihood zone include drought, pest infestation, livestock disease and frost. With the exception of
drought that occurs at an interval of approximately three years all other hazards occur annually in some degree..
Coping Strategies
Different wealth groups employ different coping strategies in a bad year. The initial strategy of poor households is the
involvement of additional migrant laborers from the household and the extension of the duration of labor migration. Sale of
more eucalyptus trees, purchase of cheaper (low quality items) and minimizing the quantity of some items are other options
employed by poorer households.
Increasing the sale of livestock, involvement in petty trading activities, avoiding expenditure on some household items ,
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North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone

purchase of cheaper items and purchase of smaller amount of items are the coping strategies employed by wealthier
households.
Summary
The North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone is food insecure, with a long history of food aid distributions. The
dominant crop in the Livelihood Zone is barley. Small quantities of pulses such as lentils and field peas are cultivated on
the gentler slopes below the frost line. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement
particularly for the wealthier households. Livestock income is more important sources of income than crops for all wealth
groups.
The margin between income and expenditure particularly for poor and very poor households is very narrow and hardly
begins to cover the food, income and expenditure gaps in a bad year. Thus these wealth groups are forced to resort either to
unsustainable asset disposal or employment of other damaging coping strategies in a bad year. In the absence employment
opportunities in near by rural and urban areas they are forced to look for other opportunities in far away areas that involve
family separation for a long period of time.
Asset loss due to drought and livestock disease can also affect the existing contractual ploughing/land use agreements
between the very poor and better-off/middle households. Loss of productive assets by better-off and middle households not
only reduce their food and cash income but also reduce their capacity to loan oxen, rent-in land or pay for labour.
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North Wollo Highland Belg Livelihood Zone