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Relating Cognitive Problem-Solving Style to User Resistance 191 tion between user resistance and user complaint. The former study asserts that amongst the various types of user resistance, there are: aggression; and the system being blamed for all problems prevailing during implementation, including incorrect data entries. This is confirmed in the latter study, where user resistance was observed mainly to take the form of complaints, many of which Markus considered unfair. These literary sources thus support a method that quantifies user dissatisfaction as a substitute measure for user resistance. However, there are types of resistance that cannot easily be proved to be associated with complaint. Examples of such are psychological withdrawal and absenteeism, because these are types of covert resistance whilst a complaint is a case of overt resistance. The answer to the first question, then, is that the study must be limited to investigating only those forms of resistance that are measurable in terms of overt expressions of dissatisfaction. Whilst this may at first seem restrictive, it should be noted that perceived success of the system to management is most likely to be tied to reports of success from its employee users. In other words, this measurement technique will appeal to managers whose interests are largely the warding off of complaints against new systems from their staff. The second issue is the question of how complete the list of the user’s complaints would be, or alternatively, what the significance would be if the user forgot to itemize certain problems. It is argued that this is not a significant issue, since the R-score method aims to observe the user in the process of complaining. If, as noted above, users tend to make unfair complaint as a resistance behavior, then users will tend to invent or exaggerate complaints as an expression of their level of dissatisfaction. Quite clearly, the issue of whether or not the user remembers all the real problems that occurred during implementation then becomes less relevant. The R-score approach does, however, prescribe certain stipulations that were borne in mind during the research design. Firstly, the users needed to be interviewed personally by a researcher to obtain their views of systems. This follows immediately from the need to relieve the respondent of the obligation to complete and return a form, as discussed above. Secondly, every effort had to be made to convince the user that all his responses were to be kept confidential; particularly from the analyst(s), management and potential business rivals. Without this stipulation, the advantage of having opinions expressed to an independent researcher (as mentioned above) would have been lost. The weighting of the severity of the complaints is based on a model developed by Wanous and Lawler (1972) for measuring a worker’s job satisfaction. According to this model, an employee’s overall job satisfaction is the weighted sum of his satisfaction with all significant facets of the job. This can be expressed algebraically as: Copyright © 2003, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
192 Mullany and Lay n S = � s i w i, i = 1 where: S = respondent’s overall satisfaction with n significant facets of the job, s i = respondent’s satisfaction with facet i, rated on a seven-point scale, and w i = the importance of facet i to the respondent, rated on a seven-point scale. Pearson made use of this model in his 39-factor instrument discussed earlier (Bailey & Pearson, 1983). However, the R-score method makes three fundamental departures in its application of the same. Firstly, it assumes that weighted responses to dissatisfaction with various facets of a system and its manner of implementation will give a valid measure of overall dissatisfaction. It is difficult to see why all the arguments which apply to weighted measures of satisfaction cannot also apply to its antipode, dissatisfaction, hence this variation was assumed valid. Secondly, the R-score method assumes that overall dissatisfaction gives a valid measure of its surrogate, user resistance. This stems directly from the discussion above so long as it is understood that only those forms of resistance variation were assumed valid. Secondly, the R-score method assumes that overall dissatisfaction gives a valid measure of its surrogate, user resistance. This stems directly from the discussion above so long as it is understood that only those forms of resistance measured by overt expressions of dissatisfaction are intended. Finally, the facets of dissatisfaction are not pre-specified, but are enumerated by the respondent (that is, the user) himself. This was justified in terms of Wanous and Lawler’s model by rating any complaint raised by the user with unit importance (and, of course, those not raised by the user with zero importance). This meant that the R-score could be measured simply by summing the user’s dissatisfaction ratings for his own complaints against the system. In mathematical terms, the R-score, R, after the user has made n complaints in respect of the system and/or its manner of implementation, can be expressed as: n R = � s i, i = 1 where s i is defined as the severity of complaint i to the user, rated on the following seven-point scale: (7) a totally unsolvable problem (6) a very serious problem Copyright © 2003, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
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