Production Practices and Quality Assessment of Food Crops. Vol. 1

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Saffron Quality 251 Table 10. Effect of water activity (a w) and temperature on crocin degradation upon storage of saffron powder (after Tsimidou and Biliaderis, 1997). Temperature 25 °C 40 °C 60 °C a w Half-life a w Half-life a w Half-life periods (days) periods (days) periods (days) 0.11 * 0.11 1733 0.11 65 0.23 * 0.23 0866 0.23 42 0.33 * 0.33 0408 0.33 29 0.43 1733 0.43 0193 0.43 25 0.53 0462 0.53 0048 0.53 21 0.64 0031 0.64 0016 0.64 06 0.75 0105 0.75 0015 0.75 03 not attained for samples stored at 25 °C and a ws 0.11–0.43 and for those stored at 40 °C and a ws 0.11–0.23. In contrast to what is reported for the oxidation of nonpolar carotenoids in relation to a w value of foods, the kinetic data for saffron carotenoid degradation showed an increasing rate with increasing a w within the range 0.11–0.64. This behaviour may be the result of the polar character of crocins. An unexpected behaviour was observed at a w 0.64 that concur with current concepts on the mobility of reactants in foods. This deviation was confirmed in three series of experiments and requires some further investigation. Concerning bitterness and aroma evolution in storage it appeared that the latter is favoured in intermediate relative humidity environment. Thus, it should be cautiously taken into account that optimum conditions for aroma development are not in favour of pigment stability. Thus, a w values of 0.33–0.43 and not very low temperatures should be used if saffron is traded as a spice. In case saffron is kept for pharmaceutical use then crocins are the active constituents that are better preserved at low temperatures and low a ws so that the point made by Morimoto et al. (1994) for storage in a refrigerator becomes correct. Selim et al. (2000) presented the first attempt of increasing storability of saffron carotenoids by encapsulation in amorphous polymer matrices. Encapsulation of bioactive ingredients as a means of shelf life extension is one of the popular current approaches in food technology. Spray-drying, freeze-drying, air suspension coating, extrusion, spray-cooling and chilling, rotational suspension separation, coacervation and inclusion complexes are some of the techniques to encapsulate photosensitive or thermolabile ingredients such as carotenoids (Dziezak, 1988). Pullulan, PVP40 and 360 were selected for their good water solubility and ability to form an amorphous state on dehydration. Encapsulated saffron carotenoids using freeze-drying were studied under the unfavourable relative humidity conditions reported by Tsimidou and Biliaderis (1997), i.e., 0.43–0.75. PVP 40 had the better protection effect among the polymers used because it collapses rapidly in storage and becomes in this way an effective barrier to oxygen permeation. The half-life periods in relation to control samples increased 4, 18, 7.5 and 7.7 times at aws 0.43, 0.53, 0.64 and
252 S. A. Ordoudi and M. Z. Tsimidou 0.75, respectively. The potential of encapsulation is expected to be further examined using other materials and techniques. 7. EPILOGUE Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. Its production involves hard labour and is minimally mechanised. Considering that in some saffron growing areas the farmers have a low level of education, the need for training them to Good Agricultural Practices, Good Manufacturing Practices and storage methods is obvious. To accelerate the standardisation process of saffron quality the cooperation of growers, processors and distributors should be based not only on their financial interests but also on international requirements for product quality assurance. REFERENCES Abe, K., M. Sugiura, S. Yamaguchi, Y. Shoyama and H. Saito (1999). Saffron extract prevents acetaldehyde-induced inhibition of long-term potentiation in the rat dentate gyrus in vivo. Brain Research 851: 287–289. Abe, K. and H. Saito (2000). Effects on saffron extract and its constituent crocin on learning behaviour and long-term potentiation. Phytotherapy Research 14: 149–152. Abdullaev, F. I. (1993). Biological effects of saffron. BioFactors 4: 83–86. Abdullaev, F. I. and G. D. Frenkel (1999). Saffron in biological and medical research. In M. Negbi (ed.), Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Harwood Academic Publications, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 103–113. Abdullaev, F. I. (2002). Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Experimental Biology and Medicine (Maywood, N.J.) 227: 20–25. Ait-Oubahou, A. and M. El-Otmani (1999). Saffron cultivation in Morocco. In M. Negbi (ed.), Saffron: Crocus sativus L. Harwood Academic Publications, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 87–94. Alonso, G. L., R. Varon, R. Gomez, F. Navarro and M. R. Salinas (1990). Auto-oxidation in saffron at 40 °C and 75% relative humidity. Journal of Food Science 55: 595–596. Alonso, G. L., M. R. Salinas, F. Infantes and M. Fernandez (1996). Determination of safranal from saffron (Crocus sativus L.) by thermal desorption-gas chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 44: 185–188. Alonso, G. L., M. R. Salinas and J. Garijo (1998a). Method to determine the authenticity of aroma of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Journal of Food Protection 61: 1525–1528. Alonso, G. L., M. R. Salinas and R. Saez (1998b). Crocin as colouring in the food industry. Recent Research Developments in Agicultural and Food Chemistry 2: 141–153. Alonso, G. L., M. R. Salinas, M. A. Sánchez and G. Alonso (1998c). Composition mineral del Azafrán espanol y del procedente de otros paises productores. Aplicacion a la diferenciacion. Agrochimica 6: 263–272. Alonso, G. L., M. Carmona, A. Zalacain, L. V. Gonzalez, M. L. Gonzalez and F. Sarasa-Delgado (1999a). Study of saffron adulteration by increasing its colouring strength. Proceedings of 1st International Congress PFT ‘Pigments in Food Technology’, 24–26 March 1999, Sevilla, Spain, pp. 341–346. Alonso, G. L., J. Escribano, M. R. Salinas and J. A. Fernandez (1999b). Isolation of colouring and tasting compounds from saffron. Proceedings of 1st International Congress PFT ‘Pigments in Food Technology’ 24–26 March 1999, Sevilla, Spain, pp. 87–96. Alonso, G. L., M. R. Salinas, M. A. Sánchez and J. Garijo (2000). Note. Physical parameters in controlling saffron quality. Food Science and Technology International 6: 59–65.
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Production Practices and Quality As
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Production Practices and Quality As
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CONTENTS Preface List of Authors Ef
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PREFACE Today, in a world with abun
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LIST OF AUTHORS Rufaro M. Madakadze
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EFFECT OF PREHARVEST FACTORS ON THE
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2.1. Temperature Effect of Preharve
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e beneficial to the water economy a
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Other responses that can also be ca
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06. Failure of fruits to ripen in t
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of more than 13 hours of night temp
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temperatures. Some show serious int
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 15 bet
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1) High rainfall conditions where B
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increase in the release of P i from
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however, more severe when foliage i
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temperatures and luxuriant growth a
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development of chilling injury symp
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conditions followed by sudden high
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season. The main environmental fact
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4.4.5.2. Water blisters Storage roo
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 33 REF
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 35 men
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EFFECTS OF AGRONOMIC PRACTICES AND
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 39 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 41 6
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 43 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 45 R
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MODELLING FRUIT QUALITY: ECOPHYSIOL
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Modelling Fruit Quality 49 the dens
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Is it the only level to be consider
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To calculate the hydrostatic pressu
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on an analysis of the biophysical p
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Modelling Fruit Quality 57 fructose
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Modelling Fruit Quality 59 Figure 4
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f(dd) = dd max - dd dd max - dd min
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which depends on climate and irriga
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distributed over the period during
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Modelling Fruit Quality 73 Pruning
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with Fo, Pe and Pr being local ‘d
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Modelling Fruit Quality 77 than in
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Modelling Fruit Quality 79 Dann, I.
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Modelling Fruit Quality 81 Huguet,
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SPRAY TECHNOLOGY IN PERENNIAL TREE
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Spray Technology in Perennial Tree
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With centrifugal energy systems dro
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fruit orchards is described as 1000
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According to Furness (2000), the nu
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sprayers which were developed prima
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air-blast sprayers in an attempt to
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Most agricultural chemicals have be
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educing dosage rates to one quarter
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CHESTNUT, AN ANCIENT CROP WITH FUTU
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2. WORLD AREA OF CHESTNUT AND PRODU
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Table 2. Chestnut production in the
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vineyards and north facing to chest
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Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Futu
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Table 5. Continued. Chestnut, an An
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Table 6. Continued. Chestnut, an An
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size. When the trees develop too mu
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6.5. Management of old orchards Che
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the disease is already established
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where ink disease is rampant, disea
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8.4. Micropropagation Several in vi
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9.3. Hybrids Chestnut breeding in E
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IMPROVEMENT OF GRAIN LEGUME PRODUCT
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Improvement of Grain Legume Product
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2.8. Field experiments The greenhou
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IMPACT OF OZONE ON CROPS S. DEL VAL
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 191 observ
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 193 1996).
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 195 Figure
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 197 al., 1
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 199 techni
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Page 214 and 215: Impact of Ozone on Crops 203 Chaime
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Page 220 and 221: SAFFRON QUALITY: EFFECT OF AGRICULT
Page 222 and 223: 1.2. Commercial interest Saffron Qu
Page 224 and 225: 1.3. Uses Saffron Quality 213 There
Page 226 and 227: oriental-type perfumes (Sampathu et
Page 228 and 229: Saffron Quality 217 Figure 5. Chemi
Page 230 and 231: Straubinger et al., 1997; Straubing
Page 232 and 233: and Micheli, 1979; Curro et al., 19
Page 234 and 235: Saffron Quality 223 Figure 9. Chemi
Page 236 and 237: (1984) gives the following data: δ
Page 238 and 239: Saffron Quality 227 Table 3. HPLC a
Page 240 and 241: Saffron Quality 229 464/2001, OJ L6
Page 242 and 243: Saffron Quality 231 Saffron in fila
Page 244 and 245: Saffron Quality 233 sium were the q
Page 246 and 247: Saffron Quality 235 Figure 11. The
Page 248 and 249: Saffron Quality 237 Figure 12. Harv
Page 250 and 251: Morocco. Ait-Oubahou and El-Otmani
Page 252 and 253: and Micheli, 1979a; Sampathu et al.
Page 254 and 255: Saffron Quality 243 Table 8. Drying
Page 256 and 257: Saffron Quality 245 space for sorti
Page 258 and 259: unpleasant sensory characteristics
Page 260 and 261: Saffron Quality 249 The effect of
Page 264 and 265: Saffron Quality 253 Alonso, G. L.,
Page 266 and 267: Saffron Quality 255 Escribano, J.,
Page 268 and 269: Saffron Quality 257 tion combined w
Page 270 and 271: Saffron Quality 259 Selim, K., M. T
Page 272 and 273: FRUIT AND VEGETABLES HARVESTING SYS
Page 274 and 275: 3. PRINCIPLES AND DEVICES FOR THE D
Page 276 and 277: exert a vertical pulling force to t
Page 278 and 279: Fruit and Vegetables Harvesting Sys
Page 282 and 283: - fingers or spikes; - oscillatory
Page 284 and 285: - frequency and - amplitude of vibr
Page 290 and 291: To calculate the number of directio
Page 292 and 293: For the cleaning and separation of
Page 296: Fruit and Vegetables Harvesting Sys
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