Production Practices and Quality Assessment of Food Crops. Vol. 1

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Improvement of Grain Legume Production in Semi-Arid Kenya 183 best for screening large number of plants for nitrogen fixation in nitrogen free media (Halliday, 1984). The method is inexpensive and easy to use. However, this method is not sensitive enough to be used in soils with high nitrogen content. Sometimes other factors besides nitrogen do not permit the nitrogen fixed to be translated into increased dry matter yield (Danso, 1985). The method also cannot be used to compare nitrogen fixation in different varieties or species because the yields are also genetically determined (Danso, 1985). In the greenhouse experiment, there was no significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) between the N treatment and R3254 in shoot dry weight at harvest (Table 4). The rest of the other treatments had similar shoot dry weights at harvest. In field experiments, at 21 DAE, there were no significant differences in plant dry weights of tepary bean under field conditions over the two seasons (Tables 5 and 8). This could imply that the tepary bean plants were still deriving their nutrients from the seed and none had an advantage over the other. Similar observations have been documented in the study area by Gitonga et al. (1999) in green gram and Maingi et al. (2001). At final harvest, tepary bean inoculated with strain R3254 proved to be superior to the other treatments. This is an indication that commercially available Rhizobium strain R3254 had a significant effect on N 2 fixation compared to indigenous rhizobia (Wani et al., 1995). These results contradict those of Pilbeam et al. (1995), who reported that inoculation did not improve yield of common beans in the study area. It is appreciated that N 2 fixation by common beans is notoriously variable (Graham, 1981; Piha and Munns, 1987), depending on many biotic and abiotic factors. High soil temperatures and the incompatibility of indigenous rhizobial strains are contributory factors in the failure of beans to nodulate and so fix N 2 in semi-arid areas of Kenya (Pilbeam et al., 1995). At 42 DAE over the two seasons, there was no significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) in plant dry weight between the N and R3254 treatments (Tables 6 and 9). The other treatments had similar plant dry weights, which were significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than the N and R3254 treatments. At final harvest, the N fertilized plots had significantly lower grain yield compared to treatment R3254 over the two seasons (Tables 7 and 10). Soil mineral N is often a major limitation to crop growth and productivity. Apparently this was not the case in the present study since increasing supply of mineral N by fertilizer additions had no significant effect on dry matter production or grain yield in both seasons. However, uptake of N may be constrained by low root length density, which is typical of tepary bean (Shisanya, 1998), and/or inadequate soil moisture content by which mineral N can move to the plant root (Pilbeam et al., 1995). Further, the aspect of fast mineralization of N under such semi-arid conditions cannot be ruled out (Hornetz, 1997; Eichinger, 1999). According to Ledgard et al. (1985), Danso et al. (1986, 1988), Hardarson et al. (1988) and Launauce (1996), among others, for temperate and cold climates, it seems that very little N is transferred to the plants in the short term period because of mineralization. Plant tissue analysis on N concentration showed that plants inoculated with rhizobium strain R3254 were significantly enriched with tissue N concentration during the vegetative cycle compared to the other treatments (Table 11). This can be interpreted that strain R3254 is very infective and effective in N 2 fixation in
184 Chris A. Shisanya TB under the semi-arid environmental conditions of SE-Kenya. This would in the long run contribute to the sustainability of crop production system in the study area. The Rhizobium strain R3254 could be very useful to the resource poor farmers of SE-Kenya who farm purely for subsistence purposes without applying any fertilizer into the soil. 2.11. Chapter summary This chapter highlighted the food security concerns in sub-Saharan Africa, their contributing factors and possible ways of ameliorating the situation. It is recognised that Africa must embrace agricultural biotechnology to help counter famine, environmental degradation and poverty. Biotechnology does offer tremendous opportunities for increasing crop yields, reducing pest damage, protecting the environment and improving nutritional value of crops. An example of how tepary bean legume yield has been increased in semi-arid Kenya through biological nitrogen fixation has been illustrated. It has been demonstrated that higher yields of tepary bean are achieved by inoculation with a commercially available infective and effective Rhizobium strain R3254. This strain is able to increase yield over and above nitrogen fertiliser application. It therefore offers a cheaper alternative to the resource poor farmers of semi-arid Kenya who cannot afford the expensive artificial N fertiliser. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Much of this information resulted from a project supported by the International Foundation for Science (IFS) in Stockholm, Sweden. The assistance of this funding body is gratefully acknowledged. The Director of the Kenya Agricultural Institute (KARI), Katumani is thanked for granting permission for the use of facilities at Kiboko sub-Centre in southeast Kenya. The assistance of Mutinda, Juma and Nobert during data collection is greatly appreciated. Lastly, I thank Mr. Bojana for proof reading this work. REFERENCES Altieri, M. A. (1996). Agroecology: the science of sustainable agriculture. Westview Press, Boulder. Amara, D. S., A. Y. Kamara and T. Tucker (1995). Rhizobium and nodulation assessment of nitrogen fixing trees in Sierra Leone. Journal of Applied Science 4: 41–47. Beck, D.P., L. A. Materon and F. Afandi (1993). Practical Rhizobium-legume technology manual No. 9, International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, pp. 1–60. Binswanger, H. P. (1998). Agriculture and rural development: Painful lessons. In C. K. Eicher and J. M. Staaz (eds.), International Agricultural Development, Third Edition. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 287–299. Bitangi, H. P. (1985). Effect of soil moisture on biological nitrogen fixation: competition between strains of Rhizobium leguminosarum for nodulating of Pisum sativum. In: MIRCEN, Biological nitrogen fixation in Africa, pp. 262–266. Bloom, D. E. and S. Sachs (1998). Geography, demography and economic growth in Africa. Brookings Paper on Economic Activity 2: 1–16.
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Production Practices and Quality As
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Production Practices and Quality As
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CONTENTS Preface List of Authors Ef
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PREFACE Today, in a world with abun
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LIST OF AUTHORS Rufaro M. Madakadze
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EFFECT OF PREHARVEST FACTORS ON THE
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2.1. Temperature Effect of Preharve
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e beneficial to the water economy a
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Other responses that can also be ca
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06. Failure of fruits to ripen in t
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of more than 13 hours of night temp
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temperatures. Some show serious int
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 15 bet
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1) High rainfall conditions where B
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increase in the release of P i from
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however, more severe when foliage i
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temperatures and luxuriant growth a
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development of chilling injury symp
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conditions followed by sudden high
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season. The main environmental fact
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4.4.5.2. Water blisters Storage roo
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 33 REF
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 35 men
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EFFECTS OF AGRONOMIC PRACTICES AND
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 39 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 41 6
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 43 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 45 R
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MODELLING FRUIT QUALITY: ECOPHYSIOL
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Modelling Fruit Quality 49 the dens
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Is it the only level to be consider
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To calculate the hydrostatic pressu
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on an analysis of the biophysical p
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Modelling Fruit Quality 57 fructose
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Modelling Fruit Quality 59 Figure 4
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f(dd) = dd max - dd dd max - dd min
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which depends on climate and irriga
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distributed over the period during
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Modelling Fruit Quality 73 Pruning
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with Fo, Pe and Pr being local ‘d
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Modelling Fruit Quality 77 than in
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Modelling Fruit Quality 79 Dann, I.
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Modelling Fruit Quality 81 Huguet,
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SPRAY TECHNOLOGY IN PERENNIAL TREE
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Spray Technology in Perennial Tree
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With centrifugal energy systems dro
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fruit orchards is described as 1000
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According to Furness (2000), the nu
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sprayers which were developed prima
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air-blast sprayers in an attempt to
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Most agricultural chemicals have be
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educing dosage rates to one quarter
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CHESTNUT, AN ANCIENT CROP WITH FUTU
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2. WORLD AREA OF CHESTNUT AND PRODU
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Table 2. Chestnut production in the
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vineyards and north facing to chest
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Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Futu
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Table 5. Continued. Chestnut, an An
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Table 6. Continued. Chestnut, an An
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Page 144 and 145: Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Futu
Page 146 and 147: size. When the trees develop too mu
Page 152 and 153: 6.5. Management of old orchards Che
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Page 160 and 161: 8.4. Micropropagation Several in vi
Page 162 and 163: 9.3. Hybrids Chestnut breeding in E
Page 174 and 175: IMPROVEMENT OF GRAIN LEGUME PRODUCT
Page 176 and 177: Improvement of Grain Legume Product
Page 188 and 189: 2.8. Field experiments The greenhou
Page 200 and 201: IMPACT OF OZONE ON CROPS S. DEL VAL
Page 202 and 203: Impact of Ozone on Crops 191 observ
Page 204 and 205: Impact of Ozone on Crops 193 1996).
Page 206 and 207: Impact of Ozone on Crops 195 Figure
Page 208 and 209: Impact of Ozone on Crops 197 al., 1
Page 210 and 211: Impact of Ozone on Crops 199 techni
Page 212 and 213: species show a progressive decline
Page 214 and 215: Impact of Ozone on Crops 203 Chaime
Page 216 and 217: Impact of Ozone on Crops 205 Junge,
Page 218 and 219: Impact of Ozone on Crops 207 Polle,
Page 220 and 221: SAFFRON QUALITY: EFFECT OF AGRICULT
Page 222 and 223: 1.2. Commercial interest Saffron Qu
Page 224 and 225: 1.3. Uses Saffron Quality 213 There
Page 226 and 227: oriental-type perfumes (Sampathu et
Page 228 and 229: Saffron Quality 217 Figure 5. Chemi
Page 230 and 231: Straubinger et al., 1997; Straubing
Page 232 and 233: and Micheli, 1979; Curro et al., 19
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Page 238 and 239: Saffron Quality 227 Table 3. HPLC a
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Page 242 and 243: Saffron Quality 231 Saffron in fila
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Saffron Quality 233 sium were the q
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Saffron Quality 235 Figure 11. The
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Saffron Quality 237 Figure 12. Harv
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Morocco. Ait-Oubahou and El-Otmani
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and Micheli, 1979a; Sampathu et al.
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Saffron Quality 243 Table 8. Drying
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Saffron Quality 245 space for sorti
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unpleasant sensory characteristics
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Saffron Quality 249 The effect of
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Saffron Quality 251 Table 10. Effec
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Saffron Quality 253 Alonso, G. L.,
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Saffron Quality 255 Escribano, J.,
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Saffron Quality 257 tion combined w
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Saffron Quality 259 Selim, K., M. T
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FRUIT AND VEGETABLES HARVESTING SYS
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3. PRINCIPLES AND DEVICES FOR THE D
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exert a vertical pulling force to t
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Fruit and Vegetables Harvesting Sys
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- fingers or spikes; - oscillatory
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- frequency and - amplitude of vibr
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To calculate the number of directio
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For the cleaning and separation of
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