Production Practices and Quality Assessment of Food Crops. Vol. 1

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2. WORLD AREA OF CHESTNUT AND PRODUCTION 2.1. Areas of chestnut in the world There are three main areas of chestnut growing in the world (Table 1): (1) Asia being the most important, mainly in China, where C. mollissima is found in the wild as well as in cultivation. (2) Europe and Turkey is the second main area where C. sativa is predominant. (3) In North-America C. dentata was widespread naturally but nowadays it is being substituted by hybrids with resistance to blight. According with the FAO (Tables 1 and 2), 289,000 ha of orchards in the world produce 1,800,000 t of chestnuts. China being the most important country in chestnut production with 110,000 ha, but some author (Liu and Zhou, 1999) estimated 670,000 ha, seven times the FAO figure. In France only 5000 ha (Table 1) out of one million ha is cultivated (Morandini, 1958; Bourgeois, 1992; Breisch, 1995). In Spain, chestnut occupies 130,000 ha, more than 46,000 ha is cultivated, but only part of the production (18,000 t) comes to the market (Pereira-Lorenzo and Fernandez- Lopez, 2001). Recent chestnut areas are localised in South-America, New Zealand and Australia. In Chile, seedlings were introduced from Europe after 15th century (Grau and France, 1999). In New Zealand chestnut crop is developing rapidly and is mainly based on C. crenata × C. sativa hybrids (Klinac et al., 1999). In Australia, orchards are also expanding rapidly but mainly based on the introduction of C. sativa (Ridley, 1999). In United States, new orchards are being established in California using seedlings of Colossal (C. crenata) and present estimated area is 100 ha. Chestnut production in Asia is twice that of Europe (this includes Turkey as an European producer) (Table 2). The main species to produce nuts being C. mollissima followed by C. sativa. Turkey and Italy are the main producers of European chestnut, over 50,000 t each, followed by Portugal, France, Spain and Greece. 2.2. Ecology Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Future 107 Chestnut is widespread in Europe, from Turkey to Portugal and Spain, the Azores archipelago being the most Occidental point for C. sativa. It is found at sea level in some areas of Northern Spain upto 1500 m in Granada in Southern Spain, where the latitude could compensate for altitude (Pereira-Lorenzo and Ramos-Cabrer, 2002). But the most frequent range for C. sativa in Spain is between 400 m and 1000 m sea level (Table 3). In Southern France, orchards are located lower than 500–600 m (Breisch, 1995). In Spain, early leafing of hybrids (middle march) restricts its use due to spring frosts in altitudes over 500 m, whereas C. sativa cultivars (middle April) could be grown. Similarly, in the Mediterranean region, southerly-facing slopes should be avoided. As the earlier blooming and the frequent spring frosts as well as dry summer are all limiting factors. In Southern Galicia, south facing slopes were destined for
Table 1. Cultivated area of chestnut in the world (FAO, 2002, www.fao.org). Cultivated Year area (ha) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 China 0.44500 62000 65000 68000 70000 70000 72000 78000 88000 105000 110000 110000 Japan 37600 36700 35500 34400 33300 30100 29200 28300 27500 26900 26000 26000 North-Korea 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5000 5600 5600 5600 5600 South-Korea 36000 36000 39000 30000 37000 37000 42000 50000 45000 37000 37000 37000 Asia 123100 139700 144500 137400 145300 142100 148200 161300 166100 174500 178600 178600 Slovenia 127 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 Spain 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 7000 France 12400 7800 7000 7300 7600 7300 7000 4350 4430 4786 5352 5300 Greece 8800 7500 7400 7700 7800 7800 7800 7700 7800 7800 7800 7800 Hungary 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 400 400 Italy 19000 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 23500 Portugal 15200 15900 16900 18000 18700 19131 19521 19724 19996 28825 28940 25000 Rumania 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Turkey 38140 39160 39080 39200 39380 39740 39240 40300 38000 40000 40000 40000 Ex-Yugoslavia 1300 1300 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 Europe 102.220 102.540 101.860 103.780 105.060 105.551 105.141 103.654 101.806 112.991 113.692 109.700 World 225320 242240 246487 241305 250485 247776 253466 265079 268031 287616 292417 288425 108 S. Pereira-Lorenzo and A. M. Ramos-Cabrer
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Production Practices and Quality As
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Production Practices and Quality As
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CONTENTS Preface List of Authors Ef
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PREFACE Today, in a world with abun
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LIST OF AUTHORS Rufaro M. Madakadze
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EFFECT OF PREHARVEST FACTORS ON THE
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2.1. Temperature Effect of Preharve
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e beneficial to the water economy a
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Other responses that can also be ca
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06. Failure of fruits to ripen in t
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of more than 13 hours of night temp
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temperatures. Some show serious int
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 15 bet
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1) High rainfall conditions where B
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increase in the release of P i from
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however, more severe when foliage i
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temperatures and luxuriant growth a
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development of chilling injury symp
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conditions followed by sudden high
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season. The main environmental fact
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4.4.5.2. Water blisters Storage roo
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 33 REF
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Effect of Preharvest Factors 35 men
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EFFECTS OF AGRONOMIC PRACTICES AND
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 39 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 41 6
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 43 F
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Effects of Agronomic Practices 45 R
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MODELLING FRUIT QUALITY: ECOPHYSIOL
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Modelling Fruit Quality 49 the dens
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Is it the only level to be consider
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To calculate the hydrostatic pressu
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on an analysis of the biophysical p
Page 68 and 69: Modelling Fruit Quality 57 fructose
Page 70 and 71: Modelling Fruit Quality 59 Figure 4
Page 72 and 73: f(dd) = dd max - dd dd max - dd min
Page 76 and 77: which depends on climate and irriga
Page 80 and 81: distributed over the period during
Page 84 and 85: Modelling Fruit Quality 73 Pruning
Page 86 and 87: with Fo, Pe and Pr being local ‘d
Page 88 and 89: Modelling Fruit Quality 77 than in
Page 90 and 91: Modelling Fruit Quality 79 Dann, I.
Page 92 and 93: Modelling Fruit Quality 81 Huguet,
Page 94 and 95: SPRAY TECHNOLOGY IN PERENNIAL TREE
Page 96 and 97: Spray Technology in Perennial Tree
Page 98 and 99: With centrifugal energy systems dro
Page 100 and 101: fruit orchards is described as 1000
Page 102 and 103: According to Furness (2000), the nu
Page 104 and 105: sprayers which were developed prima
Page 106 and 107: air-blast sprayers in an attempt to
Page 108 and 109: Most agricultural chemicals have be
Page 110 and 111: educing dosage rates to one quarter
Page 116 and 117: CHESTNUT, AN ANCIENT CROP WITH FUTU
Page 120 and 121: Table 2. Chestnut production in the
Page 122 and 123: vineyards and north facing to chest
Page 124 and 125: Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Futu
Page 126 and 127: Table 5. Continued. Chestnut, an An
Page 134 and 135: Table 6. Continued. Chestnut, an An
Page 146 and 147: size. When the trees develop too mu
Page 152 and 153: 6.5. Management of old orchards Che
Page 156 and 157: the disease is already established
Page 158 and 159: where ink disease is rampant, disea
Page 160 and 161: 8.4. Micropropagation Several in vi
Page 162 and 163: 9.3. Hybrids Chestnut breeding in E
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Chestnut, an Ancient Crop with Futu
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IMPROVEMENT OF GRAIN LEGUME PRODUCT
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Improvement of Grain Legume Product
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2.8. Field experiments The greenhou
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IMPACT OF OZONE ON CROPS S. DEL VAL
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 191 observ
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 193 1996).
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 195 Figure
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 197 al., 1
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 199 techni
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species show a progressive decline
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 203 Chaime
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 205 Junge,
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Impact of Ozone on Crops 207 Polle,
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SAFFRON QUALITY: EFFECT OF AGRICULT
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1.2. Commercial interest Saffron Qu
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1.3. Uses Saffron Quality 213 There
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oriental-type perfumes (Sampathu et
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Saffron Quality 217 Figure 5. Chemi
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Straubinger et al., 1997; Straubing
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and Micheli, 1979; Curro et al., 19
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Saffron Quality 223 Figure 9. Chemi
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(1984) gives the following data: δ
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Saffron Quality 227 Table 3. HPLC a
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Saffron Quality 229 464/2001, OJ L6
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Saffron Quality 231 Saffron in fila
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Saffron Quality 233 sium were the q
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Saffron Quality 235 Figure 11. The
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Saffron Quality 237 Figure 12. Harv
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Morocco. Ait-Oubahou and El-Otmani
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and Micheli, 1979a; Sampathu et al.
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Saffron Quality 243 Table 8. Drying
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Saffron Quality 245 space for sorti
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unpleasant sensory characteristics
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Saffron Quality 249 The effect of
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Saffron Quality 251 Table 10. Effec
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Saffron Quality 253 Alonso, G. L.,
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Saffron Quality 255 Escribano, J.,
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Saffron Quality 257 tion combined w
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Saffron Quality 259 Selim, K., M. T
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FRUIT AND VEGETABLES HARVESTING SYS
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3. PRINCIPLES AND DEVICES FOR THE D
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exert a vertical pulling force to t
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Fruit and Vegetables Harvesting Sys
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- fingers or spikes; - oscillatory
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- frequency and - amplitude of vibr
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To calculate the number of directio
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For the cleaning and separation of
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