BIOPLASTICS - BASICS. APPLICATIONS. MARKETS

BIOPLASTICS
BASICS. APPLICATIONS. MARKETS.
MICHAEL THIELEN
First edition, 2012
Polymedia Publisher GmbH, Mönchengladbach, Germany
www.polymedia-publisher.com

Dr.-Ing. Michael Thielen:
Biokunststoffe - Grundlagen. Anwendungen. Märkte.
© 2012 Copyright Polymedia Publisher GmbH
Mönchengladbach, Germany
First edition
Design, layout and typesetting:
Mark Speckenbach, Julia Hunold
printed by: KS PRINTING
All of the information published in this book has been assembled based
on the best of the author’s knowledge and understanding. Nevertheless
the possibility of errors or omissions cannot be excluded. No responsibility
is accepted, nor any guarantee given, with regard to the accuracy of the
information provided. The author and the publishers therefore accept no
liability that may arise as a result of this information, or part thereof, being
used.
This book is protected by copyright
All rights are reserved, including translation, copying or reproduction of
this book, or any part thereof, in any format. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any way (including by the use of photocopies, microfilm,
electronic equipment, or any other process) without the express written
permission of the publisher. Reproduction is not permitted for the purposes
of constructing an educational course, nor may any part of this work
be processed, copied or distributed by any electronic system.
The URLs given in the book point to Internet web sites. The author and the
publisher accept no responsibility for the information contained in these
web sites. Neither can any responsibility be accepted for the accuracy or
completeness of that information, or for the fact that it may or may not be
up to date.
ISBN 978-3-9815981-1-0
www.polymedia-publisher.de

PREFACE
Petroleum is not an inexhaustible resource, and it is becoming
ever more expensive. Burning of petroleum products (including
plastics) has an impact on climate change. Bioplastics can offer
an alternative in this regard.
Bioplastics are on the one hand biobased plastics (produced
from renewable resources) and on the other hand may well be
biodegradable plastics. Many bioplastics meet both of these criteria.
This book is based on numerous articles in the
bioplastics MAGAZINE trade publication as well as on various talks,
presentations and university lectures that have been given by
myself in recent years.
It is intended to offer a rapid and uncomplicated introduction
into the subject of bioplastics, and is aimed at all interested readers,
in particular those who have not yet had the opportunity to
dig deeply into the subject, such as students, those just joining
this industry, and lay readers. It gives an introduction to plastics
and bioplastics, explains which renewable resources can be used
to produce bioplastics, what types of bioplastic exist, and which
ones are already on the market. Further aspects, such as market
development, the agricultural land required, and waste disposal,
are also examined.
An extensive index allows the reader to find specific aspects
quickly, and is complemented by a comprehensive literature list
and a guide to sources of additional information on the Internet.
The author and the publishers express their thanks to all of the
companies who have made it possible, through their advertisements,
to publish this book at the lowest possible retail selling
price. It should be made clear, however, that these companies
have had no influence on the contents of the book. The author
also expresses his thanks to the FNR (Agency for Renewable
Resources) within then German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture
and Consumer Protection for their support and excellent
cooperation.
Mönchengladbach, Germany, February 2012
Michael Thielen
| 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Bioplastic - what is it exactly? .....................6
1.1 Fundamentals ...................................6
1.2 Bioplastics ......................................7
1.2.1 Biobased plastics ................................8
1.2.2 Biodegradable plastics ............................8
1.3 Biobased plastics - why? .........................10
2 Renewable resources ...........................12
2.1 Introduction ....................................12
2.2 Natural Polymers ...............................12
2.2.1 Polysaccharides (carbohydrates) ...................12
2.2.2 Proteins .......................................13
2.2.3 Lignin .........................................13
2.2.4 Natural rubber ..................................13
2.2.5 Other ..........................................13
2.3 Other biogenic materials .........................14
2.3.1 Plant oils ......................................14
2.3.2 Monomers .....................................14
3 Biobased plastics ...............................16
3.1 Introduction ....................................16
3.2 Biobased / partially biobased ......................19
3.3 Modified natural polymers ........................21
3.3.1 Thermoplastic starch ............................21
3.3.2 Cellulose-based plastics .........................22
3.3.3 Natural rubber and thermoplastic elastomers ........24
3.3.4 Lignin-based plastics ............................26
3.3.5 Protein-based plastics ...........................26
3.3.6 PHA ...........................................27
3.4 Polymers synthesised from biobased monomers ......30
3.4.1 Biobased polyesters .............................30
3.4.2 Biobased polyamides ............................36
3.4.3 Biobased polyurethane ...........................38
3.4.4 Biobased polyacrylates ...........................39
3.4.5 Biobased polyolefins .............................39
3.4.6 Biobased thermoset resins ........................41
3.4.7 Other biobased plastics ..........................42
3.4.8 Bioplastics from waste ...........................43
4 Methods of processing plastics ...................46
4.1 Introduction ....................................46
4.2 Compounding ...................................46
4.3 Further processing ..............................47
4.3.1 Extrusion ......................................47
4 |

4.3.2 Blown film extrusion .............................48
4.3.3 Injection moulding ...............................49
4.3.4 Blow moulding ..................................50
4.3.5 Thermoforming .................................52
4.3.6 Foams .........................................52
4.3.7 Casting ........................................54
4.3.8 Other plastic processing methods ..................54
4.3.9 Joining plastic together ..........................55
5 Applications ...................................56
5.1 Packaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.2 Catering .......................................58
5.3 Horticulture and agriculture .......................59
5.4 Medicine and personal care .......................61
5.5 Consumer electronics ............................62
5.6 Automobile manufacture .........................63
5.7 Textiles ........................................65
5.8 Other ..........................................66
6 End of Life / Disposal / Closed loops ...............68
6.1 Recycling ......................................68
6.1.1 Material recycling ...............................68
6.1.2 Chemical recycling ..............................69
6.2 Composting ....................................69
6.3 Energy recovery or thermal recycling ...............70
6.4 Land fill .......................................71
6.5 Closed loops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7 The market ....................................74
8 Potential and perspectives .......................78
8.1 Further developments ............................78
8.2 Do we in fact have enough agricultural land? .........79
9 Legal and regulatory background .................82
9.1 Standards and certification regarding “compostability”. 82
9.2 The Packaging Ordinance .........................83
9.3 Standards and certification regarding “Biobased” .....83
10 Suggested further reading .......................86
11 Sources of information on the Internet .............88
12 List of references ...............................90
13 Index .........................................96
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
| 5

1
1
BIOPLASTIC -
WHAT IS IT EXACTLY?
1
Polymers (from the
Greek Poly = many,
meros = particles) are
long-chain molecules
(macromolecules), that
can also be branched.
The molecules,
entangled like cotton
wool, produce a solid
material that can be
reshaped - plastic. The
precursors of polymers
are monomers (mono
= one) and oligomers
(oligo = few)
1.1 FUNDAMENTALS
Plastics are organic polymers 1 which can be processed in
various different ways. Their technical properties, such as formability,
hardness, elasticity, rigidity, heat resistance and chemical
resistance, can be varied across a wide range by selecting the
correct raw materials, manufacturing process, and additives.
Plastics are lighter and more economic than many other materials.
For these reasons, plus their extreme versatility and excellent
processability, they are the material of choice in many industrial
and commercial applications [1, 2]. Since the widespread
availability of petroleum at the beginning of the 20th century
most traditional plastics have been produced using petroleum.
The statistics (2010 figures) are impressive:
Preview
the plastics industry
employs more than 1.6 million people in Western Europe
and turns over some 300 billion Euros per annum. Out of the
approximately 230 million tonnes of plastics produced annually
worldwide about one quarter comes from Europe. Its applications
are not only in packaging (40%), construction materials
(20%), but plastic is also needed in automobile production (7%)
and furniture manufacture, as well as in the electronics industry
and in the manufacture of domestic equipment http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
of all types [3].
Accordingly the demand for plastics continues to grow – for
example demand in 1976 stood at 50 million tonnes worldwide,
and by 2015 is expected to reach 330 million tonnes.
But plastic isn‘t simply plastic. Whilst thermoset resins remain
permanently in a rigid state after hardening, thermoplastics
can be melted again, or reshaped by the application of heat.
These thermoplastics are the most commonly used and hold an
80% share of the market. Another group of plastics covers the
ductile plastics or thermoplastic elastomers [1].
you can order th
6 | 1 BIOPLASTIC - WHAT IS IT EXACTLY?

1
FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES
NOT DEGRADABLE
bio-PE, bio-PP
bio-PA
cellulose-acetate
bio-polyisoprene
bio-PET, bio-PTT
PLA
PHA (PHB...)
TPS
Celluloseregenerates
BIODEGRADABLE /
COMPOSTABLE
no bioplastics
PE-LD, PE-HD
PP, PA, PS
PVC, EVOH,
oxo-fragmentable
blends
Co-Polyester
(PBAT),
Polycaprolacton,
PVA,
...
FROM FOSSIL RAW MATERIALS
Fig. 1.1: Biobased and
biodegradable plastics
(based on Endres [4])
1.2 BIOPLASTICS
The widely used term “bioplastics” is not totally unambiguous
and covers several groups of plastics. These on the one hand are
Sample
biobased plastics (made from renewable resources) and on the
other hand biodegradable plastics. Many bioplastics fall into both
categories (top right in Fig. 1.1).
The main focus in biobased plastics is the origin of the basic
raw materials, i.e. renewable resources, in contrast to petroleum,
which is a limited resource. Renewable resources are often referred
to at as RRs (or RRM for Renewable Raw Materials).
e book
Biodegradable plastics are classified according to the way in
en/books/bioplastics.php
which they can be disposed of. These plastics are accessible to
micro-organisms as a source of nutrition and energy, and the
metabolic structure of the organisms means that they can break
the material down into carbon dioxide (CO 2
), water and biomass
(see also chapter 1.2.2).
Biobased plastics may or may not be biodegradable plastics.
Biodegradable plastics may or may not be produced from renewable
resources.
In fact it is a general misconception that biobased plastics are
automatically also biodegradable, and vice versa.
1.2 BIOPLASTICS | 7

1
1.2.1 BIOBASED PLASTICS
Plastics basically consist of macromolecules that in general
are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and other components
such as oxygen, nitrogen etc. If the origin of the carbon/carbonates
is from a fossil resource (petroleum, natural gas, coal) we
talk about conventional, traditional or petroleum-based plastics.
The carbon component in biobased plastics comes from current,
rapidly renewable, resources. These may be fruits from various
plants, or also so-called remnants such as stalks, leaves, etc.
Even trash disposal routes such as communal waste water can
be rich in current carbon substances so that they are basically
suitable as a resource for biobased plastics. (cf. chapter. 3.3.6).
The biobased plastics will be dealt with in detail more in this
publication.
2
Protozoa are single
cell organisms with a
cell nucleus, such as
paramecia, amoeba etc.
1.2.2 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS
A substance or a material is biodegradable if it is broken down
by micro-organisms such as bacteria, protozoa 2 , fungi, or enzymes.
The micro-organisms use the substances as nutrients or
a source of energy. The remainder of the broken down substance
consists of carbon dioxide (CO 2
), water and mineral salts of other
elements present (mineralisation), plus biomass [5].
A difference is made between aerobic degradation in the presence
of oxygen, as is the case in a compost heap, and anaerobic
degradation. In anaerobic degradation there is no oxygen present.
In bio-gas plants for example, this type of degradation leads
to the production of methane that can be captured in a controlled
way and used for energy generation. The conversion of organic
waste into bio-gas is also often referred to as anaerobic digestion
(AD) [6].
In connection with biodegradability the term compostability is
often used, and there is a clear difference made between industrial
composting [7] and composting in a domestic back garden
(home compostable) [8]. The key difference within the general
description of biodegradability is the question of time. Biodegradable
substances are compostable if their total breakdown
in the compost heap is achieved in a comparably short time. In
industrial composting the time to achieve total breakdown is
only about 45 to 90 days. In industrial composting the breakdown
is also carried out under optimum conditions such as average
temperatures of 58-65°C, relative humidity of about 98% and an
optimum population of micro-organisms.
8 | 1 BIOPLASTIC - WHAT IS IT EXACTLY?

1
Even plastics themselves can, where their chemical composition
allows, be biologically broken down, composted or used to
produce bio-gas using the methods above. Some biodegradable
plastics must first be broken down by hydrolysis or oxidation into
smaller components before the micro-organisms can metabolise
the material.
There are relevant standards and legal requirements in existence
covering the biodegrability of plastics and their certification
(including EN 13432, ASTM D6400) (cf chapter 9).
A special case of biodegradability is breakdown of materials
within the human body. So-called resorbable plastic materials
have been used for many years as surgical thread. Bone screws
made from resorbable polyesters can spare many patients a second
operation because the screws degrade within the body and
after being broken down are ejected by the metabolism.
Biodegradable plastics are not necessarily made from renewable
resources in order to be completely biologically degradable.
Plastics such as polybutylene adipate-terephthalate (PBAT) an
aromatic aliphatic co-polyester that is used, for instance, for film
and refuse sacks, is made 100% from petroleum but is nevertheless
fully biodegradable. Other examples are polybutylene succinate
(PBS) or polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA) etc.
The first successes in producing such biodegradable yet petroleum-based
plastics using at least some renewable resources
have already been recorded [9, 10].
The term “biodegradable” is here to be clearly separated from
the materials used now and then in the packaging industry and
which are stated to be “oxo- biodegradable” or “oxo-degradable”
[2]. These materials, made from traditional plastics (often PE, or
at times PP or PET) are restructured generally by using an additive
containing metal which is often claimed to make them “biodegradable”
or even “compostable”. Such claims are misleading
insofar as it has not been demonstrated that the product meets
the requirements of EN 13432 or EN 14495. In the case of plastic
packaging these claims are legally required to be substantiated
in line with EN 13432 (or ASTM D 6400). None of the “oxo-degradable”
materials known at this time meet these requirements.
Instead of complete biological breakdown the product simply
breaks down into extremely small particles. As a result associations
such as European Bioplastics distance themselves from
oxo-(bio)degradable plastics. In legal decisions numerous examples
of misleading claims have been evidenced [11, 12].
1.2 BIOPLASTICS | 9

1
3
This is equally true
of natural gas and
coal, albeit based on a
different time scale and
amount. When we here
refer to petroleum we
include all sources of
fossil energy.
1.3 BIOBASED PLASTICS - WHY?
Above all there are two important points that support the concept
of producing plastics from renewable resources rather than
petroleum . On the one hand there is a limited availability of petroleum
3 , and on the other hand most experts are agreed that
the burning of products from fossil resources is a contributor
to global warming and a potentially hazardous climate change.
The price of oil
The fact that petroleum is a limited resource and has become
much more expensive in recent years can be clearly seen, and
not just at every filling station. Between 1998 and 2007 the price
of oil increased around sevenfold, hitting 146 US Dollars per barrel
(159 litres) in July 2008 (Fig. 1.2). Even if the price of oil fell
back to about 45 Dollars as a result of the economic crisis in the
autumn of 2008 we can reasonably assume that in the medium
term it will increase again, and go above the 2007 level. When
this book went to press (in early 2012) the price of oil (Brent) was
around 110 Dollars.
At the present time plastics account for only about 4 to 7
percent of total petroleum usage. This effectively means that
replacing petroleum-based plastics with those made from renewable
resources cannot save the world from a severe shortage
of oil. The plastics industry can, however, by using biobased
plastics, make itself less dependent on the increasing and fluctuating
cost of oil because those renewable resources that are
most easy to obtain, when used in sustainable production, will
represent an unlimited source of carbon when oil is no longer
available.
Climate
The fact that the combustion of fossil fuels such as petroleum,
natural gas and coal involves an irreversible release of CO 2
, and
that this CO 2
has, as a so-called greenhouse gas, an influence on
our climate and thus on global warming, is a generally accepted
reality [4].
Products that are made from (today short term) renewable resources
can, when burned, emit an amount of CO 2
into the atmosphere
equivalent to the plants from which they are produced,
as a maximum, and which they have absorbed from the atmosphere
via photosynthesis during growing. This also applies to
10 | 1 BIOPLASTIC - WHAT IS IT EXACTLY?

1
150
125
100
75
50
25
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
0
US-$ per Barrel
biofuels and wood pellets as well as to biobased plastics. In this
respect biobased plastics are “climate neutral”. However, since
there is a requirement for further energy use during harvesting,
and processing of the plastic, as well as for transport, (in part
from fossil sources) this statement about climate neutrality is not
strictly correct. Here individual cases should be assessed by way
of closer examination such as by carrying out an eco-balance or
life cycle analysis (LCA).
Fig. 1.2:
The development in oil
prices (Brent) (Source
of data: heizoel24.de)
1.3 BIOBASED PLASTICS - WHY? | 11

2
2
RENEWABLE
RESOURCES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Biobased plastics can be produced from a wide range of
plant-based raw materials. On the one hand natural polymers,
i.e. macromolecules that occur naturally in plants etc., are used.
And on the other hand smaller molecules, such as sugar, disaccharides
and fatty acids (plant oils), are used as the basic raw
materials in the production of bioplastics. Such renewable resources
can be obtained, modified and processed into biobased
plastics.
2.2 NATURAL POLYMERS
By natural polymers (biopolymers) we mean polymers synthesised
by any living organism. These may be, for example, polysaccharides,
proteins or lignin, that act as energy reserves or
have a structural function for the cells or the whole organism [2].
The term “biopolymers” (polymers which occur in nature)
must be clearly differentiated from the term “bioplastics” from
which products can be made in the same way as they can be
made from conventional plastics.
Many of the naturally occurring biopolymers briefly summarised
below (but certainly not all of them) can be used for the
manufacture of biobased plastics.
Preview
you can order th
2.2.1 POLYSACCHARIDES (CARBOHYDRATES)
Among the most important biopoymers are the polysaccharides
(multiple or many sugars). α-polysaccharides http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
for instance
fill an energy storage role in starch. Starch in turn consists of amylose
and amylopectin, two natural polymers. β-polysaccharides
act as structural substances, for example in cellulose, the main
component in the cell walls of plants. Not quite so important
is chitin (found for example in the exoskeleton of many insects
or animals with shells) which belongs to the β-polysaccharide
group. Chitosan is produced from chitin and is also found in
many types of fungi. A blend of polysaccharides and fructose
molecules is inulin, which is found in many plants and acts as
an energy reserve.
12 | 2 RENEWABLE RESOURCES

2.2.2 PROTEINS
Proteins are biopolymers built up of amino acids. They exist
in all living creatures and serve to move substances around the
body, or as a substance that provides a structural framework, as
signal sources, or as catalysts.
Proteins include casein from the milk of mammals. Gluten is
a mixture of different proteins that is found in the seeds of grain
crops. Collagen is a structural protein of the connective tissue
(e.g. skin, teeth, sinews, ligaments or bones) in many higher life
forms. Collagen is the main basic material for the manufacture
of gelatine.
2
2.2.3 LIGNIN
Lignin is a 3-dimensional cross-linked aromatic macromolecule.
The solid, colourless substance is contained in the cell
walls of plants and causes the lignification (turning into wood)
of grasses, shrubs, bushes and trees etc. Alongside cellulose,
lignin is the most common organic substance on earth. As a byproduct
of the pulp and paper industry around 50 million tonnes
of lignin are produced each year [13]. The majority of it is burned
for energy recovery.
2.2.4 NATURAL RUBBER
Sample
Natural rubber is an elastic biopolymer from plants - mainly
latex from specific trees. Alongside the rubber tree latex is also
obtained from other trees such as bulletwood (Manilkara bidentata)
or gutta percha. Natural rubber is the most imporant raw
material used in the production of vulcanised rubber.
e book at
2.2.5 OTHER
en/books/bioplastics.php
An interesting group of biopolymers are the polyhydroxyalkanoates
- polyesters that are formed in certain micro-organisms as
an energy reserve (cf. chapter 3.3.6).
Other complex groups of natural polymers, such as nucleic
acid etc. shall not get closer examination at this point.
2.2 NATURAL POLYMERS | 13

2.3 OTHER BIOGENIC MATERIALS
2
2.3.1 PLANT OILS
In addition to the natural polymers mentioned above plant oils
have a very important role to play as a source of carbonates for
the production of biobased plastics.
Vegetable oils are fats and fatty oils that are obtained from oilseed
plants and the fruits of so-called oil plants. Alongside their
use in human and animal food, as lubricants or energy sources,
a number of vegetable oils can also be used as raw material for
the manufacture of bioplastics.
Those principally used are soya oil, castor oil, palm oil and
rapeseed oil, as well as sunflower oil, linseed oil and a few others.
The vegetable oils used to produce bioplastics, and the type
of bioplastic they can produce, will be covered in chapter 3.
2.3.2 MONOMERS
In addition to the substances listed above there is also a range
of monomers and dimers that can be used for the production of
biobased plastics.
Alongside polysaccharides these are monosaccharides (sugar)
such as glucose and fructose (both C 6
H 12
O 6
) or disaccharides
such as sucrose (C 12
H 22
O 11
). Sucrose contains glucose and fructose
units in a ratio of 1:1 joined by a glycosidic bond [2].
Certain bivalent alcohols which can also be used (partly) in the
production of biobased plastics are able themselves to be produced
from renewable raw materials
For a few years now biobased 1,3-propanediol has been sold
as bio-PDO, and 1,4-butanediol will soon be marketed as bio-
BDO, produced from renewable resources such as maize starch
for example [14, 15].
The range of so-called biobased chemical building blocks is
not only increasing considerably in its application in the manufacture
of plastics. An important area, which has been a significant
object of research in recent times is succinic acid (C 4
H 6
O 4
),
which can also be made by fermentation, using starch and various
oligosaccharides.
An important monomer used for PLA, one of the most significant
bioplastics on the market today, is lactic acid (Details in
chapter 3.4.1).
14 | 2 RENEWABLE RESOURCES

The world’s most commonly produced plastic is polyethylene.
Its ethylene monomer is today mainly obtained by way of steam
cracking carbonates such as naphtha or also ethane, propane
and liquefied gas. By dehydrating bio-ethanol, based on sugar
cane, a biobased ethylene for the production of bio-polyethylene
can be obtained (see chapter 3.4.5).
2
2.3 OTHER BIOGENIC MATERIALS | 15

3
3
Fig. 3.1: Doll made
from celluloid (Picture:
Holger Ellgaard)
BIOBASED
PLASTICS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Plastics have not always been produced from fossil materials
such as petroleum. Quite the contrary – the first plastics were
already bio-based. In the early years of the history of plastic the
first plastic materials were used as an alternative to costly and
scarce raw materials, and were obtained via the chemical transformation
of natural materials [1, 16]. These valuable and scarce
raw materials were, for example, towards the end of the 19th
century, mother of pearl, tortoiseshell, horn or ivory, but also
amber, coral, lapis lazuli and ebony [2].
Celluloid is regarded as the world’s first “plastic”, discovered
in 1855 by the Englishman Alexander Parkes and initially sold
under the name Parkesine [17]. In 1869 the Hyatt brothers (USA)
opened their first factory for the production of celluloid, a thermoplastic
material. Thus began the age of plastics. The publication
at the time of a prize competition gave the legendary
boost to the development of plastics that could be used in place
of costly ivory for the production of billiard
balls. Celluloid
Preview
made from cellulose nitrate
and camphor set the pace and was
quickly adopted for other applications
such as Picturegraphic film, decorative
manufactured goods, spectacle frames,
combs, table-tennis balls and other
products [1]. A significant disadvantage
of celluloid was its easy combustibility,
especially when the http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
moisture content of
film material was reduced over an extended
period of time.
In about 1923 the mass production of
cellulose hydrate (cellophane) began.
Known under the original trade name of
Cellophan, and marketed by Hoechst AG,
it is a crystal clear, crispy film and one of
the oldest plastics that came into direct
contact with foodstuffs [2].
you can order th
16 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

Another, less combustible cellulose based
material, cellulose acetate, has slowly replaced
cellophane in certain applications [18].
Cellulose acetate (CA) or cellulose triacetate
(CTA) are obtained from cellulose in a reaction
with acetic acid and even today still (or once
again) have a significant place in the bioplastics
market (cf. chapter 3.3.2)
Casein is the protein component in the
milk of higher mammals that is not found in
whey. From the end of the 19th century until
the 1930s casein was one of the raw materials
for the plastic called galalith, which was
used among other things for making buttons,
personal decorative items, and also as an insulation
material in electrical installations [2].
During the first decade of the 20th century
Henry Ford in the USA tried to find non-food
applications for excess agricultural production.
He tried initially with, amongst other
things, wheat and soya, and one of the first
series applications was a starter box for the
1915 Model T Ford, produced with an asbestos
fibre reinforced synthetic resin made from
Sample
wheat gluten. Following this Ford attempted
several applications for products made from
soya oil, such as paints and lacquers, a substitute
for rubber, and for the production of glycerine
used in shock-absorbers. Liquefied soya
e book proteins were at placed in a formaldehyde bath
to create fibres for upholstered parts. Different
products were produced from soya
en/books/bioplastics.php
meal – a by-product after the extraction of soya
oil – by reaction with formaldehyde. Soya meal
plastic was used by Ford for a steadily increasing
number of vehicle parts, such as glove-box
lids, gear knobs, horn buttons, throttle pedals,
distributor covers, internal linings, steering
wheels, instrument panels, and later for a
prototype trunk lid (Fig. 3.4) [19].
Fig. 3.2: Decorative comb 1920/1930 and hair
pin 1920/1950 made from celluloid (Pictures:
Kunststoffmuseums-Verein e.V., Düsseldorf)
Fig. 3.3: Buttons 1920/1940 made from
casein (Picture: Kunststoffmuseums-
Verein e.V., Düsseldorf)
3
3.1 INTRODUCTION | 17

3
Fig. 3.4: Henry Ford
hitting his car with an
axe. The trunk lid is a
soya plastic reinforced
with hemp (Picture: The
Henry Ford Museum)
These early “biobased plastics”
were soon forgotten in the
age of the petroleum boom. The
availability of petroleum in huge
quantities and at a low cost ensured
that “modern” plastics
such as PMMA (Plexiglas ® ,
1930), and later polyamides like
PA 6.6 (Nylon ® ) PA 6 (Perlon ® ),
polystyrene and PTFE (Teflon ® )
(1930 – 1950) were the centre
of attention. Finally, from 1956,
the industry mastered the large
scale production of today’s
mass-market plastics polyethylene
(PE) and later polypropylene (PP). With the industrial production
of plastics there followed, over the years, the development
of various techniques for the processing of these plastics
[1] (see also chapter 4).
Only from 1980, and increasing at the turn of the century, did
bioplastics become once again a focus of research and development.
The principal interest at that time was biodegradability and
compostability. Meantime it became clear that compostability is
only a sensible option where it offers some additional benefit, and
where it is not just another method of disposal.
Of major significance, especially in view of limited petroleum
availability and price development, as well as global warming,
is the production of plastics from renewable resources (i.e. biobased
plastics). Fundamentally biobased plastics can be produced
from numerous plant-based raw materials.
As mentioned above, whilst about 100 years ago cellulosebased
materials were the first plastics, they were soon outpaced
by petroleum polymers. The renaissance of bioplastics began
with plastics based on starch (starch blends and also starch raw
materials). The reasons were, and are, the relatively low and increasingly
interesting price, good availability of the raw materials,
and the excellent biodegradability of the plastic as possible
unique features (see chapter 1.2.2)..
Starch, after hydraulic cracking into glucose (previously also
dextrose) is also used as a raw material in fermentation processes.
In this way new bioplastics such as PLA and PHA are
produced. Sugar is also the raw material for the latest generation
18 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

of bioplastics including the biobased polyolefins PE (and soon to
come is PP), PVC, as well as the partially biobased polyester PET,
which however are all not biodegradable. As so-called “drop in”
polymers their properties are totally identical to the fossil based
variants that dominate the market today. Optimising the products
for improved technical performance is therefore not required,
which significantly reduces the time taken for technical and economic
acceptance by the market. A great future is forecast for
these materials, particularly long term, when the infeed is successfully
switched by biorefinery to non-food raw materials such
as wood or cellulose rich plant residue (see also chapter 3.4.8).
Further details will be discussed in the following chapters.
3
3.2 BIOBASED / PARTIALLY BIOBASED
In recent years a whole range of biobased plastics has been
developed and successfully launched onto the market. These are
100% biobased plastics like PLA, PHA or bio-PE, as well as partially
biobased plastics. The latter can be plastics that are produced
from various raw materials (monomers, oligomers) and
which (so far) have not all been able to be produced from renewable
resources, or they are blends of biobased and petroleumbased
plastics.
Examples of the first group of partially biobased plastics are
certain bio-polyamides (see chapter 3.4.2). A whole range of producers
offer polyamide 6.10 where the dicarbonic acid (via sebacic
acid) required for its production is produced from castor oil
or soya oil, the diamine, however, is of petrochemical origin. Effectively
there is a bio-based content of around 63% (cf definition
of “biobased content” below). Another example is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET, known for its use in beverage bottles). A large
producer of soft drinks in 2010 launched a bottle where the PET
had been made from bio-based monoethylene glycol (obtained
from sugar cane molasses) and conventional terephthalic acid.
At the beginning of 2011 the other soft drink giant hit back with
a 100% biobased PET bottle. This supplier claimed that they had
cracked the code and could produce terephthalic acid from renewable
resources.
Blends of biobased and petrochemical plastics are, for example,
mixtures of PLA (100% bio) and PBAT (polybutylene adipate
terephthalate, a petroleum based but compostable copolyester).
Such blends, including those made from other plastics, can be
used in a wide range of applications thanks to their mechanical,
3.2 BIOBASED / PARTIALLY BIOBASED | 19

3
thermal and other properties, and can be almost tailor-made
for the application in question. If biobased and biodegradable
plastics (like PLA) are “blended” with plastics made from petrochemicals
and that are not biodegradable, such as PLA/PC
(Polycarbonate), then their biodegradability is of course lost.
Even when it is the declared aim of many companies and researchers
to produce plastics totally based on renewable resources,
any approaches in the direction of partially biobased
plastics are a step in the right direction (see also chapter 3.4).
Definition: biobased content
When stating the percentage of biobased material in a plastic
the experts have different approaches. On the one hand only the
carbon percentage is looked at. The percentage of fossil raw material
and/or “young” carbon can be determined by the radiocarbon
method. An American standard (ASTM D6866) gives precise
steps on how to do this. For example here the monoethylene glycol
mentioned above contributes 20% and the terephthalic acid
80% of the carbon atoms, based on the following formula:
n C 2
H 6
O 2
+ n C 8
H 6
O 4 (C 10
H 8
O 4
) n
+ n(2 H 2
O)
(monoethylene glycol + terephthalic acid = PET + water)
The other approach takes into account the biomass content as
a percentage by weight. In this method the monoethylene glycol
accounts for about 30 % of the biobased content of bio-PET.
Both approaches have their supporters and their opponents
[20] depending on one’s point of view. Hence both are important
and necessary.
20 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS
3.3.1 THERMOPLASTIC STARCH
To produce thermoplastic starch (TPS) starch grains are
destructured by an extrusion process [2, 4]. Starch consists
of two components, the branched polymerised amylopectin,
which is the principal component and which encases the unbranched
amylose [1]. In order to destructure the starch it
must be subjected to sufficient mechanical energy and heat
in the presence of so-called plasticisers or softening agents.
The best softener for starch is water at a concentration of
45%. Other softeners are glycerine, sorbitol, etc. During
destructuring the granular structure and the original crystallinity
(a left-handed double helix) of the natural starch is
destroyed [21]. TPS with a starch content of over 90% (plus
water etc.) can in general be used only for the production of
foamed loose fill packaging chips. To produce TPS material
that can be processed on film blowers, injection moulding
machines or used in the extrusion blow moulding process,
the starch is blended with other bioplastics such as PBAT
[22].
Thermoplastic starch with suitable softening agents, or
blends with PBAT can, for example, be very successfully
blown to form film (chapter 4.3.2). The preferred application
is plastic pouches, shopping bags and sacks that can also be
used for disposal of biological refuse. Foamed TPS is used
as a loose fill material (Fig. 3.6) to protect fragile products
during transport.
Because thermoplastic starch is hydrophilic and very brittle
it is compounded with other bioplastics for many applications
to create waterproof or water repellent blends. The
other components of the blend may be, for example, polyester,
polyesteramide, polyurethane or polyvinyl alcohol.
Starch blends or compounds can be individually developed
and produced for various applications in the plastics industry.
They can be processed to produce injection moulded items,
film, thermoformable sheet for deep-drawn products, or
coatings. Examples of some of these applications are seen in
shopping bags, yoghurt pots, single-serve beverage containers,
plant pots, cutlery, nappy liners, and coated paper and
card [2].
Fig. 3.5: Granulate of
destructured and complexed
starch [1]
Fig. 3.6: TPS loose fill to
protect fragile products
(picture: Novamont)
3
3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS | 21

3
CELLULOSE
FIBRES
CELLULOSE
REGENERATED
CELLULOSE
CELLULOSE-
DERIVATIVES
Fig.3.7: Cellulose-based
polymer materials
(Picture: according
to [4])
FIBRERS
FILMS
CELULOSE
-ESTER
CELULOSE
-ETHER
3.3.2 CELLULOSE-BASED PLASTICS
Cellulose is the principal component of cell walls in all higher
forms of plant life, at varying percentages. It is therefore the
most common organic compound and also the most common
polysaccharide (multi-sugar). Cellulose is unbranched and
consists of several hundred (up to ten thousand) glucose molecules
(in a glucosidic bond) or cellobiose units. The cellulose
molecules bind together with higher structures that often have a
static function as tear-resistant fibres in plants [2, 5 23].
In cotton wool the cellulose content reaches about 95%, in
hardwood from 40 to 75%, and in soft woods it is between 30 to
50%.
Cellulose is, in terms of quantity, the most significant renewable
raw material resource – globally about 1.3 billion tonnes are
obtained each year for technical applications. However chemical
processes are required to remove undesirable contaminants
such as lignin and pentoses from the cellulose fibres. An important
end product is cellulose pulp which is mainly used to
produce paper and cardboard, but is also used for textiles [1].
Furthermore cellulose can be used industrially in the form of
cellulose regenerates and cellulose derivatives (Fig. 3.7).
Cellulose regenerate
If cellulose is chemically dissolved and newly restructured in
the form of fibres or film it is known as a cellulose regenerate.
The most well-known members of this group of materials are
viscose, viscose silk, rayon or artificial silk, and a few more in
the area of fibres and textiles. In the field of film are cellulose hydrate
and also cellulose film, known by the original brand name
of Cellophane [4].
22 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

Fig. 3.8: Cellophane –
a crystal clear cellulose
product [1]
3
Fig. 3.9: Artificial silk
(Picture: iStock)
Cellulose derivatives
With regard to industrial use cellulose derivatives (including
biobased plastics) play an important role. They are classified into
two main groups - cellulose ethers and cellulose esters [4].
By the etherification of cellulose with alcohols various cellulose
ethers can be produced, such as carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), methyl cellulose (MC), and others, that are used as glues
(carpet adhesive, tile adhesive), cleaning and washing products,
pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, and many more.
Cellulose esters here have a considerably higher importance
for the plastics industry. The first
thermoplastic material was celluloid,
produced from 75% cellulose nitrate
(obtained from nitric acid and cellulose)
and 25% camphor.
Basically cellulose esters occur by
the esterification of cellulose with organic
acids. The most important cellulose
esters from a technical point
of view are cellulose acetate (CA with
acetic acid), cellulose propionate (CP
Fig. 3.10: Swiss army
knife, grip made from
celluloseacetobutyrate
3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS | 23

3
with propionic acid) and cellulose butyrate (CB with butanoic
acid). Mixed polymerisates, such as cellulose
acetate propionate (CAP) can also
be formed. One of the most well-known
applications of cellulose aceto butyrate
(CAB) is the moulded handle on the Swiss
army penknife. To improve the thermoplastic
processability and the mechanical
performance in use, softening agents (3 to
35%) are as a rule added to the cellulose
acetates [2, 5].
Fig. 3.11: Transparent
dice made from
cellulose acetate
4
Indian: „the tree that
weeps“ from cao = tree,
and ochu = tears
3.3.3 NATURAL RUBBER AND THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERS
A very popular “relative” of plastics is rubber. Other associated
terms are natural latex and elastomers. Even though about
60% of the world demand for rubber is today produced from petrochemicals
(synthetic rubbers, mainly from styrene and butadiene),
the trend is moving back to the use of materials from
renewable resources.
By natural rubber (caoutchouk 4 ) we mean polymers that are
based on plant products, and principally latex. In nature this latex
sap runs from damaged areas of the tree‘s bark and so acts
as a protective substance for the tree by closing off damaged
areas and preventing bacterial contamination. In sustainable
cultivated plantations the sap is obtained
Preview
by making deliberate
slits in the bark (Fig. 3.12).
By vulcanising the crude latex with sulphur rubber is produced
[2]. During vulcanisation the long chain rubber molecules are
cross-linked by the sulphur. The rubber is thus no longer able to
be reshaped or softened by melting, but becomes extremely elastic
thanks to this process [24].
In addition to rubber, which has been known as a biological
material for many decades, there are the http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
so-called thermoplastic
elastomers (TPE). These plastics, which are also very elastic,
are not cross-linked and so can be remelted (thermoplastics).
There is a whole range of biobased or partially biobased types
available.
An important group here are the thermoplastic polyurethanes
(TPU, or occasionally TPE-U). Their range of applications goes
from the soles of shoes, and other shoe parts, to film and the
soft component of hard-soft bonded parts such as tooth-brush
you can order th
24 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

handles. For details of biobased polyurethanes
see chapter 3.4.3.
Thermoplastic ether-ester elastomer (TPC-
ET) with hard sections produced from petrochemical
polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) and
soft sections that contain a polyether produced
using biobased 1,3 propanediol (cf. chapter
2.3.2), is suitable for technical applications
such as airbag covers in passenger cars. A version
exhibited in 2010 consists of 35% by weight
of renewable raw material (Fig. 5.22) [25].
A 100% biobased TPE is a block copolymer
(polyether block amide) that in 2010 was presented
for, among other things, ski boots. The
TPE material consists of 100% biobased polyamide
11 (cf chapter 3.4.2) and biobased polyether
[26].
The first biobased EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene monomer) for the production of EPDM
rubber was presented at the end of 2011 in
Germany and Brazil. Here the ethylene component
is produced from Brazilian bioethanol
[82].
Sample
Another thermoplastic elastomer produced
totally from renewable resources and which
was successfully launched in 2009, is based
on 100% wheat proteins. The material is also
biodegradable, which is not the case with those
previously mentioned (Fig. 3.16) [27].
e book at
Fig. 3.12: Latex harvesting from a
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) in
Cameroon (Picture: PRA)
3
en/books/bioplastics.php
Fig. 3.13: Walking shoes with
partially biobased polyurethane
(TPU) (Picture: Bayer)
3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS | 25

3
Fig. 3.14: Loudspeaker
housing made from a
lignin-based bioplastic
(Picture: Tecnaro)
Fig. 3.15:
Biodegradable urn
made from ligninbased
plastic (Picture:
Alento)
3.3.4 LIGNIN-BASED PLASTICS
The most well-known bioplastic based on lignin (chapter 2.2.3)
is sold under the name of “liquid wood” [13, 28] and is easy to
process in injection moulding machines (chapter 4.3.3). This
bioplastic is also sold containing natural fibres (flax, hemp) to
increase its strength.
As a reinforcing component in partially biobased polyurethane
(with polyols based on soya), lignin at a percentage by weight
of 5% offers a significant improvement in rigidity and distension
[29]. Thus there are at the moment numerous different research
projects being carried out with the aim of using lignin in the
plastics industry.
3.3.5 PROTEIN-BASED PLASTICS
Another group of bioplastics can be produced from animal or
plant proteins (see also chapter 2.2.2). Casein is one of the bioplastics
made from animal protein, and was already a significant
player at the beginning of the age of plastics (see chapter 3.1.). To
make a casein plastic the basic casein, obtained from skimmed
milk and plasticised, is processed to form a cross-linked plastic
by the action of formaldehyde and the removal of water. In this
context the term casein-formaldehyde is commonly used. Because
of their comparably low technical characteristics casein
plastics are used today only in small niche markets [4].
A different type of protein-based plastic is gelatine. It is used,
in addition to the well-known applications, as a nutritional sup-
26 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

Fig. 3.16:
Thermoplastic
elastomer made from
100% wheat protein
(Picture: Tereos Syral)
3
plement and also as a binding agent or capsule
for pharmaceutical tablets [4]. In the majority of
cases gelatine is produced from collagen (see
chapter 2.2.2).
Some new developments in the field of bioplastics
based on plant proteins are concerned,
for example, with extrusion compounding of soya
protein with water and glycerine, or the production
of formaldehyde and soya based resins. Because
of their limited performance profile, bioplastics
based on plant proteins are not currently found on
the market on an industrial scale [4].
An example of a thermoplastic elastomer that
is based on 100% wheat protein, and is also biodegradable,
was presented in 2009 and won an
award (Fig. 3.16).
Fig. 3.17: Storage
of energy reserves
(Picture: iStock)
3.3.6 PHA
Starch and other substances that supply carbonates
can also be converted into bioplastics by
fermentation and the action of micro-organisms.
Examples are the polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA) or
the polyhydroxy fatty acids, a family of polyesters.
As in many mammals, including humans, that
hold energy reserves in the form of body fat there
are also bacteria that hold intracellular reserves
3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS | 27

3
Fig. 3.18: Electron
microscope image of
bacteria with stored
PHA particles (Picture:
Metabolix)
of polyhydroxy alkanoates [4]. Here the
micro-organisms store a particularly
high level of energy reserves (up to 80%
of their own body weight) for when their
sources of nutrition become scarce. By
“farming” this type of bacteria, and feeding
them on sugar or starch (mostly from
maize), or at times on plant oils or other
nutrients rich in carbonates, it is possible
to obtain PHS‘s on an industrial scale.
PHAs are optically active, aliphatic polyesters with a structure
as shown in Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.19:
Structural form of
PHA (general) [4]
If the rest (R) is a simple methyl group CH 3
, we talk about
polyhydroxy butanoic acid or polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB). Where
R = C 2
H 5
polyhydroxy valerate (PHV) is produced, where R = C 3
H 7
polyhydroxy hexanoate (PHH) is produced, and where R = C 4
H 9
polyhydroxy octanoate (PHO) is produced etc. [5].
Today those most economically interesting are PHB or copolymers
such as PHBV (poly-3-hydroxy butyrate-covalerate), PHBH
(poly-3-hydroxy butyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) or PHBHV,
which in the 1990s was used for a shampoo bottle (Fig 3.21) in
markets including Germany and the USA, but later disappeared
from the market.
Processable bioplastics made from polyhydroxy alkanoates
are generally obtained by removing the biopolymer from the bacterial
cell material, and cleaning and compounding it.
PHAs are mainly film and injection moulding grades (Fig. 3.20)
and are now increasingly available as extrusion and blow moulding
grades. A Japanese company in 2009 showed a particle foam
(similar to Styrofoam ® ) and made from PHBH [30].
A special feature of polyhydroxy alkanoate is the fact that it can
be composted in an industrial composter or biogas installation,
and also on a home compost heap, or in the soil or in the sea -
just as rapidly, and is 100% biodegraded.
28 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

Research activity is also going on in
the field of transgenic plants such as
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), a
prairie grass from North America, or
tobacco plants that form PHB as an
energy reserve [1, 31, 32]. Here PHB
could be obtained directly without going
along the detour involving bacteria.
Efforts currently being made in
New Zealand, for example, go even
further. Here they are carrying out experiments
based on municipal waste
water (Fig. 3.22). This waste water
contains some not inconsiderable
amounts of available carbonates, for
example from small particles of food
waste from dishwashers. Since in
purification plants the waste water is
in any case clarified by the action of
micro-organisms such as bacteria it
seems logical to check whether micro-organisms
that produce PHA can
become particularly “well-fed” and
whether the polymer could ultimately
be harvested. The first trial results
are very promising [33]. It will however
probably take a number of years before
this solution takes on a real commercial
significance.
Fig. 3.20: Bathroom accessories injection moulded from
PHBV (Picture: Design Ideas)
control 3 months in compost 9 months in compost
Fig. 3.21: shampoo bottle made of PHBHV (Reproduced
with permission [108])
3
Fig. 3.22: Research in New Zealand - PHA taken
from communal waste water (Picture: Scion)
3.3 MODIFIED NATURAL POLYMERS | 29

3.4 BIOBASED POLYMERS SYNTHESISED
FROM BIOBASED MONOMERS
3.4.1 BIOBASED POLYESTERS
3
Fig. 3.23: Processing
steps for the generation
of polylactide materials
and parts made from
PLA (according to [4])
STARCH, SUGAR, BIO-
GENIC WASTE MATERIALS
MICROORGANISMS
PLA
In this group of materials PLA (polylactide, polylactic acid)
is today’s most important bioplastic on the market [4]. PLA is
based on lactic acid, a natural acid, is mainly produced by fermentation
of sugar or starch with the help of micro-organisms.
Lactic acid comes in two isomer forms, i.e. as laevorotatory D(-)
lactic acid and as dextrorotary L(+)lactic acid.
Two lactic acid molecules form a circular lactide molecule
which, depending on its composition, can be a D-D-lactide, an L-
L-lactide or a meso-lactide (having one D and one L molecule).
The chemist makes use of this variability. During polymerisation
the chemist combines the lactides such that the PLA plastic obtained
has the characteristics that he desires. The purity of the
infeed material is an important factor in successful polymerisation
and thus for the economic success of the process, because
so far the cleaning of the lactic acid produced by the fermentation
has been relatively costly [1].
The world’s first large PLA production unit with a capacity
of 140,000 tonnes per annum began
Preview
production in the USA in
2002. Industrial PLA production facilities can now be found in the
Netherlands, Japan and China. In Guben/Germany a 500 t/a pilot
plant started operation in 2011.
CONDITIONING OF
SUBSTRATES
INOCULATION
FERMENTATION
you can order th
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
ISOLATION
LACTIC ACID
PRODUCT
PLA
MATERIAL
PLA
SYNTHESIS
PROCESSING
BLENDING/
ADDITIVES
POLYMERIZATION
LACTIDE
30 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

PLA is, as it exits the
reactor, not an easily processed
plastic. Hence, as
is usual with most plastics,
raw PLA polymer is
adapted to specific applications
by compounding
(cf chapter 4.2) with suitable
additives or by copolymerisation
or blended
with other plastics (bioplastics
or traditional
plastics).
Advantages of the polylactide plastic are its high level of rigidity,
transparency of the film, cups and pots, as well as its thermoplasticity
and good processing performance on existing equipment in
the plastics converting industry. Nevertheless PLA has some disadvantages:
as its softening point is around 60°C the material is
only to a limited extent suitable for the manufacture of cups for
hot drinks [1]. Modified PLA types can be produced by the use of
certein additives or by a combinations of L- and D- lactides (stereocomplexing),
which then have the required morphology for use
at higher temperatures [34]. A second characteristic of PLA together
with other bioplastics is its low water vapour barrier. Whilst
Sample
this characteristic would make it unsuitable, for example, for the
production of bottles, its ability to “breathe” is an advantage in the
packaging of bread or vegetables.
Transparent PLA is very similar to conventional mass produced
plastics, not only in its properties but it can also be processed on
e book existing machinery at without modification. PLA and PLA-blends are
available in granulate form, and in various grades, for use by plas-
en/books/bioplastics.php
converters in the manufacture of film, moulded parts, drinks
containers, cups, bottles and other everyday items [1]. In addition
to short life packaging film or deep drawn products (e.g. beverage
or yoghurt pots, fruit, vegetable and meat trays) the material also
has great potential for use in the manufacture of durable items.
Examples here are casings for mobile phones, possibly reinforced
with natural fibres, desktop accessories, lipstick tubes, and
lots more. Even in the automotive industry we are seeing the first
series application of plastics based on PLA. Some Japanese car
manufacturers have developed their own blends which they use to
produce dashboards [35], door tread plates, etc.
Fig. 3.24: Transparent
PLA film for packaging
vegetables
3
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 31

3
Fibres spun from PLA are even used for textile applications.
On the market we can already find all kinds of nonwovens and
textiles from articles of clothing through children’s shoes to car
seat covers.
Furthermore there are lucrative special markets, for example
in medical and pharmaceutical applications where PLA has
been successfully used for some time. From screws etc. that are
slowly resorbed into the body, to nails, implants and plates made
from PLA or PLA copolymers, the parts are used to hold broken
bones in place as they heal. The PLA is broken down within the
body and ejected by the human metabolism, so saving the patient
the problem of a second surgery to remove the previously
implanted parts. PLA has also been used for a long time for resorbable
sutures and plasters containing active substances [1].
Polylactides and their copolymers or blends are rapidly, slowly,
or not at all biodegradable, depending very much on their composition.
Whilst pure poly-L-lactide takes years to degrade, PLA
made from D- und L-lactides degrades in a few weeks. Blends of
PLA with non-biodegradable plastics, such as PLA/PC, are simply
not biodegradable. This shows clearly the special diversity
of this bioplastic, that can be used in a form that rapidly biodegrades
or, if required, in a functional form that can be used for
years [1].
PET
PET, since the second half of the 20th century, has been a
mass-produced plastic. A real boom began in 1975 with its use
by the big North American soft drinks companies to make “easyto-grip”
and “unbreakable” beverage bottles.
PET is a thermoplastic polyester that is produced by polycondensation
of monoethylene glycol (or ethylene glycol, a bivalent
alcohol, a diol) and terephthalic acid or dimethyl terephthalate.
Since 2010 the first beverage bottles have been supplied
made from partially biobased PET [37]. The monoethylene glycol
(about 30% by weight) is obtained from sugar cane molasses.
The terephthalic acid is in this application still produced from
petrochemical resources. At about the same time a Japanese
automobile group also announced that it was producing partially
biobased PET [38].
32 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

3
Fig. 3.25: Desktop accessories made from PLA
Fig. 3.28: Baby’s shoes made from a PLA/PET
blended fabric and soles made from a soft PLA
compound [36]
Fig. 3.27: Lower dashboard panel made from a
PLA blend (Picture: Mazda [35])
Fig. 3.26: CARGO
PlantLove lipstick tube
made from Ingeo (PLA)
(Picture: CARGO)
Fig. 3.29: Gattinoni Obama
Dress 100% Ingeo
(Picture: Gattinoni)
Fig. 3.30: Seat cover made
from 100% biobased PLA
fibres (Picture: Mazda [35])
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 33

3
Fig. 3.31: Partially biobased
PET (Picture: Coca-Cola)
Fig. 3.32: 100% biobased PET
(Picture: PepsiCo)
At the beginning of 2011 another of the soft drinks
giants announced the launch of 100% biobased PET
bottle. The production of terephthalic acid as the
second component of PET (and other plastics) using
renewable resources had been regarded as too
elaborate and costly. Now, however, there are apparently
clear routes to the economic production of
biobased terephthalic acid [39].
One approach is to produce using naturally occurring
carbohydrates such as fructose (C 6
H 12
O 6
),
by catalysis with 2,5-dimethyl furan [62] and then
to produce paraxylene (p-Xylol or 1,4-dimethylbenzene)
again using the benefit of catalysts. This is the
prime ingredient for the production of terephthalic
acid. Another route is to obatin paraxylol from
2,5-dimethyl furan and ethylene in a cycloaddition
reaction (a reaction forming ring molecules) described
in a US patent [40]. Other synthesis routes
go from isobutanol / isobutane or muconic acid, and
PTA can also be obtained thermochemically in various
stages (the syngas route) [22].
Regardless of whether PET is partially or totally
produced from renewable resources, chemically the
material is identical to conventional PET and can
thus be recycled together with conventional PET.
PEF
A 100% biobased alternative to PET could be Polyethylene
Furanoate (PEF). 2,5 Furan Dicarboxylic
acid (FDCA) can be polymerized with ethylene glycol
to produce Polyethylene Furanoate. A technology
was developed in the Nethelands to produce FDCA
from biomass [106].
Fig: 3.33: 2,5-dimethyl furan (left), paraxylol
(centre), terephthalic acid (right)
CH 3
O
OH
H 3
C CH 3
O
CH 3
O 2
-H 2
O
O
OH
34 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

PTT
Polytrimethylterephthalate (PTT), which is also
partially biobased, is certainly not as well known,
or has the same market importance as PET. PTT
has however, as a partially biobased plastic, been
on the market much longer than (partially) biobased
PET
Similarly to PET, PTT is also produced using
terephthalic acid (until now made from petrochemical
resources, in future also to be biobased?),
or dimethyl terephthalate and a diol. In
this case it is a biobased 1,3 propanediol, also
known as bio-PDO (cf chapter 2.3.2).
PTT was first launched onto the market mainly
in the form of spun fibres and textiles. Because
they are particularly soft and yet can bear heavy
wear the principal area of application was for domestic
carpets and carpets for the automobile
industry.
But PTT is also suitable for injection moulding
applications and quite comparable to polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT). With a high quality
surface finish, and low shrink and deformation
performance, the material is ideal for, amongst
other things, electrical and electronic components
such as plugs and housings, or also for air
breather outlets on car instrument panels [41,
42].
Fig. 3.34: Clothes made from PTT
fibres (Picture: DuPont)
3
Fig. 3.35: Carpet made from PTT
fibres (Picture: DuPont)
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 35

3
Fig. 3.36: Packaging
made from polybutylene
succinate (PBS)
Biobased polysuccinates
Other bio-polyesters are, for example, polybutylene
succinate (PBS), a 100% biodegradable
bioplastic that is produced from butanediol
(in future e.g. bio-BDO) and succinic acid,
and which can also be produced in a biobased
form (see chapter 2.3.2).
With polybutylene succinate adipate (PBSA),
in addition to the succinic acid, adipic acid is
polymerised within the compound. This plastic
too can be biobased to a greater or less degree depending on the
origin of the monomer.
Other biobased polyesters
Other (fully or partially) biobased polyesters are polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT) made from terephthalic acid or terephthalic
acid methyl ester, and biobased butanediol (bio-BDO). PBT is
seen as a “technical brother” of PET, which is preferred for use
as packaging.
As has been mentioned in chapter 1.2.1, the first successes
have been achieved, including production of a partially biobased
version of the very succesful 100% biodegradable plastic PBAT
(polybutylene adipate terephthalate) which is at times produced
from renewable resources [9].
Preview
3.4.2 BIOBASED POLYAMIDES
Polyamides are plastics that are particularly suitable for fibres
and technical applications. The most well known examples,
which caused a sensation in the first half of the last century,
are Nylon und Perlon. Polyamides today are used for demanding
injection moulding applications, extruded products, hollow
articles and textiles for the manufacture http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
of clothing, decorative
materials and technical fabrics. They are characterised by
a combination of methylene groups (-CH 2
-) and amide groups
(-NH-CO-). Basically polyamides are divided into two groups.
A-B polyamides (such as PA 6, PA 11 or PA 12) consist of a single
repeating unit.
you can order th
[NH−(CH 2
) X
−CO] n
where (X+1) = 6, 11 or 12, (respectively X = 5, 10 or 11)On the
other hand AA/BB polyamides (such as PA 6.4, PA 6.6 or
36 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

PA 6.10, today mostly referred to in a shorter
form as PA 64 or PA 66 or PA 610) are distinguished
by having two repeating units.
[NH−(CH 2
) X
−NH−CO−(CH 2
) Y
−CO] n
Here the figures in the type nomenclature give
the number of carbon atoms in each repeating unit
(X and Y+2): in the example PA 6.10 X=6 and Y+2=10
[43, 44, 45, 46].
Bio-polyamides are totally or partially biobased
depending on whether the dicarbonic acid, the diamine,
or both are produced from renewable resources
[47].
An economically important dicarbonic acid for
the production of bio-polyamides is sebacic acid
[HOOC(CH 2
) 8
COOH] or C 10
H 18
O 4
, which can be obtained
from the castor oil plant (Fig. 3.37). Using
this monomer it is possible to produce partially
biobased polyamides such as PA 4.10 or PA 6.10.
Here the “10”-component is the biobased part.
Both partially biobased PA 4.10 and also PA 6.10
are commercially available.
Sample
If both monomer types are produced from biobased
raw materials thern 100% biobased polyamides
can be produced. An example is PA 5.10,
which until now has been just a laboratory product.
Here the “10”-component can be produced as before
based on sebacic acid, and the“5”-component
e book in this case at produced using biobased diamine
1,5 diaminopentane (or pentamethylenediamine)
en/books/bioplastics.php
[H 2
N(CH 2
) 5
NH 2
] or C 5
H 14
N 2
, which by microbial
break-up of protein from the natural occurring
amino acid lysine [2].
A further example is PA 10.10, which is also
commercially available. Here too the first
“10”-component is biobased. The base material
1,10 diaminodecane (or decamethylene diamine)
[H 2
N(CH 2
) 10
NH 2
] or C 10
H 24
N 2
can also be obtained
from the castor oil plant, so that PA 10.10 is also
100% biobased.
Fig. 3.37: Castor oil (photo: fotalia (seed),
Thielen (plant))
Fig. 3.38: Wall fixing plugs made from
partially biobased PA 6.10
(Picture: Philipp Thielen)
3
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 37

3
An example of the first group of polyamides mentioned
above is completely biobased PA 11, which has
already been on the market for more than 60 years. It
can only be made from castor oil, is totally biobased
and is suitable, thanks to its special chemical and
general resistance, for biofuel pipework and other
components.
In addition to those mentioned here there are still
some more biobased polyamides [47].
Fig. 3.39: Fuel connector
nipples made from 100%
biobased PA 11 (Picture:
Arkema)
Fig. 3.40: Car seat
made from soya foam
(Picture: Ford Motor
Company)
3.4.3 BIOBASED POLYURETHANE
Polyurethanes are produced by a reaction between polyols
and diisocyanates and can be hard and brittle, elastic, foamed
or compact. Because polyols can be obtained from plant oils
such as castor oil or soya oil there are already a large number of
partially biobased polyurethanes on the market.
So-called thermoplastic polyurethane, TPU, as a member of
the elastomer group, has already been mentioned in chapter
3.3.3.
Another important group of polyurethanes comes in the form
of foams used in automobile manufacture. As a pioneer in this
field one of the big North American automobile groups has, for
a number of years, been using polyurethane foam where the
polyol is produced based on soya. The first foams (soy foams)
from this automobile manufacturer were “only” 5 wt% and
made from renewable resources but work is going on apace to
increase the biobased element of the polyol. Areas of application
are seats, head-rests etc. Other car manufacturers – and their
suppliers – use, in addition to soya oil, plant oils based on castor
oil, rapeseed oil, or palm oil to manufacture polyols. A
Japanese manufacturer of PU foam presented at the
K‘2007 plastics exhibition a polyurethane foam where
the polyol was 100% based on castor oil. With a 70%
polyol content and 30% isocyanate content this means
a 70% content in the finished polyurethane coming
from renewable resources [48].
38 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

3.4.4 BIOBASED POLYACRYLATES
Acrylic plastics include, as an example, PMMA (polymethyl
methacrylate) which is also known as Plexiglas
® or acrylic glass. Scientists from the University
of Duisburg Essen have discovered an enzyme that allows
them to produce a precursor of methylmethacrylate
(MMA) which in turn serves as a monomer for the
production of PMMA and is based on a biotechnical
process using natural raw materials such as sugar,
alcohol or fatty acids [49].
Furthermore there are currently efforts being made
to be able to use a biobased version of the platform
chemical (platform chemicals are standard chemicals
that can be used for a variety of purposes) 3-hydroxypropionic
acid for the production of further raw materials
to make acrylic plastics [50]. Such raw materials
include, for instance, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid,
acrylic nitrile, acrylic amide etc. Plastics that can be
produced using these types of raw materials include,
amongst others, ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene,
see also chapter 3.4.7), a hard, viscoplastic that is used
to make the world’s best known play building bricks.
Fig. 3.41: Trophy made
from PMMA (acrylic glass,
not biobased in this case)
3
3.4.5 BIOBASED POLYOLEFINS
Among the most important and most commonly
used plastics are polyolefins (polyethylene PE and
polypropylene PP). They are easily recognised by the
fact that their density is less than 1 g/cm³ - i.e. they
float in water. Both PE and PP can be produced from
renewable resources [51].
Bio-polyethylene
Polyethylene (PE) is the simplest and at the same
time most common plastic with a global capacity of 80
million tonnes (2008 [51]). There are numerous possible
applications, going from film (pouches, bags,
shrink film) through blow-moulded hollow articles
such as shampoo bottles and petrol canisters, to barrels,
automobile fuel tanks, or injection moulded parts
such as tubes and profile sections.
Fig. 3.42: Building brick made from
ABS (here not biobased) (Picture:
Stilfehler)
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 39

3
H H
| |
— C — C —
| |
H H
n
Fig. 3.43: Structure of
the simplest plastic:
polyethylene
Fig. 3.44: Shampoo
bottle made from bio-PE
(Picture: Braskem)
PE has a structure [CH 2
-CH 2
] n
which means that the backbone
of the polymer chain consists of carbon atoms with a hydrogen
atom attached to each, hence the molecular chain can also be
branched.
Depending on whether, and to what extent, the molecular
chains are branched different basic types can be made. PE-HD
(previously known as HDPE) is weakly branched and exhibits a
higher density (hence the name PE-HD: high density polyethylene).
In contrast PE-LD (LDPE) is strongly branched and of a
lower density, and PE-LLD is a linear polyethylene that has fewer
and shorter branches.
In addition there are also very high density types known as PE-
HMW or even PE-UHMW, ultra-high molecular weight PE, that
among other things can be spun to make fibres, for example, for
ballistic textiles (bullet-proof vests etc.).
Polyethylene can be produced petrochemically by polymerisation
of ethylene gas. This gas is itself produced in Europe and
Asia by steam cracking of various carbonates, mainly naphta. In
the USA, Canada and the Middle East ethane, propane and liquefied
gas are also used.
Another way in which the monomer ethylene can be produced
is by dehydration of ethanol. This method was used at the beginning
of large scale PE production in the first half of the 20th century,
before the availability of petrochemically produced ethylene
gas [2].
Having in mind the production of plastics from renewable
resources this process has once again attracted
interest. For instance in Brazil bio-ethanol has been
produced for many years from sugar cane by a fermentation
process. This bio-ethanol can now be used for
the production of ethylene and hence bio-polyethylene.
In Brazil there is now significant production capacity.
40 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

Bio-polypropylene
Biobased polypropylene can, like bio-PE, be produced from
bio-ethanol but the process is much more complex. Polypropylene
(PP) [C 3
-H 6
]n is considerably younger than PE and is used in
numerous technical applications. Global production in 2008 was
in the order of 44 million tonnes [51].
3
CH 3
H
| |
— C — C —
| |
H H
n
Basically PP can be processed
using all of the methods outlined
for PE. Also of interest is
the biaxial stretching of film to
make BO-PP (biaxial oriented
PP). In this way the surface area
is significantly increased and by
orienting the molecules the film
is given improved mechanical
properties.
To produce bio-PP there are several ways of obtaining the propylene
monomer C 3
H 6
from renewable resources [52]. A large
Brazilian producer of polyolefins has announced the start-up in
2013 of a bio-PP plant but without diclosing details about which
method will be used to produce the plastic [53].
Fig. 3.45: Carpet and
bottles made from bio-
PP (Picture: Braskem)
3.4.6 BIOBASED THERMOSET RESINS
Thermoset resins are cross-linked plastics that cannot be remelted.
They are often strengthened by the use of reinforcing
fibres such as fibreglass, carbon fibres, aramid fibres (Kevlar ® ,
Twaron ® ) and less frequently with natural fibres. The most important
thermoset resins are epoxy resins and unsaturated polyester
resins.
Unsaturated polyester resins
Unsaturated polester resins (UP) are known for example in
boat building and the repair of damaged bodywork on a car. They
are also usually reinforced with (or filled with), for example, fi-
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 41

3
Fig. 3.46: Speedboat
Chase 700iBR made
from partially biobased
UP resin (Picture:
Ashland)
breglass in the form of sheet
moulding compounds (SMC)
or bulk moulding compounds
(BMC) and principally used in
the construction of new vehicles.
Polyester resins are condensation
products from bivalent or
polyvalent alcohols (e. g. glycols
or glycerine) and dicarbonic acids
[2], and as described above
(see also chapters 2.3.2, 3.4)
can be produced from renewable resources. Today there is a
whole range of partially biobased UP resins on the market [54,
55].
Epoxy resins
Another thermoset resin which is used in boat building is epoxy
resin, and is also known for its use in air travel and space
travel, racing cars or wind energy plants, in particular for lightweight
construction with carbon fibre reinforcement. It is used
in tennis racquets, racing motor cycles and many other technically
demanding applications. A further important area of application
is in two-component adhesives..
Preview
The possible ways of producing expoxy resins are very different
and complex. Often epichlorhydrin with bisphenol A (also
a bivalent alcohol, a diol) is converted to epoxy resin, however
health and safety concerns about bisphenol A have led recently
to alternatives being sought. Epichlorhydrin is easy to obtain
from biobased glycerine, a by-product from bio-diesel production
[56]. It is already being produced on an industrial scale.
An alternative way to produce 100% http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
biobased epoxy resin
(without bisphenol A) was presented at the beginning of 2011
[57]. The researchers produced a polyamine from grape seed oil
which is then used as a hardener for a reaction with epoxidized
linseed oil.
you can order th
3.4.7 OTHER BIOBASED PLASTICS
As has been clearly shown there are many plastics that can
be fully or partially biobased because there is a wealth of monomers,
platform chemicals or other substances, the so-called
chemical building blocks, which can be obtained from renew-
42 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

able resources. These are, for example, the bio-PDO and bio-
BDO diols, monoethylene glycol, sebacic acid, succinic acid, terephthalic
acid and many more.
Every step taken to replace fossil-based carbonates with
“young” carbonates from renewable resources is a step in the
right direction.
This certainly includes the advance made by a Thai supplier
of ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, a technical plastic), who
has been successful in producing the butadiene component, albeit
so far only 25%, from renewable resources. This results in a
biobased percentage of 4% in the ABS. Ongoing research is currently
aiming at 8% [58], possibly with reference to the acrylonitrile
component too.
3
3.4.8 BIOPLASTICS FROM WASTE
A much-discussed topic is the potential conflict involving the
possible use of food or animal feed resources for the production
of bioenergy or biofuel. And even though the requirement would
be a lot smaller, this applies also to the industrial use of materials
from renewable resources for bioplastics. In this connection
it is often argued that the use of plants that should produce food
or animal feed is only a transitional phase and that scientists are
working under extreme pressure to be able to produce bioplastics
from waste streams or even from domestic rubbish.
Sample
Against this is the argument that food producing plants have
been so optimised for agriculture over decades, if not centuries,
that their usable carbonate content has reached a maximum. A
target for optimum resource use should be to use fertile land as
efficiently as possible, regardless of whether the cultivated land
e book could be used at for food production or not [59].
A more important question in this regard is whether there is in
en/books/bioplastics.php
total enough land available for the production of plants in order
on the one hand to feed the world population and on the other
hand for the generation of energy and production of raw materials.
Because this discussion could fill another book it will not be
analysed in depth here. The author is convinced, however, that
there is enough land available but where its use and distribution
is one of the great challenges of our time. This means [59]: “Even
if an increasing percentage of agricultural land is used for energy
production and the production of raw materials there are plenty
of possibilities to extent the total amount of agricultural land, and
3.4 POLYMERS FROM SYNTHESISED BIOBASED MONOMERS | 43

3
Fig. 3.47: Bioplastic
products based on
potato waste (Picture:
Rodenburg)
even more possibilities to raise the level of productivity”.
Despite this there are currently efforts being
made, with a number of successes, to be able to
produce plastic from waste and domestic waste.
An example can be seen in the Netherlands
where there is a flourishing potato industry (for
chips / french fries). When peeling and slicing
the potatoes on an industrial scale there is, in
addition to the peels and other waste, a large
amount of water used during the processes.
This process water, like the peels and other
waste, has a high percentage of useable starch.
So there are now companies in the Netherlands that produce
plastics from the starch so obtained [60]. Similar approaches
to the use of process water containing starch and associated
waste are also established in several other parts of the world.
In chapter 3.3.6 efforts made in New Zealand were already
mentioned. Polyhydroxy alkanoate is obtained from municipal
waste water systems .
A few years ago a large brandowner took the used frying oil
from his production line for shaped potato crisps and used it as
a food source for PHA producing micro-organisms. Thus old frying
fat became a high quality plastic material [22, 61].
44 | 3 BIOBASED PLASTICS

| 45
3

PureConcentration
on Biopolymers
More than you expect.
Sukano biobased
masterbatches and bio-loy
polymer alloys for extruded
rigid & thin films and
molded parts.
■ Slip/Antiblock
■ Mold Release
■ Impact Modifiers
■ Nucleating Agents
■ Antistatic
■ UV Masterbatches
■ Optical Brighteners
■ bio-loy Compounds & Blends
■ Colors
■ White & Black
Sukano AG | 8834 Schindellegi | Switzerland | +41 44 787 57 77 | www.sukano.com
Scan direct to our website

C
M
Y
CM
MY
Polylactic Acid
Uhde Inventa-Fischer has expanded its product portfolio to include the innovative stateof-the-art
PLAneo ® process. The feedstock for our PLA process is lactic acid, which can
be produced from local agricultural products containing starch or sugar.
The application range of PLA is similar to that of polymers based on fossil resources as
its physical properties can be tailored to meet packaging, textile and other requirements.
CY
CMY
K
Think. Invest. Earn.
Uhde Inventa-Fischer GmbH
Holzhauser Strasse 157–159
13509 Berlin
Germany
Tel. +49 30 43 567 5
Fax +49 30 43 567 699
Uhde Inventa-Fischer AG
Via Innovativa 31
7013 Domat/Ems
Switzerland
Tel. +41 81 632 63 11
Fax +41 81 632 74 03
marketing@uhde-inventa-fi scher.com
www.uhde-inventa-fi scher.com
Uhde Inventa-Fischer

FKuR plastics - made by nature! ®
Engineered Sustainability
Biodegradable tube made from compostable Bio-Flex ® resins
FKuR Kunststoff GmbH
Siemensring 79
D - 47877 Willich
Phone: +49 2154 92 51-0
Fax: +49 2154 92 51-51
sales@fkur.com
www.fkur.com
For further information, contact your local partner:
North America: sales.usa@fkur.com
UK & Ireland: UK@fkur.com
Italy:
Italy@fkur.com
France: France@fkur.com
Scandinavia: Scan@fkur.com
Israel:
Israel@fkur.com

Bio meets plastics.
The specialists in plastic recycling systems.
An outstanding technology for recycling both
bioplastics and conventional polymers.
We know how.

aturally advanced
Today we have transformed how we think about
many of the ordinary products we take for granted
in our daily lives. With Ingeo, naturally advanced
innovation led materials, we match the performance
of conventional plastics and fibers in many key
functional, useful and modern applications. It is
a competitive, elegant and responsible material
choice, designed for a broad range of rigid &
flexible packaging, food serviceware, personal
care, textiles, durable products in home, appliance,
and electronics categories, and even the latest
innovations in 3D printing, Ingeo is a true original
that delivers value with values, and one that has
evolved to become the better, contemporary choice
for the way we want to live.
www.natureworksllc.com
Follow @NatureWorks on Twitter

the Ingeo logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of NatureWorks LLC in the USA and other countries. © 2012 NatureWorks LLC. All rights reserved.

4
METHODS
OF
PROCESSING PLASTICS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4
conveying direction
melt exit
barrel
plastic granules
screw
Fig. 4.1: Sketch of a
plastifying unit
In this book the principal focus is put on
thermoplastics, i.e. plastics that become
soft again (plasticised) at elevated temperatures
and so can be remelted and given new
shapes. In most cases the melting, or more
correctly plastification, is done in screw feed
units (see sketch in Fig. 4.1). In this way, using
a machine comparable to a domestic mincer,
in addition to external electrical heating additional
heat is usually applied through dissipation.
The raw plastic in granulate form is
loaded into the machine via a cone-shaped
funnel and conveyed by the rotating screw
of the plastifying unit (Fig. 4.2). It is melted,
homogenised and then delivered to further
processing.
Fig. 4.2: Plastifying screws
for plastics (picture:
Kautex Maschinenbau)
4.2 COMPOUNDING
A polymer only becomes a “plastic” if it
can be converted into a product using conventional
processes. Like most “conventional
plastics”, most bioplastics emerging from
the reactor as “raw plastics” cannot as a rule
be converted to end products. They must be
correctly adapted to the specific application
by compounding. Compounding means preparing
for use, and describes the enhancing
process that raw plastics go through, being
blended with certain additives (e.g. fillers or
other additives) to optimise their properties
for the planned application [2]. Such additives
can be processing aids, UV stabilisers, impact
resistance modifiers, plasticisers, colour
pigments and many more. The objective is to
adapt the mechanical or thermal properties
46 | 4 METHODS OF PROCESSING PLASTICS

of the plastic to suit the end product and to make
the plastic processable.
Compounding is often done in a twin screw extruder
specially built for this purpose, (more on
extruders in chapter 4.3.1) and where the components
can be particularly thoroughly mixed together
and homogenised. The raw materials can
be compounded in the form of granulate, powder
or even liquids. The process consists of certain
well-defined stages, or phases: plasticising of the
polymer, mixing with the additives, homogenising,
degassing, pressurising, ejection through a nozzle,
(where necessary also passing through a filter
stage to remove any foreign material or contaminants)
and finally cooling of the emerging melt and
pelletising [63, 64].
4
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING
The compounds, ready for further processing,
are now converted, in a wide range of processes,
into components or finished products. To do this in
most cases existing plastic processing machines
and installations can be used. It is generally only a
matter of adjusting the process parameters such
as temperature, pressure etc. Hygroscopic materials,
i.e. those that tend to absorb moisture from
the atmospheric air, must be pre-dried using appropriate
equipment.
Even though basically most existing plants and
machinery are suitable for processing bioplastics,
it is possible to achieve a high standard of
performance by optimising machines or machine
sections, such as plastifiers, hot-runners nozzles
etc. For instance improvements can be achieved in
gentle plastifying and at the same time increased
output.
Fig. 4.3: Principle of
a co-rotating twin
screw extruder
(picture: Coperion)
4.3.1 EXTRUSION
Extrusion (from the Latin extrudere = push out,
drive out) means a continuous plastifying, conveying
and pushing out of a thermoplastic material
through a specifically shaped die. In this way con-
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING | 47

4
Fig. 4.4:
Blown film extrusion
(picture: Der Grüne
Punkt – Duales System
Deutschland GmbH)
tinuous products such as piping, engineering profiles, film or
plates can be produced.
The machines used, the extruders, consist normally of a material
infeed, a plastifying unit where one or two screws are used,
and, where needed, additional stages such as degassing, the
profiling nozzle, a cooling section and a discharge outfeed for
the finished product. Most extruders also incorporate a saw to
cut the extruded product into manageable lengths.
Not only finished products such as pipework, engineering profiles,
plates etc, can be extruded, but also semi-finished products.
Such products may be, for example, thicker film that can
be further processed by thermoforming (chapter 4.3.5).
A way of improving the mechanical properties of extruded film
is stretching immediately after extrusion (in-line stretching). The
molecules are oriented such that the tensile strength and rigidity
are increased. Stretching can be in one direction (e.g. lateral
stretching) or in both lateral and longitudinal directions. An example
here is biaxially oriented PLA film (BoPLA) [65].
By adding a foaming agent a foam extrudate can also be produced
(chapter 4.3.6).
And finally extruders may also be part of an installation for
complex processes such as film blowing (chapter 4.3.2) or extrusion
blow moulding (chapter 4.3.4).
Preview
4.3.2 BLOWN FILM EXTRUSION
In order to blow thin film an extruder is combined with a ring
nozzle. The plastified mass of material is, between the extruder
and the nozzle, formed into a tube and forced upwards
through the nozzle. There the tube-shaped melt is air
blown to a much higher diameter than the original, and
pulled upwards at a higher speed. It is not only the biaxial
pull but also the moment of http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
cooling that determine
the thickness of the film. The tube is laid flat and then
rolled up either as a tubular film or slit along the side to
make a flat film. It is not unusual to see this type of film
blowing installation as a 10 metre high tower.
By installing several extruders for different types of
plastic, multi-layer film can be produced. Each plastic
takes on a specific role, such as rigidity, a barrier function,
the ability to be welded etc.
Products made from blown film are, for example,
packaging, rubbish sacks and bags for biological waste,
you can order th
48 | 4 METHODS OF PROCESSING PLASTICS

hygienic foil for nappies, mailing pouches, disposable gloves and
shopping bags [1].
4.3.3 INJECTION MOULDING
Almost all sizes and shapes of plastic parts can be made by
injection moulding. A screw plastifier softens the plastic as the
screw moves slowly back during the melt process to enable a
shot of melted plastic to build up in front of the screw tip. Once
the quantity needed for one shot is reached the screw moves forward
and presses the melt through the pre-heated nozzle and
under pressure through the feed channel to the cavity of the cold
4
Fig. 4.6: Injection
moulding machine
(picture: Ferromatik
Milacron)
Sample
cooling
e book at
mould
en/books/bioplastics.php
heating screw granules
drive
plasticizing
injection, cooling
with after-pressure
demoulding
Fig. 4.5: The injection moulding process (picture: according to www.fenster-wiki.de)
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING | 49

mould, the so-called “tool”. The plastic now cools down in the
tool and is ejected as a finished moulded part [1].
The possible applications for injection moulding are almost
endless. Some examples are ball-point pens, rulers and other
office accessories, disposable cutlery, garden furniture, car
bumpers, beverage cases, knobs and handles, small mechanical
parts, and lots more.
4
Fig. 4.9:
Preforms and bottles
(from left to right): PLA,
PP, PET) (Picture: Plastic
Technologies [68])
4.3.4 BLOW MOULDING
Plastic hollow articles are mostly produced by blow moulding.
There are various processes available but the most commonly
used are extrusion blow moulding and stretch blow moulding.
[66].
In extrusion blow moulding the thermoplastic melt is produced
in an extruder from where it is ejected vertically downwards
through an annular die to create a soft tubular “parison”.
A mould consisting of two vertical halves (the blow mould) is
closed around the freely suspended parison and squeezes this at
both ends (top and bottom). Now the parison is inflated through
a blowpin or needle and pressed against the cold walls of the
blow mould tool, where it cools and becomes harder, taking on
the shape of the mould. The blow mould is opened and the plastic
hollow article is removed. Finally the remnants (known as the
flash) cut from the squeezed ends are removed
Typical areas of application for this process are bottles (shampoo,
ketchup, detergents etc.), jerricans, canisters, drums, barrels,
tanks and also games and sports equipment such as kayaks
or kid’s ride-on cars, plus lots more.
An early extrusion blow moulded packaging made from bioplastic
was a shampoo bottle made from
a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHBHV) in the
1990s. The latest examples are a small
bottles made from bio-PE for a probiotic
drink from a major supplier of dairy products
[67].
A different process to the versatile extrusion
blow moulding technique is stretch
blow moulding which is used almost exclusively
for the manufacture of (beverage)
bottles. Here a small preform that resembles
a test tube with a screw thread at the
neck is first injection moulded.
50 | 4 METHODS OF PROCESSING PLASTICS

1. Plasticizing and preparation of melt
Fig: 4.7:
Extrusion blow
moulding
(Picture from [66])
2. Forming of a tube-like
melt parison
4
3: Shaping of final article in the mould by inflating the parison with air
Flash
4. Postprocessing
Deflashing
Flash
Fig. 4.8:
Stretch blow moulds
(Picture: KHS
Corpoplast)
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING | 51

4
This preform is then, in a separate
machine, heated in a radiation oven, following
which it is sealed in a mould and
stretched laterally by a stretching rod. Its
diameter is also stretched, by high pressure
air. This biaxial stretching of the
molecules gives the plastic a high degree
of rigidity and firmness such that thinwalled
containers can be produced.
A bioplastic that is ideally suited for
this process is PLA.
Fig. 4.10:
Stretch blow moulded
PLA bottles
4.3.5 THERMOFORMING
By thermoforming (previously known as hot forming, deep
drawing or vacuum deep drawing) we refer to the production of
three dimensional moulded parts from semi-finished flat plastic
material (film, plate etc.) [2, 69]. Heat and high pressure air are
used, and sometimes a vacuum, plus where required a mould to
help stamp the three dimensional shape.
The film is drawn from a large roll or in-line directly from an
extruder and fed to the automatic moulding unit where it is taken
through in an indexed motion. At a heating station the film is
heated up by radiation on one or both sides. In the tool station
the film is held firm by clamping frames. Where necessary a
stamping tool or an initial blast of air is used to roughly shape
the desired contour. Then high pressure air is applied on one
side and a vacuum is drawn on the opposite side in order to bring
the film swiftly and firmly against the cold surface of the mould.
The cooled film, now rigid again, is ejected from the mould tool
and at the next station is punched out of the remaining flat film.
Typical applications are chocolate box inserts, blister packaging,
yoghurt or margarine tubs, drinking cups, meat trays, clamshell
packs, and other similar packaging applications. Larger
parts such as sand boxes and kids’ paddling pools, and through
52 | 4 METHODS OF PROCESSING PLASTICS

Clamp
Plastic Sheet
Heaters
Finished Part
Fig: 4.11:
Thermoforming
(picture:
CUSTOMPARTNET)
4
Form
Vacuum Pump
Molded Part
to technical parts for cars, can be made using the thermoforming
process.
4.3.6 FOAMS
With the objective of making moulded parts that are particularly
light, that have good heat and noise insulation, or good mechanical
damping, or simply to save on material, plastics can be
foamed. Here we differentiate between open cell structures (e.g.
a sponge) and closed cell structures (e.g. for heat insulation).
During foaming the porous structure is generated by a physical,
chemical or mechanical process. In physical foaming low
boiling point liquids (e.g. volatile organic compounds) are added
to the plastic which vaporise during the polymerisation process
and so form the typical gas bubbles. Chemical foaming is similar
Fig. 4.12:
Thermoformed
packaging made from
PLA (picture: DuPont
(left) Ilip (right))
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING | 53

4
Fig. 4.13: Foamed trays
top: PLA (picture: Coopbox group)
bottom: PLA blend (picture: FKuR)
to the use of baking soda. Chemical foaming
agents are often solids that are added to
the plastic and which break down at higher
temperatures, releasing gases [70]. And in
mechanical foaming gas is simply blown
into the plastic melt as it is being agitated
(cf. whipped cream).
Now we find different plastic products
depending on the way that they are processed.
Using an extruder, panels or profile
sections with a consistent cell structure or
possibly with a foamed core and compact
outer faces (integral foam) are produced
[1]. Extruded foam panels or film can also
be further processed by thermoforming. An
example is seen in foamed PLA meat trays.
With polyurethane the foam structure is
created by elimination of water (water vapour,
steam) through the reaction of polyol
with isocyanate (see also chapter 3.4.3).
Another interesting area is particle
foams. Known as EPS (expanded polystyrene,
and also under the trade name Styropor
® (BASF)), particle foams made from
PLA (E-PLA) have been successful in penetrating
the market [71]. Here tiny spheres
are loaded with a foaming agent (e.g. pentane
or sometimes CO 2
). A mould is filled
to a certain volume with these spheres and
then heated. The spheres grow larger and
melt together as a result of the high pressure.
4.3.7 CASTING
There are also certain bioplastics that
cannot be processed, as discussed above,
in a thermoplastic process. Film made from
cellulose acetate cannot be extruded or
blown, but has to be cast.
54 | 4 METHODS OF PROCESSING PLASTICS

4.3.8 OTHER PLASTIC PROCESSING
METHODS
In addition to the processes described briefly
here there is a whole range of other plastic
processes but which so far have been rarely
used or used very specifically for bioplastics.
These include rotational moulding for the
production of very large and thick walled hollow
parts such as large underground tanks.
In calendering a plastic compound is fed into
a large rolling mill and pressed into a film
format. Other processes include, for example,
die casting, injection-compression moulding
etc..
4.3.9 JOINING PLASTIC TOGETHER
Semi-finished products or component parts made from thermoplastics
can be fixed together in various ways (joining). The
use of adhesives must be one of the most well-known joining
processes. Whilst polyolefins, because of their low polarity
can only be stuck together after additional processing, such
as flame treatment or corona discharge, most other plastics
can be successfully glued. Under the influence of pressure and
heat thermoplastics can also be welded together. Thus tubes
and piping can be joined, or containers, packaging, shopping
bags, carrier bags, pouches and sacks can be so produced. The
principal of plastics processing based on welding is widely used
in many variants and the use of a film welding device to pack
food in PE film pouches has, for instance, already found its way
into many homes [1].
Plastic parts can, using the right constructive design, also be
screwed or riveted. Lockable or unlockable snap connections,
already an ideal solution for plastics, are also very popular.
Fig. 4.14: PLA particle foam
(picture: Synbra)
4
4.3 FURTHER PROCESSING | 55

5
APPLICATIONS
Bioplastics are used today in numerous applications. Chapter 7
examines the recent market statistics in some detail.
5
5.1 PACKAGING
Alongside simple, foamed packaging chips (loose fill) based
on starch (Fig. 5.1), which can also be coloured and used as
children’s toys, there is now a huge number of packaging items
made from bioplastics. Technically almost everything can be
done: bioplastics can be blown as film or multilayer film, or extruded
as flat film. They can be thermoformed and are able to
be printed, glued and converted into packaging components in
numerous ways. In short: packaging manufacturers and packers
can process bioplastics on almost all of their usual machines
with no problems [1].
Established packaging applications for bioplastics are shopping
bags, which also have a secondary use as a bag to collect
compostable kitchen and garden waste. Further applications are
thermoformed inserts for chocolate boxes, trays for fruit, vegetables,
meat and eggs (also foamed), tubs for dairy produce,
margarine and sandwich spread, bottles, nets or pouches for
fruit and vegetables. Blister packs,
Preview
where the film is closely
formed to follow the profile of the packaged product, can also be
produced. For use in the cosmetics business there are jars and
tubes. Packaging materials made from bioplastics with barrier
properties, impenetrable to odours and with good performance
on the machines are available now, and are also the subject of
continuous ongoing development [1].
you can order th
Fig. 5.1: Starch based
packaging flakes
(picture: above [1],
right Thielen)
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
56 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

Coating of paper and cardboard
laminates with bioplastics leads to
new packaging with good moisture
and fat or oil resistance [72].
In the USA a mineral water bottle
made from PLA bioplastic was
launched as early as 2005. This was
followed by a range of other bottles
for water, milk and juice in North
America, Europe, Australia, New
Zealand and other regions. Many
of these bottles have since disappeared
from the market for various
reasons. Whilst the bottles were
initially promoted for their biodegradability
it soon became clear
Sample
that this could not last for ever as
a selling point. On the one hand the
biodegradation of the thick neck
area of the bottle took too long, and
on the other hand bottles are much
too bulky and awkwardly shaped for
industrial composting. First of all
e book at
Fig. 5.2. Compostable bags are suitable for use for
collecting bio-waste (picture: BASF)
Fig. 5.3: Foamed PLA tray (picture: Coopbox Italia)
5
en/books/bioplastics.php
Fig. 5.4: PLA yoghurt pot (picture: Philipp Thielen)
Fig. 5.5: Fruit net made from
PLA-blend (picture: FKuR)
5.1 PACKAGING | 57

5
Fig. 5.6: PLA bottles
they had to be shredded into flakes. Nevertheless
some bottles have ridden the storm in
situations where much closer attention was
being paid to the origin of the plastic, namely
from renewable resources. These bottles are
either reclaimed by recycling, or they are
burned as part of an energy recovery programme
[73].
No wonder that it was the packaging industry
that quickly recognised the huge potential
for bioplastics. Users, packers, and brand
owners are taking advantage of their userfriendly
credentials. Disposal of used packaging
made from bioplastic can be carried out
in various ways (cf chapter 6). The preferred
option today is energy recovery in waste incineration installations.
Bioplastics which are also biodegradable and compostable can
also be reclaimed in composting or bio-gas installations [1].
5.2 CATERING
As a rule catering products are short-lived, like packaging.
Once they have been used cups, plates and cutlery are thrown
into the rubbish bin with any waste food clinging to them, and
during festivals and other large scale events soon build up into
considerable amounts. Here biobased plastics offer not only real
ecological alternatives. They are also compostable and so can be
Fig. 5.7:
PLA coated paper cups
(picture: Huhtamaki
Forks made from starch
based plastic (picture:
Novamont)
58 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

disposed of together with the food remnants.
Manufacturers have recognised this and now
pots, cutlery, cups, dishes drinking straws or
film wrapping for hamburgers – the whole
range of catering accessories – are available
made from bioplastics.
5.3 HORTICULTURE AND
AGRICULTURE
In addition to the extensive advantages already
mentioned for bioplastics, their biodegradability
also plays a special and important
role in gardening and agriculture. By using
them sensibly the gardener or farmer could
save himself a great deal of work. Mulch
film made from biodegradable plastic can be
ploughed in after use and does not have to
be laboriously picked up and disposed of as
contaminated plastic waste at a rather high
cost. Plant pots and seed trays break down
in the soil and are no longer seen as waste.
Plant trays for flowers and vegetable plants,
made from the right plastic, can be composted
in the domestic compost heap together
with kitchen and garden waste [1]
Bioplastic twine, ties and clips (Fig. 5.9)
are also cost savers and can be used for tying
up tall plants such as tomatoes. Whilst
materials currently used have to be picked
up by hand after the harvest, or disposed of
together with the green waste at higher cost,
bioplastic alternatives can be disposed of
on the normal compost together with plant
waste [1].
Fig. 5.7: Catering tableware
(picture Permapack)
Fig. 5.8: Mulch film
(picture: FKuR)
5
5.3 HORTICULTURE AND AGRICULTURE | 59

5
Fig. 5.9:
Plant ties or clips can be disposed of
together with green waste
(picture: Novamont)
Bioplastic, compostable, pre-sown seed
strips and encapsulation for active substances
are commonly used. Degradable film and nets
are used in mushroom growing as well as for
wrapping the roots of trees and shrubs ready for
sale in garden centres. Film, woven fabric (Fig.
5.10) and nets made from bioplastics are used
to hold back recently laid roadside banks and
similar, and prevent soil erosion until they are
stabilised by plants. Products used in cemeteries
such as plant containers, pots or “everlasting”
candles with biodegradable housings and
other grave decorations can be composted after
use right on the site. For those who operate and
run golf courses biodegradable driving tees are
an interesting alternative – they do not need to
be collected up and the problem solves itself as
they decompose [1]. Recently even a golf ball has
been demonstrated that, if it accidentally lands
in a pond or a lake, slowly breaks down and releases
a cache of fish food (Fig. 5.11) [74].
Fig. 5.11:
A golf ball that degrades in water
and that has a central core filled
with fish food [74]
Fig. 5.10:
Geotextiles reduce soil
erosion or weed growth
60 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

5.4 MEDICINE AND PERSONAL CARE
In the field of medicine special bioplastics have
been used for many years. Such bioplastics, that
are resorbable, can be applied for several tasks [1]:
thermoplastic starch, for instance, is an alternative
to gelatine as a material for pills and capsules. PLA
and its copolymers are used as surgical thread, as a
carrier for implanted active substances, or to produce
resorbable implants such as screws, pins, or
plates that are degraded by the metabolism and so
make a second surgery for their removal unnecessary.
Special characteristics of certain bioplastics make
them a predestined material for hygiene items.
These materials allow water vapour to pass through
them but remain waterproof and are already widely
used as “breathing” biofilm for nappy liners, bed
underlays, incontinence products, female hygiene
products and disposable gloves [1].
In the huge personal care market more and more
bioplastics are finding a use. Lipstick cases and jars
for powders or creams are just as readily available,
as were the first shampoo bottles made from biobased
polyethylene. This is only a small selection of
the huge number of packaging products already on
the market.
Fig. 5.12: Biodegradable nappy lining
(picture: [1])
5
Fig. 5.14: Shampoo and conditioner
bottles made from bio-PE
(picture: Procter & Gamble)
Fig. 5.13: CARGO PlantLove Cosmetics
collection from Ingeo (PLA) (photo CARGO)
5.4 MEDICINE AND PERSONAL CARE | 61

Fig. 5.17: Computer keyboard with
a cellulose plastic based lower
housing and a hand-rest (black)
made from lignin based plastic
(picture: FKuR / Fujitsu)
5
Fig. 5.16:
Mobile telephone with a
housing made from PLA/
kenaf (picture: NEC /
Unitika)
Fig. 5.18: Computer mouse
made from cellulose acetate
(picture: Philipp Thielen)
Fig. 5.15:
Sony Walkman with PLA
(picture: Sony)
5.5 CONSUMER ELECTRONICS
In contrast to the medical area, or gardening,
applications in the field of consumer electronics,
biodegradability is not really an important issue.
Here, as with all durable goods, it is the biological
origin of the materials used that is the
important aspect. The first electronic equipment
of this type and where biobased plastic was used
included the Sony Walkman. PLA was used here
as early as 2002.
A very early mobile phone with a housing made
from PLA and reinforced with kenaf fibres was
launched in 2005. Today there are already a huge
number of electronic devices
Preview
on the market, from
the computer mouse, through keyboards to headphone
parts, all with a housing or components
made from biobased plastic.
you can order th
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
62 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

5.6 AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE
As mentioned in chapter 3.1 Henry Ford in the USA had already
started to experiment at the beginning of the last century with
bioplastics based on wheat and soya for applications in automobile
manufacture.
A starter housing made from an asbestos fibre reinforced synthetic
resin, produced from wheat gluten, was among the first
series applications for the 1915 Model T. Later Ford used an increasing
number of parts made from bioplastics, such as glovebox
lids, gear knobs, horn buttons, accelerator pedals, distributor
covers, internal decoration, steering wheels, fascia panels,
and later for a prototype trunk lid. Finally Ford gave the “green
light” for the production of a totally plastic car. The bodywork was
made exclusively of plastic, mostly from renewable resources. It
consisted of 14 plastic panels fixed to a tubular framework. The
panels and the frame each weighed about 113 kilograms. The total
weight of the car was about 1043 kilograms – about two thirds
of the weight of a steel car of around the same size [19].
Today Ford are testing the use of up to 40% soya based polyol
for polyurethane components, firstly for seats, head rests or
arm rests. In an initial project with a 2008 Ford Mustang the soya
based content of the polyurethane parts was only 5% by weight
[37]. Another pioneer in this process is Toyota. In the “Prius”,
Sample
which is currently one of the most environmentally conscious
cars in the world, the spare wheel cover is made from PLA with
kenaf reinforcement. At the end of 2011 it was reported that Toyota
was to launch a car where the internal surface covering was
made from about 80 % bioplastic. The “Sai” hybrid limousine sold
in Japan has amongst other things seat covers and carpets made
e book from partly at biobased PET [76].
Further examples are PLA based
en/books/bioplastics.php
“biotech materials”, that have been
developed and used by Mazda [77].
These materials are not only interior
injection moulded parts but are also
used for seat covers. A partially biobased
polyester material is used for
seat covers by Honda. The polypropylene
terephthalate (PPT) is made using
a bio-PDO and a terephthalic acid
which is petroleum based. In combination
with petroleum based PET
Fig. 5.19: Gear shift
cover of a Mazda
Premacy Hydrogen
RE Hybrid made from
biotech materials
(picture: Mazda)
5
5.6 AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE | 63

5
Fig. 5.20: Accelerator
pedal made from PA 6.10
(picture: Philipp Thielen)
Fig. 5.21:
Fuel connectors made from
PA11 (picture: Arkema)
Fig.5.22:
Prototype application of a
partially biobased elastomer
(picture: DuPont)
fibres a “bio-fabric” is produced with a 30% to
40% content obtained from renewable resources
[78].
The use of (partially) biobased polyamides has
been developed and tested as part of a project
by a Baden-Württemberg (Germany) cluster. In
addition to a venting nozzle and fan housing an
accelerator pedal made from PA 6.10 was also
produced as prototypes [79].
There have also been a number of different developments
in the field car tyres.
One of the big tyre manufacturers uses a filler
made principally from a maize based bioplastics
in his rubber mixture. In addition to the advantages
of using a renewable resource this is also
said to offer good grip and reduced rolling resistance,
and claimed to result in about a 5% saving
in fuel consumption. The tyre manufacturer
is also working on the possible use of biobased
isoprene as a component of the rubber [80, 81].
From Finland there is a tyre in which a softener
is used based on rapeseed oil and replaces the
petroleum based material.
In the engine compartment plastics based on
renewable resources are also used. But this too
is not new. Polyamide 11 made from castor oil
has been used in automotive applications for
more than 30 years and is eminently suitable for
fuel lines and connectors, especially for the very
aggressive bio-ethanol (E10 etc.) and biodiesel
fuels.
A partially biobased elastomer was announced
in the autumn of 2010 for a prototype airbag. This
application, which is not yet in series production,
does however show that there is a high level of
interest right across the automobile industry and
that there is a large number of possible uses.
64 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

5.7 TEXTILES
In the minds of many readers the word “polyester” is automatically
linked to textiles and only at closer inspection is it seen as
a “plastic”. It is therefore no wonder that most bio-polyesters are
used to spin fibres and produce textiles. These are mainly PLA
and PTT, but also other materials like PPT (see above regarding
car seat covers).
The examples of the various applications are almost endless,
and go from children’s shoes, to men’s business shirts and haute
couture apparel. In fact textiles made from renewable resources
are almost as old as the human race (linen, cotton etc.). Modern
textiles made from renewable resources now however combine
their “biological” origin with the technical properties of modern
microfibre textiles such as, in particular, good moisture transmission
so that sweating is (almost) no longer a problem.
5
Fig. 5.23:
Swim fashion made from
PTT fibres (picture: DuPont)
Fig. 5.24:
Baby shoes, PLA/PET blended
fabric, soles:
PLA compound [36]
Fig. 5.25:
BioSposa Gattinoni Haute
Couture 100% Ingeo (PLA)
(picture: Gattinoni)
Fig. 5.26:
Men’s shirt, mixed fabric
with PLA fibres
(picture: Olymp)
Fig. 5.27:
Versace Sport Fall/Winter
collection in Ingeo (PLA) fiber
with Ingeo (PLA)
fiberfill (photo Versace Sport)
Fig. 5.28:
Rugs made from PLA fibres
(picture: NatureWorks)
5.7 TEXTILES | 65

5
5.8 OTHER
“From the cradle to the grave” (or maybe we should say from
“the nappy to the urn”) we have already mentioned a large number
of “other” applications and yet the potential use of bioplastics
is virtually unlimited. In this section we will be showing just
a few of the other examples. The desktop accessories are made
from a PLA of Chinese origin and produced in Hungary. In 2010
they were among the five finalists for the Bioplastics Award. Adhesive
tape made from cellulose materials or biaxially oriented
PLA (BoPLA) have now also been combined with biobased adhesives.
In the sport and leisure sector the number of applications
is steadily growing. The handle on a Nordic walking pole made of
partially biobased polyamide 6.10 was launched in 2009, as were
ski boots with certain components made from biobased elastomers.
The sports range was also complemented by amongst
other things spectacles and sun glasses with high quality optical
lenses made from clear bio-polyamide. Children’s sand box
toys are on the market made from PHA or cotton cellulose, and
model railways are enhanced by the addition of small, highly detailed
buildings made from PLA. The list could go on and on...
Fig. 5.31: Handle of a
Nordic walking pole
made from bio-PA 6.10
(picture: DuPont)
66 | 5 APPLICATIONSS

Fig. 5.29: Desktop articles made from PLA
Fig. 5.30: Adhesive tape made from BoPLA
(picture: Taghleef Industries)
5
Fig. 5.32: Ski boot with the upper cuff made from
partially biobased elastomer (picture: DuPont)
Fig. 5.33: Play sand box made from cotton cellulose and
other starch based bioplastics (picture: BioFactur)
Fig. 5.34: Farmhouse for model railways made from PLA (picture: Vollmer)
5.8 OTHER | 67

6
END OF LIFE /
DISPOSAL /
CLOSED LOOPS
And what happens when these lovely plastic products eventually
get broken, worn out, or are simply not required any longer?
Here we have a whole range of so-called “End of Life” scenarios,
which can be used, depending on the material, the application
and its condition. These are basically:
6
1 Recycling
1.1 Material recycling
1.2 Chemical recycling
1.3 Energetic recycling or thermal recycling (cf. 3)
2 Composting
3 Energy recovery
4 Rubbish tips/land fill
6.1 RECYCLING
The word “recycling” covers a wide range of general processes
in which products that are no longer needed (mainly trash) are
converted into a secondary material [2].
In the case of plastic recycling, collection and sorting are to
some extent an important prerequisite for the recycling procedures
presented here.
Preview
you can order th
6.1.1 MATERIAL RECYCLING
Material recycling, physically or mechanically, is, in simple
terms, the shredding, cleaning and remelting, http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
and regranulating
of plastic waste. In this process the chemical make-up of
the material remains unchanged and the secondary raw material
can generally be re-used without any losses. Such recyclate,
in granulate form can be used for a wide range of new plastic
products, depending on its purity and quality. Extremely pure
waste such as production waste (trimmed edges of film, runners,
etc.) are often fed straight back into the same production
process. However, very mixed, unsorted and dissimilar plastic
waste can, under heat and pressure, often be recycled to make
products with undemanding tolerances such as park benches or
68 | 6 END OF LIFE / DISPOSAL / CLOSED LOOPSS

embankment supports. Most cases of recycling lie somewhere
in between these extremes. If, in a new application, a recycled
plastic product is inferior in quality to the products initially produced
we talk about “downcycling”. This is something that one
tries hard to avoid or to minimise as much as possible. In ideal
cases plastic is used several times in what is known as “cascade
recycling”, for instance in a detergent bottle, a shopping
bag then a rubbish sack and finally a park bench. At the end of
a cascade recycling loop there is also the possibility of making
use of the material for thermal recycling (see 6.3). Most
bioplastics can be made ready for use in material recycling. In
some cases, depending on the circumstances, additional steps
are required. It may, for example, be necessary for PLA to go
through an additional step of polycondensation, or a special
crystallisation stage [83].
In order to be able to recycle any specific plastic economically
a “critical amount” is nevertheless needed.
´
6.1.2 CHEMICAL RECYCLING
The old plastic material can not only be remelted and regranulated
for a new application but in some cases it may also
be broken back down into its chemical building blocks (monomers).
This is known as chemical recycling or feedstock recovery.
A particularly interesting example here is found in the field
Sample
of bioplastics – namely the chemical recycling of PLA. In installations
such as are currently operating in Belgium or California
the polylactic acid is reconverted into lactic acid and so can
then be converted into new PLA or be used for other purposes
[84].
e book at
6.2 COMPOSTING
en/books/bioplastics.php
Plastics that are biodegradable under certain conditions and
are completely broken down by micro-organisms into CO 2
, water
and biomass can be composted. Attention should be paid
here to the relevant standards such as EN 13432, EN 14855,
ASTM D6400 and similar (cf. chapter. 9)
There is still some controversy about the sense (or lack of
sense) when it comes to composting biodegradable plastics.
Disposal by composting is one new, additional option for plastic
products of that type, yet there are also people who say that
composting alone brings no real additional benefit. It is no
more than “cold incineration”.
6
6.2 COMPOSTING | 69

6
Fig. 6.1: Industrial composting
in Dortmund/Germany
There are however plenty of examples where
biodegradability, or disposal by composting, do
in fact bring additional benefits. Unsold or rotting
fruit and vegetables in a supermarket can
be collected up and disposed of together with
compostable packaging. At large scale events
catering cutlery, tableware and food remnants
can be taken together to a composting facility. As
early as 2005, on the Catholic World Youth Day,
there were about 7 million compostable catering
units used.
When growing tomatoes in a greenhouse plastic
clips have been used for many years to hold
the tomato plants firmly against the support
canes and allow them to grow upwards. After the
tomato harvest these clips, made of compostable
plastic, can be disposed of with the green
plant residues. Despite a higher cost of acquisition
compared to conventional plastic clips they
do offer the grower financial benefits. As a final
example we can once again mention mulch film
which after the harvest can be ploughed into the
ground (cf. chapter 5.3).
Fig. 6.2:
Mulch film
(Picture: Novamont)
6.3 ENERGY RECOVERY OR
THERMAL RECYCLING
Renewable resources can in fact be used immediately
to generate energy (wood pellets,
bio-fuels, biogas etc.) but they can better first
be used to produce something more useful –
namely bioplastic parts. These can, after a long
useful life, and after being recycled a maximum
number of times, still be burned and the stored
up energy finally used. “Bioplastics hold solar
energy on loan”. In this respect there are plenty
of people demanding that renewable resources
are not used (immediately) for the purpose of
generating energy [85, 86]. Wind, the sun, and
water can all be used to generate renewable energy
- but not to make plastics.
The generation of heat and other forms of energy
(electricity) by incineration of plastic waste
70 | 6 END OF LIFE / DISPOSAL / CLOSED LOOPSS

is currently the most commonly used process in Europe for
reclaiming the value of such waste, and as long as sufficient
quantities are not available for economical material
recycling it is, in the view of many experts, the most logical
option. The high level of heat generated when incinerating
plastics makes them an ideal substitute for coal or heating
oil. Whether biobased or obtained from fossil sources there
is no technical difference in the value recovery process. In
the case of biobased plastics it is possible, however, to obtain
renewable energy from the biogenic carbonates – and
that is a powerful advantage [87].
Another option for using the energy available is biogasification,
also called anaerobic digestion (AD). The possibility
of using the waste from biodegradable plastics in biogas
installations and to convert it into useful methane is being
intensively investigated at the moment [88].
6.4 LAND FILL
The worst solution for disposal of bioplastics (as for
bio-waste of all kinds) is the rubbish dump or land fill. By
dumping the materials on a waste disposal tip all kinds of
plastics lose the opportunity for other useful applications.
Among the more unpleasant possibilities is the formation of
methane from bio-waste and bioplastics in the lower layers
where there is a shortage of oxygen. This methane, which if
allowed to leak uncontrolled, is 23 times more effective than
CO 2
as a greenhouse gas. In Germany, since 2005, it has
not been legal any more to dump rubbish without having it
previously thermally or biologically treated (incineration or
decomposition by rotting) [89].
Fig. 6.3:
Land fill
(picture: Ropable)
6
6.4 LAND FILL | 71

6
6.5 CLOSED LOOPS
“Closed loop systems and resource efficiency with bioplastics”
is the name of a fact sheet from the European Bioplastics association.
In there we can read, amongst other things:
Biobased carbon sequestered in the material can be recycled
in technical closed loops or by natural processes. This way bioplastics
enable intelligent use of resources and ensure a high
added value in a low carbon economy.
As with conventional plastics, the manner in which bioplastics
waste is actually recovered depends on the type of product and
bioplastics material used, the inherent quantities and the recovery
systems available.
Bioplastics can represent a valuable component in the closed
loop system and thereby make a considerable contribution to
sustainable development. To achieve this, they require time and
successful market introduction. The European Lead Mar¬kets
Initiative for Biobased Products acknowledges bioplastics as
a valuable building block of a future bio-economy. Legislators
should promote bioplastics and enable all recovery and recycling
options. The consumer, the environment and not insignificantly,
the waste industry will benefit from these new opportunities.
[87].
72 | 6 END OF LIFE / DISPOSAL / CLOSED LOOPSS

6.5 CLOSED LOOPS | 73
6

7
7
THE MARKET
One can search in vain for official statistics on the development
of the market for bioplastics. However certain companies
offer their findings in commercial studies on the subject [90]. A
source of market information is found in the publications and
press releases of the indzstry association European Bioplastics
in Berlin. Cellulose materials are not covered here as these
have been in use for many years. Thermoset resins such as epoxy
resins, unsaturated polyester resin or polyurethanes with a
certain amount of renewable resource material are also not covered
as are rubber or conventional thermoplastics that are filled
using natural fibres or wood flour [90].
In a press release at Interpack 2011 European Bioplastics estimated
that the global production capacity for bioplastics was
expected to more than double between 2010 and 2015. For the
end of 2011 it was forecast that the 1 million tonne barrier would
be breached [91].
As can be seen from Fig. 7.1 the production capacity for bioplastics
will increase from around 700,000 tonnes in 2010 to
about 1.7 million tonnes by 2015. This is calculated to be equivalent
to a commercial market value of about 7.5 billion Euros
[92]. But the graphic chart also shows another trend when one
combines total global production volume. In 2004 the bioplastics
industry, at 400,000 tonnes, still produced predominantly biodegradable
material (as opposed to 300,000 tonnes biobased but
not biodegradable plastics). This ratio, despite an overall growth,
is being reversed. According to a market study by Professor Endres
of the IfBB (Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites), at
University of Applied Sciences and Arts Hanover, Germany, biobased
but durable plastics by 2015, at around 1 million tonnes,
will represent the majority of the production capacity. Biodegradable
materials do however exhibit a clear growth pattern
and by then will reach about 700,000 tonnes.
One reason for the above situation is the increasing availability
of so-called “drop in bioplastics”. These are biobased (and
partially biobased) standard plastics such as polyethylene, polyamide
or PET. They are produced from the start in large scale
installations and in suitably large quantities. Because, in com-
74 | 7 THE MARKETS

parison with petroleum based plastics, these plastics do not offer
any improvement in their performance characteristics they are
right from the start in direct price competition with their conventional
counterparts which means that the bigger plants play a
greater role [90].
Fig. 7.2 shows the production capacities for bioplastics broken
down by type of plastic for the year 2010 and the forecast until
2015. It can clearly be seen here that the higher anticipated capacities
will have a major influence on drop-in solutions such as
bio-PE and bio-PET.
Fig. 7.1: Global production capacities for bioplastics
(Source: European Bioplastics / IfBB, Hanover)
1.710
7
1.500
714
1.000 metric tons
1.000
724
500
428
996
318
180
6 23
295 296
174
0
2008 2009 2010 2015
Biodegrable (incl. not biobased) Durable (biobased) Total Capacity
Prognosis
7 THE MARKET | 75

in metric tons
Bio-PE 200.000 28 %
Biodegrable Starch Blends 117.800 16 %
PLA 112.500 15 %
PHA 88.100 12 %
Biodegradable Polyesters 56.500 8 %
Bio-PET 50.000 7 %
Regenerated Cellulose 2 36.000 5 %
Bio-PA 35.000 5 %
Cellulose Derivatives 1 8.000 1 %
PLA-Blends 8.000 1 %
Durable Starch-Blends 5.100 1 %
Others 7.500 1 %
Total 724.500 100 %
1
only cellulose | 2 only cellulose foils
Fig. 7.2: Production capacities for bioplastics broken down by type of plastic
(left 2010, right 2015 forecast) (Source: European Bioplastics / IfBB, Hanover)
7
Despite the enormous growth figures described above bioplastics
are still only at the beginning of their development. In a
total market for plastics of around 250 million tonnes (2010 [90])
and an estimated market of 330 million tonnes in 2015 [93] bioplastic
accounts for a mere 0.027% (2010) to 0.5% (2015). From
a purely technical point of view however up to 90% of all plastic
could be switched from fossil resources to renewable resources.
In the short and medium term however this switchover would
not be possible in terms of the economic obstacles to overcome
and the limited short term availability of suitable biomass [94].
Cost development
An important question is about the prices and the price development
of bioplastics.
Today bioplastics are in most cases two to four times more
expensive than the major conventional plastics such as polyethylene
or PET. This however, is expected to to diminish as the oil
price rises further and bioplastics manufacturing plants become
larger and benefit from „economies of scale“.
When the local biological feedstock is particularly cheap, as it
is in Brazil, large bio-polyethylene plants may already be close
76 | 7 THE MARKETS

in metric tons
Bio-PE 450.000 26 %
Bio-PET 290.000 17 %
PLA 216.000 13 %
PHA 147.100 9 %
Biodegradable Polyesters 143.500 8 %
Biodegradable Starch Blends 124.800 7 %
Bio-PVC 120.000 7 %
Bio-PA 75.000 5 %
Regenerated Cellulose 1 36.000 2 %
PLA-Blends 35.000 2 %
Bio-PP 30.000 2 %
Bio-PC 20.000 1 %
Others 22.300 1 %
Total 1.709.700 100 %
1
only hydrated cellulose foils
to being cost-competitive with oil-based alternatives. But more
generally, the crude oil for a kilo of plastic costs around € 0.20
but the corn, a key source of feedstocks for bioplastics currently
(August 2011) costs about twice this amount [107].
On the other hand it should not only be looked at the raw material
cost. For certain applications the end-of-life can also contribute
positivel to the total system cost. For example the mulch
film or the tomato clips mentioned above offer significant cost
advantages in the disposal stage. Thus the total system cost can
be lower, even when the raw material is more expensive.
7
7 THE MARKET | 77

8
POTENTIAL
AND PER-
SPECTIVES
8.1 FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS
As discussed in the previous chapter, the market is expected
to enjoy double-figure growth in the coming years. The percentage
of bioplastic production represented by the various regions
of the world is shown in Fig. 8.1.
During 2010 South America, North America and Europe, followed
by Asia were the leading regions. According to Endres [92]
it is expected that in the next few years in particular South America
and Asia, as well as North America, will install additional
capacity. Hence future growth will not be in Europe, even though
the first bioplastics were largely developed in Europe. For 2015
European bioplastic production capacity is forecast to be around
0.5 million tonnes, which is less than 1% of Europe’s total plastics
production [92].
8
Preview
Fig. 8.1: Production
capacities for bioplastics
broken down by
region (2010) (Source:
European Bioplastics /
IfBB, Hanover)
South America
27,6
Australia
0,5
Europe
26,7
you can order th
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
in %
total: 725.000 t
North America
26,7
Asia
18,5
78 | 8 POTENTIAL AND PERSPECTIVES

8.2 DO WE IN FACT HAVE ENOUGH
AGRICULTURAL LAND?
One is constantly hearing the question concerning the availability
of agricultural land, and discussed in relation to world
hunger. Because this is a very sensitive topic we have simply
gathered here a few facts and figures.
An important point in this respect (according to Endres [92]), is
that on the one side there is the argument about the long term
availability of agricultural land for the sustainable production
of raw materials for plastics, and on the other side there is the
problem that the currently available fossil resources are being
used much more rapidly than they can regenerate.
With plastics accounting for between 4% and 7% of total petroleum
consumption, biobased plastics are not in a position to
rescue the world from a shortage of oil. The plastics industry can
however, by using biobased plastics, to a certain degree make itself
more independent from the increasing, and at the same time
fluctuating, price of oil if there is enough agricultural land for
this purpose. Furthermore biobased plastics offer the prospect
that those important materials known as plastics will continue to
be available for the widest range of applications.
Depending on the type of bioplastic, the type of plants used,
or the relevant agricultural raw material the average yield is
Sample
from 2 to 4 tonnes of bioplastic per hectare [95, 97]. According
to the estimates in chapter 6.3 it can be assumed that for 2015
the forecast world production capacity for bioplastics will require
around 500,000 hectares of agricultural land. This represents
about 0.03% of the agricultural land used worldwide, i.e. around
1.5 billion hectares. Even if the whole world plastics production
e book capacity were at to switch to biobased plastics only 4 % to 5% of the
agricultural land available world-wide would be required [86, 92].
en/books/bioplastics.php
In total there are on the earth about 3.3 billion hectares of land
which could potentially be used for agricultural purposes, and
with natural irrigation. This land is used for agriculture (1.5 billion
hectares, see above), dwellings, streets, road and rail routes
(100 million hectares), protected areas (330 million hectares)
and forestry (800 million hectares). This leaves about 570 million
hectares in the various geographical regions that could be used
for production. In the European Union alone there are about 8
million hectares that could be used for the production of bioplastics
or the generation of bio-energy. The majority of this land is to
be found in the new EU member states in Eastern Europe [95, 96].
8
8.2 DO WE IN FACT HAVE ENOUGH AGRICULTURAL LAND? | 79

8
Furthermore, the quantity of land required for bioplastics
would become available simply as a result of the constantly increasing
yield per hectare thanks to the advances being made in
agricultural techniques. In recent decades agricultural producers
have increased their yield on average by one or two percent
per annum. This is a result of scientific advances, optimising the
production processes, the use of machinery, effective fertilisers,
methods of plant protection and the use of new or improved
plant strains [95].
If, in addition, the amount of unused, waste biomass is reduced
(in the Western World, for instance, about 45% of food production
is still thrown away) there would still be enough agricultural land
available to feed the world population and for the production of
bioplastics.
For biofuels or energy recovery of biomass in general there
are different quantities and land requirements. We therefore
once again point out here that, as made clear in chapter 7, a
“material use” is preferred (at least temporarily) over “energetic
use” of biomass or renewable resources respectively [85, 86].
After all, the wind, the sun and water power are also renewable
sources of energy – not for making plastics however.
80 | 8 POTENTIAL AND PERSPECTIVES

8.2 DO WE IN FACT HAVE ENOUGH AGRICULTURAL LAND? | 81
8

9
LEGAL AND REGULATORY
BACKGROUND
Most of the comments and data in this section refer to the
situation in Germany. They are expanded by those regulations
that also apply in the EU and the USA.
The German recycling and waste directives require the manufacture
of products which are so designed that during their production
and use the amount of waste is minimised. Certain general
assumptions include the fact that no noxious by-products
or additives must find their way into the natural waste disposal
cycle. National and international standards regarding the degradability
of polymer materials and products have meanwhile
been established to cope with these problems. [1].
9
Fig 9.1:
The “seedling“
(European Bioplastics)
Fig. 9.2:
The OK-Compost-
Logo (Vinçotte)
Fig. 9.3:
The US Compostable Logo
(BPI, US Composting
Council)
9.1 STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION
REGARDING “COMPOSTABILITY”
These standards refer to the compostability of packaging - (EN
13432 [98] or more generally to plastics (EN 14995 [99], ASTM
D6400 [100]).
The compostability of a plastic by confirmed
Preview
biological degradation
and as part of an industrial composting installation is
defined (cf. chapter 6.2). The time-related conversion of carbon
into CO 2
, the loss of physical properties (weight, size) as well as
the toxicological properties of the compost produced, are measured
in a laboratory [101].
If bioplastics, and the products made from them, meet the requirements
of these standards they can be registered and have
the right to display an appropriate registered http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
logo [1]. In Europe
DIN CERTCO (Germany) and Vinçotte (Belgium) belong to independent
certification associations. In the USA this is governed
by the BPI (Biodegradable Products Institute). They establish a
certificate of conformity for the materials (i.e. an assessment
of the material’s conformity with the standard) and confirm the
manufacturer’s right to display a suitable badge or label for
compostable products. A material that has the right to carry
you can order th
82 | 9 LEGAL AND REGULATORY BACKGROUNDS

such a compostability label will completely degrade in the
composting installation within 6 to 12 months. Figures 9.1 to
9.3 show the most well-known logos [102, 103, 104].
The compostability standard laid down in EN 13432 is
backed up by other related requirements. These include the
EU Packaging Directive 94/62/EG and a draft for an EU Biowaste
Directive. In Germany there is a packaging ordinance
(with regulations concerning compostable packaging) and
a bio-waste ordinance (with regulations for biodegradable
products made from renewable resources) [1].
9.2 THE PACKAGING ORDINANCE
The German packaging ordinance (VVO), amended in 2005,
regulates the way in which used packaging must be treated.
For certified compostable plastic packaging made from bioplastics
a special regulation was added to the effect that this
type of packaging is exempted, until December 31st 2012,
from the requirements described in § 6 of VVO and the DSD
charge (the “Green Dot” waste disposal system charge). The
producer and the marketer must, however, ensure that as
much of the packaging as possible is being reclaimed and recovered
[1].
9.3 STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION
Sample
REGARDING “BIOBASED”
As has been mentioned several times above, the biological
origin (renewable resources) of plastics is taking on a greater
importance than their compostability. Hence the efforts to
have confirmation and quantification of the material’s “biobased
credentials” at have also increased. The two basic dif-
e book
ferences in the way a biobased content can be defined have
en/books/bioplastics.php
already been discussed in chapter 3.2. The certifications in
question are based on the carbon content, which can be accurately
measured using the radiocarbon method. The American
standard ASTM D6866 gives guidance on how the carbon
content ( 12 C vs. 14 C) should be determined [105].
9
9.3 STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION REGARDING “BIOBASED” | 83

Fig. 9.4: OK-biobased Logo indicating biobased carbon content
between
20 and 40 %
biobased
between
40 and 60 %
biobased
between
60 and 80 %
biobased
more than 80 %
biobased
9
Fig. 9.6:
USDA certified
biobased product (USDA)
Vinçotte in Belgium were the first to offer certification and the
use of their “OK Biobased” logo. One to four stars are awarded
and displayed on the logo depending on the material’s “biobased”
carbon content (Fig. 9.4).
DIN CERTCO now also offers such certification where the biobased
content is given in groups of percentages too (Fig. 9.5).
In the USA there has been a programme running for a few
years and known as “BioPreferred ® ”. This programme obliges
public bodies to purchase products that have the maximum possible
content of material from renewable resources. A certification
system has evolved from the programme which is based on
percentage values determined in accordance with ASTM D6866
and which awards the “USDA CERTIFIED BIOBASED PRODUCT”
logo (Fig. 9.6) stating the percentage of renewable resources.
BIOBASED 20
- 50 %
BIOBASED 50
- 85 %
BIOBASED >
85 %
Fig. 9.5: DIN-Geprüft Biobased (DIN CERTCO)
84 | 9 LEGAL AND REGULATORY BACKGROUNDS

9.3 STANDARDS AND CERTIFICATION REGARDING “BIOBASED” | 85
9

10 SUGGESTED
FURTHER READING
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS...
... on the use of agricultural resources for the production of
bioplastics, European Bioplastics
FAQ Agriculture at at http://en.european-bioplastics.org/multimedia/
FACT SHEETS
(at http://en.european-bioplastics.org/multimedia/)
on the subjecs of
• Industrial composting (in English)
• Home composting (in English))
• Mechanical recycling (in English)
• Chemical recycling (in English)
• Energetic Recycling (in English)
• Anaerobic digestion (in English)
• Land fill (in English)
10
FACT SHEETS – SHORT VERSIONS
(at http://en.european-bioplastics.org/multimedia/)
on the subjects of
• Bioplastics (German and English)
• End of Life (German and English)
• Packaging (German and English)
• Shopping bags (German and English)
• Green chemistry (German and English)
• Renewable resources (German and English)
86 | 10 GESTED FURTHER READING

BOOKS
A number of books are mentioned in the literature list
(chapter 12). Particularly recommended are:
• Endres, H.-J., Siebert-Raths, A.: Engineering
Biopolymers, Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011
• Stevens, G.: Green Plastics: An Introduction to the New
Science of Biodegradable Plastics; Princeton University
Press, 2001
INTERNET
And of course the Internet (see chaper 11 on the following page)
10
10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING | 87

11
11
SOURCES OF
INFORMATION ON THE
INTERNET
www.bioplasticsmagazine.com Trade magazine
www.european-bioplastics.org Industry association
www.fnr.de
Agency for renewable
resources
www.bio-based.eu
News portal
(subscription required)
www.bio-plastics.org
News portal
http://bioplastic-innovation.com News portal and blog
www. bpiworld.org
Compostability
Preview Sample
certification
www.dincertco.de
Compostability
certification
www.okcompost.be
Compostability
certification (Vinçotte)
www.biopreferred.gov
USDA programme for
you can order the book at
purchasing by public
bodies
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/en/books/bioplastics.php
www.greenplastics.com A “Wiki” on bioplastics by
Prof. Stevens, Princeton
www.biopolymer.net
A collection of further
useful links
www.biowerkstoffe.info Agency for renewable
resources
88 | 11 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET

11 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE INTERNET | 89
11

12
12
LIST OF REFERENCES
[1] Lörcks, J.: Biokunststoffe, Broschüre der FNR, 2005
[2] N.N., Wikipedia, Internet access during June-Dec. 2011
[3] N.N.: Plastics – the Facts 2010, An analysis of
European plastics production, demand and recovery for 2009,.
Plastics Europe, Brüssel, 2010
[4] Endres, H.-J., Siebert-Raths, A.:
Engineering Bioplymers, Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011
[5] N.N.: DIN EN ISO 14855-1
[6] de Wilde, B.: Anaerobic Digestion,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol 4., Issue 06/2009
[7] Thielen, M.: Industrial Composting,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol 4., Issue 02/2009
[8] Thielen, M.: Home Composting,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol 3., Issue 06/2008
[9] N.N.: Leistungsfähig und bioabbaubar,
Pressrelease P-09-445, BASF 2009
[10] N.N.: bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 03/2011, S. 6
[11] N.N.: Position Paper „ Oxo-biologisch abbaubare Kunststoffe“
European Bioplastics, Berlin, 2009
[12] N.N.: Sustainable Plastics, FKuR statement to Oxo degradable
plastics, FKuR Kunststoff GmbH, Willich, 2009
[13] N.N.: www.tecnaro.de, Internet access, July 2011
[14] N.N., www.duponttateandlyle.com, Internet access June/July 2011
[15] N.N., www.genomatica.com, Internet access June/July 2011
[16] Bonten, C.: Historie und Moderne von Biokunststoffen,
Vortrag Thementag „Biokunststoff im Automobil“,
BioPro Baden Württemberg, 10.6.2011
[17] Worden, E.C.: Nitrocellulose industry. New York, Van Nostrand,
1911, S. 568. (Parkes, English Patent 2359 from the year 1855)
[18] Bonten, C.: Generation Zero - Non-food stocks bioplastics were
the very beginning! bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol 3, Issue 05/2008
[19] N.N.: http://www.chanvre-info.ch/info/de/Zu-Henry-Fords-Auto.
html, Internet access Jun4 2011
[20] Carus, M.; Scholz, L.: How to Measure the Biobased Content,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 03/2010
[21] Bastioli, C.: Basics of Starch-Based Materials,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 05/2009
[22] Kaeb, H. personal information 2011
90 | 12 LIST OF REFERENCES

[23] Zepnik, S.; Kesselring, A; Kopitzky,R.; Michels, C.: Basics of
Cellulosics, bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 01/2010
[24] Buddrus, J.: Grundlagen der Organischen Chemie, Walter de
Gruyter Verlag, Berlin, 4th edition, 2011, S. 897
[25] Gaumann, U.; Werner T.: A Bio-Cover for the Airbag,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 01/2011
[26] N.N.: www.pebax.com, Internet access, July 2011
[27] N.N.: Aufschwung für Biowerkstoffe: Zweistelliges Wachstum trotz
Krise, Pressrelease of nova-Institut 23.11.2009
[28] Fink, H.-P.: Basics of Lignin, MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 01/2011
[29] Seydibeyoğlu, M. Ö. et.al: New Biobased Polyurethane from Lignin
and Soy Polyols, MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 05/2010
[30] Britton, R.: Update on Mouldable Particle Foam Technology,
iSmithers, 2009
[31] N.N.: PHA from Switchgrass – a Non-Food-Source Alternative,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 3, Issue 05/2008
[32] N.N.: Improved PHA Production in Tobacco,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 02/2011
[33] Fernyhough, A.: From Waste 2 Gold:
Making bioplastic products from biomass waste streams,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 2, Issue 04/2007
[34] de Vos, S.: Improving heat-resistance of PLA using poly(D-lactide),
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 3, Issue 02/2008
[35] N.N.: Mazda introduced ‘Biotechmaterial’ for interior applications,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 3, Issue 02/2008
[36] Inomata, I.: The Current Status of Bioplastics Development in
Japan, bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 01/2009
[37] N.N.: The Coca-Cola PlantBottle,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 06/2010
[38] N.N.: Bio-PET, bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 06/2010
[39] Morgan, K.: Completing the Puzzle: 100% plant-derived PET,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 04/2011
[40] N.N.: Carbohydrate Route to Paraxylene and Terephthalic Acid,
US Patent 2010/0331568, 30. 12. 2010
[41] N.N.: Sorona ® EP for new Toyota compact van,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 04/2011
[42] N.N.: http://www2.dupont.com/Renewably_Sourced_Materials,
Internet access July 2011
12
12 LIST OF REFERENCES | 91

12
[43] Domininghaus, H.: Die Kunststoffe und ihre Eigenschaften,
VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf
[44] Baur, E.; Brinkmann, T;. Osswald, T.; Schmachtenberg, E.:
Saechtling Kunststoff Taschenbuch,
Carl Hanser Verlag, München Wien
[45] Stoeckhert: Kunststoff Lexikon,
Carl Hanser Verlag, Müchnen Wien
[46] Becker, Bottenbruch, Binsack: Technische Thermoplaste.
4. Polyamide, Carl Hanser Verlag, Müchnen Wien
[47] Thielen, M.: Basics of bio-polyamides,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 03/2010
[48] N.N.: K-show-review, bioplastics MAGAZINE,
Vol. 2, Issue 04/2007, Seite 8
[49] N.N.: Acrylglas aus Zucker, Pressrelease of UFZ (2008),
www.ufz.de/index.php?de=17387, Internet access July 2011
[50] Grimm, V. et.al.: Biomasse – Rohstoff der Zukunft für die
chemische Industrie, Herausgeber: Zukünftige Technologien
Consulting der VDI Technologiezentrum GmbH, Düsseldorf, 2011
[51] Morschbacker, A et.al.: Basics of Bio-Polyolefins,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 05/2010
[52] N.N.: Green Propylene, Report abstract, Nexant,
www.chemsystems.com, Internet access 2011
[53] Smith, C.: Braskem commits to producing biobased
polypropylene, Plastics News online, 28.10.2010
[54] Mannermaa , T.: The First Step to Sustainable Composites,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 03/2011
Preview
[55] N.N.: Full System Ahead: The Rise of Biobased Thermoset,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 03/2011
[56] N.N.: Solvay launches project to build an epichlorohydrin
production plant in China, www.solvaychemicals.com,
Internet access July 2011
[57] Stemmelen, R. et.al: A Fully Biobased Epoxy Resin from Vegetable
Oils, Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry, 49:
2434–2444. doi: 10.1002/pola.24674
http://bioplasticsmagazine.com/
[58] N.N.: bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 06/2010, S. 14
[59] Carus, M., Piotrowski, S.: Land Use for Bioplastics,
Biowerkstoffreport, nova-Institut, Issue 06/2009
[60] N.N.: www.biopolymers.nl, Internet access July 2011
you can order th
[61] Verlinden, R.; Hill, D.; Kenward, M.; Williams, C.; Piotrowska-
Seget, Z; Radecka, I: Production of polyhydroxyalkanoates
from waste frying oil by Cupriavidus necator,
www.amb-express.com/content/1/1/11, Internet access, Dec. 2011
92 | 12 LIST OF REFERENCES

[62] Román-Leshkov, Y; Barrett, C.J., Liu, Z.Y.; Dumesic, J.A.:
Production of dimethylfuran for liquid fuels from biomass-derived
carbohydrates, Nature 447, 982-985 (21 June 2007).
[63] Thielen, M..: Basics of Compounding Bioplastics, bioplastics MA-
GAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 04/2010
[64] Kühnen, U.; persönliche Information, Coperion, Stuttgart,
Juli 2010
[65] N.N.: How to Produce BOPLA Films,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 06/2010
[66] Thielen, M., Hartwig, K., Gust, P.; Blasformen von
Kunststoffhohlkörpern, Carl Hanser Verlag, 2006
[67] N.N.: www.actimel.de/umweltfreundliche-verpackung.html,
Internet access, August 2011
[68] Yoder, L.; Plastic Technologies, Inc.: Basics of Stretch Blow
Moulding, bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 04/2011
[69] Michaeli, W.: Einführung in die Kunststoffverarbeitung,
Carl Hanser Verlag, München, Wien, 1999
[70] Oberbach, K.; Baur, E.; Brinkmann, S.; Schmachtenberg, E.;:
Saechtling Kunststoffhandbuch, Carl Hanser Verlag,
München, Wien, 2004
[71] N.N.: several articles in MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 01/2010
[72] Manjure, S:; PLA for Paper Coating,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 05/2011
[73] Thielen, M.: The Ritz-Carlton goes Prima,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 04/2010
Sample
[74] Schnerr-Laube, B.: Golf Players Feed Fish,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 04/2010
[75] N.N.: Bioplastics in Automotive Applications,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 01/2009
[76] N.N.: Toyota setzt auf Biokunststoff,
http://nachrichten.rp-online.de/auto/toyota-setzt-auf-biokunststoff-1.2509333
(Internet access Nov. 2011)
e book at
[77] N.N.: Mazda introduced ‘Biotechmaterial’ for interior applications,
en/books/bioplastics.php
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 3, Issue 02/2009
[78] N.N.: Bioplastics in Automotive Applications,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 2, Issue 01/2007
[79] N.N.: Bio-Polyamides for Automotive Applications,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 01/2010
[80] N.N.: Bio-Tyres save energy and CO 2
,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 2, Issue 01/2007
[81] N.N.: Concept Tyres Made with BioIsoprene,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 5, Issue 01/2010
12
12 LIST OF REFERENCES | 93

12
[82] N.N.: LANXESS produziert weltweit ersten EPDM-Kautschuk
auf biologischer Basis, Pressrelease 2011-00182,
Lanxess Deutschland GmbH, Leverkusen, 2011
[83] N.N.: persönliche Information, EREMA, 2011
[84] Willocq, J.: A new Cradle-to-Cradle Approach for PLA,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 05/2009
[85] Carus, M.; Carrez, D.; Kaeb. H.; Ravenstijn, J.; Ventus, J.:
Level Playing Field for Biobased Chemistry and Materials,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 03/2011
[86] Carus, M.; Raschka, A.: Agricultural Resources for Bioplastics,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 6, Issue 06/2011
[87] N.N.: Fact Sheet: Kreislaufwirtschaft und Ressourceneffizienz mit
Biokunststoffen, European Bioplastics e.V., 2011
[88] de Wilde, B.: Basics of Anaerobic Digestion,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 06/2009
[89] N.N.: AbfAblV – Abfallablagerungsverordnung (Verordnung über
die umweltverträgliche Ablagerung von Siedlungsabfällen) und
weitere (http://www.bmu.de/abfallwirtschaft/doc/1853.php),
Internet access Nov. 2011
[90] Kaeb, H.: Biokunststoffe, Visionen und Investitionen,
KUNSTSTOFFE 10/2011, S. 119
[91] N.N.: Pressrelease: Biokunststoffe knacken 2011 die
1-Millionen-Tonnen-Marke, European Bioplastics präsentiert
neue Kapazitätsdaten auf der interpack, 12.5.2011
[92] Endres, H.-J., et al: Marktchancen, Flächenbedarf und zukünftige
Entwicklungen, KUNSTSTOFFE 09/2011. S. 105ff
[93] N.N.: Prognose von Plastics Europe, zitiert in Plastverarbeiter
2009 und Pressrelease of interpack 2011
[94] Shen, L; Haufe, J.; Patel, M.: Product overview and market
projection of emerging biobased plastics, PRO-BIB Studie,
Universiteit Utrecht, 2009
[95] N.N.: Häufig gestellte Fragen zur Nutzung von
landwirtschaftlichen Ressourcen für die Produktion von
Biokunststoffen (FAQ Mai 2011), European Bioplastics
[96] Carus, M.: Land Use for bioplastics,
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 4, Issue 04/09
[97] Endres, H.-J., A. Siebert-Raths, A.:
Raw materials and arable land required for biopolymers,
Bioplastics Magazine, Vol. 4, Issue 05/09
[98] N.N.: Verpackung - Anforderungen an die Verwertung von
Verpackungen durch Kompostierung und biologischen Abbau
- Prüfschema und Bewertungskriterien für die Einstufung von
Verpackungen, Deutsche Fassung EN 13432:2000
94 | 12 LIST OF REFERENCES

[99] N.N.: Kunststoffe - Bewertung der Kompostierbarkeit -
Prüfschema und Spezifikationen,
Deutsche Fassung EN 14995:2006
[100] N.N.: ASTM D6400 - 04 Standard Specification for
Compostable Plastics
[101] N.N.: Fact Sheet: Was sind Biokunststoffe, Begriffe,
Werkstofftypen und Technologien – Eine Einführung;
European Bioplastics e.V., 2011
[102] N.N.: Logos Part 1: The “Compostable” logo
of European Bioplastics (Basics);
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 1, Issue 01/06
[103] N.N.: Logos Part 2: The “Compostable” logo of BPI:
Biodegradable Products Institute, USA (Basics);
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 1, Issue 02/06
[104] N.N.: Logos Part 3: The “OK Compost” logo of Vinçotte,
Belgium (Basics);
bioplastics MAGAZINE, Vol. 2, Issue 01/07
[105] N.N.: ASTM D6866: Standard Test Methods for Determining the
Biobased Content of Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous Samples Using
Radiocarbon Analysis
[106] N.N.: www.yxy.com, Internet access, Jan 2012
[107]N.N.: Bioplastics: an important component of global sustainability,
Biome bioplastics, White Paper, September 2011
[108] Müller, H.-M., Seebach, D.: Poly(hydroxyalkanoates):
A Fifth Class of Physiologically Important Organic Biopolymers?
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 32, 477–502, 1993
Pictures
Photographs are either taken by the author or from iStock-
Photo or fotalia (with a fee paid for), or the source is mentioned
next to the photograph.
Graphics are either created by Mark Speckenbach or Julia
Hunold (Polymedia Publisher Team) or the source is mentioned
next to the graphic.
12
12 LIST OF REFERENCES | 95

13
INDEX
13
A
accelerator pedal .............64
acrylic ......................39
AD .......................8, 71
additives ...............6, 31, 46
adhesive ....................66
adhesive tape ................66
aerobic ......................8
agricultural land ...........43, 79
agriculture ..................59
amber ......................16
amylopectin ..............12, 21
amylose ..................12, 21
anaerobic ....................8
anaerobic digestion .........8, 71
applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
artificial silk .................22
ASTM D6400 ............9, 69, 82
ASTM D6866 ..............20, 83
automobile ...............31, 63
automotive ...............31, 63
B
bacteria ......................8
beverage bottles ..............50
beverage cases ...............50
biaxially oriented ..........48, 66
biobased ....................83
biobased adhesives ...........66
biobased content .............20
biobased plastics ...7, 8, 10, 12, 16
biobased polyesters ...........30
bio-BDO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 36, 43
biodegradable plastics ..........7
bio-economy .................72
bioenergy ...................43
bio-ethanol ..................15
biofuel ................11, 43, 70
biogas ......................70
biogasification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
biomass ......................7
biomass content ..............20
bio-PDO ............14, 35, 42, 63
bioplastics .................7, 12
bio-polyamides ...............19
bio-polyethylene ...........15, 39
biopolymers .................12
bio-polypropylene .............41
BioPreferred .................83
bisphenol A ..................42
blends ......................19
blister ...................52, 56
blow moulding ...............50
blown film extrusion ...........48
bone screws ..................9
BoPLA ...................48, 66
bottles ................50, 56, 57
BPI .........................82
breathing biofilm .............61
butanediol ...................14
C
CA ......................17, 24
canisters ....................50
car bumpers .................50
carbohydrates ................12
carbon .......................8
carbon content ...............20
carbon dioxide ................7
carbon percentage ............20
carpets ...............35, 63, 65
cascade recycling .............69
casein ................13, 17, 26
casting ......................54
96 | 13 INDEXS

castor oil ........14, 19, 37, 38, 64
catering .....................58
CB .........................24
cellophane ..................17
celluloid ..................16, 23
cellulose .................12, 22
cellulose acetate .......17, 24, 54
cellulose butyrate .............24
cellulose derivatives ...........23
cellulose ester ...............23
cellulose ether ...............23
cellulose hydrate .............16
cellulose nitrate ..............16
cellulose propionate ...........24
cellulose regenerate ..........22
cellulose triacetate ............17
chemical recycling ............69
chitin .......................12
chitosan .....................12
chocolate box inserts ..........52
clamshell ...................52
climate .....................10
climate change ...............10
climate neutral ...............11
clips ........................59
closed loop ..................72
CO 2
....................7, 10, 82
coal .........................8
cold incineration ..............69
collagen .....................13
communal waste water ........29
composting ................8, 69
compounding .............31, 46
compressor nozzle ............64
computer mouse .............62
consumer electronics .........62
coral .......................16
cosmetics ...................56
cotton cellulose ..............66
CP .........................24
crystallinity ..................21
CTA ........................17
cups ........................58
cutlery ................50, 58, 70
D
D(-)lactic acid ................30
dashboards ...............17, 31
desktop accessories ........31, 66
diisocyanates ................38
dimethyl terephthalate .........32
DIN CERTCO .................82
disaccharides .............12, 14
disposal .....................58
door tread plates .............31
downcycling .................69
drinking cups ................52
drop-in polymers .............19
drums ......................50
E
ebony .......................16
elastomers ..........6, 24, 64, 66
EN 13432 ...............9, 69, 82
EN 14855 ....................69
EN 14995 ....................82
End of Life ...................68
energy recovery ..............70
engine compartment ..........64
enzymes .....................8
EPDM ......................25
epoxy resins ...........41, 42, 74
ethylene .....................15
ethylene glycol ...............32
European Bioplastics .....9, 72, 74
European Lead Markets Initiative.72
extrusion ....................47
extrusion blow moulding .......50
F
fan housing ..................64
fatty acids ...................12
fibres .......................32
flat film .....................48
13
13 INDEX | 97

13
flax .........................26
foam ....................38, 52
foaming agents ...............53
food production ...............43
Ford ........................17
fossil resources .........8, 10, 79
fructose ..................12, 14
frying oil ....................44
fuel lines ....................64
fungi ........................8
G
galalith .....................17
garden furniture ..............50
gardening ...................59
global warming ...............10
glove-box lids ................17
glucose .....................14
glueing .....................55
gluten ......................13
glycerine .................17, 21
golf ball .....................60
greenhouse gas ..............10
H
hemp .......................26
home compostable .............8
horn ........................16
horticulture ..................59
hunger ......................79
hygiene .....................61
hygienic foil ..................49
I
industrial composting ..........8
injection moulding ............49
instrument panels ............17
isoprene ....................64
ivory ........................16
J
jerricans ....................50
joining plastic ................55
K
kenaf reinforcement ...........63
keyboards ...................62
L
L(+)lactic acid ................30
lactic acid ...................14
lactide ......................30
land fill .....................71
lapis lazuli ...................16
latex .....................13, 24
Lead Markets Initiative. . . . . . . . . 72
lignin .................12, 13, 26
linseed oil ...................14
lipstick tubes .............31, 61
loose fill ..................21, 56
loudspeaker .................26
M
mailing pouches ..............49
market ...................74, 78
market development ..........74
material recycling ............68
meat trays ...................52
medicine ....................61
methane ....................71
micro-organisms ..............8
mobile phone ................62
monoethylene glycol ....19, 32, 43
monomers ..................14
monosaccharides .............14
mother of pearl ...............16
mulch film ................59, 70
N
nappies ..................49, 61
natural fibres .............26, 74
98 | 13 INDEXS

natural gas ...................8
natural polymers .............12
natural rubber ............13, 24
nets ........................56
nordic walking pole ...........66
O
oil price .....................10
OK-Biobased .................83
oxo-degradable ................9
P
packaging chips ..............21
palm oil .....................14
Parkesine ...................16
partially biobased .............19
particle foam ..............28, 54
PBAT ..................9, 19, 21
PBS ......................9, 36
PBSA .....................9, 36
PBT .....................35, 36
PC .........................20
PE .........................39
pedals ......................17
PEF ........................34
personal care ................61
PET ........................19
petroleum .................8, 10
petroleum boom ..............18
PHA ..................18, 27, 66
PHB ........................28
PHV ........................28
PLA ............14, 18, 19, 30, 66
plant oils ....................14
plasticiser ...................21
plastics ......................6
plastification .................46
plates .......................58
polyacrylates .................39
polyamide ................36, 64
polybutylene adipate terephthalate.9, 19
polybutylene succinate .......9, 36
polybutylene succinate adipate.9, 36
polybutylene terephthalate ..35, 36
polycarbonate ................20
polyether block amide .........25
polyethylene ..............15, 39
polyethylene terephthalate .....19
polyhydroxy butyrate. . . . . . . . . . . 28
polyhydroxy fatty acids .........27
polyhydroxy valerate ...........28
polyhydroxyalkanoates ......13, 27
polylactic acid ................30
polylactide ...................30
polymers .....................6
polyolefins ................19, 39
polyols ......................38
polypropylene ................39
polypropylene terephthalate ....63
polysaccharides ..............12
polysuccinates ...............36
polytrimethylterephthalate .....35
polyurethane ........25, 38, 54, 74
polyvinyl alcohol ..............21
pouches .....................56
PP .........................39
propanediol ..................14
proteins ...............12, 13, 26
PTT ........................35
R
radiocarbon method ........20, 83
rapeseed oil ..............14, 64
rayon .......................22
recyclate ....................68
recycling ....................68
refuse sacks ..................9
renewable resources ...........7
resorbable ....................9
rotting fruit ..................70
RR ..........................7
RRM .........................7
13
13 INDEX | 99

13
rubber ...................13, 24
runners .....................68
S
sand box ....................52
sand box toys ................66
sea .........................28
seat covers ..................63
sebacic acid ...........19, 37, 43
secondary raw material ........68
seed strips ..................60
shampoo .................50, 61
shopping bags .........21, 49, 56
ski boots ....................66
soles of shoes ................25
sorbitol .....................21
soya ........................17
soya oil ...............14, 19, 38
starch ................12, 18, 21
Starch blends ................21
steering wheels ..............17
stereocomplex ...............31
succinic acid ...........14, 36, 43
sucrose .....................14
sugar ....................12, 14
sugar cane ..................15
sugar cane molasses ..........32
sun glasses ..................66
sunflower oil .................14
surgical thread ................9
switchgrass ..................29
T
tableware ...................70
tanks .......................50
terephthalic acid ........19, 32, 43
textiles ......................65
thermal recycling .............70
thermoforming ...............52
thermoplastic elastomers ......24
thermoplastic ether-ester elastomer.25
thermoplastic polyurethane ....38
thermoplastic starch ..........21
thermoplastics ................6
thermoset resins ........6, 41, 74
tobacco .....................29
tooth-brush handles ..........25
tortoiseshell .................16
TPS ........................21
TPU ........................38
trash disposal .................8
trimmed edges of film .........68
trunk lid .....................17
tubs ........................56
tubular film ..................48
twine .......................59
tyres ........................64
U
unsaturated polyester resin. . 41, 74
upholstery ...................17
urn .........................26
USDA .......................84
V
Vinçotte .....................82
viscose ......................22
W
waste .......................43
waste directives ..............82
waste water .................29
welding .....................55
wheat .......................17
wood flour ...................74
wood pellets .................70
Y
yoghurt cup ..................52
100 | 13 INDEXS

13 INDEX | 101
13

Bioplastics
Basics, Applications, Market.
Petroleum is not an inexhaustible resource, and it is becoming ever
more expensive. Burning of petroleum products (including plastics)
has an impact on climate change. Bioplastics can offer an alternative
in this regard.
Bioplastics are on the one hand biobased plastics (produced from
renewable resources) and on the other hand may well be biodegradable
plastics. Many bioplastics, but not all, meet both of these
criteria. It is a widely held misconception that biobased plastics are
automatically biodegradable, and vice versa.
This book offers a short introduction into plastics and bioplastics,
explaining which renewable resources can be used to produce
bioplastics, what types of bioplastic exist, and which ones are currently
on the market.
Chapters on applications, the market, end-of-life scenarios, political
background and regulations, and the outlook for plastics round
off the book.
The book has deliberately been kept short but should nevertheless
provide a comprehensive introduction to the subject of bioplastics.
Numerous literature references and Internet addresses will help
the reader to look more deeply into any specific aspects.
The author Dr. Michael Thielen
... is the founder and publisher of bioplastics MAGAZINE,
the first and only trade publication solely dedicated
to bioplastics. He is a qualified machinery design
engineer with a degree in plastics technology from
the RWTH University in Aachen. He has written several
books on the subject of blow-moulding technology
and disseminated his knowledge of plastics in
numerous presentations, seminars, guest lectures
and teaching assignments both inside and outside
of Germany.
ISBN 978-3-9814981-1-0
polymedia publisher
www.polymedia-publisher.com