PCC Nov/Dec 2019

November/December 2019 

Biocontrol of Aflatoxin Contamination 

in Nut Crops is Working! 

Southern Blight in Processing Tomatoes: 

Diagnosis, Management and Monitoring 

Entomopathogenic Fungi Antagonizing 

Macrophomina phaseolina in Strawberry 

Maximizing the Efficiency of Airblast Spraying 

PUBLICATION 

Volume 4 : Issue 6 

November / December 2019 www.progressivecrop.com 1

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4 

14 

20 

IN THIS ISSUE 

Biocontrol of Aflatoxin 

Contamination in Nut 

Crops is Working! 

Southern Blight in 

Processing Tomatoes: 

Diagnosis, Management 

and Monitoring 

Entomopathogenic 

Fungi Antagonizing 

Macrophomina 

Phaseolina in 

Strawberries 

VINEYARD REVIEW 

26 

32 

38 

42 

Weed Management in 

Vineyards 

Maximizing the Efficiency 

of Airblast Spraying 

Mechanized Vineyard—Is 

It the Wave of the Future? 

Angled Shoot Projection 

(SASP) Trellis Design 

4 

38 

42 

PUBLISHER: Jason Scott 

Email: jason@jcsmarketinginc.com 

EDITOR: Kathy Coatney 

ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Cecilia Parsons 

Email: article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

PRODUCTION: design@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Phone: 559.352.4456 

Fax: 559.472.3113 

Web: www.progressivecrop.com 

CONTRIBUTING WRITERS & INDUSTRY SUPPORT 

Suchitra S. Dara 

Global Agricultural 

Solutions, Bakersfield, CA 

Sumanth S. R. Dara 

Global Agricultural 

Solutions, Bakersfield, CA 

Surendra K. Dara 

UCCE, San Luis Obispo, CA 

Mark Doster 

Plant Pathologist, 

UC Davis Retired 

Victor Gabri 

Visiting Agronomist, 

University of San Juan, 

Argentina 

Ramon Jaime 

Professor and Plant 

Pathologist, UC Davis 

Stefan T. Jaroski 

USDA-ARS Retired 

John Lake 



UC COOPERATIVE EXTENSION 

ADVISORY BOARD 

Kevin Day 

Emily J. Symmes 

County Director and 

UCCE Pomology Farm 

Advisor, Tulare/Kings County 

Steven T. Koike, 

Director, TriCal Diagnostics 

Themis Michailides 



Crystal Nay 

Contributing Writer 

Steve Shoemaker 

Grower 

Ryan Puckett 



Cassandra Swett 

Ph.D. Cooperative 

Extension Specialist, 

Vegetable and Field Crop 

Pathology, Department of 

Plant Pathology 

Amber Vinchesi-Vahl 

Ph.D. Area Vegetable Crops 

Advisor, Colusa, Sutter and 

Yuba Counties, UCCE 

Lynn R. Wunderlich 

UCCE Farm Advisor- 

Central Sierra Region 

UCCE IPM Advisor, 

Sacramento Valley 

Kris Tollerup 

UCCE Integrated Pest 

Management Advisor, 

Parlier, CA 

The articles, research, industry updates, company 

profiles, and advertisements in this publication are 

the professional opinions of writers and advertisers. 

Progressive Crop Consultant does not assume any 

responsibility for the opinions given in the publication. 


Biocontrol of Aflatoxin 

Contamination in Nut 

Crops is Working! 

Figure 1 

The biological agent, Aspergillus flavus 

strain AF36, producing large sclerotia 

(black, spherical structures in the plate). 

All photos courtesy of Themis Michailides. 

It was in 1991, when I received a 

call by the President of the former 

California Pistachio Commission, 

Karen Reinecke, asking if there 

was a way to get involved as a 

technical member of the newly then 

established Aflatoxin Elimination 

Workgroup. The goal of this Workgroup 

was to evaluate proposals submitted 

by the United States Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) and University researchers 

to the USDA Special Fund to 

participate toward research to eliminate 

the problem of aflatoxin contamination 

by the year 2000. We are now in the 

second half of 2019 and we still have aflatoxin 

contamination problems in both 

pistachio and almond, particularly in 

years when navel orangeworm damage 

is high in these crops. 

Our first proposal was submitted 

in 1992 to the USDA/Aflatoxin 

Elimination Technical Committee. It 

was funded and research started after 

hiring postdoc associate Dr. Mark 

Doster, a University of California (UC) 

Davis graduate with postdoc research 

at the University of Cornell. Mark an 


By THEMIS MICHAILIDES | Professor and Plant Pathologist, UC Davis 

MARK DOSTER | Plant Pathologist, UC Davis (retired) 

RAMON JAIME | Professor and Plant Pathologist, UC Davis 

RYAN PUCKETT | Professor and Plant Pathologist, UC Davis 

JOHN LAKE | Professor and Plant Pathologist, UC Davis 

VICTOR GABRI | Visiting Agronomist, University of San Juan, Argentina 

expert in fungal pathology and practical 

plant pathology was immersed 

quickly in this research. We were 

also supported then by the California 

pistachio industry which supplemented 

funding to intensify the research to 

reduce aflatoxins and find solutions for 

the growers. At the same time other 

researchers from UC Davis focused 

on aflatoxin research to reduce it in 

almond and walnut. Later on, we expanded 

our aflatoxin management research 

and included almonds and figs. 

Aflatoxins are toxic compounds produced 

mainly by certain molds called 

Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus 

when these molds grow on various 

susceptible crops. These molds produce 

toxins which are considered very harmful 

when they are consumed with food 

products. These toxins produced are 

called aflatoxins which are considered 

as the most potent naturally-produced 

carcinogenic compounds causing liver 

cancer and in acute situations deaths. 

Strains of Aspergillus flavus that do not 

produce toxin are called atoxigenic, and 

they act as biological control agents. 

When they are applied on the orchard 

floor displace the toxin-producing mold 

strains, and reduce the potential for aflatoxin 

contamination in various crops. 

There are four major aflatoxin types: 

the B1 and B2 produced by both the 

above mentioned fungi and G1 and 

G2 produced only by A. parasiticus. 

B1 is the most toxic among the four 

aflatoxin types. Because of this high 

toxicity these compounds are regulated 

strictly by various governments, and in 

fact, the B1 is regulated separately. For 

instance, in the USA the tolerance for 

B1 is 10 ppb (parts per billion) and for 

all the aflatoxins (total) is 15 ppb. The 

European Union (EU) has even stricter 

tolerances, i.e., 8 ppb for B1 and 10 ppb 

for total aflatoxins. One can judge the 

seriousness of aflatoxin contamination 

not only from the very strict tolerances 

but also from the losses and additional 

costs associated with the re-sorting 

and losses associated with the dumping 

the contaminated product. It should 

be noted that when shipments exceed 

Continued on Page 6

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A 

Reduction of contaminated samples (%) 

50 

44.9% P value = 0.0033 

40 

38.6% 

39.9% 

36.7% 

30 

20.4% 

20 

10 

0 

2008 2009 2010 2011 2008 - 2011 

(Doster et al. (2014), Plant Disease 98:948-956) 

(4 years average) 

B 

Reduction of contaminated samples (%) 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

NO SAMPLES 

23.6% 

85.4% 

58.1% 

54.6% 

2008 2009 2010 2011 2009-2011 

(3 years average) 

Figure 2 

Reduction of aflatoxin contamination (left, main crop; right, reshakes) during the years of experimental use permit 

(2008 to 2011) after application of AF36 strain in commercial orchards. 

Continued from Page 4 

the threshold, the consignments are 

rejected and must ...either be reconditioned 

(re-sorted) or destroyed. 

Below is a historical summary 

how this technology developed 

to help our California nut crop 

industries and the fig industry. 

In the first eight years we focused 

on cultural practices that affect the 

predisposition of the pistachio crop 

to aflatoxin contamination and to 

also find out whether contaminated 

nuts show special characteristics 

that can be used to sort out these 

nuts at the processing plant. 

Below is a list of the findings 

from those studies led by Drs. 

Doster and Michailides: 

a. We confirmed that early split 

nuts (ES) contained large amounts 

of aflatoxins and we named 

these nuts the “Achilles Heel” 

for aflatoxin contamination. 

b. ES by themselves explained 84 

percent of the aflatoxin contamination 

in the samples we analyzed. 

c. When the ES were combined 

with the navel orangeworm (NOW) 

damaged nuts explained 99 percent 

of the aflatoxin contamination 

in the samples we analyzed. 

d. We reduced the incidence of ES 

by providing the trees with sufficient 

water during early season (May) 

when it is the critical time for the 

full size development of nut shell 

(water stress of trees during May 

leads to higher incidence of ES). 

e. We compared the incidence of ES 

on Kerman under the influence of 

four rootstocks: UCB1 and Pioneer 

Gold I resulted in significantly lower 

ES incidence than Pistacia atlantica 

and Pioneer Gold II rootstocks. 

In my first Aflatoxin Elimination 

Committee (AEC) Meeting in 1991, in 

Peoria, Illinois, I learned for the first 

time that some strains of Aspergillus 

flavus do not produce aflatoxins and 

some USDA researchers reported that 

a very large portion of the A. flavus 

population consisted of strains that 

do not produce any aflatoxin, called 

atoxigenic strains. They started using 

these atoxigenics as candidates for 

biological control of aflatoxigenic fungi. 

It was also discovered that the proportion 

of strains that produced aflatoxin 

included strains that produced variable 

amounts of aflatoxins. USDA researchers 

started first working with atoxigenic 

strains to be used as biocontrol agents 

to reduce aflatoxins in the various 

crops. One of this strains was initially 

selected in Arizona from samples taken 

from cotton fields, and the Cotton 

Research Council of Arizona that 

supported financially this research were 

able to get AF36 registered for use in 

cotton and corn in 2008. Meanwhile 

starting in 2002, we discovered the 

same strain was the most commonly 

encountered strain among the other 

atoxigenic strains in pistachio, almond, 

and fig orchards in California, and 

immediately included this strain in 

our aflatoxin biocontrol studies. With 

multiyear support of USDA funding 

and funding by the pistachio and 

fig industries in California, we were 

able to show that this strain is among 

the most common atoxigenic strains 

occurring in California nut crop and 

fig orchards, and indeed it can be found 

at much higher incidence in comparison 

with all other atoxigenic strains. 

For instance, during these studies 15 

different groups of atoxigenic strains 

were determined, and each one was at 

a rate of less than one percent, while 

the AF36 atoxigenic strain (Figure 1, 

see page 4) was found in an average 

of five to eight percent depending on 

the field and the type of the crop, and 

in some instances up to 12 percent of 

populations of the atoxigenic strains. 

Initially, the studies were confined in 

small experiments in replicated micro-plots 

where we showed that when 

the AF36 was applied once preseason, it 

Continued on Page 8 

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persisted well until the next application 

in the following year and displaced the 

toxigenic A. flavus strains at a rate of 

90 to 95 percent displacement. These 

results, the fact that this strain was 

native to California orchards, and it 

was the most common atoxigenic strain 

and the toxicological data developed 

by the USDA in Arizona were sufficient 

to submit to the Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) to request 

an experimental use permit (EUP) to 

test the strain commercially on a larger 

acreage without the need to follow 

crop destruct requirements as needed 

with application of experimental 

compounds. The EUP was approved 

in 2008 and 3,000 acres of pistachios 

were treated with the commercial 

product of Aspergillus flavus AF36 

strain produced in the Cotton Council 

of Arizona facility in Phoenix, Arizona. 

Also, 3,000 acres of pistachio close to 

the AF36-treated orchards were used 

as untreated controls. All this acreage 

for the EUP was provided by the former 

Paramount Farming Company (now 

Wonderful Orchards Company). At 

harvest the treated and the untreated 

fields were sampled separately and the 

samples, specifically called “library 

samples”, were analyzed for aflatoxins. 

For four years we showed a significant 

reduction of aflatoxins (Figure 2A, see 

Page 6). The average of this reduction 

for the four years of the EUP was close 

to 40 percent. When library samples of 

reshakes were analyzed for aflatoxins, 

this reduction in one year reached to 

85 percent (Figure 2B, see page 6). 

These commercial efficacy data were 

sufficient to obtain registration of 

AF36 for use in pistachio in the states 

of California, Arizona, Texas, and 

New Mexico. After the registration 

of AF36 on pistachio, the Almond 

Board of California and the California 

Fig Institute (the latter has funded 

research during the early stages of our 

aflatoxin research) became interested 

in completing any additional research 

so that the AF36’s registration is 

expanded to include almonds and figs. 

It took five years of additional research 

(funded by the Production Research 

and Food Safety and Quality 

Committees of the Almond 

Board of California) to 

provide the USEPA and the 

California Department of 

Pesticide Regulations the 

additional data for the registration 

of AF36 for use on 

almond and figs. Meanwhile 

because the manufacturer 

of the commercial product 

changed the initial wheat 

carrier of the AF36 strain 

to sorghum (Figure 3) the 

product was registered as 

AF36 Prevail® in January 2017 

and included all, pistachio, 

almond, and fig. Although the 

pistachio industry adapted the 

use of AF36 widely and from 

75,000 acres treated in 2012 reached to 

up to 200,000 acres in 2018, the almond 

industry was a little hesitant in widely 

adopting this new technology, despite 

the fact that there was good efficacy 

in reducing aflatoxin contamination 

in pistachio orchards. We expect to 

see better efficacy when all pistachio, 

almond and fig orchards are treated 

on an areawide basis because the 

spores of the biocontrol can spread 

from field to field easily with even 

slight windy conditions and dust. 

Description of the Biocontrol 

Product 

Initially the AF36 product used sterilized 

wheat as the carrier. Sterilized 

wheat seed was inoculated and incubated 

under certain favorable conditions 

for the strain to invade and grow 

in the entire wheat seed. More recently 

and after additional studies in Arizona 

it was determined that sorghum, which 

has a lower cost was as good carrier as 

the wheat (even better under conditions 

in cotton and corn fields) and the 

manufacturer replaced the wheat with 

sorghum and at the same time changed 

the method of inoculation. The sorghum 

seed now is coated with a mix of 

a polymer and spores of AF36 instead 

of waiting for the seed to be colonized 

by the atoxigenic mold. This was 

done in order to satisfy the increased 

demand for tons and tons of inoculum 

since the rate is 10 lbs per acre. Studies 

Figure 3 

The sorghum career of the AF36 Prevail® commercial 

product. 

in California under orchard conditions 

indicated that the sporulation on the 

sorghum seed is delayed, although by 

the end of a week both sorghum and 

wheat showed similar sporulation rates. 

The time of production of spores and 

the rate of sporulation are very critical 

for the successful use of this biocontrol 

agent. It is a numbers game: we want 

to overload the soil with atoxigenic 

spores and displace the spores of the 

toxigenic molds. That is the way this 

biological control approach works in 

the field (see challenges at the end of 

this article relevant to sporulation). 

Proper Way for Ground Application: 

For detailed information please 

read the label of the product: 

Michailides emphasized that as far 

as we know up to now there are 

four critical application factors that 

need to be taken into account for 

AF36 Prevail to be successful in the 

orchard: a) the timing of application; 

b) the rate (amount) per acre; c) the 

proper placement on the orchard 

floor; and d) the proper irrigation 

before and after the application. 



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Figure 4 

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Timing for pistachio, almond, 

and fig: Apply Aspergillus flavus 

AF36 to the surface of the soil 

under the plant canopy with 

a granular applicator and do 

not cover the AF36—colonized 

grain with soil. For pistachios 

apply the product from late May 

through July, for almonds from 

late May to early July, and for 

figs from early May to early June. 

Specifically in almonds, application 

should be timed around 

hull split. If you know when to 

expect hull split, you should time 

application about one to two 

weeks before. You want to have 

the max sporulation of the biocontrol 

during the hull split stage of the nuts. 

The rate (amount): The proper application 

rate is 10 pounds per acre. A single 

application should be made each year. 

A foliar spray that creates a 

semi-permeable membrane 

over the plant surface. 

Optimal application period is 

one to two weeks prior to the 

threat of high heat. 

The coating of Anti-Stress 

becomes effective when the 

product has dried on the plant. 

The drying time of Anti-Stress is 

the same as water in the same 

weather conditions. 

Proper placement: 

AF36 Prevail 

should be applied 

within the berm 

area of the orchard, 

not at row 

middles, so that 

it will be reached 

by the irrigation 

system and 

minimize delivery 

to areas that do 

not get wet. 

Proper irrigation: 

Irrigation is 

required directly 

after application. 

Irrigation within 

three days after 

application of 

Aspergillus flavus 

AF36 will improve 

efficacy. The AF36 

product will not 

sporulate without 

moisture and can 

fail if there is too 

much moisture. 

Aim for soil 

moisture levels 

around 13-18 

percent. Proper placement within the 

berm, close to the irrigation system, 

will ensure it is successfully activated. 

“Conditioning” of the orchard floor 

before application: This is a practice 

that some growers have figured out 

on their own. Pre-irrigating and then 

about two days later apply the AF36 

inoculum and then apply irrigation 

as in (d) above. Although Michailides 

and his crew do not have any data to 

support this practice, they strongly 

believe the practice of pre-irrigation 

will speed up the sporulation of the 

product since the rehydration can 

start as soon as the product comes 

in contact with the pre-wetted soil. 

A 45 Percent Reduction 

of Aflatoxins is a Reality Now 

Dr. Themis Michailides, plant 

pathologist at the UC Davis/ 

Kearney Agricultural Research 

and Extension Center and former 

member of the National Aflatoxin 

Elimination Technical Committee, 

and Dr. Mark Doster have devoted 

decades to studying aflatoxins and 

their work has been instrumental 

in development and registration of 

AF36 in pistachio, almond, and fig. 

Until now, Michailides notes, tree nut 

and fig growers had no direct way to 

combat aflatoxin. Instead contamination 

has been managed primarily 

through preventing navel orangeworm 

damage. While as noted below, effective 

orangeworm management is still very 

critical and essential in reducing crop 

damage, AF36 offers an additional tool 

that has a direct impact on reducing 

harmful toxigenic Aspergillus mold 

strains and the aflatoxin they produce. 

Recent Challenges with the Use of 

Aspergillus flavus AF36 

AF36 Prevail can result in more than 

80 percent reduction of aflatoxin 

contaminated cotton and corn, but here 

in California, only once we reached 

an 85 percent reduction (Figure 3, see 

page 8) and this was only in the second 

harvest (reshakes) pistachios, which 

have higher risk for NOW infestation 


and aflatoxin contamination than the 

pistachios of the main (first) harvest. 

Results of analyses of a large number of 

library samples obtained from treated 

and untreated fields of Wonderful 

Orchards Company, resulted in a significant 

reduction of up to 45 percent in 

aflatoxin contamination. Michailides’ 

lab crew is trying to explain why the 

efficacy of AF36 in reducing aflatoxin 

cannot match the one reached in cotton 

fields in Arizona and corn fields in 

Texas. The following challenges may 

explain partially these disadvantages 

of the AF36 product in California: 

a) inadequate soil moisture and 

temperatures; 

b) incorrect timing of application; 

c) delayed harvest, and 

d) inefficient control of NOW, both 

contributing to increased aflatoxin 

contamination; 

e) arthropod pests of carrier seed; and 

f) other predators (rodents, birds, etc.). 

Recent research projects are focused 

on addressing all these challenges. 

One new development is that a new 

product (Afla-Guard®, manufactured by 

Syngenta Company) that is registered 

to reduce aflatoxin contamination in 

peanuts and corn was introduced in 

California for experimentation and 

gathering data to support registration 

for use in pistachio, almond and fig. 

If successful, this will be the second 

product registered in the USA which 

represents a different from the AF36 

atoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus 

and the carrier is barley (Figure 4, see 

page 10). Studies done by Drs. Jaime 

and Michailides (Kearney Agriculture 

Research and Extension Center) in 

2017 and 2018 showed that this product 

sporulated faster, better, and under 

lower temperatures and lower soil 

moisture content than the Aspergillus 

flavus AF36 strain. Registration of this 

product in California is anticipated in 

2020, so that growers may then have 

a second tool to choose to combat 


B 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

2 

3 

Feeding sites/almond 

Figure 5 

Correlation of the sites of feeding damage of 

almonds by NOW larvae and amounts of aflatoxins 

(Palumbo et al. 2014, Plant Disease 98:1194-1199). 

4 

5 

6 

7 

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You live on them. 

Too much rain. Too much sun. Weeds. Disease. Insects. Farming is a 

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aflatoxin contamination in 2020. 

NOW Management is Still Necessary 

Aflatoxin contamination becomes a 

major problem in years when damage 

by navel orangeworm is higher than the 

standard low level. Relatively studies 

by Drs. Michailides and Palumbo (ARS 

(Agricultural Research Service), USDA, 

Albany, CA) showed that NOW moths 

are heavily contaminated with spores 

of aflatoxigenic fungi as soon as they 

emerge from mummies in early spring. 

Also as the damage on nuts increases 

so is the incidence and the amounts 

of aflatoxins (Figure 5, see page 11). 

Therefore, it is essential to keep up with 

navel orangeworm pest management 

practices. Growers should use all the 

available tools for reducing damage by 

NOW to supplement the mummy sanitation, 

which should be the first step 

towards aflatoxin reduction. Reduction 

of NOW damage can also be achieved 

by timely harvest, in-season insecticide 

sprays, and winter mummy shake. 

Where to Find the Product, Learn 

More, and Application Services 

To learn more about AF36 and its 

application, watch two short videos 

produced by California Pistachio 

Research Board. Although they were 

filmed in a pistachio orchard, the 

information is useful and accurate 

for almond and fig growers. 

Western Milling is the distributor 

for AF36 in California. Growers can 

contact Jeff Chedester, seed business 

manager, at (559) 302-2593; and Agri 

Systems, Inc., c/o Brendan Brooks, at 

559-665-2100 for product information 

and application. Distributors for the 

second product will be provided as 

soon as it is registered in California. 

Acknowledgments 

The author thanks all his collaborators 

for the dedicated research, the 

California Pistachio Industry 

(California Pistachio Research Board), 

the Almond Board of California, 

and the California Fig Institute for 

their continuous financial support 

of these studies. We also thank the 

USDA for the initial seed grants 

provided by the Aflatoxin Elimination 

Technical Committee, and California 

Department of Food and Agriculture 

(CDFA) (Grant SCB16054). Special 

thanks go to Wonderful Orchards 

for their continuous support of this 

research by allowing use of their 

orchards for various experiments; also 

we thank Keenan, Sutton, and Nichols 

Farms for their support as well. In 

addition, we appreciate very much the 

support by Syngenta in 2018 and 2019. 

Comments about this article? We want 

to hear from you. Feel free to email 

us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

Cal Expo, Sacramento 


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2019 www.progressivecrop.com 13

SOUTHERN BLIGHT IN PROCESSING TOMATOES: 

DIAGNOSIS, 

MANAGEMENT 

AND MONITORING 

By AMBER VINCHESI-VAHL | Ph.D. Area Vegetable Crops Advisor 

Colusa, Sutter and Yuba Counties, UCCE 

And CASSANDRA SWETT | Ph.D., Cooperative Extension Specialist, 

Vegetable and Field Crop Pathology Department of Plant Pathology 

Southern blight, caused by 

the fungus Sclerotium rolfsii, 

is a destructive crown rot 

disease that rapidly kills tomato 

plants. The fungus is favored 

by high temperatures (over 86°F), 

high soil moisture, dense canopies, and 

frequent irrigation. Southern blight 

survives in soil as hardened structures 

called sclerotia for at least five years. 

Each infected plant can produce tens of 

thousands of sclerotia and then become 

more widely distributed in a field with 

each successive field operation. Although 

this disease may initially only 

affect a few plants in the field, southern 

blight can be serious enough to cause 

significant yield loss within a season 

or two. With a host range of over 500 

plants, this fungus 

can easily persist 

from year to year in 

infected crop debris. 

Southern Blight 

Identification 

with other crown rotting diseases, 

like Fusarium crown rot. Severely 

affected plants can have vascular 

discoloration, which may be confused 

with Fusarium wilt. Accurate diagnosis 

is critical to effective control. 

You can distinguish southern blight 

in the field based on the following 

diagnostic traits, one or more of which 

may be present. Diagnosis requires 

looking at the soil around the crown of 

the plant, in addition to the plant itself. 

▶ 

Small tan to reddish brown sclerotia 

form at the base of the plant and/or 

in the soil around the plant. 

▶ White fungal mycelium (thread-like 

strands) growing INTO the soil. No 

other fungus will grow extensively 

in the soil (Figure 1). 

▶ White fan like mycelium (threadlike) 

growing on the crown/affected 

tissues. 

▶ 

▶ 

Plants go from healthy to dead in 

less than a week—much faster than 

most crown rots (Figure 2). 

Circular disease patches. From a 

distance, they look like bands of 

dead plants. 

If none of these characteristics are 

present, the best way to diagnose the 

disease is to put infected tissue in a 

plastic bag on a moist paper towel 


Southern blight 

misdiagnosis is 

likely if it occurs 

in an area where it 

has not historically 

been an issue, like 

the Sacramento 

Valley. It can be 

easily confused 

Figure 1: Fungal mycelium growing into the soil. 

All photos courtesy of C. Swett. 

Figure 2: Rapid plant collapse and death caused by 

southern blight. 


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Figure 3: Distinct fan-like growth of southern blight. 

Figure 4: Sclerotia developing and turning from white to amber-colored 

spheres. 


and leave at room temperature for 

one to two weeks. The southern blight 

fungus will produce distinct fan 

like growth within about 5-7 days 

(Figure 3). After about 5-14 days, it 

will make round white balls that turn 

into amber colored sclerotia (Figure 

4). Both the fan growth and the 

sclerotia are unique to this fungus. 

Southern Blight Management 

» Soil Moisture 

Maintaining a dry surface may help 

reduce losses if the fungus is detected 

in your field. The one advantage of drip 

irrigation is that the soil surface can 

more easily be kept dry, which inhibits 

infection by Sclerotium rolfsii. Avoid alternating 

wet and dry periods—wet followed 

by dry episodes can be particularly 

conducive to disease development. 

» Crop Rotation 

If you have detected southern blight in 

your field, one of the best things you 

can do the following year is to plant 

a narrow canopy crop that you can 

effectively manage with fungicides 

to prevent sclerotia from increasing. 

Rotations with non-host crops are 

limited because of the wide host range 

of the pathogen. Poor-host crops such 

as corn and small grains (wheat, millet, 

oats) can help to reduce sclerotia 

levels in the field. Most if not all of 

these crops can become infected by 

the fungus, but either they are not 

good hosts and/or the environmental 

conditions during the growing 

season are not favorable for pathogen 

growth. For instance, wheat can be 

a host, but it’s typically too cold for 

fungal growth during the time that 

wheat is grown. On the other hand, 

rotation with highly susceptible crops 

such as legumes (beans, peas and 

hairy vetch) can greatly increase soil 

infestation levels. Mustard cover crops 

can suppress southern blight, and 

may be useful for organic producers, 

where fumigation is not an option. 

» Soil Treatment 

Deep plowing will bury the sclerotia 

and prevent it from attacking plants 

at the soil line. Sclerotia deeper than 

six inches are usually parasitized by 

other microbes and killed over time. 

Of course, plowing is not an option 

for fields where buried drip irrigation 

systems are already installed. 

Sclerotia near the surface of the soil 

can be killed when exposed to high 

temperatures (105-120°F) for two to 

four weeks during the summer months. 

Solarization alone is not generally 

considered a viable management 

strategy, but when soils were solarized 

before the addition of biological control 

or a fungicide, disease was reduced by 

70-100 percent compared to the same 

biological or chemical treatment without 

solarization. Make sure to prepare 

the soil for planting before solarizing, 

since cultivation and the incorporation 

of amendments can bring buried 

sclerotia back to the upper soil layers. 

» Monitoring Southern Blight 

Prevalence in Colusa County 

Southern blight is not usually considered 

to be a widespread problem in 

California—major impacts are generally 

limited to Kern County. However, 

in 2017, late spring rains in the 

Sacramento Valley led to later planting 

dates, followed by record high temperatures, 

even consecutive nights where 

the temperature remained above 70°F. 

The combination of late planting dates 

and record high temperatures in 2017 

created unusually favorable conditions 

for the pathogen in northern California. 

In 2018, we conducted a project funded 

by the California Tomato Research 

Institute to monitor southern blight 

prevalence in Colusa County, which 

had five fields with positive southern 

blight diagnoses in 2017. The objective 

of this research was to quantify southern 

blight spread and impact in annual 



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Continued 

from Page 16 

rotations in the 

region. Sarah 

Light-Area 

Agronomy 

Advisor was 

involved in 

this project 

in addition to 

the authors. 

We sampled 

soil from eight 

fields, five of 

which were 

confirmed to 

have southern 

blight in 2016 

or 2017, the 

other three 

thought to have southern blight based 

on grower and pest control adviser 

experience and observations. Six of 

the fields were in tomato in 2017, one 

was in tomato in 2016 and wheat in 

Figure 5: Southern blight sclerotia germination in soil samples. Note white thread-like mycelial 

growth. 

2017, and one was planted with canary 

bean in 2017. We sampled the soil in 

May 2018 to get baseline data on early 

season southern blight sclerotia levels. 

The rotational crops in 2018 included 

sunflower and 

corn. Sunflower 

fields were checked 

twice monthly for 

southern blight 

symptoms once 

temperatures were 

over 90°F for seven 

consecutive days 

because sunflower 

is a known host of 

southern blight. 

Tomato fields near 

or adjacent to the 

monitored fields 

were also checked 

for southern 

blight symptoms 

twice a month. 

Soil was collected 

from the same 

spots in the fields 

in August/September 2018 to determine 

if there were any changes to 

southern blight sclerotia levels in the 

field. Cassandra Swett’s lab analyzed 

the soil samples using the methanol 


method (Rodriguez-Kabana et al 1980). 

Methanol kills most microbes, but 

not southern blight. Trays of soil were 

sealed in plastic bags so the moisture 

could stimulate germination of the 

southern blight sclerotia. The germination 

of sclerotia was evaluated at 3 

and 7 days (Figure 5, see page 18). 

Sclerotia were recovered from three 

fields in May 2018, possibly five fields 

but identification was unclear for two 

of the fields. The confidence level 

for identifying southern blight was 

whether the germinated growth in the 

trays produced sclerotia. Germination 

was observed in the two samples 

where identification was unclear, but 

no sclerotia were produced from these 

colonies. The end-of-season samples 

from August and September 2018 

contained much higher volumes of soil 

than the May samples, and we recovered 

sclerotia from seven of the eight 

fields. For total number of sclerotia, five 

fields had increased sclerotia levels, two 

fields decreased, and one field had the 

same number of sclerotia in both the 

May and September samples. Southern 

blight increased in all three of the 

sunflower fields, which was expected 

since sunflower is a host crop. Corn 

fields were spread between increases, 

decreases, and no changes. It is worth 

noting though, that the only fields with 

decreased levels were corn fields. Also, 

fields where no sclerotia were recovered 

may contain southern blight that was 

not captured among our samples. 

Sunflower is not recommended 

as a rotational crop because it is 

a southern blight host. Corn is 

likely a better choice for rotation. 

We were able to recover southern blight 

sclerotia in fields throughout Colusa 

County and demonstrate southern 

blight increases over the growing 

season with certain rotational crops. 

Unlike 2017, southern blight was not 

a large issue for tomato growers in 

2018. Because southern blight requires 

specific conditions for development 

to occur, it remains a disease that is a 

problem in the Sacramento Valley only 

when environmental conditions are 

ideal for development, especially for 

certain fields. Currently in 2019, due 

to late spring rains and high temperatures, 

we have identified southern 

blight in the Sacramento Valley from 

a few tomato and vineseed fields. 

We would like to thank our grower 

and pest control adviser cooperators 

on this project. We would also like to 

thank the California Tomato Research 

Institute for funding this project. 

References 

Rodriguez-Kabana, R., Beute, M. K., 

& Backman, P. A. 1980. A method 

for estimating numbers of viable 

sclerotia of Sclerotium rolfsii in soil. 

Phytopathology, 70(9), 917-919. 




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Charcoal rot, caused by 

Macrophomina phaseolina, 

is one of the important fungal 

diseases of strawberry 

in California. Macrophomina 

phaseolina is a soilborne fungus and 

has a wide host range, including alfalfa, 

cabbage, corn, pepper, and potato, some 

of which are cultivated in the strawberry 

production areas in California. The 

fungus infects the vascular system of 

the plant roots, obstructing the nutrient 

and water supply and ultimately 

resulting in stunted growth, wilting, and 

death of the plant. The fungus survives 

in the soil and infected plant debris as 

microsclerotia (resting structures made 

of hyphal bodies) and can persist for up 

to three years. Microsclerotia germinate 

and penetrate the root system to initiate 

infection. Plants are more vulnerable to 

fungal infection when they are experiencing 

environmental (extreme weather 

or drought conditions) and physiological 

(heavy fruit bearing) stress. 

Soil fumigation is the primary management 

option for addressing charcoal 

rot in strawberry. Additionally, crop 

rotation with broccoli can reduce the 

risk of charcoal rot due to glucosinolates 

and isothiocyanates in broccoli 

crop residue that have fungicidal 

properties. Beneficial microorganisms 

such as Bacillus spp. and Trichoderma 

spp. are also considered, especially in 

organic strawberries, to antagonize 

M. phaseolina and other soilborne 

pathogens and provide some protection. 


Entomopathogenic Fungi Antagonizing 

Macrophomina phaseolina 

in Strawberries 

By SUCHITRA S. DARA | Global Agricultural Solutions, Bakersfield, CA 

And SUMANTH S. R. DARA | Global Agricultural Solutions, Bakersfield, CA 

And SURENDRA K. DARA | UCCE, San Luis Obispo, CA 

And STEFAN T. JAROSKI | USDA-ARS Retired 

The role of beneficial microbes in 

disease management or improving 

crop growth and health is gaining 

popularity in the recent years with the 

commercial availability of biofungicide, 

biostimulant, and soil amendment 

products. In a couple of recent strawberry 

field studies in Santa Maria, some 

of the beneficial microbial products 

improved fruit yield or crop health. 

These treatments can be administered 

by inoculating the transplants prior to 

planting, immediately after planting or 

periodically applying to the plants and 

or the soil. Adding beneficial microbes 

can help improve the soil microbiome 

especially after chemical or bio-fumigation 

and anaerobic soil disinfestation. 

Similar to the benefits of traditionally 

used bacteria (e.g., Bacillus spp. and 

Pseudomonas spp.) and fungi (e.g., 

Glomus spp. and Trichoderma spp.), 

studies with entomopathogenic fungi 

(EPF) such as Beauveria bassiana, 

Isaria fumosorosea, and Metarhizium 

spp. also demonstrated their role 

in improving water and nutrient 

absorption or antagonizing plant 

pathogens. The advantage of EPF is that 

they are already used for arthropod 

pest management in multiple crops, 

including strawberry; now, there are 

the additional benefits of promoting 

crop growth and antagonizing plant 

pathogens. In light of some promising 

recent studies exploring these roles, 

a study was conducted using potted 

strawberry plants to evaluate the 

efficacy of two California isolates of 

Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium 

anisopliae s.l. and their application 

strategies against M. phaseolina. 

Methodology 

About six-week old strawberry plants 

(cultivar Albion) from a strawberry 

field were transplanted into 1.6-gallon 

pots with Miracle-Gro All Purpose 

Garden Soil (0.09-0.05-0.07 N-P-K) and 

maintained in an outdoor environment. 

They were regularly watered, and their 



Plant health starng from 1 week aer M. phaseolina inoculaon 

5.0 

4.5 

4.0 

3.5 

1 wk 2 wk 3 wk 4 wk 5 wk 6 wk 7 wk 

P = 0.117 0.002 0.182 0.030 0.130 0.038 0.018 

a 

a a a a 

a 

a 

ab a 

bc 

bc 

a 

a ab 

ab 

ab 

ab 

abc 

bc 

bc 

a 

abc 

c 

b 

bc 

Plant health rang 

3.0 

2.5 

2.0 

c 

bc 

bc 

c 

c 

bc 

bc 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0.0 

Untreated control M. phaseolina Bb 1wk before Mp Ma 1wk before Mp Bb with Mp Ma with Mp Bb 1wk aer Mp Ma 1wk aer Mp 


health was monitored for about five 

months prior to the commencement of 

the study. Conidial suspensions of the 

California isolates of B. bassiana and 

M. anisopliae s.l. were applied one week 

before, one week after, or at the time of 

applying microsclerotia of M. phaseolina 

to the potting mix. The following 

treatments were evaluated in the study: 

1. Untreated control 

2. Soil inoculated with M. phaseolina 

3. Soil inoculated with B. bassiana one 

week prior to M. phaseolina inoculation 

4. Soil inoculated with M. 

anisopliae s.l. one week prior to 

M. phaseolina inoculation 

5. Soil inoculated with B. bassiana at 

the time of M. phaseolina inoculation 

6. Soil inoculated with M. anisopliae s.l. 

at the time of M. phaseolina inoculation 

7. Soil inoculated with B. bassiana one 

week after M. phaseolina inoculation 

8. Soil inoculated with M. 

anisopliae s.l. one week after 

M. phaseolina inoculation 

EPF were applied as 1X10 10 viable 

conidia in 100 ml of 0.01 percent Dyne- 

Amic (surfactant) solution distributed 

around the base of the plant. To apply 

M. phaseolina, 5 grams of infested 

cornmeal-sand inoculum containing 

2,500 CFU/gram was added to 4-5 

cm deep holes around the base of the 

plant. Each treatment had six pots 

each planted with a single strawberry 

plant representing a replication. 

Treatments were randomly arranged 

within each replication. The study 

was repeated a few days after the 

initiation of the first experiment. 

Plant health was monitored starting 

from the first week after the M. 

phaseolina inoculation and continued 

for seven weeks. Plant health 

was rated on a scale of 0 to 5 where 

0=dead and 5=very healthy and the rest 

of the ratings in between depending 

on the extent of wilting. Data from 

both experiments were combined and 

analyzed by ANOVA using Statistix 

software and significant means were 

separated using LSD test. The influence 

of EPF treatments applied at different 

times as well as the combined effect 

of different applications within each 

fungus were compared for seven 

weeks. Ratings for some plants that 

were scorched from hot summer 

temperatures and died abruptly 

were removed from the analyses. 

Results 

Untreated control plants maintained 

good health throughout the observation 

period varying between the rating 

of 4.3 and 4.9. In general, plant health 

declined considerably from the 5th 

week after M. phaseolina inoculation. 

Plant health appeared to be slightly 

better in plants treated with EPF, but 

there was no statistically significant 

difference in any except one instance. 

Plants treated with M. anisopliae 

s.l. one week prior to the application 

of M. phaseolina had a rating of 3.0 

compared to 1.6 rating of plants 

inoculated with M. phaseolina alone. 

When data from different treatments 



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5.0 

4.5 

Plant health rang from 1 week aer M. phaseolina inoculaon combined for each beneficial fungus 

Untreated control M. phaseolina B. bassiana M. anisopliae s.l. 

a 

*a a 

ab a 

b 

Plant health rang 

4.0 

3.5 

3.0 

2.5 

2.0 

b 

ab 

b 

b 

b 

b 

1.5 

1.0 

0.5 

0.0 

1 wk 2 wk 3 wk 4 wk 5 wk 6 wk 7 wk 

P = 0.084 0.082 0.049 0.058 0.069 0.039 0.010 

*Bars with no or same leer within each week are not significantly different (LSD test) 


for each EPF were compared, both 

B. bassiana and M. anisopliae s.l. 

appeared to reduce the wilting, but 

the plant health rating was not 

significantly different from the M. 

phaseolina treatment without EPF. 

This is the first report of the impact 

of EPF on M. phaseolina with some 

promise. The current study evaluated 

a single application of EPF. Additional 

studies under more uniform environmental 

conditions and with more 

treatment options would be useful to 

improve our understanding of EPF 

antagonizing M. phaseolina. When 

growers use EPF for controlling 

arthropod pests, they could count on 

additional benefits against diseases 

or improving general plant health. 

Acknowledgements: We thank Dr. Kelly 

Ivors (previously at Cal Poly San Luis 

Obispo) for the pathogen inoculum. 

Dara, S. K. and D. Peck. 2017. 

Evaluating beneficial microbe-based 

products for their impact on 

strawberry plant growth, health, 

and fruit yield. UC ANR eJournal 

Strawberries and Vegetables. 

https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/ 

postdetail.cfm?postnum=25122 

Dara, S. K. and D. Peck. 2018. 

Evaluation of additive, soil amendment, 

and biostimulant products 

in Santa Maria strawberry. 

CAPCA Adviser, 21(5): 44-50. 

Dara, S. K., S.S.R. Dara, and 

S. S. Dara. 2017. Impact of entomopathogenic 

fungi on the 

growth, development, and health 

of cabbage growing under water 

stress. Amer. J. Plant Sci. 8: 1224- 

1233. http://file.scirp.org/pdf/ 

AJPS_2017051714172937.pdf 

Dara, S. K., S. S. Dara, S.S.R. Dara, 

and T. Anderson. 2016. First 

report of three entomopathogenic 

fungi offering protection against 

the plant pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum 

f.sp. vasinfectum. UC ANR 

eJournal Strawberries and Vegetables. 

https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/ 

postdetail.cfm?postnum=22199 

Koike, S. T., G. T. Browne, and T. R. 

Gordon. 2013. UC IPM pest management 

guidelines: Strawberry diseases. 

UC ANR Publication 3468. http://ipm. 

ucanr.edu/PMG/r734101511.html 

Partridge, D. 2003. Macrophomina 

phaseolina. PP728 Pathogen Profiles, 

Department of Plant Pathology, 

North Carolina State University. 

https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/ 

course/pp728/Macrophomina/ 

macrophominia_phaseolinia.HTM 

Vasebi, Y., N. Safaie, and A. Alizadeh. 

2013. Biological control of soybean 

charcoal root rot disease using 

bacterial and fungal antagonists 

in vitro and greenhouse condition. 

J. Crop Prot. 2(2): 139-150. 





November/December 2019 


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WEED MANAGEMENT 

IN VINEYARDS 

By CRYSTAL NAY | Contributing Writer 

From wine grapes to table 

grapes and raisins, there are 

several ways to prevent and 

manage weeds in the vineyard. 

Ideally, weeds are managed 

while they’re still small, since the 

crop is closer to the ground, and taller 

weeds can provide easy access for pests, 

disease, and other complications. 

While industry best practices and 

research hasn’t changed significantly 

very recently, there has been one 

change that farm advisors now recommend 

to growers: spray volumes. 

“The old recommendations were thirty 

gallons an acre,” says Kurt Hembree, 

weed management farm advisor for the 

University of California Cooperative 

Extension, “but it really needs to be 

about forty to fifty gallons an acre.” 

Farm advisors are seeing better results 

for the contact herbicides at this 

higher volume, with better coverage 

and less weed regrowth, and overall a 

cleaner vineyard floor than at the lower 

volumes. Everything else, including 

timing and materials, remain the same. 

The main component of struggling 

with weed control is the fact that 

even though herbicide labels are very 

specific about application timing, 

many growers get into the field later 

than they should. Sometimes pruning 

can take growers into the middle of 

winter, and by then there are rainstorms 

that can prevent them from 

getting out into the field, especially 

in vineyards with heavier soils. 

Before growers catch themselves 

at odds in the winter, there are 

things that can be done earlier to 

ensure a well-implemented program. 

“Late summer and early fall 

is a great time to make sure all your 

equipment is working properly,” 

says Hembree. “Check your spray 

nozzles and all your machinery.” 

Whichever weed management program 

a grower chooses, Hembree insists on 

sticking to it, and adhering as closely as 

possible to the timings. “As soon as everything 

is pruned and the canes come 

out of the field, be ready to go. Timing 

is the biggest issue. Like in the case of 

raisins, you only have a few months 

before the canopies touch the ground.” 

Another major key for ensuring 

spray effectiveness is cleaning up 

trashy berms and keeping them 

clean. If there is debris at the base 




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Protect the orchard floor from nutrient-robbing weeds. 

Killing weeds after they take over the orchard fl oor is akin to 

installing a security system after thieves emptied the house. 

“Most growers,” he says, “prefer a tree line application, though 

some broadcast Alion across their acreage.” 

To protect yield from nutrient-robbing weeds, lock them out 

of the orchard fl oor. Slam the gate on weeds with a tankmix 

of a long-lasting, foundational herbicide paired with a contact 

treatment that provides a second mode of action. 

Benefits include: 

• Increased yield potential 

• Reduced insect and disease pressure 

• More effi cient water and nutrient uptake 

• Improved harvestability in tree nuts 

“Herbicides are important in almond 

orchards,” says Pest Control Advisor/ 

Certifi ed Crop Advisor (PCA/CCA) 

David Vermeulen, Modesto, California. 

“Weeds compete for nutrients. They 

compete for water. Those are probably 

your bigger two issues in the almond 

orchard, especially early on, so by keeping them down you have 

more water and more nutrients getting to the plant to get a better 

crop. Weeds also harbor insects – take morning glory, when you 

control it, you have a little less mite pressure in the orchard.” 

Vermeulen uses Alion ® two ways, depending on crop needs: a 

single application in a tankmix with a second mode of action in 

the fall or Alion alone in a split application with treatments in 

November and February. As a Group 29 herbicide, Alion offers a 

unique mode of action, which Vermeulen particularly appreciates 

for the resistance management opportunity. 

“Alion works well and it works perfectly for switching chemistries 

around,” Vermeulen states. 

Alion Provides Long-Lasting Weed and 

Grass Control 

The effective, long-lasting weed control extends across a 

broad spectrum of broadleaf weeds and grasses. With low 

use rates in an easy-to-use liquid SC formulation, Alion also 

offers excellent crop safety. 

Bayer Sales Representative Matthew Wilson, PCA, recommends 

Alion for pre-emergent weed control in mature almonds, walnuts 

and grapes during dormancy from November through January. 

“Alion does a really good job, 

has long residual weed control 

and it takes care of a lot of 

broad-spectrum weeds…” 

Wilson’s goal is to simplify weed control for growers and help 

them harvest high yields. 

“It’s important to maintain control of weeds in an orchard throughout 

the growing season,” Wilson says. “If weeds go untreated through 

the growing season, they can potentially rob the orchard of valuable 

nutrients and water, which can put unnecessary stress on the crop. 

At harvest time, weeds can compromise the harvest process.” 

Ryan Garcia, of Hughson, California, a PCA/CCA with Salida Ag 

Chem, sees the weed population diminishing in the orchards he 

helps manage. 

“I continue to use Alion in a pre-emergent 

rotation because it’s a good product and 

it works really well. We can see Alion 

reducing the weed population overall as 

soon as we start using it,” Garcia states. 

“I think it’s one of the top – if not the top – pre-emergent product 

out in the market right now. Alion does a really good job, has long 

residual weed control and it takes care of a lot of broad-spectrum 

weeds that are giving us issues here in the Central Valley.” 

Outstanding Weed Control Compared to 

Other Premium Herbicides 

Percent of weed control at 121 days after application replicated 

at two locations in California tree nuts. 

Percent of Weed Control 

(121 Days after Application) 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

85 

72.5 

75 

Roundup ® + Rely ® 

Source: Brad Hanson, UC Davis, 2017. 

97.5 

100 100 

Alion ® at 3.5 oz./A 

+ Roundup + Rely 

92.5 95 

Overall Jungle rice Fluvellin 

Learn more at AlionEndsWeeds.com 

75 

Mission ® at 2.15 oz./A 

+ Roundup + Rely 

© 2019 Bayer Group. Always read and follow label instructions. Bayer, the Bayer Cross, Alion, and Roundup are registered trademarks of the Bayer Group. Not all products are registered for use in 

all states. Rely is a registered trademark of BASF Corporation. Mission is a registered trademark of Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha, Ltd. For additional product information, call toll-free 1-866-99-BAYER 

(1-866-992-2937) or visit our website at www.CropScience.Bayer.us. Bayer CropScience LP, 800 North Lindbergh Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63167. CR0918ALIONNB016S00R0 


ICIDE EC 



of your vines, there’s no telling 

whether or not the spray chemicals 

are making it into the soil and reaching 

the weeds, or if they’re getting 

stuck and then washing away. 

According to Hembree, if the field is 

clean and the proper spray timings are 

followed, the rest of any weed management 

program will fall into place. 

This is especially true for organic 

FOR ORGANIC PRODUCTION 

clusters, a too-lax weed management 

vineyards, as trying to rein in weeds 

from an organic standpoint is very 

challenging. This becomes trickier 

because available options are much 

more limited, but organic growers who 

dedicate the right equipment, manpower, 

and timing can do just as well. 

Doing nothing—in both organic and 

conventional—is a recipe for disaster, 

and can wreak havoc on the crop, the 

harvest crew, and the bottom line. 

Using raisin grapes again as an example, 

tall horseweeds or prickly lettuce 

® 

can overrun a vineyard, which can 

also bring white flies and leaf hoppers. 

Combine this with an angry crew that 

has to fight with weeds to hunt for 

system will have weeds seeds nestled 

in the folds of raisins and will, therefore, 

result in a contaminated crop. 

“I’ve seen weeds seeds end up in 

the trays, and I’ve seen loads get 

rejected from overseas because 

of them,” says Hembree. 

Growers who are vigilant about their 

weed management program will benefit 

greatly because of it. Both pre-plant 

and post-plant options are available 

to control weeds in vineyards. 

HERBICIDE EC 

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◊ Zero pre-harvest interval (PHI) 

◊ Safe for pollinators and beneficials 

◊ Non-volatile, emulsifiable concentrate 

72 hours 

post-application 

Your Partner for an Effective 

Weed Control Program 

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Pre-Plant Options 

Preparing the soil prior to planting a 

new vineyard is a great time to initiate 

a solid weed management regiment. 

FOR 

For one, 

ORGANIC 

controlling weeds 

PRODUCTI 

at this stage 

is critical because of the competition 

for resources that can happen if weeds 

are present during the planting of 

vines. An irrigation program that 

supports weed seed germination, which 

is then followed by tillage to uproot 

these new seedlings, can help greatly 

reduce the presence of weeds. There’s 

also the option of burying seeds even 

further beneath the ground, preventing 

them from sprouting at all. However, 

a drawback of this is that the soil 

shouldn’t be tilled for about four years, 

otherwise the seeds might be brought 

back to the surface and germinate. 

There is also the option of laying 

UV-inhibiting, clear plastic between 

rows that are six feet wide and damp. 

The longer the days, the better, and 

this should be started no later than 

late August in most California 

regions to ensure that this process 

can be completed within four to six 

weeks, before the seasonal change. 

Post-Plant Options 

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Most vineyards aren’t starting 

anew when it comes to weed 




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management, so staving off weeds can either be a 

proactive endeavor, or a reactive one that can leave 

growers—and harvest crews—battling weeds. 

Cultivation 

With this method, weeds can either be uprooted or 

buried, with uprooting working better for larger weeds, 

and burial working better for smaller ones. Keeping 

the depth of grape roots in mind, cultivation ideally 

destroys weed roots to remove current plants without 

turning over the soil enough to allow for germination 

of new seeds. Established perennial weeds will need 

more attention in order to remove them, and growers 

may need a special mechanism to protect vine roots. 

Flaming 

"When a burst of heat is 

applied at 130°F, the plant’s 

cell wall ruptures. This is most 

effective on non-grass plants 

that have fewer than two 

true leaves." 

Whichever method a grower chooses, it’s helpful to keep 

a weed survey of the field. These records can assist in 

method selection, can track changes in the field, and 

can help with diligently sticking to a weed management 

program, which is imperative for vineyard success. 

Comments about this article? We want to hear from you. 

Feel free to email us at article@jcsmarketinginc.com 

When a burst of heat is applied at 130°F, the plant’s cell wall 

ruptures. This is most effective on non-grass plants that 

have fewer than two true leaves. Burning isn’t necessary, 

and a weed that loses its shine or retains a fingerprint 

when pressed has been adequately flamed. Propane-fueled 

flamers are the most commonly used models for weeds in 

the vine row, and it’s extremely important to avoid this 

method in windy conditions or around dry vegetation. 

Herbicides 

Contact herbicides are effective, and since the results are 

dependent upon the chemicals touching the plant, they 

can also damage grape leaves and vines. New flushes 

of weeds will require additional application, as contact 

herbicides don’t generally have a residual effect. Following 

all provided directions—from application method and 

timing, to protective equipment and storage—is extremely 

important when using any specific herbicides. 

Mulch 

What is weed control without the mention of mulch? 

While mulch can be made from a variety of materials, such 

as wood chips, straw and even newspaper, the ultimate 

goal is to completely block any light from reaching seeds, 

thus preventing germination. Organic mulches break 

down faster, so the layer will have to be thicker. Winter 

cover crops can be cut and then moved to be used as 

mulch. Though cover crops can outcompete weeds, they 

can also compete with the vine. Mulches in general may 

provide cover for some unwanted visitors as well, such 

as rodents that can damage vine trunks and roots. 

Bring the 

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MAXIMIZING THE EFFICIENCY 

OF AIRBLAST SPRAYING 

By LYNN R. WUNDERLICH | University of California Cooperative Extension Farm 

All photos courtesy of L.R. Wunderlich, UC Regents 

Agricultural operations are 

becoming more efficient-have 

you noticed? 

Efficiency is defined as 

using the least amount of 

input to achieve the highest amount of 

output. And any business person, engineer 

or farmer knows that efficiency 

saves money. Still, there is one critical 

piece of equipment on every farm that 

sometimes is forgotten when we talk 

efficiency: the airblast sprayer. 

When I think of maximizing the 

efficiency of an airblast application, I 

think of coverage. Spray coverage is 

the opposite of drift, and good spray 

coverage on the target, while minimizing 

off-site pesticide movement, is the 

goal when we take the sprayer out. 

Here, some tips for improving the 

efficiency of your airblast sprayer. 

1. Take care of your equipment, 

understand how it works. Don’t 

ignore the basics. Keep a clean machine. 

Cleaning improves the life of 

the sprayer, reduces the chance of 

cross-contamination of pesticides 

and crop injury, and improves spray 

quality. Although this is a “duh”, I 

often encounter sprayer problems 

that are due to neglect of the basics: 

▶ The pump pre- and post-filters 

should be cleaned at the end or start 

of every spray day. 

▶ 

Likewise, the nozzle strainers. 

Cleaning the filters doesn’t take 

much time but can make a huge 

▶ 

difference in the application. 

Replace the nozzles annually at least. 

Enough said. 

▶ The fan grill should be clear of 

leaves and debris so it can intake air. 

▶ 

▶ 

Be sure that the agitation-either 

mechanical or hydraulic-is working 

properly-this ensures a uniform 

pesticide suspension. 

Make sure your pressure gauge is 

easy to read, uses a scale that makes 

sense for your typical spray pressure 

(no need to go to 1000 psi), and 

check the pressure gauge against 

another gauge for accuracy. 




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average of $475/bearing acre. 1 

58% average increase in canopy 

diameter in newly planted trees. 2 

Convenient in-season application 

via chemigation. 

For more information, visit www.VelumOne.com. 

1 

Profit increase based on 2017 almond price/lb. and average yield/bearing acres with 8.3% increase in yield versus untreated over three-year trial, per trial data of five locations with a single 

application of Velum One at 6.5 or 6.85 fl. oz./A. 

2 

Velum One applied at 6.5 oz./A, spring 2017, via drip irrigation. Trees planted in January 2017. Increase in green canopy pixels based on an average of two rows of untreated trees compared 

to an average of two rows of Velum One-treated trees. 

© 2019 Bayer Group. Always read and follow label instructions. Bayer, the Bayer Cross, and Velum are registered trademarks of the Bayer Group. Not all products are registered for use in 

all states. For additional product information, call toll-free 1-866-99-BAYER (1-866-992-2937) or visit our website at www.CropScience.Bayer.us. Bayer CropScience LP, 800 North Lindbergh 

Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63167. CR0119VELONEB034S00R0 



This pump pre-filter was so full of sulfur and oil 

that it couldn’t be easily removed. It came lose 

after an overnight soak with a tank cleaner. No 

wonder the pressure had low-impeded flow! 

Photo courtesy of F. Niederholzer 


2. Check your calibration 

variables to make sure they are 

accurate. Calibration is an essential 

part of sprayer efficiency. I 

prefer to use the basic calibration 

formula, which works with any 

sprayer and is easy to remember. 

Spray volume 

(GPA, gallons per acre) 

No matter what formula you choose 

to use to calibrate, the variables 

you need to measure are the same: 

nozzle output, tractor ground 

speed, and spray swath width. 

Nozzle output (flow rate) is a function 

of the pressure and the type of 

nozzle. You can check this in the 

nozzle manufacturer’s catalog-most 

are available online. But you should 

also confirm by measuring the flow 

rate because the output can change 

when nozzles wear, or when the 

pressure differs from that listed in 

the catalog. I’ve found that even new 

nozzles can have flow rates that differ 

significantly from what is expected. 

To measure the entire sprayer 

flow rate, follow these steps: 

▶ 

= 

Park the sprayer on a level surface. 

Fill the tank with clean water up 

to a verifiable spot at the top of the 

tank—usually you can see a line at 

the strainer or even make a mark 

with a Sharpie. 

▶ Working with the driver, bring 

the PTO or engine up to operating 

RPMs (540) and open all 

the nozzles while timing with a 

stopwatch how long they are open. 

▶ 

Flow Rate 

(GPM, gallons per minute) 

Land Rate 

(APM, acres per minute) 

You’ll want to keep them open for 

a minute or two. Check to confirm 

the pressure while they are open 

(you’ll need to wear PPE, personal 

protective equipment, because 

you’ll get wet!). Be sure to stop 

your stopwatch when the nozzles 

are shut off and use that time for 

your calculation. 

Refill the sprayer up to your line 

and record how much water it 

takes to refill. Be sure to use a 

bucket that has been calibrated 

itself to make accurate measurements. 

Then divide the number of 

gallons it took to refill by the time 

to get the gallons per minute. 

This method gives you output of the 

entire sprayer, all nozzles. If you 

want to measure individual nozzle 

flow rates, you will need to either 

make or purchase a nozzle adapter, 

to fit over the nozzle with a hose 

attached to capture the flow. We’ve 

made an adapter from dishwasher 

plumbing supplies, brass hose bibs 

and hose clamps. AAMS Salvarani 

manufacturing in Belgium is a 

source to purchase nozzle adapters. 

Once you have the actual sprayer 

flow rate, confirm your tractor 

ground speed. Don’t rely on the 

tractor speedometer, these are 

notoriously erroneous as they 

are typically set with the tires 

at the place of manufacturing. 

When tire sizes are changed, as 

they often are once the tractor 

reaches the sale point, the number 

of rotations and corresponding 

speedometer mph will be affected. 

To check the tractor speed, measure 

out at least 100 feet in the 

terrain you’ll be working in, note 

the tractor gear and setting, and 

time the travel. This is typically in 

seconds, so you’ll need to convert 

to distance travelled over time in 

minutes to get feet per minute. 

Land rate is defined as the swath 

width in feet multiplied by the 

ground speed in feet per minute. 

Swath width in orchards and 

vineyards is the row spacing, in 

feet. From the square feet, or area 

sprayed, you can then do the conversions 

to acres sprayed per minute. 



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I can look at the Quick-Look 

images immediately and get some 

answers right away. It’s going to 

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BETTER 

MANAGEMENT 

DECISIONS.” 

—NICK GATZMAN, Tavaille & Phippen, CA 

Learn more 

Quantix-AVDSS.com 

MAXIMIZE EVERY ACRE 




3. Recheck your calibration variables 

by looking at spray coverage. Use water 

sensitive spray cards or add a visible marker 

like kaolin clay to the tank, to check the 

spray coverage once you’ve calibrated. 

Water sensitive spray cards used to be hard 

to find, but a quick check online gave me 

three results—Gemplers, Sprayer Depot 

and Amazon—for places to purchase. 

No fancy tools needed! A simple bucket can be used to measure the sprayer output after 

spraying out for a measured amount of time, as demonstrated here by U.C. Cooperative 

Extension Farm Advisor Franz Niederholzer. 

Put the spray cards in the canopy where 

you are targeting your spray. You can use 

mailing tags, with a card stapled to each 

side, to easily hang them in the canopy. 

Hang several also in areas where you 

don’t want to see spray. Remember to flag 

the branches where the paper is hung 

for easy retrieval. Then, run your sprayer 

down the row and retrieve the cards after. 

Interpreting what you see on the paper 

can be a bit tricky—you want to look for 

about 85 dots per square centimeter (see 

https://sprayers101.com/confirm-coverage-with-water-sensitive-paper/ 

for a visual 

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" 

Don’t get too caught up in how 

many dots though; the most 

important thing is that you want 

some dots but not a totally blue 

card, which would indicate too 

much spray... 

" 

Water sensitive spray cards are yellow and turn 

blue when sprayer water drops hit. They can be 

attached to mailing tags for easy hanging in the 

canopy. 

of what this looks like). Don’t get too 

caught up in how many dots though; 

the most important thing is that you 

want some dots but not a totally blue 

card, which would indicate too much 

spray; nor a totally yellow card, which 

would indicate not enough spray. 

Grape Bud 

ANALYSIS 

The More You Know the More You Grow 

Since 1983 Bio Ag Services has been aiding grower decisions on 

grape projections, yield, and pruning. Our technicians dissect 

the buds on grape canes and spurs, giving you the information 

you can expect in next year’s crop. 

The cards can give you clues on 

adjustments to make to refine your 

calibration: nozzle position, nozzle 

flow rate, fan speed, and ground speed 

may need to be modified for the best 

efficiency! Plan to spend at least a 

morning on optimizing your sprayer 

efficiency, it will pay off in the end. 

Our Program 

Percentage of Fruitful Buds 

Yield Projections 

Cost Savings 

Increase Pruning and 

Thinning Efficiency 

Yield Stability 




www.bioagservicescorp.com 

For more information on how to sample and send canes and spurs to our office contact us at: 

Robert Weaver: 559-977-2563 Scott Lecrone: 559-470-7328 



MECHANIZED 

VINEYARD 

IS IT THE WAVE OF THE FUTURE? 

By CECILIA PARSONS | Associate Editor 

Mechanization progress in a 

traditionally labor intensive crop 

is yielding improved production 

and quality. 

Wine grape growers in California’s 

San Joaquin Valley and other wine grape growing 

regions are finding benefits in University 

of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE) 

research into mechanized dormant pruning and 

shoot removal. While the traditional winegrape 

training system can work for mechanical harvest, 

mechanical dormant pruning and shoot removal 

operations have not been as successful. The aim 

in further mechanization is to lower labor costs 

while still ensuring crop yields and quality. 

Mechanical Pruning 

University of California (UC) researchers Kaan 

Kurtural, a specialist at the UC Davis Department 

of Viticulture and Enology and George Zhuang, 

UCCE viticulture advisor in Fresno County found 

that introducing mechanized pruning and other 

vine management operations could be done in 

existing vineyards. Vines could be re-trained 

during the transition from hand pruning and they 

would still retain production and fruit quality. 

This choice is significant for wine grape growers 

in the San Joaquin Valley, who produce more than 

half of the wine grapes in California, because in 

recent years they have faced increased labor costs, 

worker shortages and tighter profit margins. 

Vineyard photos courtesy of Kaan Kurtural. 

A report from UC Davis noted mechanical 

pruning in wine grape vineyards reduced 


® 


labor costs by 90 percent, increased 

grape yields and had no impact on 

the berry’s anthocyanin content. 

One of the research sites was an 

eight-acre portion of a 53-acre 

block of 20-year-old Merlot vines in 

Madera County. The field study took 

place over three growing seasons. 

The report noted that following completion 

of the research trial, the remainder 

of the vineyard was converted to 

the single high-wire sprawling system 

used in the trial block. UC researchers 

also reported other wine grape growers 

in the area are beginning to transition 

vineyards to the new system. 

Trellis Systems 

In the San Joaquin Valley, the traditional 

trellis system consists of 

vines head trained to a 38-inch tall 

trunk above the vineyard floor and 

two eight-node canes laid on a catch 

wire in opposite directions. There are 

also two eight-node canes attached 

to a 66-inch catch wire. This system 

can work for mechanical harvesting, 

but not dormant pruning and shoot 

removal and limits options for other 

canopy management operations. 

In the trial, the vines were converted to 

a bilateral cordon-trained spur pruned 

California sprawl training system or 

to a bilateral cordon-trained, mechanically 

box pruned single high wire 

sprawling system. The UCCE report 

noted that the second system was the 

most successful for mechanical pruning. 

A report on converting vineyards 

to mechanical pruning, authored 

by Kurtural, Andrew E. Beebe, 

Johann Martinez-Luscher, Zhuang, 

Karl T. Lund, Glenn McGourty and 

Larry J. Bettiga and published in 

HortTechnology, concluded that 

conversion of traditional systems to 

the bilateral cordon-trained mechanically 

box pruned single high wire 

sprawling system (SHMP) sustained 

greater yield with more clusters per 

vine and smaller berries without 

affecting the canopy microclimate. 

This was due to a higher number of 

nodes retained after dormant pruning. 

Compared to the traditional and the 

bilateral cordon-trained spur pruned 

California sprawl training system, the 

SHMP canopies filled their allotted 

space earlier. The report authors said 

that earlier canopy growth coupled with 

sufficient reproductive compensating 

responses allowed for increased yields 

while reaching maturity without a 

decline in anthocyanin content. This 

system is recommended for growers 

in the hot Central Valley winegrape 

growing areas to increase sustainability 

of production while not sacrificing 

adequate berry composition. 

From 2013 to 2015, labor costs per 

acre with the SHMP system totaled 

$463.05 while the hand labor during 

that time totaled $1,348 per acre. 

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100 

0 

APR 

JUN 

AUG 

2011 



OCT 

Reduction of IMM at Retail Store 

DEC 

FEB 

APR 


CT IMM Applied - Fall 2011, Spring 2013, Fall 2013 

36 Dispensers per application 

JUN 

AUG 

2012 

OCT 

DEC 

FEB 

APR 

JUN 

AUG 

96% 

OCT 

DEC 

No. of IMM 

REDUCTION 

FEB 

APR 

2013 2014 

JUN 

© 2019, Trécé Inc., Adair, OK USA • TRECE, PHEROCON and CIDETRAK are registered trademarks of Trece, Inc., Adair, OK USA • TRE-1647, 10/19 



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Vineyard Mechanization Conversion 

Kurtural also led research on vineyard 

mechanization conversion in a 40- 

acre vineyard in Napa County. The 

research began as a labor-saving trial, 

but Kurtural reported that when they 

began looking at the physiological 

aspects of how plants grow, there were 

benefits to fruit quality as well. 

Taller canopies due to increased trunk 

height protect the developing winegrapes 

from sun damage. The taller 

canopies and the increased yields from 

mechanically pruned vines also mean 

that water and nutrient requirements 

in the vineyard can be different from 

those in hand-pruned vineyards. 

Zhuang confirmed that interest in 

mechanical pruning and vineyard 

transition is growing, not only in the 

San Joaquin Valley, but on the Central 

Coast where sufficient labor for cultural 

practices is becoming difficult to find. 

The premium wine grape growing areas 

in northern California have strong 

traditions with hand spur pruning, but 

tighter labor markets may lead growers 

there to consider mechanization. 

The vine re-training could also be 

feasible for raisin grape vineyards, 

Zhuang said, but not for table grapes 

due to different production needs. 

Changes in Nutrient and Irrigation 

Management 

Where mechanized pruning is done, 

Zhuang said, there would need to 

be changes in nutrient management 

and irrigation. Water and fertilizer 

requirements for mechanically 

pruned vines are different than 

those of hand pruned vines. 

“Canopies will grow faster and 

bigger on those vines,” he said. 

Mechanized pruning operations will 

leave many more buds, as many as 

double the number left after spur 

pruning, and that will change the plant 

physiology. Buds will break earlier in 

the growing season, Zhuang said and 

the vines would begin to push new 

growth much faster. The early growth 

will mean early water demands will 

need to be met. Demand for nutrients 

will be accelerated by the early 

growth, larger canopies and yields. 

Labor 

Nick Davis, ranch manager for The 

Wine Group, a company that farms 

13,000 acres of wine grapes between 

Kern County and Lodi, said reducing 

the impacts of increased labor costs 

prompted the decision to move toward 

mechanized pruning in their vineyards. 

Any new vineyard developed by the 

company, in the Central Valley, will 

be set up for mechanization, Davis 

said, and the goal is to become 100 

percent mechanized in the future. 

“We know this system works, but 

we will be working on managing 

the hedge-pruned box and not 

allow it to creep out,” Davis said. 

Transitioning existing vineyards 

requires removal of cross arms and 

foliage wires and t-posts, but if the 

berry quality and the production 

are the same or better than vines 

that are hand pruned, transitioning 

will continue, Davis said. 






ANGLED SHOOT 

( SASP) 

PROJECTION 

TRELLIS DESIGN 

By STEVE SHOEMAKER | Grower 

We have a small vineyard consisting 

of mostly French and a few Spanish 

varietals planted on deep sand, 

sandy loam, and river rock clay 

soils. The deep sand soil creates vines 

that are balanced in growth and grapes that produce 

wines with a mineral touch. In contrast, the sandy loam 

soil creates vines that are overgrown with grapes that are 

excellent as long as the vine growth is controlled in order 

to keep the vines balanced. The vines were planted in the 

river rock clay area a few years ago. 

The area where the vineyard is planted is a micro-climate 

within Region 4 (warm growing area) with fall wine 

grape ripening season in the 90’s during the day and 

40’s at night, excellent for slow and balanced ripening. 

Since I take care of all vineyard and cellar requirements, 

I am always looking for designs and procedures that 

decrease time, work, and number of steps for completion. 

Everything is consciously engineered and tested 

for simplicity, repeatable results, and ease of care. 

VSP 

When the vines were first planted in 2007, I naturally 

assumed that Vertical Shoot Projection (VSP) 

was “the” way to trellis the vines because of its 

popularity and my ignorance of trellising designs. 

Because the rows are oriented east-west for esthetic 

reasons, special considerations were required for 

sun protection on the south side of the vines. 

I discovered that it was very difficult to get grapes of 

full physiological maturity balanced with the right 

brix to make premium wines, so I began looking at the 

trellis design wondering if there was a better way to 

achieve my goal of premium grapes without the extensive 

leaf and cane thinning and hedging. As I looked 

more intently at the VSP design, I decided there was 

a better way to trellis the grapes for this area; one that 

enabled easier vine maintenance without multiplying 

issues, like the ever-prominent powdery mildew. 

With the VSP trellis, I had to grow the southside of the 


Figure 1: Syrah on SASP Trellis. All photos courtesy of Steve Shoemaker. 


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Spur Pruned 

Figure 2: Syrah on SASP Trellis. All photos courtesy of Steve Shoemaker. 


vine canes longer to protect the fruit 

from premature raisining because of 

the intense sunlight; but that created 

a perfect environment for powdery 

mildew because of the “umbrella-like” 

structure that resulted. Essentially, 

when the vines were watered by the 

drip irrigation, the moisture turned 

to humidity that rose up and hung 

in the fruiting area encouraging 

mildew growth while the multiple 

layers of canes and leaves prevented 

the mildew sprays from reaching the 

fruit. I then pushed the vine canes 

up to get some airflow in the fruiting 

zone; but there was still a serious 

humidity problem in the fruiting area. 

After a few seasons, I decided to 

find a different trellising design 

that would eliminate the problems 

that VSP created. I analyzed the 

issues with VSP and made a list to 

be addressed by a different design. 

The VSP trellis design relies on the 

canes projecting vertically, but in warm 

growing environments with intense 

sunlight, there is a need for shading 

of the fruit to prevent premature 

raisining; but the number of canes 

required for protection also served 

as an effective protection from the 

mildew spray reaching the fruiting 

zone, while also preventing the sun 

from penetrating the multiple layers 

of leaves to created color in the grapes. 

This technique of allowing the canes 

to flop over on the vine is known in 

this area as “California Sprawl” and 

it shades the fruit with many layers of 

leaves, thus preventing adequate air 

movement to help prevent powdery 

mildew. Additionally, having canes 

over four feet long, the green matter of 

the vines was exceeding the green matter-to-fruit 

ratio for growing premium 

quality grapes. The ratios for growing 

premium quality fruit are generally 

known to be 15 leaves per bunch and 

six to eight bunches per vine; but that 

is for vines grown in a cooler environment, 

which does not provide adequate 

protection in Region 4. Consequently, 

I have been working on creating the 

appropriate ratios for growing wine 

grapes in Region 4; but the long canes 

required to protect the fruit was 

creating a higher level of pyrazines in 

my fruit and thus flavors of bell-pepper 

in my Cabernet wines. Essentially, by 

protecting the fruit from too much sun 

with the VSP trellis design, there were 

additional issues of not enough sun to 

achieve physiological maturity in the 

grapes, preventing mildew sprays from 

reaching the grapes for their protection, 

and off flavors in the Cabernet wines. 

Since VSP trellised vines are spur 

pruned, it was always a fight between 

what I wanted the vines to do in terms 

of growth and what the vine actually 

did. The issue is that the number 

of buds left on the spur is inversely 

related to the number of canes that 

the spur will produce in the spring, 

especially on mature vines. I pruned 

to two-buds and would end up with 

four to six canes from each spur, 

requiring extensive spring cane and 

leaf thinning. I then pruned to fourbuds 

which resulted in three to four 

canes from each spur; and although 

better, it was still a real issue to get the 

fruiting zone cleaned up since it was 

only me doing all the leaf and cane 

thinning. Interestingly, I take care of a 

neighboring vineyard that is trellised 

on the VSP design; and each year, 

even though it receives leaf and cane 

thinning, it loses about 15-20 percent 

of the fruit from powdery mildew. 

In my analysis, I noticed the VSP trellis 

design puts all the fruit in the same 

area just above the horizontal cordon 

where all the canes are protruding 

from and the dead leaves from senescence 

land and stay, thus covering the 

fruit. For some vineyards that have 

adequate and well trained help, these 

problems might not be an issue; but 

for a vineyard that has little to no help, 

I was cleaning all the time. I noted in 

that having all the fruit in one area, 

it created problems of cane and fruit 

entanglement making it harder to 

harvest the fruit, a higher incidence of 

bunch-rot, and the dead leaves laying 

on top of the fruit in the crux of the 

canes formed at the cordon assisted 

with additional formation of mildew. 

I have also found that the fruit from 

VSP vines had more bird damage 

because of the readily available canes 

for perching and eating the grapes. 

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Concerning the nutrition of the grapes, 

there is a general theory that states the 

closer the fruit is to the soil, the better 



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the nutrient supply to the fruit, 

thus making better fruit for wine. 

The VSP design puts the fruit a reasonable 

distance up the trunk away 

from the nutrient source, which 

has the potential for decreasing the 

fruit quality. I have found that the 

physiological maturity and brix in 

the fruit harvested from the VSP 

trellis design is not as balanced 

as it could be, for some reason. 

For example, the fruit I harvested 

from the vines on my neighbor’s 

property is on a sandy red clay mix 

soil and grown on the VSP trellis 

design. Although the soil has a 

huge effect on the maturity and 

quality of the fruit, this vintage’s 

fruit is very unbalanced with high 

pH and low Titratable/Total Acid 

(TA). I also noticed very little 

sunlight reached the fruit down 

in the crotch of the cane/cordon, 

thus creating an issue of physiological 

maturity, which might have 

contributed to the acid imbalance. 

In summary, the VSP design, at 

least in our area, produces lower 

quality and unbalanced fruit, 

contributes to increased powdery 

mildew, prevents mildew sprays 

from reaching the fruit, allows 

for more bird damage, requires 

more time and effort to maintain, 

and requires the soil nutrients 

to travel farther to the fruit. 

New Trellis Design 

The goal of a new trellis design 

became one that allows more 

light and air into the vine while 

still protecting the grapes from 

sunburn and being easy to care for 

on a small scale. I started looking 

into other trellising systems that 

might satisfy the requirements 

by studying publications, like Dr. 

Smart’s “Sunshine into Wine” and 

others, to find the right design. 

The research spanned the world of 

grape trellising including designs 

of France, Italy, Australia, and the 

U.S. As the analysis proceeded, I 

discovered there really wasn’t a design 

that satisfied the identified requirements 

while still being easy to maintain. 

Consequently, I decided to create 

my own design that would answer 

my requirements and be easily 

maintained. The design is essentially 

a “V” shape with cordons angled up 

sharply and is named “Shoemaker’s 

Angled Shoot Projection” (SASP). 

SASP 

The SASP trellis design has resulted 

in less maintenance while providing 

higher quality fruit, significantly 

less powdery mildew, less bird 

damage, and easier harvests. 

Specifically, the SASP trellis design 

provides two to four leaves between the 

sun and fruit, thus providing the correct 

amount of sunlight on the grapes 

to achieve the 20 percent flecking recommended 

by Dr. Smart while preventing 

sunburn and premature raisining. 

This trellis design allows mildew sprays 

to easily reach into the vine to the 

fruit without the need for much leaf 

movement or an expensive fan-style 

spray rig, resulting in cleaner fruit at 

harvest. Even though it is still necessary 

to spray for powdery mildew, the 

SASP trellis design has decreased the 

number of sprays by more than half. 

The SASP trellis design allows the 

person harvesting to easily see the 

fruit for a faster harvest without 

expensive preparatory leaf cane and 

leaf thinning. (See Figure 2, page 44.) 

In Figure 2 (see page 44), the bird 

netting can be seen rolled along the 

drip line; but there are years that I don’t 

get all the nets up to protect from the 

birds. The SASP trellis design produces 

fruit along the angled cordon canes 

hanging free and making it almost 

impossible for birds get to the fruit. 

As an added benefit, the SASP trellis 

design has allowed for ‘interplanting’ 

of additional vines because the angled 

shoots extend upward and thus require 

less horizontal space along the support 

wires. Originally, the vineyard was 

planted with vines 5 feet apart, now 

because of the SASP design, I have 

been able to interplant vines at 2.5 feet 

apart which has doubled the number 

of vines while each one is mining the 

soil for its own nutrients resulting 

in high quality fruit on each vine. 

Interestingly, the vines planted in the 

fertile sandy loam soil were largely 

overgrown creating even more of a 

powdery mildew problem; but now, at 

the closer spacing, the vines are competing 

with each other and the amount 

of green matter growth has decreased 

resulting in more balanced vines 

between the leaves and fruit weight. 

In Conclusion 

The SASP trellis system was created 

to answer identified issues in our 

vineyard by mixing design parameters 

to satisfy the requirements in 

one trellis design structure. SASP 

has resulted in more balanced vines 

with higher quality fruit and easier 

and less expensive maintenance. 

Anyone is considering the SASP 

trellis design, the individual vineyard’s 

terroir, requirements, and issues 

should be considered prior to making 

the decision to use this design. 

For over 12 years now, Steve Shoemaker 

has been making wine and tending his 

vineyard; where he finds much needed 

solace after having been a Counter- 

Terrorism (CT) expert and spending 7 

years in war-zones. He has an undergraduate 

degree in Biology and is a few 

years away from a doctorate in CT; but 

is currently in his last two courses of the 

UC Davis Post Graduate Winemakers 

Certificate Program. He can be reached 

at: 3oaksvineyardclovis@gmail.com. 






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