The Political Dynamics of Justice Reform in The U.S.
The Political Dynamics of Justice Reform in The U.S.
The Political Dynamics of Justice Reform in The U.S.
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een removed for misconduct s<strong>in</strong>ce 1901. Immunity from suit for judicial acts, security<br />
<strong>of</strong> tenure, and fixed remuneration are all established parts <strong>of</strong> judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia. <strong>The</strong> appo<strong>in</strong>tment <strong>of</strong> judges rema<strong>in</strong>s exclusively at the discretion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
executive which gives rise to concerns expressed that judicial appo<strong>in</strong>tments are political<br />
and made for political ga<strong>in</strong>. Issues cont<strong>in</strong>ue to arise <strong>in</strong> relation to deal<strong>in</strong>g with judicial<br />
misconduct not warrant<strong>in</strong>g removal and <strong>in</strong>capacity <strong>of</strong> judges. In 2013 Chief <strong>Justice</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
NSW Tom Bathurst identified the way <strong>in</strong> which judicial and court performance was<br />
measured as one <strong>of</strong> the most substantial risks to the separation <strong>of</strong> powers <strong>in</strong> Australia.<br />
Canada<br />
Canada has a level <strong>of</strong> judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence entrenched <strong>in</strong> its Constitution, award<strong>in</strong>g<br />
superior court justices various guarantees to <strong>in</strong>dependence under sections 96 to 100 <strong>of</strong><br />
the Constitution Act, 1867. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude rights to tenure (although the Constitution has<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce been amended to <strong>in</strong>troduce mandatory retirement at age 75) and the right to a<br />
salary determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the Parliament <strong>of</strong> Canada (as opposed to the executive). In 1982<br />
a measure <strong>of</strong> judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence was extended to <strong>in</strong>ferior courts specializ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> crim<strong>in</strong>al law (but not civil law) by section 11 <strong>of</strong> the Canadian Charter <strong>of</strong> Rights and<br />
Freedoms, although <strong>in</strong> the 1986 case Valente v. <strong>The</strong> Queen it was found these rights<br />
are limited. <strong>The</strong>y do, however, <strong>in</strong>volve tenure, f<strong>in</strong>ancial security and some adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
control.<br />
<strong>The</strong> year 1997 saw a major shift towards judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence, as the Supreme Court<br />
<strong>of</strong> Canada <strong>in</strong> the Prov<strong>in</strong>cial Judges Reference found an unwritten constitutional norm<br />
guarantee<strong>in</strong>g judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence to all judges, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g civil law <strong>in</strong>ferior court judges.<br />
<strong>The</strong> unwritten norm is said to be implied by the preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867.<br />
Consequently, judicial compensation committees such as the Judicial Compensation<br />
and Benefits Commission now recommend judicial salaries <strong>in</strong> Canada. <strong>The</strong>re are two<br />
types <strong>of</strong> judicial <strong>in</strong>dependence: <strong>in</strong>stitutional <strong>in</strong>dependence and decisional<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence. Institutional <strong>in</strong>dependence means the judicial branch is <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
from the executive and legislative branches. Decisional <strong>in</strong>dependence is the idea that<br />
judges should be able to decide cases solely based on the law and facts, without lett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the media, politics or other concerns sway their decisions, and without fear<strong>in</strong>g penalty <strong>in</strong><br />
their careers for their decisions.<br />
Hong Kong<br />
In Hong Kong, <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> the judiciary has been the tradition s<strong>in</strong>ce the territory<br />
became a British crown colony <strong>in</strong> 1842. After the 1997 transfer <strong>of</strong> sovereignty <strong>of</strong> Hong<br />
Kong to the People's Republic <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a pursuant to the S<strong>in</strong>o-British Jo<strong>in</strong>t Declaration,<br />
an <strong>in</strong>ternational treaty registered with the United Nations, <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> the judiciary,<br />
along with cont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>of</strong> English common law, has been enshr<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the territory's<br />
constitutional document, the Basic Law.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>gapore<br />
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