Fauna Palaestina Part 3 Year 2013 by Dr Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf von Jaffa ISBN 978-9950-383-35-7

Fauna Palaestina
Part Three / Teil Drei
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Al Quds (Jerusalem), State of Palestine
Tel. 00972-2340035
info@aljundi.biz
www.aljundi.biz
Fauna Palaestina – Part Three.
Zoological Studies in Palestine between 2005 – 2012
Fauna Palaestina – Teil Drei.
Zoologische Studien in Palästina zwischen 2005 – 2012
by: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
First Edition / Erste Auflage . July 2013
ISBN 978 – 9950 – 383 – 35 - 7
All Rights Reserved / Alle Rechte vorbehalten
Copyright © 2013 by Al Jundi Publishing House. Jerusalem, Palestine
Website of the Book:
Fauna Palaestina – Part Three. Zoological Studies in Palestine between
2005 – 2012 (ISBN 978-9950-383-35-7):
http://dr-norman-ali-khalaf-books.webs.com/faunapalaestinapart3.htm
E-mail of the Author: Jaffacity@yahoo.de
English / German Cover: A Wolf at Qalqilia Zoo, Qalqilia, Palestine in
2011. Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the
Palestine Wildlife Society, Beit Sahour, State of Palestine.
Cover Design / Umschlaggestaltung: Mrs. Ola Mostafa Khalaf. Dubai,
United Arab Emirates.
Printed and bound in Al Quds (Jerusalem), State of Palestine.
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Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
Fauna Palaestina
Part Three / Teil Drei
Zoological Studies in Palestine
between 2005 – 2012
Zoologische Studien in Palästina
zwischen 2005 – 2012
Al Quds (Jerusalem), State of Palestine
2013
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Contents
Fauna Palaestina –Part Three
English / German Articles
1. Preface..................................................................... 7
2. About the Author: A Palestinian-German
Zoologist.................................................................. 9
3. Mammalia Palaestina: The Mammals of Palestine /
Die Säugetiere Palästine…...................................... 11
4. Israel uses the Eland Antelope (Taurotragus oryx)
as a new front line force to protect the Israeli-
Lebanese border....................................................... 82
5. The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus
monachus, Hermann 1779) in Palestinian,
Mediterranean and Atlantic Waters......................... 94
6. Carnivora Palaestina: The Carnivores of Palestine
/ Die Raubtiere Palästinas……................................ 122
7. Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008: A New
Golden Jackal Subspecies from the Gaza Strip,
Palestine................................................................... 159
8. Rodentia Palaestina: The Rodents of Palestine........ 177
9. Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf, 2007: A New
House Mouse Subspecies from the Gaza Strip,
Palestine................................................................... 206
10. Cetacea Palaestina: The Whales and Dolphins in
Palestinian Waters. Cetacean Species Guide for
Palestine................................................................... 221
11. Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus Lilljeborg,
1861) sighted off the Mediterranean Coast of
Palestine................................................................... 241
12. The Story of Prophet Yunus (Jonah) and the
Whale....................................................................... 249
13. The Andromeda Sea Monster of Jaffa .................... 257
14. The Story of Prophet Musa (Moses) and the Fish... 260
15. An Ocean Sunfish or Common Mola (Mola mola,
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Linnaeus 1758) caught off the coast of Gaza: The
First Record from Palestine, East Mediterranean
Sea........................................................................... 265
16. Samak Al-Luchs (Al-Hamoor) or the Orange-
Spotted Grouper (Epinephelus coioides) in
Palestine (Mediterranean Sea) and the United Arab
Emirates (Arabian Gulf).......................................... 287
17 Amphibia Palaestina: The Amphibians of Palestine 295
18 The Palestinian Frogs and Toads............................. 317
19 The Extinction of the Palestinian or Hula Painted
Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn and
Steinitz 1943): The Result of Israeli Drainage of
the Lake Hula.......................................................... 320
20 Das Aussterben der Palästinensischer
Scheibenzüngler oder Hulesee- Scheibenzüngler
(Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn and
Steinitz 1943): Das Resultat der Israelischen
Trockenlegung des Hulesees...................................
331
21 The Re-Discovery of the Palestinian or Hula
Painted Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer,
Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943) in Palestine.......... 344
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IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, MOST GRACIOUS, MOST MERCIFUL
PREFACE
Packed into Palestine's small area are snow-covered mountains, parched
deserts, fertile fields, lush woodlands and long stretches of sand dunes.
No less than four different geographical zones are included in Palestine,
and the country's climate ranges from semi-arid to temperate to
subtropical.
All of this makes Palestine home to a stunning variety of plants and
animals. Some 47,000 living species have been identified in Palestine,
with another 4,000 assumed to exist. There are 116 species of mammals
native to Palestine, 511 kinds of birds, 97 types of reptiles and nine types
of amphibians. Some 2,780 types of plants grow countrywide, from
Alpine flowers on northern mountain slopes to bright red coral peonies
and desert papyrus reeds in the south.
My first published scientific article goes back to January 1980, when I
was still a student in the Zoology Department at Kuwait University,
State of Kuwait. The article was about "The Colouration of Animals".
I was especially interested in the Arabian Wildlife, and in particular, in
my Homeland Palestine. My first zoological article about the Palestinian
Fauna dates back to February 1983. The article was entitled "The
Badger in Palestine and the Arabian Peninsula", and was published
in the Palestinian "Al Khalisah" Bulletin, Kuwait University.
Since that time, I had published many scientific articles in different
scientific books, magazines and bulletins, and established my own
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. In July 1983, "Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin" was created. It was the First Palestinian Scientific
Journal Worldwide (ISSN 0178 – 6288).
My first zoological article in "Gazelle" was about "Order Lagomorpha
in Palestine". Till now 100 "Gazelle" Issues were published; and many
of my articles were about Palestinian Animals.
Finally, and after more than 34 years in Zoological research and studies,
in Palestine and many Arabic and European countries, and after
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publishing many scientific articles in different scientific books,
magazines and bulletins, especially the "Gazelle Bulletin", and after
publishing many articles in the Gazelle Bulletin Web Site, since 2001
under (www.gazelle.8m.net), and after publishing most of my articles
on the internet under (www.webs.com), and after publishing my
zoological books: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin in July
2004, Aquatica Arabica in August 2005, Mammalia Arabica in July
2006, Felidae Arabica in July 2007, Carnivora Arabica in September
2008, Fauna Palaestina – Part One in September 2009, Fauna
Emiratus – Part One in November 2010, and my eighth book Fauna
Palaestina – Part Two which was published by Dar Al Jundi Publishing
House in Al Quds (Jerusalem), State of Palestine in July 2012; I finally
decided to publish my newest scientific book in the Holy City of
Jerusalem, Palestine, containing selected "Palestinian" research and
articles which were published between 2005 - 2012.
It is hard to be optimistic about the future of Wildlife in Palestine. But
recent years have shown the development of official and public interest,
and efforts to conserve the Palestinian Fauna. Palestinian animals lived
with humans for thousands of years. There are a lot of stories concerning
Prophets with Palestinian animals, which were mentioned in the Holy
Quran, Bible and Torah.
I hope that I can participate with my new book to our knowledge about
"Fauna Palaestina", and to help and to be part in protecting the
endangered Palestinian and Arabian Fauna.
Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-von Jaffa.
Al Quds (Jerusalem), the Capital of the State of Palestine and the Capital
of Arab Culture.
05 th July 2013 (My 51 th Birthday).
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About the Author
A Palestinian-German Zoologist
Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke von
Jaffa is a Palestinian-German Zoologist, Ecologist and Geologist.
Born in Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany in 1962. His family
originally comes from Al Eizariya (Bethany), east of Al Quds
(Jerusalem), Palestine. The family then moved to the city of Jaffa,
Palestine before 1948. Finished School in Kuwait. Studied
Zoology, Geology and Ecology for the Bachelor, Master and
Doctorate degrees at the Universities of Kuwait, Durham
(England) and Ashwood (USA). Specialised in Animal Behaviour
and Ecology. Done a lot of work and research in the Universities
of Kuwait, Durham and Saarbrücken; and in the Zoos, Wild Parks
and Field Studies in Palestine, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq,
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Egypt, Turkey,
Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Holland, Belgium,
Luxembourg, England, Scotland, Jersey Island, France, Austria,
Switzerland and Germany.
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He is the author and publisher of "Gazelle : The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin" (ISSN 0178-6288), the first Palestinian
scientific journal worldwide (since 1983); and the author of nine
books: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin (2004),
Aquatica Arabica (2005), Mammalia Arabica (2006), Felidae
Arabica (2007), Carnivora Arabica (2008), Fauna Palaestina –
Part One (2009), Fauna Emiratus – Part One (2010), Fauna
Palaestina – Part Two (2012), Fauna Palaestina – Part Three
(2013), and the co-author of the book "Palestine: A Guide"
(2005/2006).
He discovered and scientifically named five new animal
subspecies. Two Palestinian mammal subspecies from the Gaza
Strip: The Gaza or Palestine House Mouse (Mus musculus
gazaensis Khalaf, 2007) and the Palestine Golden Jackal (Canis
aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008); and two Emirati freshwater fish
subspecies: The Emirati or Wadi Al Wurayah Blind Cave Fish
(Garra barreimiae wurayahi Khalaf, 2009) and the Emirati or
Bassam Khalaf's Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus
bassamkhalafi Khalaf, 2009) from the Emirate of Fujairah, United
Arab Emirates; and the Arabian or Emirati Four-Tusked Elephant
Fossil († Stegotetrabelodon syrticus emiratus Khalaf, 2010) from
the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
He is working now as a free Scientific Researcher, Publisher and
Tourist Guide in the United Arab Emirates. He is married to Ola
Khalaf and has one daughter, Nora (14 Years).
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Mammalia Palaestina
The Mammals of Palestine
Die Säugetiere Palästinas
ثدييات فلسطين
By: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-von Jaffa
Despite its small area, Palestine has a relatively rich fauna, due to its
location at the crossroads of three continents, and because of the large
variety of habitats and climates.
More than 110 species of mammals have roamed the ancient forests,
mountains and deserts of the Holy Land. Their interaction with humans
is documented in the cave drawings of early Neanderthal inhabitants,
and in the writings of all Near Eastern civilizations and Religions
(Torah, Bible and the Holy Qur‘an). The expansion of human population
and encroachment into fragile ecosystems in recent centuries has
resulted in the extinction of several species: aurochs (wild ox), Syrian
Onager (wild ass), roebuck (roe deer), fallow deer, red deer, Arabian
oryx, Syrian brown bear, Asiatic cheetah and the Asiatic lion.
Today, the largest Palestinian land animals are Arabian mountain
gazelles, wild boar, foxes, jungle cats, Sinai ibex and the rarely seen
leopards, hyenas, jackals and wolves. In all, there are 116 different
species of land animals in Palestine, compared with 140 in the whole of
Europe, which is 300 times larger. This is an impressive figure for a
small country, but the numbers of animals within each species is
shrinking.
Since the 1960s, the Israeli Nature Reserves Authority has been
reintroducing populations of animals which were native to the area in
biblical times, under a program known as Hai-Bar. Breeding centers for
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Mediterranean animals (in the Carmel) and desert animals (at Yotvata in
the Wadi Araba) have been set up, and five species were selected for the
first stage: ostriches, roe deer, Asiatic wild asses, Persian fallow deer
and the white oryx. All except the roe deer are globally endangered. The
founder animals for each species came from both zoos and the wild,
around the world. Successful reintroductions into the wild have already
been implemented for the Asiatic wild ass (starting in 1982), the fallow
deer (since 1996) and the white oryx (since 1997).
Most of the Wildlife in Palestine is legally protected by the Israeli Wild
Animals Protection Law, enacted in l954. This law also protected all
carnivores, except the Syrian jackal (Canis aureus syriacus), which was
only later declared a protected species. The Wildlife in Palestine is also
legally protected by the Palestinian Environment Law no. 7, enacted in
1999. The legal protection of carnivores in Palestine is reasonably well
enforced. Cases of intentional killing of carnivores, mainly by shooting,
are rare and carried out only by the Arabs and Druse, with whom the
traditional animosity towards carnivores is still prevalent. There are,
however, occasional cases of mortality caused by pesticides, mainly
secondary poisoning from feeding on poisoned pest rodents. Mortality of
carnivores caused by humans in Palestine is mainly through road
accidents, which, however, do not appear to endanger any species, as
shown by the hyaena (Hyaena hyaena). This species has a small
population in Palestine (rough estimate: 150), and is very prone to road
accidents, with about 20 animals being killed in this way every year.
However, the population seems to be slowly increasing. One advantage
of road deaths is that they provide documentation on the distribution of
the carnivores concerned. For example, the recent spread of the stone
marten (Martes foina) is well-documented by road deaths (Khalaf-von
Jaffa, 2006).
Conservation efforts in occupied Palestine are needed to ensure the
continued survival of the Arabian leopard, Arabian caracal, Palestine
wild cat, Palestine jungle cat, Arabian wolf, Palestine fox, Afghan fox,
Sinai ibex and the desert gazelles, and to prevent the continued habitat
destruction that takes its toll on smaller mammals.
In this study which was relied mainly on the book ―Mammals of the
Holy Land‖ (1996) by the Palestinian Scientist Prof. Dr. Mazin B.
Qumsiyeh, I would like to list the Palestinian mammals living in the
―Land of Milk and Honey‖ or the ―Land of the Gazelle‖.
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Order: INSECTIVORA (Insectivores: Hedgehogs and Shrews):
Family: Erinaceidae (Hedgehogs):
1. East European Hedgehog, Common Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus
concolor, Martin 1918) and the Palestine Hedgehog (Erinaceus
roumanicus sacer, Thomas 1918) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, 9: 212.
Type from near Jerusalem, Palestine. Perhaps a valid subspecies:
Erinaceus concolor sacer]:
This is the largest of the three species of hedgehogs in Palestine. Head
and body length ranges from 200 to 260 mm. in adults with a skull
length over 55 mm. This hedgehog weighs about 550-700 g., with males
generally larger than females. The East European Hedgehog is
distributed in Transcaucasia, Asia Minor, Lebanon, Syria and Palestine.
It is common in the northern half of Palestine, in the Judean hills
(around Al-Quds [Jerusalem]) and along the coastal plain, as far south as
Ruhama. This species is found in the more mesic areas of Palestine.
Records are available from the mountain regions (receiving more than
100 mm. rain/year) and the coastal plains south to Gaza. Where it occurs
it is common and records from Palestine are abundant. Both Aharoni
(1930) and Bodenheimer (1958) reported common hedgehogs as
abundant in Palestine extending as far south as Ruhama and Gaza. It was
also recorded in and around Jerusalem, Beit Lid (near Natanya), Tivon,
Lod, Beit Lahem (Bethlehem) and Beit Sahur.
Hedgehogs are common animals in the folklore of the locals. All
hedgehogs are referred to in Arabic as ―Qunfuth‖ ) ( and rarely as
―Kababet chouk‖ (spiny creature) or ―Khlund‖. They are eaten by some
locals, especially among Bedouins. In many areas, elders attribute
medicinal qualities to hedgehog meat (for example, a cure for arthritis
and rheumatism) (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
2. Egyptian Long-eared Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus aegyptius, E.
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 1803) and the Syrian Hedgehog (Erinaceus
syriacus, Wood 1876) [Bible animals, p. 83, from Palestine. Synonym of
aegyptius]; and (Erinaceus brachydactylus, Tristram 1884) [Fauna and
flora of Palestine, p. 95]:
The Egyptian Long-eared Hedgehog is distributed in Egypt, Cyrenaica
(East of Libya) and Palestine. In Palestine, it is common in the southern
part of the coastal plain as far north as Qeisariya (Caesarea), and south
to the northern Naqab (Negev) Desert (around Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e
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لنفذ

[Beersheba]). This species occupies an area in Palestine that is
intermediate in rainfall (100-400 mm.). It avoids extreme desert
conditions and the northern cold mountain regions. This species is
common along the coastal plains from Jaffa southward to Gaza and Al-
Arish (northern Sinai). It was also recorded in and around Ramleh, Bir
Salem (near Lod), Lod, Bie‘r Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), Tulkarem, Rishon
le Zion, Beit Sahur, Bethlehem, Givatayim (near Tel Aviv), Tel Aviv,
Beit Hanan, Herzelia, Kfar Vitkin, Moza, Revivim, Gevim, Shivta,
Zahala and Tel Shoqet (western Arad).
Ethiopian Hedgehog at Beit Sahour, Palestine in 2012. Photograph by
Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife
Society.
3. Ethiopian Hedgehog, Desert Hedgehog (Paraechinus aethiopicus
pectoralis, Heuglin 1861):
This species is intermediate in size between the small Hemiechinus
auritus and the large Erinaceus concolor. Skull length is generally 45-52
mm. It occurs throughout Africa, Sinai, Arabia, the Syrian Desert, the
Naqab Desert (south of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e), and the Wadi Araba and
reaches the Jordan Valley. The first specimen from the area is that from
Petra (Jordan) on which the name pectoralis was based. Tristram (1884)
and Bodenheimer (1958) reported that this hedgehog is common in
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southern Palestine. It was recorded in and around Bie‘r Al-Sabe‘e
(Beersheba), Wadi Araba, Areeha (Jericho), Azraq ed Druz, Wadi Rum
(at Dieseh), Turabah, Wadi Raman, Revivim, Ein Radian, Rehovot,
Zeelim, Nahal Zin, Jerusalem, Massua, Ain Auja, Ahuzam and Avedat
Horvot.
Family: Soricidae (Shrews):
4. Bicoloured White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura leucodon, Hermann
1780) and the Palestine or Judean Bicoloured White-toothed Shrew
(Crocidura russula judaica, Thomas 1919) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9,
3: 32. Type from near Jerusalem, Palestine]:
The distribution of this species is from Western Europe to central and
southern Russia, eastern Turkestan, Asia Minor, northern Iran and the
Arabian Peninsula. In Palestine, It is found in the northern and central
part of the country, Mount Hermon (at 1,550 m.) and the occupied Golan
Heights.
5. Palestine Lesser White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura suaveolens portali,
Thomas 1920) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 5: 119. Type from Ramleh,
Palestine. Valid subspecies: Crocidura suaveolens portali] and (Suncus
tristrami, Bodenheimer 1935) [Animal life in Palestine, p. 95.
Synonym]:
This Shrew is distributed in Europe and Asia. The subspecies Crocidura
suaveolens portali is known from northern Iraq, Egypt (southern Sinai)
and Palestine, where it has been found in the Huleh Valley (Dan), the
coastal plain (Ramleh) and in the Araba (Arava) Valley (Ein Yahav).
6. Savi's dwarf Shrew, Mediterranean pygmy Shrew, Etruscan Shrew,
Lesser Shrew (Suncus etruscus, Savi 1822) and the Palestine pygmy
Shrew (Sorex pygmaeus, Tristram 1884) [Survey of western Palestine,
fauna and flora of Palestine, p. 24. Type from Dir Mar Saba, Palestine.
Synonym]:
Savi‘s dwarf Shrew is widespread from southern Europe, the
Mediterranean region, the Caucasus, southern Russia, Turkestan, India,
Ceylon, Malaya, Iran, Arabia, North Africa, northern Nigeria, French
Guinea, East and South Africa. In Palestine, it has been recorded from
the northern part of the country as far south as Mar Saba near the Dead
Sea.
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7. Thomas‘s White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura lasia, Thomas 1907):
This species is distributed in Turkey, Caucasia, Iran, Lebanon and
Palestine. It has been recorded once from Mount Hermon at 1,200 m.
above sea level.
8. Great White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura russula monacha, Thomas
1906):
This Shrew is widespread in Western Europe, southern Russia,
Transcaucasia, southern Turkestan, Armenia, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Iran,
Afghanistan, east to Kashmir, China, Japan and North Africa, from
Morocco to Tunisia, but not Egypt. The subspecies Crocidura russula
monacha is known from Lebanon and Palestine, where it is the most
common shrew from Mount Hermon and the occupied Golan Heights as
far south as Eilat.
9. Ramon White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura ramona, Ivanitskaya
Shenbrot and Nevo 1996): This Shrew is presently known only from
southern Palestine, at the northern edge of the Judean Desert and the
Naqab (Negev) Desert highlands (Mizpe Ramon, Sde Boqer and
Sartaba).
10. Pale Gray Shrew, East Persian White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura
pergrisea, Miller 1913):This Shrew is distributed in Baltisan (Kashmir),
eastern Iran and Palestine, where it has been recorded once on Mount
Hermon at 2,000 m.
Order: CHIROPTERA (Bats):
Family: Pteropodidae (Fruit-eating Bats):
11. Egyptian Fruit Bat, Flying ―Fox‖ (Rousettus aegyptiacus, E.
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 1810):
The Egyptian Fruit Bat is distributed in Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon,
Palestine, Egypt, and Ethiopian Africa in part, south to Angola. In
Palestine, It is common in the coastal plain, on Mount Carmel, in the
Huleh and Jordan Valleys, near the Dead Sea (Ein Gedi), but rarely in
the hills. In Eilat, it probably represents the Arabian subspecies,
Rousettus aegyptiacus arabicus Anderson and de Winton 1902, which is
usually smaller, with a more pointed ear tip.
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Family: Rhinopomatidae (Mouse-tailed Bats):
12. Arabian Lesser Mouse-tailed Bat, Small Mouse-tailed Bat
(Rhinopoma hardwickei arabium, Thomas 1913) and (Rhinopoma
hardwickei cystops, Thomas 1903):
This Bat is distributed in North and East Africa, the Asben region,
Tunisia, Egypt, Sudan, southern to northern Kenya, Arabia, Iran,
Afghanistan, India, Burma and lower Siam. In Palestine, it is found in
the Huleh Valley (Dan), western Galilee (Hanita and Rosh Hanikra), the
western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Wadi Amud), the western shore of
the Dead Sea (Ein Gedi), and the Araba (Arava) Valley (Ein Yahav).
13. Larger Mouse-tailed Bat, Great Rat-tailed Bat, Long-tailed Bat
(Rhinopoma microphyllum, Brünnich 1782):
This Bat is distributed in Northeast Africa, Egypt and Arabia, through
India and Burma. In Palestine, it is fairly common in the Huleh Valley
and rarer in the hills, Jordan Valley, plain of Jericho and the Dead Sea
basin.
Family: Emballonuridae (Sheath-tailed Bats, Ghost Bats, Tomb
Bats):
14. Naked-bellied Tomb Bat, Naked-rumped Bat (Taphozous
nudiventris, Cretzschmar 1830):
This bat is distributed in Egypt, south to northern Kenya, Congo,
southern Iran, Arabia, and east to India, Burma and Malay States. The
subspecies Taphozous nudiventris nudiventris is known from Arabia. In
Palestine, it occurs in the Huleh Valley (Dan), Galilee (Wadi Amud),
southeast of Haifa, near the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea.
15. Geoffroy‘s Tomb Bat, Egyptian Tomb Bat (Taphozous perforatus, E.
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 1818) and (Taphozous perforatus haedinus,
Thomas 1925):
This Bat is distributed in southwestern Arabia, Egypt, southward and
westward in Africa and India. In Palestine, the subspecies Taphozous
perforatus haedinus has been recorded from west of the Sea of Galilee,
the western shore of the Dead Sea, and the northern Naqab Desert.
Family: Nycteridae (Slit-faced Bats):
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16. Egyptian Slit-faced Bat (Nycteris thebaica, E. Geoffroy St. Hilaire
1818):
This bat is distributed in Greece (Corfu), Egypt (Sinai), Sudan, Kenya,
Angola and Arabia. In Palestine, it has been recorded in the Jordan
Valley (Beit Shan) and the Araba Valley (Ein Yahav).
Family: Rhinolophidae (Horseshoe Bats, Old World Leaf-nosed
Bats):
17. Greater or Larger Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum,
Schreber 1774):
This Bat is widespread from Europe through Asia, north of the Himalaya
Mountains, as far east as Japan, south through Asia Minor, Syria,
Palestine and Africa. In Palestine, it is common throughout the
Mediterranean coastal region, around the Sea of Galilee and the Judean
hills (Jerusalem).
18. Arabian Horseshoe Bat, Desert or Cretzschmar's Horseshoe Bat
(Rhinolophus clivosus, Cretzschmar 1828):
This Bat is distributed around the Red Sea coasts of Arabia, African
coast of Gulf of Aden, southern Arabia, Eritrea, Egypt, the Sinai and
Sahara Deserts. In Palestine, it may occur in the southern coastal plain
and northern Naqab Desert.
19. Lesser Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros, Bechstein 1800)
and (Rhinolophus hipposideros minimus, Heuglin 1861):
This Bat is distributed in Western Europe through to southwestern
Russia, Asia Minor, Arabia, Iran, east to Kashmir and North Africa,
Sudan and Ethiopia. The subspecies Rhinolophus hipposideros minimus
occurs in Lebanon and Arabia. In Palestine, it ranges from the Huleh
Valley, around the Sea of Galilee, Mount Carmel, Judean hills
(Jerusalem), the coastal plain, Naqab Desert and Araba Valley (Ein
Yahav).
20. Peter's Horseshoe Bat, Blasius‘s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus blasii,
Peters 1857):
This Bat is distributed in southern Europe, Cyprus, Transcaucasia,
southwest Russian Turkestan, Iran, Asia Minor and North Africa. In
Palestine, it is found from the coastal plain (Herzlia) to the Judean hills
(Jerusalem – the Cave of Adullam).
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21. East Mediterranean Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus euryale, Blasius
1853) and the Palestine or Judean Horseshoe Bat (Euryalus judaicus,
Anderson and Matschie 1904) [Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1904:
80. From Cave of Adullam, near Jerusalem (= Mogharet Khureitun, 4
km southeast of Beit Sahur, fide Atallah, 1977) Perhaps a valid
subspecies Rhinolophus euryale judaicus]:
This Bat is distributed in southern Europe, Asia Minor, Iran and North
Africa. The subspecies Rhinolophus euryale judaicus occurs in Lebanon,
Jordan and in Palestine, where it is known from the Sea of Galilee, the
coastal plain and the Judean hills.
22. Mehely‘s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus mehelyi, Matschie 1901):
This Bat is distributed in Transcaucasia, Iran, Turkey, Lebanon and
Palestine, where it has been recorded from the north (Rosh Hanikra), the
coastal plain (Herzlia), Galilee and the Judean hills (Jerusalem).
Family: Hipposideridae (Leaf-nosed Bats):
23. Trident Leaf-nosed Bat (Asellia tridens, E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire
1812):
This Bat is distributed in North Africa, Senegal, Egypt to Zanzibar,
southern Iran, southern Syria, Arabia, eastward to northwestern India. In
Palestine, it is common and widespread from Mount Carmel, the coastal
plain, Jordan Valley, Judean hills to the Araba Valley (north of Eilat).
Family: Molossidae (Free-tailed Bats, Sharp-nosed Bats, Mastiff
Bats):
24. Egyptian Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida aegyptiaca, Geoffroy 1818):
This is a medium-sized bat with a forearm length of 47-55 mm. and a
greatest length of skull of 20-22 mm. This species is distributed in the
most of Africa, and into Arabia and India. In Palestine, it is not yet
recorded, but doubtless occurs in the Naqab Desert.
25. European Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida teniotis rueppellii, Temminck
1826):
This Bat is distributed in southern Europe, Madeira, and the Canary
Islands, through North Africa to southern China, Taiwan and Japan. The
subspecies Tadarida teniotis rueppellii is known from Egypt, Lebanon,
19

Iraq and Palestine, where it is found on Mount Carmel, the coastal plain,
Jordan Valley, Judean hills and the Naqab Desert, as far south as Eilat.
Family: Vespertilionidae (Plain-nosed Bats, Common Bats)
26. Arabian Barbastelle (Barbastella barbastellus leucomelas,
Cretzschmar 1826):
The nominate subspecies is found in Europe and Russia. The Arabian
race Barbastella barbastellus leucomelas occurs in the Caucasus,
Transcaucasia, Russian Turkestan, Chinese Turkestan, southern Asia,
Iran, Sinai and Palestine, where it has been recorded from the southern
Wadi Araba (Eilat), but it is very rare.
27. Geoffroy‘s Bat, Notch-eared Bat (Myotis emarginatus, Geoffroy
1806) and (Myotis emarginatus desertorum, Dobson 1875):
This Bat is distributed in southern and Central Europe, from France to
Italy, eastern Iran, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is common on Mount
Carmel and in the coastal plain.
28. Lebanese Greater Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis myotis macrocephalis,
Harrison and Lewis 1961):
This Bat is distributed in Western Europe, south Asia Minor, Russia,
east to Carpathians, Arabia. The subspecies Myotis myotis
macrocephalis is found in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is
fairly common in Upper Galilee.
29. Persian Lesser Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis blythii omari, Thomas
1906):
The Lesser Mouse-eared Bat is distributed in the Mediterranean region
of Europe, southern Russia, and eastwards through southwest Asia, Asia
Minor, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Arabia and North Africa. The Persian
subspecies Myotis blythii omari is known from Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Syria,
Lebanon and Palestine, where it has been recorded from the Jezreel
Valley (Beit She‘arim).
30. Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii bureschi, Heinrich 1936):
This Bat is distributed in the Mediterranean region, Spain, southern
France, Italy, Corsica, Switzerland, Sardinia, Transylvania, Yugoslavia,
Greece, Bulgaria, Turkestan, Iran, Arabia, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Morocco
and Algeria. The subspecies Myotis capaccinii bureschi is known from
20

Bulgaria. In Palestine, it has been recorded from around the Sea of
Galilee and Mount Carmel.
31. Palestine Natterer's Bat (Myotis nattereri hoveli, Harrison 1964) [Z.
Säugetierkd., 29: 58. Type from Aqua Bella, near Jerusalem, Palestine.
Synonym of Myotis nattereri] :
The Natterer‘s Bat is distributed in Europe, the Middle East and Far
East. The Palestinian subspecies Myotis nattereri hoveli is known only
from Palestine, where it is common in Galilee, the coastal plain and the
Judean hills, where it was first recorded by David L. Harrison in Aqua
Bella, near Jerusalem.
32. Egyptian Pygmy Pipistrelle, Desert Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus ariel,
Thomas 1904):
This Bat is distributed in Eastern Egypt and Sudan; and in Palestine, it is
very rare, but has been recorded southwest of the Dead Sea (Nahal
Ze‘elim) and in the Wadi Araba.
33. Common Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Schreber 1774):
The subspecies Pipistrellus pipistrellus pipistrellus is known from
Europe and parts of Asia, Asia Minor, Morocco, Lebanon and Palestine,
where it is very rare on Mount Hermon and the occupied Golan Heights,
and seems to reach the southern limit of its range in Upper Galilee.
34. Kuhl's Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus kuhlii marginatus, Cretzschmar 1830)
and (Pipistrellus kuhlii ikhwanius, Cheesman and Hinton 1924):
The species is widespread from southern Europe, southern Russia,
southwest Asia, Asia Minor, Arabia, northern Sinai and North, East and
South Africa. The subspecies Pipistrellus kuhlii ikhwanius is known
from Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Arabia, Sinai and Palestine, where it is the
commonest insectivorous bat and found throughout the north into the
northern Naqab Desert, Judean Desert and around the Dead Sea.
35. Savi's Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus savii caucasicus, Satunin 1901):
This Bat is distributed in southern Europe and Russia, Asia Minor,
Lebanon and Palestine east to Siberia and Mongolia, North Africa, but
not Egypt. The subspecies Pipistrellus savii caucasicus is known from
Lebanon and Palestine, where it has been recorded from Upper Galilee.
36. Palestine Bodenheimer's Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus savii bodenheimeri,
21

Harrison 1960) [Durban Mus. Novit., 5 (19): 261. Type from Yotvata
(Ein Ghidyan), 40 km north of Eilat, Wadi Araba, Palestine]:
This Bat is distributed in Sinai, Arabian Peninsula, south to Aden. In
Palestine, it is common near the western shore of the Dead Sea and in
the southern Wadi Araba, where it was first recorded by David L.
Harrison in Ein Ghidyan (Yotvata).
37. Rüppell‘s Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus rueppelli coxi, Thomas 1919):
This Bat is distributed in Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, the
Congo, northern and southern Zimbabwe, Nyasaland, Ngamiland,
Bechuanaland, Senegal and Angola. The subspecies Pipistrellus
rueppelli coxi is known from Iraq and Palestine, where it has been
recorded from northernmost Upper Galilee.
38. Lebanese Common Noctule or Great Bat (Nyctalus noctula
lebanoticus, Harrison 1962):
This Bat is widespread in Western Europe, Russia, south to Asia Minor,
eastwards through Iran and Asia. The subspecies Nyctalus noctula
lebanoticus is rare in the region where it is known from Lebanon and
Palestine (near Areeha [Jericho]).
39. Serotine Bat (Eptesicus serotinus, Schreber 1774) and (Eptesicus
serotinus isabellinus, Temminck 1840):
This species has the widest range of all bats – being the only bat
common to both the Old and New Worlds. It is widespread in central
and southern Europe, east toward Asia, North and part of West Africa.
In Palestine, it is found in Upper Galilee, the coastal plain and the
Judean hills.
40. Botta's Serotine Bat, Lesser Serotine Bat (Eptesicus bottae innesi,
Lataste 1887):
This bat is distributed in Egypt and Palestine, where it is very rare but
has been recorded in the Araba Valley (from Ein Gedi and Yotvata).
41. Hemprich's Long-eared Bat (Otonycteris hemprichi jin, Cheesman
and Hinton 1924):
This Bat is distributed in Kashmir, Russian Turkestan through Iran, Iraq
and Palestine, where the subspecies Otonycteris hemprichi jin is known
from the western shore of the Dead Sea, the Naqab Desert and the Wadi
Araba.
22

42. Gray Long-eared Bat (Plecotus austriacus christiei, Gray 1838):
This Bat is distributed in Europe, Asia Minor, Iran, Afghanistan and
Kashmir, Egypt, North and East Africa. The subspecies Plecotus
austriacus christiei apparently occurs in Egypt, Sinai, Syria and
Palestine, where it is widespread in the north, the Judean hills (near
Jerusalem), and south through the Naqab Desert to Eilat.
43. Schreiber's Bat, Long-winged Bat, Bent-winged Bat (Miniopterus
schreibersi, Kuhl 1819) and (Miniopterus schreibersi pallidus, Thomas
1907):
Schreiber‘s Bat is widespread in the Old World, through Europe and
Asia, Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and Palestine, where it has been
recorded from the central coastal plain, south to Lahav.
Order: CARNIVORA (Carnivores):
Family: Canidae (Dogs, Jackals, Wolves, Foxes):
44. Syrian or Asiatic Jackal, Golden Jackal (Canis aureus syriacus,
Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the Palestine Golden Jackal (Canis
aureus palaestina, Khalaf 2008) [Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 80, August 2008, Rajab / Sha‘ban 1429 AH. pp. 1-13.
Type from Rafah and Al-Bureij Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine]:
The Golden Jackal is distributed in southern Europe, North Africa,
Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, to India and the Indochinese Peninsula. The
subspecies Canis aureus syriacus is common throughout the northern
half of Palestine to just south of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), but does
not penetrate the desert.
45. Egyptian Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster, Hemprich and Ehrenberg
1833):
The Egyptian Jackal is a valid subspecies, and is distributed in Egypt
and perhaps Sinai and the Naqab Desert. The Egyptian subspecies was
quoted from Palestine by Flower (1932).
46. Hadramaut or Arabian Jackal (Canis aureus hadramauticus, Noack
1896):
The Hadramaut or Arabian Jackal is distributed in southern Arabia. In
Palestine, jackals found near the Dead Sea (Ein Fashkhah and Neot
Hakikar) probably belong to this subspecies.
23

47. Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes, Sykes 1831):
The Indian Wolf is widespread from northern India to Sind, south to
Dharwat, Baluchistan, southern Iraq, Kuwait, northern Arabia, Syria,
Lebanon and Palestine, where the subspecies Canis lupus pallipes is
extirpated from the coastal plain, but still occurs in the Judean hills, and
is an intruder in the Huleh Valley from the occupied Golan Heights. A
slightly smaller and paler population appears to inhabit the northern
Naqab Desert and northern Wadi Araba.
48. Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs, Pocock 1934):
The Arabian Wolf is distributed in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait (where
it may intergrade with the Indian subspecies), and Egypt (the southern
and eastern Sinai desert). In Palestine, Canis lupus arabs inhabits the
southern Wadi Araba and appears to intergrade with the Indian
subspecies in the northern Naqab Desert and northern Wadi Araba.
A Wolf at Qalqilia Zoo, Qalqilia, Palestine in 2011. Photograph by Mr.
Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
24

49. Egyptian Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes aegyptiacus, Sonnini
1816) and (Vulpes vulpes niloticus, Geoffroy 1803):
The Egyptian Red Fox is known from Libya and Egypt. It may be the
race that inhabits the mountains of the Naqab and Sinai Deserts.
50. Arabian Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes arabica, Thomas 1902):
The Arabian Red Fox is distributed in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and
Palestine, where the subspecies Vulpes vulpes arabica is found in the
southern half of the country, in the stony desert hills and wadis of the
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba,
51. Palestine Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes palaestina, Thomas
1920) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 5: 122. Type from Ramleh, near
Jaffa, Palestine. Synonym of Vulpes vulpes aegyptiacus]:
The Palestine Red Fox is distinguished by its gray colour, particularly
along its sides, with a nearly complete suppression of rufous, except the
face. The forelegs are grayish-rufous or fulvous. The underparts are
whitish or black. The upper tail is buffy, washed with black.
Measurements: Head and body 455-625 mm.; ear 83-105 mm.; hind foot
121-148 mm.; tail 305-412 mm.
The Palestinian subspecies Vulpes vulpes palaestina is known from
Lebanon and Palestine, where it is common along the coastal plain and
as far south as Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
52. Mountain Common Red Fox, Tawny Fox (Vulpes vulpes flavescens,
Gray 1843):
The Mountain Fox is distributed in northern Iran, Kurdistan and Iraq.
Vulpes vulpes flavescens may be the subspecies found in the northern,
more mountainous regions of Palestine.
53. Rüppell‘s Sand Fox (Vulpes rueppelli, Schinz 1825) and (Vulpes
rueppelli sabaea, Pocock 1934):
Rüppell‘s Sand Fox is distributed in North Africa, from Algeria, Libya
and Egypt, south to Sudan, Somaliland and Asben, Iran and
Afghanistan. The subspecies Vulpes rueppelli sabaea is known from
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Palestine, where it inhabits the western
side of the Dead Sea, and Wadi Araba. It may intergrade with the
African subspecies Vulpes rueppelli rueppelli in the Naqab and Sinai
Deserts where intermediate forms occur.
25

54. Afghan Fox, Blanford‘s Fox (Vulpes cana, Blanford 1877):
The Afghan Fox is distributed in Uzbek, southern Turkman, Russia,
Afghanistan, Iran, northwestern Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, United
Arab Emirates, Jordan, Palestine and Sinai. In Palestine, it was
discovered by G. Ilani, where it is known from the western side of the
Dead Sea (Ein Gedi), and south to Eilat.
55. Fennec Fox (Vulpes [Fennecus] zerda, Zimmerman 1780):
The Fennec Fox is almost certain to be found in sandy desert areas in the
Naqab and in eastern Jordan, because it was reported in similar habitats
in Kuwait, Egypt and western Sinai (Harrison, 1968; Khalaf, 1984;
Qumsiyeh, 1996). There is a record of an Epipaleolithic Fennec Fox
from Qasr Al Kharana in Jordan (Hatough-Bouran and Disi, 1991).
Family: Felidae (Cats):
56. Palestine Wild Cat, Bush Cat (Felis Silvestris tristrami, Pocock
1944) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 11, 11: 125. Type from Ghor Seisaban,
Moab, Jordan (collected by Tristram). Perhaps a valid subspecies: Felis
silvestris tristrami] :
The Wild Cat is widespread in Europe, Asia, Arabia and Africa. The
Palestinian subspecies Felis Silvestris tristrami is found in Lebanon,
Syria, Jordan and Palestine, where it is fairly common throughout most
of the country.
57. Iraqi or Mesopotamian Wild Cat, Desert Wild Cat (Felis silvestris
iraki, Cheesman 1920):
The Iraqi Wild Cat Felis silvestris iraki was described from Kuwait and
northeast Arabia. In Palestine, a specimen fitting the description of this
race, which had been killed by a car, was found by Walter W. Ferguson
on the western side of the Dead Sea between Ein Zohar and Ein Boqek.
58. Sand Cat (Felis margarita, Loche 1858) and the Arabian Sand Cat
(Felis margarita harrisoni, Hemmer, Grubb and Groves 1976):
The Sand Cat is distributed in North Africa, Egypt (Sinai), Russian
Turkestan and Arabia. In Palestine, it is confined to the Wadi Araba
(Hatseva).
59. Palestine Jungle Cat, Swamp Cat (Felis chaus furax, de Winton
1898) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 2: 293. Type from Areeha (Jericho),
26

Palestine (based on a specimen collected by Tristram). Valid subspecies]
and (Lyncus chrysomelanotis, Nehring 1902) [Schriften Berl. Ges.
Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1902: 145. Type from near the Jordan River. Synonym
of Felis chaus furax] :
The Jungle Cat is distributed in Asia, from the Caucasus and Turkestan
to India and the Indochinese Peninsula, and Egypt. The Palestinian
subspecies Felis chaus furax is known from Iraq, Jordan and Palestine,
where it is found in the Huleh and Jordan Valleys, Galilee, the coastal
plain, reaching just north of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), Areeha
(Jericho), and the southern end of the Dead Sea.
60. Arabian Caracal Lynx, Desert Lynx (Felis [Caracal] caracal
schmitzi, Matschie 1912) [Schriften Berl. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1912:
64. Type from ―Wadis opening to the Dead Sea‖. Type specimen at the
Berlin Zoological Museum is from Ain ed Dachubeijir, Jordan. Valid
subspecies] :
The Caracal Lynx is distributed in northern Africa, Arabia, the Near East
and India. The Arabian subspecies Caracal caracal schmitzi is known
from Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and
Oman. In Palestine, it has been found in the occupied Golan Heights,
Upper Galilee, the Jordan Valley, Mount Carmel, near the Dead Sea, in
the Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, south to Eilat.
61. Anatolian Leopard (Panthera [Felis] pardus tulliana, Valenciennes
1856):
The Leopard is widespread from South Africa to Arabia, Iran and Asia,
as far east as Japan. The Anatolian subspecies Panthera pardus tulliana
is known from Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it has been
recorded from Upper Galilee, formerly Mount Carmel, and the Judean
hills (near Al-Quds [Jerusalem]).The Anatolian Leopard is a valid
subspecies in northern Palestine.
62. Arabian Leopard, Nimer or Nimr (Panthera [Felis] pardus nimr,
Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the Sinai Leopard (Panthera [Felis]
pardus jarvisi, Pocock 1932):
The Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr occurs in Palestine along
the western side of the Dead Sea (Ein Gedi), the Judean and Naqab
Deserts, south to Eilat and Sinai. It is rare and on the verge of
extirpation. The Arabian Leopard is a valid subspecies in Arabia and
27

southern Palestine; and the Sinai Leopard is a synonym of Panthera
pardus nimr.
63. Asiatic or Iranian Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, Griffith
1821):
The Asiatic cheetah once ranged from Arabia to India, through Arabia,
Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and, particularly in Iran
and the Indian subcontinent, it was numerous. Cheetahs were easy to
train, and rulers kept huge numbers for hunting gazelles. The Moghul
Emperor of India, Akbar, is said to have had 1,000 at a time. It appears
in many Persian and Indian miniature paintings. But by 1900 it was
already headed for extinction in many areas. The last physical evidence
of cheetahs in India was three shot (with two bullets) by the Maharajah
of Surguja in 1947 in eastern Madhya Pradesh. In Palestine, it was
scarce by 1884, though more common east of the Jordan River. By 1930,
it was rare, but still common in the southern steppe. The last Palestinian
cheetah was seen in the Naqab Desert (near Yotvata) in 1959. By 1990,
Asiatic cheetahs are apparently extirpated except from Iran, and possibly
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Estimated to number over 200 during the
1970s in Iran, current estimates by Iranian biologist Hormoz Asadi put
the number at 50 to 100 (Jackson, 1998).
64. Asiatic or Persian Lion (Panthera [Felis] leo persica, Meyer 1826):
The Asiatic or Persian Lion was formerly distributed in Greece, Asia
Minor, Iran, northern Arabia, and east to India. The Persian subspecies
Panthera leo persica was found in Iran, Iraq, Syria and Palestine, where
it must have been abundant in Biblical times. According to the Bible, in
which it appears under several different names, the lion must have been
quite common at that time. The species appears often on mosaics from
the Roman and Byzantine periods. The thickets of the Jordan were a
preferred habitat. It became extinct after the time of the Crusaders. The
last mention of them being by Arab writers of the 13th and 14th century,
when lions still existed near Samaria and other areas. One specimen has
been hunted at Lejun, near Megiddo, in the thirteenth century. Alfaras
Bin Shawer, Wali of Ramla, wrote that he saw eleven dead lions after
heavy rain in Ramla and the area of Nahr (River) Al-Auja in 1294.
Sanqarshah Almansouri, Naib of Safad (1304-1307), killed in the coastal
forests 15 lions. At this time, lions certainly roamed over parts of Syria
and Arabia and along the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq, where in
ancient times lions figured prominently in the great royal hunts in
28

Assyria. It is clear that lions survived in Mesopotamia until the
nineteenth century, and there are several references to them by travellers
of that period. The Persian Lion has not been reported from Iran since
1942. However, it is possible that it still exists there.
The last remnant of the Asiatic Lion, which in historical times ranged
from Greece to India through Iran (Persia), lives in the Gir Forest
National Park of western India. About 300 lions live in a 1,412 km² (558
square miles) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat. In 1907 there were only
13 lions left in the Gir, when the Nawab of Junagadh gave complete
protection to them.
A Lion hunting a Gazelle seen in the ―Tree of Life‖ Mosaic in the
audience room of the bath house at Hisham‘s Palace (Qasr Hisham) in
Jericho. Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the
Palestine Wildlife Society. Picture taken in 2007.
Unlike the tiger, which prefers dense forests with adequate cover, the
lion inhabits the scrub-type deciduous forests. Compared to its African
counterpart, the Indian lion has a scantier mane. The lion seldom comes
into contact with the tiger which also lives in India, but not in the Gir
region as this forest is hotter and more arid than the habitat preferred by
the tiger.
In Al-Jaleel (Galilee) there is a hill called Tel el Assad (Lion Hill in
Arabic), and there is a village nearby called Deir el Assad (Monastery of
the Lion), that may refer to a quite late occurrence of this species. Bie‘r
29

Al-Sabe‘e بئز انضبع (Well of the Lion) is a famous Palestinian city in the
Naqab (Negev) desert (Khalaf-von Jaffa, 2006).
Family: Herpestidae or Viverridae (Genets, Mongooses and Civets):
65. Palestine Genet (Genetta genetta terraesanctae, Neumann 1902)
[Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 183. Type from Mount Carmel
area, Palestine]:
The Palestine Genet was recorded from the Mount Carmel area by
Tristram (1866). Unspecified additional specimens were reported from
Sejera (Schedschera) and Wadi Fauar near the Dead Sea by Aharoni
(1930).
66. Egyptian Mongoose, Ichneumon (Herpestes ichneumon, Linnaeus
1758):
The Egyptian Mongoose is distributed in southern Spain, North, East
and Southwest Africa, Asia Minor, Turkey and Palestine, where it is
common in the northern half of the country, in the Huleh Valley, along
the coastal plain, with several isolated populations near the Dead Sea
and the Wadi Araba.
Family: Hyaenidae (Hyaenas and Aardwolves):
A Striped Hyaena at Ramat Gan Safari Park and Zoo, near Jaffa,
Palestine in 1999. Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash.
30

67. Syrian Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena syriaca, Matschie 1900):
The Striped Hyaena is distributed in North and East Africa, Egypt and
Sinai, through Asia Minor, southern Russia, Iran, Arabia, Lebanon,
Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq to Nepal and India. The Syrian subspecies
Hyaena hyaena syriaca is known from Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and
Palestine, where it has disappeared from the coastal plain and is
becoming rare in the Huleh Valley, Upper Galilee, Mount Carmel and
the Judean hills, south to the Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba.
68. Arabian Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena sultana, Pocock 1934):
The Arabian Striped Hyaena is known from southern Arabia. In
Palestine, it occurs near the southern end of the Dead Sea (Neot
Hakikar). A specimen in the collection of the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem constitutes the first geographical record for Palestine. It may
be that the Arabian race intergrades with the Syrian subspecies in the
northern part of its range.
69. Dubbah, Sudan Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena dubbah, Meyer
1793):
The Dubbah is a valid subspecies and perhaps enters Palestine from the
Sinai.
Family: Mustelidae (Weasels, Polecats, Martens, Badgers, Otters
and Skunks):
70. Common Weasel, Least Weasel, Snow Weasel (Mustela nivalis,
Linnaeus 1766) and the Egyptian Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis
subpalmata, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the Mediterranean
Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis boccamela, Bechstein 1800):
The common Weasel is the smallest carnivore in the region. It is
distinguished by its slender body; long neck; low, rounded ears; short
limbs; and tail which is less than a quarter of the length of the head and
body. In the summer, the upper parts are a uniform brown, and the under
parts are white, sharply demarcated along the flanks. The dorsal surface
of the forefeet is white. The tail is brown, becoming darker towards the
tip. The winter coat is presumably all white, as in the colder parts of its
range. Measurements: Head and body 160-290 mm; hind foot 20.5-30.5
mm; tail 40-70 mm. (Ferguson, 2002).
The common Weasel is active day and night. It inhabits holes, often the
burrows of rodents and hollow trees, among boulders and rock crevices.
31

It lives also in mountains, as high as the sub-alpine zone. In Egypt, this
species appeared to be more commensal than feral and was mostly
obtained around human habitations and near cultivated areas (Setzer,
1958). Flower (1932) remarked that in Egypt, these animals frequented
clubs, restaurants, homes, and other buildings. Such habitat choice was
not seen in Egypt later by Osborn and Helmy (1980).
The Common Weasel feeds on insects, small rodents, birds, lizards,
amphibians, fish and occasionally larger animals. Gestation period is 34-
37 days; and in Armenia, it usually produces 3-9 young in the late spring
and summer (Dahl, 1954); and in Egypt, a litter of five was noted born
in December (Flower, 1932).
The Common Weasel is widespread in Europe eastwards through
Russia, Asia Minor, Iran, northern Arabia, Afghanistan, Mongolia,
Korea, China, Japan and North Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria and
North America.
Considered by some authors a definite Pleistocene rodent specialist, the
Common Weasel seems to have made its first appearance in Europe
during the Mindel glacial episode (about 400,000 years ago) and is
commonly found in cave deposits from the beginning of the Late
Pleistocene. It represents a Palaearctic species of the Euro-Siberian
Region, widely distributed in Europe, Asia and North Africa (Masseti,
1995).
In the Mediterranean region, the Common Weasel occurs today in
northern Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), in most of southern
Europe and in Anatolia. In the Levant its distribution is restricted to the
northern areas of the region, including Lebanon (Harrison and Bates,
1991) and northern Syria. In the northern Arabian Peninsula, it has not
been reported since the Early Bronze Age (Dayan and Tchernov, 1988).
In fact, in Palestine, the species does not exist at present (Dayan and
Tchernov, 1988; Dayan, 1989). Beyond this distribution gap in
Palestine, the Common Weasel occurs again in Egypt, along the Nile
delta and valley, with a population characterized by large body size. This
Egyptian population is almost completely commensal with man (Osborn
and Helmy, 1980) and has been occasionally considered either a Roman
introduction or a glacial relic. Even if they do not reach the size of the
Egyptian Weasel, The Mediterranean Weasels are all characterized by a
very large body size (King, 1989; Masseti, 1995).
The subspecies found in Lebanon is the Mediterranean Mustela nivalis
boccamela, and is smaller than the Egyptian subspecies Mustela nivalis
subpalmata.
32

The status of the weasel in Palestine is not clear. Two Common Weasel
subspecies may occur in Palestine: The Egyptian Common Weasel
(Mustela nivalis subpalmata, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the
Mediterranean Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis boccamela, Bechstein
1800). Zoologists (Aharoni, 1930; Bodenheimer, 1958) of the first half
of last century failed to confirm Tristram‘s listing of this species (as
Mustela boccamela) as a member of the Palestinian fauna, from the
vicinity of Mount Tabor. The common Weasel is reported from
Holocene fossils (11,000 to about 5000 years before present) from
Areeha (Jericho), Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), and the Galilee
(Tchernov, 1988). It probably became extirpated in Palestine due to
increasing aridity. However, relict populations survived around the Nile
Valley in northern Egypt (Osborn and Helmy, 1980), and two specimens
are known from Lebanon (Harrison and Lewis, 1964). Thus, a
population perhaps still survives in the Holy Land. Indeed, Harrison and
Lewis (1964) reported undocumented skins in the collection of Salah
(Selah) Merrill, who made most of this collection, while an American
Consul in Jerusalem between 1882-1907 (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
The word Mustela is Latin for weasel; and the name nivalis is derived
from nix, Latin, genitive nivis, snow. Hence, also, the common name
Snow Weasel (Qumsiyeh, 1996; Khalaf-von Jaffa, 2006); and I would
like to mention that the Weasel Tribe are common in Palestine.
71. Syrian Stone Marten, Rock Marten, Beech Marten (Martes foina
syriaca, Nehring 1902) [Type from Wadi Sir or Syr, Jordan (specimen is
at the Zoological Museum in Berlin). Valid subspecies]:
The Stone Marten is widespread across Europe, Asia Minor and Asia.
The Syrian subspecies Martes foina syriaca occurs in Iraq, Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it was formerly common in the
Judean hills and was extirpated on Mount Carmel. It has recently
appeared at Ramat Shaul and Kiryat Shprinzak. It is now rare in the
Galilee and the occupied Golan Heights, but has increased in the Hula
Valley near Kibbutz Dan.
33

A Marbled Polecat from Tammun, Palestine in 2009. Photograph by Mr.
Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
72. Syrian Marbled Poleacat (Vormela peregusna syriaca, Pocock 1936)
[Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1936: 720. Type from near Lake Tiberias (Sea
of Galilee), Palestine]:
The Marbled Polecat ranges from southeastern Europe and southwestern
Asia, Russia into Mongolia. The Syrian subspecies Vormela peregusna
syriaca is found in Syria, western and northern Iraq, and Palestine,
where it is fairly common in the northern half of the country up to the
edge of the desert.
73. Persian Honey Badger or Ratel (Mellivora capensis wilsoni,
Cheesman 1920):
The Honey Badger is widespread in most of Africa, Arabia to Russian
Turkestan, east to Nepal and India. The Persian subspecies Mellivora
capensis wilsoni is known from Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, southern
Arabia and Palestine, where it is rare but widespread from Upper Galilee
(Umm Falik) to the Judean hills and the Naqab Desert (Ein Hussub). It
has also been recorded from Gaza.
74. Persian Common Badger, Old World Badger, Eurasian Badger
(Meles meles canescens, Blanford 1875):
The Common Badger is the only species of its genus, and it is
widespread throughout Europe and Asia, Tibet, northern Burma and
southern China. The Persian race Meles meles canescens occurs in Iran,
Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is uncommon but has been
recorded in Upper Galilee, Jezreel Valley, upper Jordan Valley and the
coastal plain.
34

A Common Badger at Beit Sahour, Palestine in 2012. Photograph by
Mr. Imad Atrash, Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
75. Persian Common River Otter (Lutra lutra seistanica, Birula 1912):
The Common River Otter is widespread across Europe and Asia, from
England to Japan, Asia Minor, Arabia and North Africa. In Palestine, the
Persian subspecies Lutra lutra seistanica is widespread, though
uncommon, in the northern half of the country, from the Huleh Valley to
the mouth of the Jordan River at the Dead Sea, and the coastal plain.
Family: Ursidae (Bears):
76. Syrian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos syriacus, Hemprich and Ehrenberg
1828) [Type from near Bischerre, Mount Makmel, Lebanon] and the
Hermon Brown Bear (Ursus arctos schmitzi, Matschi 1917)
[Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 33. Type from Mount Hermon,
Palestine. Synonym]:
The Brown Bear ranges widely across the northern parts of the New and
Old Worlds.
The Syrian subspecies Ursus arctos syriacus is known from Asia Minor,
Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it formerly
occurred in Galilee and the Judean hills during Biblical times. Prophet
David boasts of having strangled a bear, which had attacked his herd,
and two bears killed the 42 boys, who scoffed at the Prophet Elisha. In
the nineteenth century it was observed in a ravine near Tiberias, near
Beisan and in the Golan Heights. The last wild Syrian Bear was killed
near Majdal Shams in the southern Mount Hermon in 1917. They were
140 cm in height and dark brown. It has not been a menace to flocks of
sheep and goats for a long time, but occasional visits to vine-yards and
35

fruit-groves are still reported from Syria. The Bear is extinct on the
Hermon and Anti-Lebanon, mainly because it was so drastically hunted
by German officers during the war (Khalaf, 1983, 2001). Today, it exists
in Palestine only in zoos.
A Brown Bear at Jerusalem Biblical Zoo, Jerusalem, Palestine in 2004.
Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine
Wildlife Society.
Order: HYRACOIDEA (Hyraxes):
Family: Procaviidae (Hyraxes):
77. Syrian Rock Hyrax, Coney (Procavia capensis syriaca, Schreber
1784) and the Palestine Hyrax (Procavia sinaitica schmitzi, Brauer
1917) [Schriften Berl. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1917: 302. Type from
Bteha Plains, north of Lake Galilee, Palestine. Synonym]:
The Rock Hyrax or Coney is distributed in Africa and the Middle East.
The Syrian subspecies Procavia capensis syriaca is known from Syria,
Lebanon and Palestine, where it inhabits Mount Hermon up to 1,300 m.,
the occupied Golan Heights and Upper Galilee. Allopatric populations
are found on Mount Tabor and Mount Carmel. The Sinai subspecies
Procavia capensis sinaiticus occurs in the Naqab Desert and may
intergrade with the Syrian subspecies in the Judean Desert. At Ein Gedi,
there are two colour phases, dark brown and pale grayish-yellow.
78. Sinai Rock Hyrax (Procavia capensis sinaiticus, Gray 1868):
36

The Sinai Rock Hyrax is described from Sinai (Mount Katarina) up to
2,000 m. The Sinai subspecies Procavia capensis sinaiticus occurs in the
Naqab Desert and may intergrade with the Syrian subspecies in the
Judean Desert. In Palestine, the Sinai Hyrax is known from the Judean
Desert (Ein Gedi) and the Naqab Desert.
A Rock Hyrax at Wadi Al Qilt, Palestine in 2008. Photograph by Mr.
Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
Order: PERISSODACTYLA (Odd-toed Ungulates):
Family: Equidae (Horses, Asses, Zebras):
79. The Syrian Onager, Syrian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus hemippus, I.
Geoffrey 1855) and the Persian or Caucasus Onager (Equus hemionus
onager, Zimmerman 1780 and Boddaert 1785):
The Syrian Onager or Wild Ass Equus hemionus hemippus inhabited the
Syrian Desert, where it became extinct in the 1920s. Although it is not
native to Palestine in historic times, a hybrid population between the
larger Persian Onager Equus hemionus onager, and the Asiatic Onager
Equus hemionus kulan, has been introduced into the central Naqab
Desert.
Order: ARTIODACTYLA (Even-toed Ungulates):
Family: Suidae (Pigs, Boars):
80. Palestine Wild Boar, Wild Hog (Sus scrofa libycus, Gray 1868):
The Wild Boar is widespread through Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa
and Asia as far east as Japan. The Palestinian subspecies Sus scrofa
37

libycus occurs in southwestern Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, where it
survives in the occupied Golan Heights, Upper Galilee, the Huleh and
Jordan Valleys, hills of Samaria and Judea (occupied West Bank of
Jordan River), and was extirpated from the coastal plain. A relic
population survives along the Jordan River and south of the Dead Sea.
Family: Cervidae (Deer):
81. Kurdish Roe Deer, Kurdish Roebuck (Capreolus capreolus coxi,
Cheesman and Hinton 1923) [Type from Zakho, Kurdistan, northern
Iraq]:
The Roe Deer is distributed in Europe and Asia. The Kurdish subspecies
Capreolus capreolus coxi is known from Iraq, Turkey and Lebanon. In
Palestine, it was common in Upper Galilee, the Jordan Valley and
Mount Carmel, where it probably reached the southernmost limit of its
range. It has been extirpated since about 1912. There is a report of one
caught in 1941 at Ein Sachne (Kibbutz Kfar Szold), which may have
strayed from Lebanon. Sightings of deer in recent years refer to the
Mountain Gazelle, with which they are often confused. The species has
been reintroduced to the country in captivity. In 1996, nine deer were set
free on Mount Carmel and appear to be thriving (Ferguson, 2002).
82. Red Deer, Stag (Cervus elaphus, Linnaeus 1758):
The Red Deer was the first of three species of deer to disappear in
Palestine, according to Bodenheimer (1958). Remains of the red deer
were excavated at Tel Hesbon in layers from the 12 th to the 15 th century
AD. It is not known when the last of the red deer vanished from the
forests of the Holy Land. In Iran, the red deer was common in the
Caspian Forest. The specific name elaphus comes from the Greek
elaphos and means stag or deer (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
83. Mesopotamian Fallow Deer, Persian Fallow Deer (Dama
mesopotamica, Brooke 1875) [Type from Luristan Province, Iran]:
―These are the beasts which ye shall eat: the ox, the sheep, and the goat.
The hart (red deer) and the gazelle, and the fallow deer, and the wild
goat and the addax, and the bison (wild ox), and the wild (mountain)
sheep‖. (The Bible: Deuteronomy, 14: 4-5).
The Mesopotamian or Persian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) is
considered to be one of the rarest species of deer in the world; over
hunting brought this species to the verge of extinction. It was
38

widespread in western Iran, south Asia Minor, Iraq and Palestine, where
it was known from the Upper Pleistocene of the Huleh Valley (Bnot
Ya‘acov). It was in the nineteenth century found in Upper Galilee,
Mount Tabor, Mount Carmel and the coastal plain (Emeq Hefer), and
was at that time on the verge of extinction. It has completely disappeared
from Palestine since. In fact, in the early 1950s it was thought to be
extinct, but in 1956 a very small herd, estimated at 25 animals, was
discovered in Iran. In 1978, four fallow deer were brought to Palestine
and placed in Hai Bar Carmel together with two more Persian fallow
deer acquired from zoos in Europe the previous year.
The six animals formed the nucleus of a breeding core, and with the care
and devotion of the Hai Bar staff, the Persian fallow deer quickly
flourished. By 1996, its population had swelled to more than 150, by far
the largest herd anywhere in the world. Since that year, ten deer have
been transported twice a year from Hai Bar Carmel to a 10-hectare
enclosure with rich vegetation within the Kziv Reserve in the Northern
Galilee. The animals are kept in the reserve for three months before
being released into the neighboring countryside. During the brief period
in the enclosure, they become accustomed to their new environment and
become independent of artificial feeding.
Before being released, all the females and several males are fitted with
radio collars. This enables the experts to track the deer after they are
released into the wild. In this manner, the herd's progress can be
monitored and any factors threatening its existence can be quickly
traced. Over the past years, the experts have been learning how the deer
have adjusted to their new environment by studying their patterns of
movement and preferred habitat. Based on the data accrued, the Israel
Nature and National Parks Protection Authority (INNPPA) has been able
to improve its reintroduction program, acquire basic information for
future management of the Persian fallow deer population, and project the
distribution and success of the future wild population. Biologists have
also added to what they already knew about the Persian fallow deer:
their average weight and height is 150 kilograms and 100 centimeters
respectively, their life span about 16 years and their gestation period
seven and a half months, producing a single fawn. The first fawns were
born in the wild in the spring of 1997.
By the summer of 2000, ten bi-annual releases had taken place, making
a total population of more than 100 fallow deer in northern Galilee. An
additional 150 deer continue living in Hai Bar Carmel. Estimates are that
by the year 2005, there will be nearly 200 fallow deer living in the wild.
39

In 2002, the reintroduction effort will shift to eastern Galilee and the
Jerusalem mountains (Khalaf, 2001).
As a direct result of this program, Persian fallow deer have been
successfully reintroduced to the wild, once again becoming part of the
country's landscape. However, aside from the reintroduced population in
Palestine, both in the wild and Hai Bar Carmel, there are thought to be
no more than 15 Persian fallow deer still alive in the wild in Iran, and
several hundred more in captivity in zoos worldwide. Therefore, the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) still lists this
rarest of deer as a critically endangered species (Khalaf, 2001).
Family: Bovidae (Oxen, Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes):
84. Addax (Addax nasomaculatus, de Blainville 1816):
The Pleistocene presence in Palestine of the Addax is documented. The
exact time that this species became extirpated in the eastern
Mediterranean region is unknown, and remaining small populations may
have existed during the Roman periods (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
85. Bubal Hartebeest, Bubale (Alcelaphus buselaphus, Pallas 1766):
The Pleistocene presence in Palestine of the Bubale is documented. The
exact time that this species became extirpated in the eastern
Mediterranean region is unknown, and remaining small populations may
have existed to the 19 th century. Aharoni (1930) mentioned that this
species was not seen in Palestine since the turn of the 20 th century.
Bubales were introduced into the Hula Nature Reserve (Qumsiyeh,
1996).
86. Aurochs, Wild Ox (Bos primigenius, Boianus 1827):
The Aurochs were reported from ancient strata (about 7000 BC) from
Areeha (Jericho), and there is no record of their domestication in the
Jericho Tell strata. However, the species was domesticated in India,
where it gave rise to the domestic humped cattle or Zebu (Bos indicus).
Tristram (1876) reported that these animals are depicted in earlier
dynasties (Nineveh) but not in the latter dynasties of the Assyrians at
Kuyonjik. Thus, the aurochs probably became extirpated in the eastern
Mediterranean region sometime during Assyrian rule.
Bos is Latin, genitive bovis, meaning an ox, and primigenius is Latin
meaning original or primitive (in reference to its being the ancestor of
40

domestic cattle). The word aurochs is from the Old High German
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa is showing the Skull of a
female Arabian Oryx at Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve, Dubai,
United Arab Emirates. 04.05.2013.
87. Arabian Oryx, White Antelope, Al Maha (Oryx leucoryx, Pallas
1777):
The Arabian Oryx was previously widespread in the Arabian Peninsula
as far north as Syria. In the 19 th century, this beautiful antelope was still
common in northern Arabia and in the Belka and Hawran in Jordan
(Tristram, 1866, 1876), but it was rare or absent in Palestine. Talbot
(1960) stated that it was already becoming rare in Sinai and the southern
deserts of Palestine in 1800. Schmitz collected this species at Amman,
Jordan in 1910. A hunter shot three animals at Qatrana in the 1920s. In
southern Jordan, the species may have persisted into the 1930s as a
British Army Unit kept one there; but by the 1940s the Oryx probably
was exterminated throughout Jordan. Populations persisting early in the
20 th century were reported near Jebel El Tubaiq, and in Al Busayta, and
Wadi Sirhan in northern Saudi Arabia near the border with Jordan.
Sometime between the First and Second World Wars, populations of the
Oryx were decimated in the Arabian and Syrian deserts. This was
accomplished by intensive hunting using modern weapons and vehicles,
especially near the newly discovered oil fields. By 1970 it was found
only in the southeastern regions of the Rub' al Khali (Empty Quarter)
desert on the Arabian Peninsula. The last one in the wild was shot in
41

1972. In the early 1960s, several international organizations began to
cooperate in saving the Oryx. These organizations included the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the World
Wildlife Fund (WWF), and the Shikar-Safari Club. A breeding
population was established at the Phoenix Zoo in Arizona, U.S.A., with
animals collected from a trip to Saudi Arabia in 1962, and donated
animals from holdings in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the London Zoo.
This ―world herd‖ began to multiply and was the nucleus to be used to
―repopulate the desert‖. Animals raised in Arizona were re-introduced
into the wild in Oman (Jiddat Al Harasis, Yalooni) in 1982. Additional
reintroduced populations now occur in Palestine (Wadi Araba), Jordan
(Wadi Rum), Syria (Al Talila Reserve), and Saudi Arabia (Mahazat As-
Sayd, ‗Uruq Bani Ma‘arid), with a total reintroduced population in the
wild of approximately 886 in 2003. In occupied Palestine, there is a
managed population in the Hai Bar Reserve, and a reintroduced herd in
Wadi Araba, and a captive breeding population at Tel Aviv Zoo.
88. Sinai Ibex (Capra ibex sinaitica, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1828) and
the Nubian Ibex (Capra ibex nubiana, F. Cuvier 1825):
The Ibex is distributed in Europe, Asia, southwest Asia, Arabia, Egypt,
Sudan and Eritrea. In Palestine, the Sinai subspecies Capra ibex
sinaitica is confined to the Dead Sea region, and Naqab Desert, south to
Eilat.
The Ibex at Ein Fashkhah, Dead Sea Mountains, Palestine in 2009.
Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine
Wildlife Society.
42

89. Palestine Gazelle, Mounatin Gazelle, Idmi or Edmi, Chinkara
(Gazella gazella, Pallas 1766):
The Mountain Gazelle is distributed in North Africa, Iran, Syria and
Arabia. The nominate subspecies Gazella gazella gazella occurs in
Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is fairly common in the northern
half of the country, south to the Judean hills.
The words Gazelle and Gazella derive from the Arabic Ghazzal or
Ghazal, the name for these animals.
90. Araba (Arava) Gazelle, Common Arabian Gazelle, Idmi or Edmi
(Gazella gazella cora, Hamilton Smith 1827) and the Desert Arabian
Gazelle (Gazella gazella acaciae, Mendelssohn, Groves and Shalmon
1997) and the Saudi Arabian or Farasan Island Gazelle (Gazella arabica,
Lichtenstein 1827):
The Arabian Gazelle Gazella gazella cora was formerly found in the
northern Wadi Araba (Hatseva), but is now known only from the
southern Wadi Araba (Yotvata), Palestine.
91. Naqab (Negev) Gazelle, Dorcas Gazelle, Afri (Gazella dorcas,
Linnaeus 1758) and (Gazella dorcas isabella, Gray 1846):
The Dorcas Gazelle is distributed in North and East Africa, Sinai and
Arabia. In Palestine, it inhabits the western side of the Dead Sea and the
southern half of the country.
92. Arabian Sand Gazelle, Goitered Gazelle, Rhim or Rheem (Gazella
subgutturosa marica, Thomas 1897) [Type from Ibri, Najd Desert, Saudi
Arabia]:
The Goitered Gazelle ranges from the Arabian Peninsula, west through
Russian Turkestan, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, to Tibet and
Mongolia. A specimen at the Berlin Zoological Museum is from El
Katrana (Harrison, 1968). A specimen at the Philadelphia Zoological
Gardens came from 160 km. southeast of Hibar. A skull was reported
from Safawi (H 5 station) in 1950, and another from Qa‘a Dhuweila in
September 1983 (Amr and Disi, 1988). A specimen is available at the
Berlin Zoological Museum from Al Busayta in northern Saudi Arabia
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
43

Order: LAGOMORPHA (Hares, Rabbits and Pikas):
Family: Leporidae (Hares and Rabbits):
93. Syrian Hare (Lepus capensis syriacus, Hemprich and Ehrenberg
1833):
The Cape or Common Hare is very widespread, polymorphous and
clinal, ranging across Europe, northern Asia, Asia Minor, Arabia, and
Africa as far south as South Africa. The Syrian subspecies Lepus
capensis syriacus is known from Lebanon, Syria, northern Jordan and
Palestine, where it is common in the northern half of the country, south
almost to Kiryat Gat. Part of a cline, it may intergrade with other races
to the south.
94. Philistine Hare (Lepus capensis philistinus):
The Philistine subspecies Lepus capensis philistinus is found in the
southern coastal plain between Qedma and Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
It may intergrade with Lepus capensis syriacus to the north and Lepus
capensis sinaiticus to the south. The Holotype is deposited in the
Zoological Museum of Tel Aviv University. Type locality is from
Qedma, Philistine coastal plain, Palestine. It was named philistinus after
the region in which it is found.
A Hare at Areeha (Jericho), Palestine in 2006. Photograph by Mr. Imad
Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
44

95. Arabian Hare (Lepus capensis arabicus, Hemprich and Ehrenberg
1833) [Type from Qunfidha, South of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Valid
subspecies] and the Palestine or Judean Hare (Lepus capensis judeae,
Gray 1867) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 20: 222. Type from Ain
Fashkhah, Palestine. Synonym of Lepus capensis arabicus] :
The Arabian Hare is distributed in Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Yemen
and Palestine, where it is rare and confined to the southern Wadi Araba
(Bir Hindis). Yom-Tov (1967) listed Lepus capensis arabicus from
Eilat. Atallah (1977) reassigned Lepus capensis sinaiticus and Lepus
capensis judeae in Palestine as synonyms of Lepus capensis arabicus.
Harrison and Bates (1991) retain Lepus capensis sinaiticus for southern
Palestine.
96. Egyptian Hare (Lepus capensis aegyptius, Desmarest 1822):
The Egyptian Hare was recorded in Jordan Valley, Wadi Araba, and
Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
97. Sinai Hare (Lepus capensis sinaiticus, Ehrenberg in Hemprich and
Ehrenberg 1833) [Type from Jebel Musa, near Mount Sinai, Sinai
Peninsula. Perhaps a valid subspecies in Sinai and Naqab (Negev)
deserts]:
The Sinai Hare is known from eastern Sinai and the southern half of
Palestine, generally south of the 100 isohyte line. It may intergrade with
the Philistine Hare to the north.
Order: RODENTIA (Rodents or Gnawing Mammals):
Family: Sciuridae (Squirrels and Marmots):
98. Syrian Squirrel, Persian Squirrel, Caucasian Squirrel (Sciurus
anomalus syriacus, Ehrenberg 1828) [Type from Lebanon Mountains.
Valid subspecies Sciurus anomalus syriacus in southern Turkey, Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine]:
The Caucasian Squirrel is widespread in Europe, Asia Minor and Asia.
The Syrian subspecies Sciurus anomalus syriacus is known from
southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it was
found in northern Palestine at the beginning of the 20th century, and was
thought to be extirpated, but in 1967, it was rediscovered in Wadi Assal,
several kilometers from Dan at the foot of Mount Hermon. It is also
known from the occupied Golan Heights.
45

Family: Hystricidae (Porcupines):
99. Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica, Kerr 1792) and the
Palestine Crested Porcupine (Hystrix hirsutirostris aharonii, Müller
1911) [Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1911: 123. Type from
Emmaus, Palestine. Synonym] and (Hystrix hirsutirostris schmidtzi,
Müller 1911) [Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1911: 126. Type from
Ain Dschuheijir, northwestern Dead Sea, Palestine. Synonym]:
The Indian Crested Porcupine is distributed in India, Iran, Iraq, Syria
and southern Arabia. In Palestine, it is fairly common throughout the
country.
Family: Capromyidae (Coypus):
100. Nutria or Coypu (Myocastor coypus, Molina 1782):
The Nutria or Coypu is a large rodent, with partially webbed hind feet
and a rather bare cylindrical tail. It is amphibious and inhabits marshes,
ponds and rivers. A native of central and southern South America, it was
introduced into Palestine, for the purpose of fur farming, but some
escaped or were set free, and are now feral in the Huleh and Beit Shean
Valleys, coastal plain (Ma‘agan Michael, Ma‘ayan Zvi, Alexander
River) and in the Naqab Desert (Ein Yahav) (Ferguson, 2002).
Family: Cricetidae (Hamsters):
101. Syrian Gray Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius cinerascens, Wagner
1848):
The Gray Hamster is distributed in Greece, eastwards through Asia
Minor, Arabia, southern Russia, the Ukraine, the Caucasus,
Transcaucasia, Russian Turkestan, Chinese Turkestan, Iran,
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir and southwest Siberia. The Syrian
subspecies Cricetulus migratorius cinerascens is known from Syria,
Iraq, Lebanon and Palestine, where it reaches the southern limit of its
range in the northern half of the country, on Mount Hermon, the
occupied Golan Heights, Upper Galilee and the Mediterranean region.
102. Syrian Hamster, Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus,
Waterhouse 1839) [Type from Aleppo, Syria]:
The Syrian Hamster is distributed in Rumania and Bulgaria,
southwestern republics of the U.S.S.R., Iran, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon
46

and Palestine. Tristram (1884) reported seeing this species in northern
Palestine. Aharoni (1930) reported that this species is known from
Metullah, and later (1932) listed three specimens collected by Siehe at
Mersina (southern Lebanon). A specimen at the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem is from Qiryat Saide (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
Family: Arvicolidae (Voles, Lemmings and Muskrats):
103. Syrian Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris hintoni, Aharoni 1932):
The Water Vole is distributed in Eurasia, Asia Minor and northern
Arabia. The Syrian subspecies Arvicola terrestris hintoni is known from
Asia Minor, Turkey (Lake Antioch). In Palestine, its presence is a
mystery. It has been reported as common near the Banias, but the only
specimens known are skulls found in owl pellets in the vicinity of Lake
Huleh at Yessod Hama‘ale and near Melaha.
104. Hermon Snow Vole (Microtus nivalis hermonis, Miller 1908) [Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 8, 1: 103. Type from Mount Hermon, Palestine.
Valid subspecies].
The Snow Vole is distributed in Europe, southwestern Turkestan, Iran,
Asia Minor and northwestern Arabia. The Hermon subspecies Microtus
nivalis hermonis is known from Lebanon and Palestine, where it is
found on Mount Hermon from 1,650 m. to just under 2,000 m. above sea
level.
105. Mediterranean Vole, Günther‘s Social Vole, Levant Vole (Microtus
socialis guentheri, Danford and Alston 1880) and the Philistine Vole
(Microtus philistinus, Thomas 1917) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 8, 19:
450. Type from Ekron, Palestine. Synonym of Microtus guentheri]:
The Mediterranean Vole is distributed in Greece, Asia Minor to northern
Arabia, Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Libya. The subspecies Microtus
socialis guentheri is found in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine,
where it is widespread throughout the northern half of the country, south
to Mishmar HaNegev.
The occurrence of Günther‘s Social Vole in Palestine was first
discovered not in Palestine, but in the British Museum in London, when
a specimen of the snake Caelepeltis lacertina, collected by Tristram in
1863 on the Plain of Gennesaret, was found to contain a perfect
specimen of Günther‘s Social Vole in its stomach.
47

Family: Spalacidae (Blind Mole Rats):
106. Palestine or Jaffa Mole Rat, Greater Mole Rat, Blind Mole Rat
(Spalax microphthalmus ehrenbergi, Nehring 1898) or (Spalax leucodon
ehrenbergi, Nehring 1898) [Schriften Berl. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., (for
1897), p. 178, pl. 2. Type from Jaffa, Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Greater Mole Rat is distributed in Libya, Egypt and Sinai, eastern
Europe, Asia Minor, southern Russia and Arabia. The Palestinian
subspecies Spalax microphthalmus ehrenbergi is known from Iraq,
Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it is widespread on Mount
Hermon, the occupied Golan Heights, from the Galilee to the northern
Naqab Desert. Four sibling species (chromosomal forms) interbreed and
hybridize in Palestine.
A Palestine Mole Rat at Beit Sahour, Palestine in 2008. Photograph by
Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife
Society.
Family: Gerbillidae (Gerbils, Jirds and Sand Rats):
107. Arabian Cheesman‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus cheesmani arduus,
Cheesman and Hinton 1924) and Cheesman‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus
cheesmani, Thomas 1919):
The Cheesman‘s Gerbil is distributed in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and
Iran. Qumsiyeh (1996) collected four specimens of Cheesman‘s Gerbil
from near Disi in Wadi Rum, Jordan. The species is known from 30 km.
west of Badanah, and 5 km. west of Turaif, both in northern Saudi
48

Arabia, close to the Jordanian border. The species may occur in the
Naqab Desert.
108. Wagner‘s Gerbil, Rough-tailed Dipodil (Gerbillus dasyurus,
Wagner 1842) and (Gerbillus dasyurus dasyuroides, Nehring 1901)
[Type from the mountains of Moab, Jordan. Perhaps a valid subspecies]:
The Wagner‘s Gerbil is distributed in Arabia, Egypt (Sinai) and possibly
Africa. It is known from Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Palestine,
where it is found in the southern half of the country, from the northwest
end of the Dead Sea and south from Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
109. Lehmann‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus dasyurus leosollicitus, von Lehmann
1966):
The Lehmann‘s Gerbil is known from Syria and probably Lebanon. In
Palestine, it is found in the northern half of the country, from Upper
Galilee (Rosh Hanikra), Mount Carmel (Haifa), the coastal plain (Wadi
Ara), and the Judean Hills (Jerusalem).
110. Lesser Egyptian Gerbil (Gerbillus gerbillus, Olivier 1801) and the
Asyut Gerbil (Gerbillus gerbillus asyutensis, Setzer 1960):
The Lesser Egyptian Gerbil is distributed in Africa, from Egypt
eastwards to Iraq and Iran, south through the Arabian Peninsula and
Sinai (Nabeq). The Asyut subspecies Gerbillus gerbillus asyutensis is
known from Upper Egypt (southeast of Asyut, Eastern Desert). In
Palestine, it has been recorded from the northwestern Naqab Desert, and
is slightly larger in Wadi Araba.
111. Greater Egyptian Gerbil (Gerbillus pyramidum, E. Geoffroy St.-
Hilaire 1803) and (Gerbillus pyramidum floweri, Thomas 1919) [Type
from Wadi Hareidin, South of Al Arish, northern Sinai. Valid subspecies
in Palestine]:
The Greater Egyptian Gerbil is distributed in North Africa, from
Morocco eastwards to Egypt, and southwards to Asben and Sudan, and
northwestern Arabia. The subspecies Gerbillus pyramidum floweri is
known from the northern Sinai Desert (south of Al Arish) and Palestine,
where there is a morphologically indistinguishable chromosomal cline
from the northern Naqab Desert, up the coastal plain to Holon. An
allopatric population is found as far north as Akka (Acre).
112. Baluchistan Gerbil (Gerbillus nanus arabium, Thomas 1918):
49

The Baluchistan Gerbil is distributed in Baluchistan, Arabia and Egypt.
The subspecies Gerbillus nanus arabium is known from northwestern
Arabia, southwestern Iraq, Oman, South Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Egypt (Sinai), Jordan and Palestine, where it is widespread in the Naqab
Desert, from the southern end of the Dead Sea (Sdom), south through
Wadi Araba to Eilat.
113. Pygmy Dipodil, Henley‘s Gerbil, Pygmy Gerbil (Gerbillus henleyi,
de Winton 1903) and (Gerbillus henleyi mariae, Bonhote 1909):
The Pygmy Gerbil is distributed in the North African Sahara, from
Algeria through Libya, Egypt and northwestern Arabia. The subspecies
Gerbillus henleyi mariae is known from Sinai, Jordan and Palestine,
where it has been found in the northern and central Naqab Desert,
practically to Eilat.
114. Anderson‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni, de Winton 1902) and
(Gerbillus andersoni bonhotei, Thomas 1919):
The Anderson‘s Gerbil is distributed in Libya, Egypt, Jordan and
Palestine. The subspecies Gerbillus andersoni bonhotei is found in the
northern coastal plain of Sinai, Jordan and Palestine, where it occurs in
the southern coastal plain and northwestern Naqab Desert. It intergrades
with Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi between Ashkelon and Kerem
Shalom.
115. Allenby‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi, Thomas 1918)
[Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, 2: 146. Type from Rehobot, near Jaffa,
Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Allenby‘s Gerbil is endemic in Palestine, where it is confirmed to
the narrow littoral zone of the Mediterranean, from Haifa south to
Ashkelon, where it intergrades with the more richly coloured Gerbillus
andersoni bonhotei.
116. Bushy-tailed Jird (Sekeetamys [Meriones] calurus, Thomas 1892):
The Bushy-tailed Jird is distributed in eastern Egypt, Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine, where it inhabits the western side of the Dead Sea, south
through the eastern and southern Naqab Desert, as far as Eilat.
117. Tristram‘s Jird (Meriones tristrami, Thomas 1892) [Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 6, 9: 148. Type from the Dead Sea region, Palestine]:
50

The Tristram‘s Jird is distributed in Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq, Syria,
Turkey, Lebanon, Sinai (Al Arish), and Palestine, where the subspecies
Meriones tristrami tristrami is common in the north in the valleys, and
less common on the mountains and the coastal plain.
118. Tristram‘s Syrian Jird (Meriones tristrami bodenheimeri, Aharoni
1932):
The Tristram‘s Syrian Jird is known from Syria, Lebanon and Palestine,
where it is found on the occupied Golan Heights.
119. Tristram‘s Desert Jird (Meriones tristrami deserti):
The Tristram‘s Desert Jird is a previously unrecognized subspecies of
Tristram‘s Jird, and inhabits the northern Naqab Desert, and the northern
coast of the Sinai Desert. The Type locality is 5 km. south of Bi‘er Al-
Sabe‘e (Beersheba). It was deposited in the Zoological Museum of Tel
Aviv University. Body Measurements: Head and body 107-138 mm.; tail
98-138 mm.; hind foot 29-30 mm.; ear 17-18 mm.; length of skull 39+
mm.; tympanic bullae 12.5-14 mm. The upper parts are pale sandy-fawn
with little red or black; the under parts are white. The tail has a blackish
tip.
120. Vinogradov's Jird (Meriones vinogradovi, Heptner 1931):
The Vinogradov's Jird was recorded from Gaza, Palestine.
121. Libyan Jird (Meriones libycus, Lichtenstein 1823) and (Meriones
libycus syrius, Thomas 1919):
The Libyan Jird ranges from Libya, Egypt, Arabia, and southwestern
Asia to Azerbaijan SSR and Pakistan. It has been reported from areas
east of the Rift Valley in Jordan. The species was first reported from
Beersheba and Nahr Al Rubin (near Jaffa) (Aharoni, 1932). However,
these records actually belong to Meriones sacramenti (Zahavi and
Wahrman, 1957). The species was also reported from northern Sinai at
Bir Lehfan (14 km. south of Al Arish) (Wassif, 1954).
122. Sundevall‘s Jird, Silky Jird, Sand Jird, Gentle Jird (Meriones
crassus, Sundevall 1843):
The Sundevall‘s Jird is distributed in North Africa from Morocco, east
to Egypt and south to Asben and Sudan, throughout Arabia, Iran,
southern Russian Turkestan, Afghanistan and Waziristan. The typical
subspecies Meriones crassus crassus is known from Egypt (Sinai),
51

Palestine, Jordan, northern and central Arabia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and
Oman. In Palestine, it is found in the southern half of the country, in the
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, south to Eilat.
123. Buxton‘s Jird, Palestine or Naqab (Negev) Jird (Meriones
sacramenti, Thomas 1922) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 10: 552. Type
from 10 miles south of Bir As Seba (Beersheba), Palestine] and
(Meriones erythrourus legeri, Aharoni 1932) [Z. Saeugetierkd., 7: 202.
Type from Wadi el Abiad, southwest of Bir As Seba (Beersheba),
Palestine. Synonym]:
The Naqab (Negev) Jird is confined to Palestine, where there are two
populations, a slightly larger one in the coastal plain as far north as the
Yarkon River, and the other population is from the Naqab Desert (area
of Beersheba).
124. Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus, Cretzschmar 1828) and the
Palestine Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus terraesanctae, Thomas
1902) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7, 9: 363. Type from the Dead Sea
region, Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Fat Sand Rat is distributed in North Africa, from Algeria to Egypt,
south to Sudan and east across Arabia. The Palestinian subspecies
Psammomys obesus terraesanctae occurs in Sinai, Syria, Jordan and
Palestine, where it is found north and west of the Dead Sea, the central
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, from south of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e
(Beersheba) to Yotvata.
Family: Dipodidae (Jerboas, Birch Mice, Jumping Mice):
125. Greater Egyptian Jerboa, Oriental Jerboa (Jaculus orientalis,
Erxleben 1777):
The Greater Egyptian Jerboa is distributed in North Africa, Algeria,
Tunis, Libya, Egypt and Palestine, where it has been recorded from the
northern Naqab Desert (northeast of Beersheba) and western Judean
Desert (Arad).
126. Lesser Egyptian Jerboa, Thomas‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa,
Muscat Lesser Jerboa (Jaculus jaculus vocator, Thomas 1921):
The Lesser Egyptian Jerboa is distributed in southwestern Iran, Arabian
Peninsula, North Africa and the Sinai Desert. The Muscat subspecies
Jaculus jaculus vocator occurs in southeastern Syria, eastern Jordan,
52

Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Palestine, where it occurs in Wadi Araba and
may penetrate the southern Jordan Valley.
127. Wagner‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa, Sinai Lesser Jerboa (Jaculus
jaculus macrotarsus, Wagner 1843):
The Wagner‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa is distributed in southwestern
Iran, Arabia, North Africa, Sinai and Palestine, where the Sinai
subspecies Jaculus jaculus macrotarsus is found in the northwestern
Naqab Desert.
128. Schlueter‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa, Palestine or Jaffa Lesser
Jerboa (Jaculus jaculus schlueteri, Nehring 1901) [Schriften Berl. Ges.
Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 163. Type from the coastal region south of Jaffa,
Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Schlueter‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa is distributed in southwestern
Iran, Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. The Palestinian or the Jaffa
subspecies Jaculus jaculus schlueteri is found along the southern coast
of Palestine, as far north as Jaffa. It may intergrade with Jaculus jaculus
macrotarsus in the northwestern Naqab and Sinai Deserts.
Family: Gliridae (Dormice):
129. Sinai Dormouse, Levant Garden Dormouse, Southwest Asian
Garden Dormouse (Eliomys quercinus melanurus, Wagner 1839):
The Levant Garden Dormouse lives in Europe and Asia. The Sinai
subspecies Eliomys quercinus melanurus is known from Asia Minor,
Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Sinai and perhaps Africa. In Palestine, it
occurs on Mount Hermon, the Huleh Valley (Dan) and the Naqab Desert
(Wadi Naphekh).
130. Golan Dormouse, Sooty Garden Dormouse (Eliomys quercinus
fuscus).
The Sooty Garden Dormouse lives in the occupied Golan Heights and
Jordan. The Holotype is deposited at the Zoological Museum of Tel
Aviv University. Type locality is Bab El Hawa, Golan Heights. It was
named after its sooty colour.
131. Turkish Forest Dormouse (Dryomys nitedula phrygius, Thomas
1907):
53

The Forest Dormouse is widespread across southeast Europe, Asia
Minor, and Arabia and as far east as India. The Turkish subspecies
Dryomys nitedula phrygius is known from Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine
and probably Lebanon. In Palestine, it occurs only in Upper Galilee.
Family: Muridae (Rats and Mice):
132. Broad-toothed Field Mouse, Big Levantine Field Mouse, Rock
Mouse (Apodemus mystacinus, Danford and Alston 1877):
The Rock Mouse is distributed in Greece, Yugoslavia, Crete, Iraq,
Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine, where the Turkish subspecies Apodemus
mystacinus mystacinus is found in the northernmost part of the country
on Mount Hermon, in Upper Galilee, the Huleh Valley, an allopatric
population on Mount Carmel, and south to the Judean hills (Jerusalem).
133. Wood Mouse, Common Field Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis,
Melchior 1834) and the Persian Wood Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis
arianus, Blanford 1881) and the Hermon Wood Mouse (Apodemus
flavicollis hermonensis, Filippucci, Simson and Nevo 1989):
The Wood Mouse lives in most of the western Palearctic region
including all of Europe. The species was reported from the ―plains of
Palestine‖ (Tristram, 1884). No specific localities were given by
Tristram or subsequently by Bodenheimer (1935, 1958). Specimens at
the Hebrew University of Jerusalem are from Masada North, Moza,
Sasa, and Horshat Ha‘arbaim (Horshat Tel). Specimens at the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University (Cambridge,
Massachusetts) were obtained from Shiba, Rasheya, and Ain Hersha in
southern Lebanon (Allen, 1915). Filippucci, Simson and Nevo (1989)
reported on populations in Galilee, Mount Hermon, and Tel Arad.
134. Mount Hermon Field Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus iconicus,
Heptner 1952):
The species is distributed in Iceland, Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and
North Africa. The Mount Hermon subspecies Apodemus sylvaticus
iconicus occurs in Asia Minor, northern Iraq, northwest Syria, Lebanon
and Palestine, where it is found in the northern part of the country, at the
base of Mount Hermon, Upper Galilee and Mount Carmel.
135. Yellow-necked Field Mouse, Long-tailed Field Mouse (Apodemus
flavicollis argyropuloi, Heptner 1948):
54

The species lives in Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and Asia. The
Armenian subspecies Apodemus flavicollis argyropuloi is known from
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is found only in the north,
on Mount Hermon, the occupied Golan Heights and Mount Carmel.
136. Alpine Field Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus chorassanicus, Goodwin
1940):
The Alpine Field Mouse lives in the western Palearctic region, Iceland,
Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and North Africa. The Apodemus sylvaticus
chorassanicus is a pale coloured form, inhabiting rocky mountain slopes
above the tree line. There is no reason to consider the alpine form on
Mount Hermon as different from the alpine form in Iran, unless the two
are shown to be different (Ferguson, 2002).
137. House Mouse (Mus musculus, Linnaeus 1758) and the Syrian
House Mouse (Mus musculus praetextus, Brants 1827) and the Gaza or
Palestine House Mouse (Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf, 2007) [The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 66, June 2007, Jamada Al-Ulla
1428 AH. pp. 14-24. Type from Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip,
Palestine]:
The House Mouse is Cosmopolitan. The Syrian subspecies Mus
musculus praetextus is known from Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan,
Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Sinai). In Palestine, it is found mostly in
cities and settlements throughout the country.
138. Egyptian House Mouse (Mus musculus gentilis, Brants 1827):
The Egyptian House Mouse was recorded in the Jordan Valley and the
Naqab Desert.
139. Oriental House Mouse (Mus musculus orientalis, Cretzschmar
1826):
The Oriental House Mouse was recorded in the Jordan Valley and the
Naqab Desert.
140. Macedonian Common Mouse, Wild Mouse, Short-tailed Mouse
(Mus macedonicus, Petrov and Ruzic 1983):
The Macedonian Common Mouse is distributed in Yugoslavia, Greece,
Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, Cyprus and Palestine, where it is found in the
Mediterranean Zone.
55

141. Porcupine Mouse, Common Spiny Mouse, Egyptian Spiny Mouse,
Cairo Spiny Mouse, Sinai Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus dimidiatus,
Cretzschmar 1826-1827):
The Porcupine Mouse ranges from southern Iran, southern Asia Minor
and Cyprus, Arabia, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, southern Algeria, south to
Tanzania, and west to Niger. In Palestine, the Sinai subspecies Acomys
cahirinus dimidiatus is widespread from Galilee to the coastal plain,
Mount Carmel, the southern Judean hills (around Jerusalem), near the
Dead Sea, and the Naqab Desert.
142. Southern Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus homericus, Thomas
1923):
The Southern Spiny Mouse occurs mainly in southern Arabia and Oman,
but apparently is distributed in a kind of mosaic, influenced by the dark
substrate of soil and rocks. In Palestine, it is found on the occupied
Golan Heights (near Kibbutz Sneer).
143. Golden Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus, Wagner 1840) and the
Palestine Golden Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus harrisoni, Atallah
1970) [Univ. Conn. Occas. Pap. Biol. Sci. Ser., 1(4): 202. Type from
half a km south of Qumran Caves, near Ain Faschkha, West Bank of
Jordan, Palestine. Perhaps a valid subspecies] and the Jordanian Golden
Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus lewisi, Atallah 1967) [J. Mammal., 48:
258. Type from 3 km northwest of Azraq Shishan, Jordan. Valid
subspecies]:
The Golden Spiny Mouse is distributed in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen and Palestine, where the Sinai subspecies Acomys russatus
russatus is found from the western side of the Dead Sea (Ain Faschkha),
south through the Naqab Desert to Eilat. The Palestinian subspecies
Acomys russatus harrisoni was described by the Palestinian Zoologist
Dr. Sana Issa Atallah (1970) from the western shore of the Dead Sea.
Harrison (1972) notes that ―the status of the population on the west
shore of the Dead Sea in Israel is uncertain, possibly representing
Acomys russatus harrisoni.‖ He also states that ―the material available is
scarcely adequate to assess the full degree of individual variation in the
species.‖ The distinctive characters of Acomys russatus harrisoni, of
smaller size and paler colour, are based on only two specimens. Atallah
(1970) found the Palestine Golden Spiny Mouse on steep rock slides in
semi-arid areas near the Dead Sea at Ain Faschkha, where it is strictly
diurnal, with peaks of activity in the morning and evening. Acomys
56

ussatus lewisi was found along the edge of the basalt desert, where it
adjoins a rocky limestone plateau, as well as in gardens around human
habitations (Atallah, 1967). The Jordanian Golden Spiny Mouse occurs
northwest of Azraq Shishan in the Syrian Desert, and was also noted by
Atallah (1967) from Azraq ed Druz. Body Measurements: Head and
body 100-115 mm.; ear 13-18 mm.; hind foot 15-19 mm.; tail 57-75
mm. (Ferguson, 2002).
144. Common Rat, House Rat, Black Rat, Ship Rat (Rattus rattus,
Linnaeus 1758) and the Alexandrian House Rat (Rattus rattus
alexandrinus, E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 1803) and the Arabian House Rat
(Rattus rattus flaviventris, Brants 1827):
The Common Rat originates from Asia Minor and the Orient; it has
spread throughout the World, and is most common in warm countries.
The subspecies Rattus rattus rattus is found in Lebanon, Palestine,
Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and Bahrain. In Palestine, it occurs
throughout the country, wherever there is human habitation.
145. Brown Rat, Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus, Berkenhaut 1769) and
the Egyptian Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus maniculatus, Wagner 1848):
The Brown Rat originates from Japan and the Far East, and it has spread
throughout the World. The typical race is found in Iraq, Lebanon,
Bahrain and Palestine, where it has established itself in the port cities,
from Haifa and Jaffa to Eilat.
146. Palestine Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat (Nesokia indica bacheri,
Nehring 1897) [Zool. Anz., 547: 503. Type from Ghor es Safi, Holy
Land. Valid subspecies]:
The Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat is distributed in Egypt, Syria, northern
Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, northern India,
Russian and Chinese Turkestan. The Palestinian subspecies Nesokia
indica bacheri is known only from Jordan (southeast of the Dead Sea),
and from Palestine, where it occurs in Sdom and Ein Bedda, the Naqab
Desert (Ein Avdat), Wadi Araba (Ein Yahav) to Eilat.
Introduced and Domesticated Mammals:
147. Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus, Linnaeus 1758):
57

Rabbits most likely were domesticated from their wild ancestors by
early Romans, probably in the Iberian Peninsula. In Palestine, as in
many other parts of the world, they are used for both food and pelts.
148. Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus, Linnaeus 1758):
Guinea pigs are South American rodents that were domesticated for
meat and pelts at least 3000 years ago. Unlike the nutria, the time since
domestication and the way guinea pigs are reared in captivity would
probably prevent any establishment of feral populations. Guinea pigs
give birth to one to four young following a gestation period of about 2
months. They have been known to live 8 years in captivity. Domestic
guinea pigs have been used for research since the 18 th century
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
Our Black and White Cat ―Tussy‖ with my book ―Fauna Palaestina –
Part Two‖ at our home in Al Nahda 1, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Photo by the author. 08.06.2013.
149. Domestic Cat (Felis silvestris, Schreber 1777 = Felis catus,
Linnaeus 1758):
Morphologic and genetic studies suggest that all the domestic and wild
cats in Europe, Asia, and Africa belong to a single variable species, Felis
58

silvestris. The divergence of the European (Felis silvestris silvestris) and
north African forms (Felis silvestris libyca) probably occurred some
20,000 years ago. Domestication was most likely first established in
northern Africa (?Egypt) some 5000-10,000 years ago. In Egypt, cats
were considered sacred and their mummies have been discovered
entombed with Kings and other royalties.
Domestic cats, called Felis catus by Linnaeus in 1758, most probably
originated from the North African Felis silvestris libyca. Genetic
evidence suggests that divergence time was about 5000 years ago.
Because of the many wild habits of domestic cats, including the ability
to return to and survive in the wild, many do not believe that cats were
ever truly ―domesticated‖. As is true of many other places, feral cats are
known from the Holy Land (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
150. Domestic Dog (Canis familiaris, Linnaeus 1758):
People befriended dog ancestors in the Near East at least 12,000 years
ago. In Egypt, hounds were probably used to hunt gazelles at least 3000
years ago. If one considers the dog as an extension of its ancestor, the
wolf, then perhaps this association with humans is much more ancient.
We still marvel at the early events associated with transforming the
feared competitor of humans to a trusted ally. Wolf pups can be raised as
―tame‖ and friendly animals; this is not unusual among Alaskan
Eskimos. The actual domestication process is difficult to trace and
probably took place independently in many parts of the World, where
humans and wolves coexisted during the last ice age (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
Feral and domestic dogs are present around human habitations
throughout Palestine. There appear to be several breeds, of which the
true Pariah Dog is still half-wild (Tristram, 1866; Bodenheimer, 1958).
Several breeds (Greyhound, Saluki, and Tazi) were known to be used by
Bedouin for gazelle hunting. These highly inbred strains are still the
common breeds seen around the camps of the Bedouin. In villages, the
Sheep Dog is more often used. According to Bodenheimer, these breeds
are all descended from the Pariah Dog.
Feral dogs are common in Palestine, and may interbreed with wolves.
Attacks on domestic animals by groups of feral dogs are sometimes
ascribed to wolves by the locals (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
151. Horse (Equus caballus, Linnaeus 1758):
The ancestors of the horse have all gone the path of extinction. Only one
wild form remains in the Mongolian steppes, Przewalski‘s horse (Equus
59

caballus przewalskii). Tristram (1866) mentions that east of the Jordan
River he and others with him saw only purebred Arabian horses. West of
the river, such horses were only in the possession of ―Sheikhs and
wealthy men‖. Today, as then, the horse is more a symbol of wealth and
sport rather than a practical beast of burden in the Holy Land. Equus is
Latin for horse, and caballus is Latin for a pack horse or domestic horse
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
152. Ass, Donkey (Equus asinus, Linnaeus 1758):
The North African Wild Ass (Equus africanus, synonym Equus asinus)
is the ancestor of the domestic ass or donkey. Domestic and wild asses
will interbreed and produce fertile hybrids. Although domestic asses can
be seen everywhere in Palestine, there is no evidence that the wild form
was present there. Domestication probably occurred in northern Africa
(perhaps Egypt). As Tristram (1866) observed, this is the most common
beast of burden in Palestine. Even today with motor vehicles common
everywhere, asses still are used in remote areas for transport, especially
along difficult mountain passes.
In captivity, domestic horses and asses interbreed but their hybrid is
sterile. A mule is a hybrid produced by a male ass (jackass) and a female
horse (mare). A hinny is the offspring of a male horse (stallion) and a
female ass (jenny). The hybrids are useful because they combine
characteristics of both species. Hybrids were depicted in Egyptian tomb
paintings at about 1400 BC. The word asinus is Latin for an ass
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
153. Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa, Linnaeus 1758 = Sus domesticus,
Erxleben 1777):
The domestic pig is still very close to its wild ancestor and as such does
not justify the use of the Latin name Sus domesticus. In Palestine, the
wild pig is still common. There is evidence of domestication or at least
interference by humans in excavations at Areeha (Jericho) dated at
8000-7000 years BC. A few domestic pigs are raised in Palestine for
meat. They are raised in villages and towns where Christian populations
predominated (for example: Al Nasira (Nazereth), Ramallah, Bethlehem,
Beit Sahur, Beit Jala) (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
60

154. Dromedary or Arabian Camel (Camelus dromedarius, Linnaeus
1758):
The Dromedary Camel (Order Artiodactyla, Family Camelidae) no
longer exists in the wild anywhere. The oldest records of wild camels in
Palestine come from the Upper Paleolithic, some 35,000 years ago. They
were probably domesticated some 3500 years ago in areas outside the
Holy Land. The camel, weighing more than 700 kg., is used as the main
beast of burden in deserts from Africa to China. Camels can travel with
a heavy load for up to 40 km. a day, and have been known to live in
captivity for 25 to 30 years. Camels give birth to one (unusually two)
young following a gestation period of 11 months. In Palestine and
Jordan, camels are encountered commonly in the deserts of the Naqab
(Negev), Wadi Araba, and east Jordan, where their population is
probably around 30,000 according to FAO yearbook data for 1976.
Camelus is Latin for camel. The word dromedarius is derived from the
Greek dromas, meaning running (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
155. Cattle, Cows (Bos taurus, Linnaeus 1758) and (Bos indicus,
Linnaeus 1758):
The Aurochs (Bos primigenius, Bojanus 1827) was the progenitor of
domestic cattle in many parts of the World. Even though the aurochs is
known in prehistoric and historic sites in Palestine, it apparently was not
domesticated here. Rather, domesticated cattle were probably first
imported to Palestine from the east. Domestic cattle were known in
Palestine for thousands of years. Cattle were especially plentiful near the
coast. For example, the Bible states that ―Shitrai the Sharonite had
charge of the cattle which were grazing in Sharon‖ (1 Chronicles, 27:
29). Cattle were still reared extensively, especially in the southern
regions of Palestine and in eastern Jordan, at the time of Tristram (1866)
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
156. Buffalo, Indian Water Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis, Linnaeus 1758):
The domestic water buffalo is descended from the wild Indian water
buffalo (Bubalus arnee, Kerr 1792). The latter is now rare in the wild
and found only in localized areas of Nepal and Southeast Asia. Water
buffalo were reared extensively in the Ghor and the Jordan Valley at the
time of Tristram (1866), where they replaced cattle as the work and food
animal. Tristram also indicated that buffalo were used by the Bedouins
of Beni Sakhr and others in the forested regions of Bashan. With
increased aridity and drainage of swamps, the numbers of water buffalo
61

declined. The remnant populations in the Hula Basin were decimated in
the 1950s. Other beasts of burden and then mechanized agriculture
replaced this large animal. The scientific name is based on the Greek
boubalos, a buffalo (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
157. Domestic Sheep (Ovis aries, Linnaeus 1758):
The ancestor of the domestic sheep was probably the Asiatic mouflon,
Ovis orientalis, Gmelin 1774. Tristram (1866) mentions the two
varieties of sheep raised in Palestine: the bigger one rose in the north,
and a smaller, broad-tailed southern form (which he called laticaudata).
Ovis is Latin for a sheep, and aries is Latin for a ram (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
158. Domestic Goats (Capra hircus, Linnaeus 1758):
Goats were thought to be first domesticated in Persia some 10,000 years
ago. Wild goats are hardy animals adapted to harsh conditions on
mountain slopes and hills. One such species, Capra aegagrus, Erxleben
1777, was thus easily transformed to a useful domestic animal having
little maintenance cost. The wild goat or ibex, Capra ibex, is a
successful inhabitant of mountains in Palestine. Tristram (1866)
mentions the abundance of domestic goats as a food source in Palestine.
The goat variety used is the black Syrian breed (which Tristram calls
Capra mambrica L.). The goat gives birth to one to three (unusually
more) young following a gestation period of 5-6 months. Goats may live
to 10-15 years in captivity (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
62

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30, Tenth Year, October 1992. pp. 1-7. (in Arabic).
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Animal Life in Palestine. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n (Anemone coronaria). A
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Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program EAI (Education for
Awareness and for Involvement). Environmental Education / Children
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Arabic).
Acquaintance Card: Majallet Al-Ghazzal (Gazelle Magazine): The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin, Bonn, Germany. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n
(Anemon corinaria). A Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program EAI
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Khalaf, Norman Ali (2001). Foxes of Palestine.
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Page. Environmental Affairs 2 and Dinosaurs.
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Home Page. Extinct and Endangered Animals and Reintroduction.
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73

The Palestinian Biological Bulletin Homepage.
http://gazelle.8m.net/whats_new.html
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und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. / Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between
1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage, Juli 2004: 452 Seiten. Zweite erweiterte
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Godesberg, Germany.
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"Delphinidae Delphionidae" und "Kleinwale in Nord- und Ostsee" im
Museum Alexander Koenig in Bonn, Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg,
Federal Republic of Germany. Number 35, Twenty-second Year,
September 2004. pp. 1.
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phocoena) in der Nord- und Ostsee...The Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena
phocoena) in the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 36, Twenty-second Year, October 2004. pp. 1-7.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). Thema des Tages (5. Januar
2005): In See gespuelter Indopazifischer Buckeldelfin (Sousa chinensis)
in Thailand nach Tagen gerettet. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 37, Twenty-third
Year, January 2005. pp. 1-3.
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(Jonah) and the Whale. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 38, Twenty-third Year,
February 2005. pp. 9-13.
74

Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). Jaffa (Yaffa, ‏:(يبفب The History of
an Old Palestinian Arab City on the Mediterranean Sea & The
Andromeda Sea Monster of Jaffa. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 39, Twenty-third
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Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. Number 41, Twenty-third Year, May 2005. pp. 1-9.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Palestine_Leopard.html
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pardus nimr. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. Number 42. Twenty-third Year. June 2005. pp. 1-8.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Arabischer_Leopard.html
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Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between 1980 - 2005.
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Palästina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980 - 2005. Erste Auflage,
August 2005: 376 Seiten. Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Bundesrepublik Deutschland & Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Aquatica_Arabica.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Mammals in Dubai Zoo,
Dubai City, United Arab Emirates. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
bulletin. Number 45, Twenty-third Year, September 2005, Sha‘ban
1426. pp. 1-14. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Rafah Zoo in the Rafah
Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine : A Story of Destruction by the
Israeli Occupation Army. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 46, Twenty-third Year, October 2005, Ramadan 1426. pp. 1-11.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (2005). The Qalqilia Zoo and the
Natural History Museum in the City of Qalqilia, West Bank, Occupied
Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47,
Twenty-third Year, November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 1-10. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (Member of PALESTA) (2005).
Palestinian Scientists and Technologists Abroad (PALESTA). Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47, Twenty-third Year,
November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 11-12. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (in Arabic).
75

Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Arabian Carnivores in the
Arabia‘s Wildlife Centre, Sharjah Desert Park, United Arab Emirates.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 48, Twenty-third
Year, December 2005, Thu Alqi‘da 1426. pp. 1-9. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Der Asiatische oder Persische
Löwe (Panthera leo persica). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 49, Twenty-fourth
Year, January 2006, Thu Alhijja 1426. pp. 1-5.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Asiatischer_Loewe.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). A Bryde‘s Whale (Balaenoptera
edeni) Stranding on Al Mamzar Beach, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. Number 50, Twenty-fourth Year, February 2006, Muharram
1427. pp. 1-5. http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Brydes_Mamzar.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). The Sumpters (Animals) of the
Prophet Muhammad Peace be upon him. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 51,
Twenty-fourth Year, March 2006, Rabie‘ Alawal 1427. pp. 1-4. (in
Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Felidae Palaestina: The Wild Cats
of Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 52,
Twenty-fourth Year, April 2006, Rabie‘ Althani 1427. pp. 1-15. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Felidae_Palaestina.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Der Asiatische oder Iranische
Gepard (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological
Bulletin. Number 53, Twenty-fourth Year, May 2006, Rabie‘ Althani
1427. pp. 1-7. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Asiatischer_Gepard.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Die Rohrkatze (Felis chaus).
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 54, Twenty-fourth
Year, June 2006, Jumada Al-Ulla 1427. pp. 1-8. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Rohrkatze.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Mammalia
Palaestina: The Mammals of Palestine. / Die Säugetiere Palästinas.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 55, Twenty-fourth
Year, July 2006, Jumada Al-Thania 1427. pp. 1-46. Sharjah, United
Arab Emirates.www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina1.html (Part
76

1) & www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina2.html (Part 2) &
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina3.html (References).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Ornithomimid
Dinosaur Tracks from Beit Zeit, West of Jerusalem, Palestine. Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 56, Twenty-fourth Year,
August 2006. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Dinosaur_Palestine.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The Common
Weasel (Mustela nivalis, Linnaeus 1766) in Palestine and the East
Mediterranean Region. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 57, Twenty-fourth Year, September 2006. pp. 1-7. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
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81

Israel uses the Eland Antelope
(Taurotragus oryx) as a new
front line force to protect the
Israeli-Lebanese border
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Two Elands, the largest members of the antelope family, walk along the
border fence separating Israel and Lebanon. Photo: AP. http://elandantelope-israel.webs.com/
Israel Occupation Army (Israel Defense Forces) already uses spy
drones, automated sentry towers, and slew of sophisticated
sensors, to keep watch over its borders. The latest addition to the
arsenal: a group of eight African Eland Antelope (Taurotragus oryx
Pallas, 1766), each weighing nearly 500 kilograms.
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The African Eland antelope have been stationed in the zone
between the high-security Israeli fence and the southern Lebanese
border to clear problematic foliage that distorts views of the
Lebanese side and within which “Hezbo Allah” fighters could
hide and stage an attack on Israeli border guards.
The animals are known for their sharp incisors and fondness for
eating vegetation.
The Eland was first brought to Israeli zoos from eastern Africa in
the 1970s as part of a project to raise them at local zoos before
sending them to zoos in Europe, and a decade ago was
introduced on to army bases to cut down the cost of maintenance.
"They eat huge quantities of weeds, they are the D9 of weeds,"
said Ilan Hagai, of the Israel Nature and National Parks
Protection Authority, referring to the massive bulldozers the IDF
uses to clear “enemy” territory. "They clean problematic areas,
open trails and a view and prevent fires."
Ilan Hagai explained that the capacity of the antelope was already
known, but took about a decade until they were more antelope in
captivity to launch the idea of eliminating the bad herbs that
grow every two years.
Israel's occupation establishment has apparently caught onto the
beasts' impressive ability to quickly chew through large
quantities, as well as the low cost of looking after them and their
environmental-friendliness.
"The elands eat tremendous quantities and do a wonderful job
clearing the weeds at enormous or secret military installations,
and in places where there are ammunition store rooms, where the
fear of fires is greater," says Israeli expert Yossi Ben. "In these
places the elands save on manpower and obviate the need for
spraying chemical herbicides."
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There are now "between 500 and 700 elands" at military bases
throughout Israel, according to the Ha’aretz Newspaper. And it’s
not the Israeli Defense Forces' only four-legged deployment. The
Israel Prison Service uses special microphone and audioprocessing
software to interpret dogs' barks into alarms. And in
addition to the army's elite canine unit, Oketz, IDF infantry units
have also used llamas to transport supplies into Lebanon.
This is not the first time that the IDF has augmented its forces
with animals. Oketz, the combat canine unit, actually predates the
IDF and founded in 1939 as part of the Haganah, the paramilitary
organization that was a precursor to the Jewish State’s current
army.
During the last Lebanon war, the IDF used Llamas to schlep
heavy loads. After extensive tests, the uncomplaining work-horse
animals were found to easily out-perform donkeys. What’s more,
they need refueling only every other day. Military sources said
the Israel Army plans to use llamas for reconnaissance and
combat missions in “enemy” territory, Middle East Newsline
reported. They described the llama as ideal for special operations
missions in Lebanon against the Hezbo Allah. “The llama is a
quiet and disciplined animal that can carry huge loads,” a
military source said. “Vehicles make noise and need roads and
fuel. We’ve tried donkeys and they are not suitable for such
missions.”
The commander, Tal, said that during the last Lebanon war the
Israeli army tried using llamas to carry the heavy loads needed
for combat. But the experiment failed. “They ran right off to the
Hezbollah fighters with our stuff,” Tal says. “We had to shoot
them to keep our things from falling into the hands of Hezbo
Allah.”
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The Common Eland Antelope
(Taurotragus oryx Pallas, 1766):
The Common Eland (Taurotragus (Tragelaphus) oryx, also known as
the Southern Eland) is a savannah and plains antelope found in East and
Southern Africa.
Description:
The Common Eland is considered, alongside the ironically similarlydimensioned
Giant Eland (Taurotragus derbianus), the largest species of
"antelope", though in many respects the Elands are quite bovine.
Females weigh 300–600 kg (660–1,300 lb), measure 200–280 cm (79–
110 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand 125–153 cm (49–
60 in) at the shoulder. Bulls weigh 400–1,000 kg (880–2,200 lb), are
240–345 cm (94–140 in) from the snout to the base of the tail and stand
150–183 cm (59–72 in) at the shoulder. The tail adds a further 50–90 cm
(20–35 in). Females have a tan coat, while males have a darker tan coat
with a blueish-grey tinge; there may also be a series of white stripes
vertically on the sides of bulls (mainly in parts of the karoo in South
Africa). Males have dense fur on their foreheads and a large dewlap.
Both sexes have horns, about 65 cm (26 in) long and with a steady spiral
ridge (resembling that of the bushbuck). The female's horns are wider set
and thinner than the male's.
Ontogeny and Reproduction:
Gestation Period: 9 months.
Young per Birth: 1
Weaning: After 6 months.
Sexual Maturity: Females at 15-36 months, males at 4-5 years.
Life span: Up to 25 years.
After birth the young lie briefly in concealment before joining a crèche
or nursery with other infants.
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Ecology and Behaviour:
Common Eland live on the open plains of Southern Africa and along the
foothills of the great South African plateau. They eat grass, branches and
leaves and are most active in the morning and late afternoon, lying
sheltered in the heat of the day. A very gregarious species, the common
eland is always found in large herds with 25 to 80 individuals, but are
known to exceed 400, and with no dispersion during the rainy season. A
possible explanation for this is the strong mutual attraction by calves,
and a "safety-in-numbers" strategy. The Common Eland has an unusual
social life, leaving or joining herds as necessary without forming close
ties. Elands are remarkably fast, have been recorded running over 70
km.p.h. / 42 m.p.h. Despite their size, they are exceptional jumpers,
easily clearing heights of 1.5 m / 5 feet. Home range sizes vary
dramatically with respect to sex and season. In the dry season, males
used an average of 11.7 square kilometers out of their 41.1 square
kilometer total range. Female herds had a dry season range of 26.1
square kilometers, while in the wet season this expanded to 222.0 square
kilometers. There is no exclusive use of space or evidence for
territoriality, but adult males within maternal herds have a distinct social
hierarchy. The size and power of the bull Eland generally (but not
always) discourages predators, but females are thought to be more
vulnerable to attack. Known Eland predators include lions, Spotted
Hyenas, African Wild Dogs and, rarely, leopards.
Taxonomy:
Common Eland are sometimes considered part of the genus
Tragelaphus, but are usually categorised as Taurotragus, along with the
Giant Eland.
Uses:
Common Eland are sometimes farmed and/or hunted for their meat, and
in some cases can be better utilized than cattle due to their being more
suited to their natural habitat. This has led to some Southern African
farmers switching from cattle to eland.
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Name:
The name "Eland" is derived from the Dutch word for moose. When
Dutch settlers came to the Cape Province they named the largest wild
ruminant herbivore they met with the name of the huge northern
herbivore.
In Dutch the animal is called "Eland antelope" to distinguish it from the
moose, which is found in the northern boreal forests.
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References and Internet Websites:
Abd Rabou, Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi (2009). Israel uses the ‗Plant
Killer‘ against ‗Hezbo Allah‘: The African Giant ‗Eland‘ ‗destroys‘ the
green cover and expose the other ‗front‘ soldiers. Felesteen Newspaper,
Environment Section, Page 26, Sunday 12 Safar 1430 H, 8 February
2009. (In Arabic). www.felesteen.ps
Ashkenazi, Eli , Haaretz Correspondent. IDF adds antelope to its arsenal
in fight against Hezbollah. Haaretz. 25/01/2009.
http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1058506.html
Aurora. IDF: antelope in its fight against Hezbollah.
http://noti.hebreos.net/enlinea/en/2009/01/26/3792/comment-page-1/
BENNET, JAMES (2003). Gaza Journal; A Good Spring for the
Flowers and the Antelopes. The New York Times. Published: Thursday,
April 10, 2003. www.nytimes.com/2003/04/10/world/gazajournal-a-good-spring-for-the-flowers-and-the-antelopes.html
Common Eland: Tragelaphus (Taurotragus) oryx.
http://library.thinkquest.org/16645/wildlife/common_eland.shtml
Common Eland (Taurotragus oryx).
www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2005/Rivers/river
s.html
Common Eland.www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Common_Eland
Common Eland. www.arkive.org/common-eland/tragelaphus-oryx/
Elenantilope.
www.world-of-animals.de/Tierlexikon/Tierart_Elenantilope.html
Elenantilope.
http://wissen.spiegel.de/wissen/dokument/dokument.html?id=54414416
&suchbegriff=Elenantilope&top=Lexikon
ELENANTILOPE (Tragelaphus oryx) - ELAND ANTELOPE.
www.zoovienna.at/elenant.html
Elenantilopen.
http://de.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575843/Elenantilope.html
Falconer, Bruce (2009) . Israeli Army Deploys Antelope In Battle
Against Hezbollah. January 27, 2009.
www.motherjones.com/mojo/2009/01/israeli-army-deploys-antelopebattle-against-hezbollah
Giant Eland. www.waza.org/virtualzoo/factsheet.php?id=119-009-
006-001&view=Antelopes
Giant Eland. www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/harry/bio/zoo/elandg.htm
Harry (2009). IDF recruits antelope to guard northern border. January
88

28, 2009. http://israelity.com/2009/01/28/idf-recruits-antelope-to-guardnorthern-border/
IEA (Institute of Applied Ecology) 1998. Taurotragus derbianus. In
African Mammals Databank - A Databank for the Conservation and
Management of the African Mammals Vol 1 and 2. Bruxelles: European
Commission Directorate. Available online at:
http://gorilla.bio.uniroma1.it/amd/amd333b.htm
Khalaf-von Palästina, Norman Ali Bassam (1988). The Arabian Oryx
(Oryx leucoryx) in Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Federal Republic of Germany. Number
17, Sixth Year, Ramadan 1408 AH, Mai 1988 AD. pp. 1-8.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Gazelle. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number
30, Tenth Year, October 1992. pp. 1-7. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1994). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n (Anemone coronaria). A
Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program EAI (Education for
Awareness and for Involvement). Environmental Education / Children
for Nature Protection. In Cooperation with Dept. of General and Higher
Education. P.L.O., Palestine. Number 4. Huzairan (June) 1994. pp. 16-
21. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). The Extinct and Endangered
Animals in Palestine. In: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin
Home Page. Extinct and Endangered Animals and Reintroduction.
http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). Threatened Mammals. In: Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin Home Page. Extinct and Endangered
Animals and Reintroduction. http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). The Mesopotamian or Persian
Fallow Deer. In: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin
Homepage. Extinct and Endangered Animals and Reintroduction.
http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2004). Gazelle: Das Palästinensische
Biologische Bulletin. Eine Wissenschaftliche Reise in Palästina, Arabien
und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. / Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between
1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage, Juli 2004: 452 Seiten. Zweite erweiterte
Auflage, August 2004: 460 Seiten. Norman Ali Khalaf, Bonn-Bad
Godesberg, Germany.
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www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gazelle_Bulletin.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali (2005, 2006). Chapter 3: Geography, Flora and
Fauna. Pages 33-39. in: Palestine: A Guide. By Mariam Shahin,
Photography by George Azar. Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink
Publishing Group, 2005, 2006. xi + 471 pages. Appendices to page 500.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Mammalia
Palaestina: The Mammals of Palestine. / Die Säugetiere Palästinas.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 55, Twenty-fourth
Year, July 2006, Jumada Al-Thania 1427. pp. 1-46. Sharjah, United
Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina1.html (Part1) &
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina2.html (Part2) &
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina3.html(References).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Mammalia Arabica. Eine
Zoologische Reise in Palästina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980-
2006. / Mammalia Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia
and Europe between 1980-2006. Erste Auflage, Juli 2006, 484 pp.
Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Deutschland & Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Arabica.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Eine Persönlichkeit aus
Jaffa, Palästina / A Personality from Jaffa, Palestine: Bassam Ali Taher
Khalaf (Abu Ali) (1938-2006). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 56, Twenty-fourth Year, August 2006. pp. 8-19.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Bassam_Khalaf.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Haywanat Filistin (Fauna of Palestine). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 69, September 2007, Sha‘ban 1428 AH. pp.
1-4. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%
D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%
D9%8A%D9%86 Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Zoologist, Ecologist and Geologist: The Scientific
References (1980-2008).
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Khalaf_References.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2009). Israel uses the Eland Antelope (Taurotragus oryx) as a new
front line force to protect the Israeli-Lebanese border. Gazelle: The
90

Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 87, March 2009, Rabi‘e Al awal
1430 AH, pp. 1-8. http://eland-antelope-israel.webs.com/
Kingdon, J. (1997). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals.
Academic Press, London and New York: NaturalWorld.
McElroy, Damien (2009). Israel uses antelope to protect against attack.
Telegraph. 27 Jan 2009.
www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/4359787/Israeluses-antelope-to-protect-against-attack.html
Shachtman, Noah. Israel Unleashes the Antelope of War. January 26,
2009. http://blog.wired.com/defense/2009/01/israel-unleash.html
South Africa Wildlife: The Eland {Taurotragus Oryx}.
www.savenues.com/wildlife/wildlife_eland.htm
Taurotragus oryx Common eland.
www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Taurotragus_oryx.html
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Tragelaphus oryx.
www.iucnredlist.org/details/22055
Wikipedia. Common Eland.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Eland
Wikipedia. Elenantilope. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elenantilope
Wikipedia. Giant Eland. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_Eland
Seven different kinds of antelopes: the gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), the
impala (Aepyceros melampus), Thomson‘s gazelle (Gazella thomsonii),
the common eland (Taurotragus oryx), the saiga (Saiga tatarica), the
suni (Neotragus moschatus), and the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra).
http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/91/91391-034-
B55DF442.jpg
91

Distribution Map of the Eland Antelope (Tragelaphus oryx).
www.iucnredlist.org/details/22055/rangemap
92

93

The Mediterranean Monk Seal
(Monachus monachus, Hermann
1779) in Palestinian,
Mediterranean and Atlantic
Waters
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Taxonomy
Scientific name: Monachus monachus Hermann, 1779.
Common names: Engl.: Mediterranean Monk Seal; Arab.: Fuqma,
Faqma; Russ.: Tyulen'; Turk.: Akdeniz foku; Ger.: Mittelmeer-
Mönchsrobbe.
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Pinnipedia
Family: Phocidae
Subfamily: Monachinae
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Genus: Monachus
Species: Monachus monachus
Natural History
The Mediterranean monk seal averages 2.4 m in length (nose to tail) and
is believed to weigh 250-300 kg. Females are only slightly smaller than
males.
Adult males are black with a white belly patch; adult females are
generally brown or grey with a lighter belly colouration. Other irregular
light patches are not unusual, mainly on the throats of males and on the
backs of females; this is often due to scarring sustained in social and
mating interactions.
Adult Monachus monachus are robust, with short flippers, a long
fusiform body, and a proportionally small head. The head is wide and
somewhat flat, with the eyes spaced fairly widely. The muzzle is
particularly wide, but compressed from top to bottom. The nostrils are
situated at the top of the muzzle. The vibrissae are smooth, females have
4 retractable teats. Coloration varies in low isolated sub populations.
Most of the animals are dark, brown. Some of the animals have a large
white belly patch.
When born, pups measure 88-103 cm in length and weigh 15-20 kg.
Unlike the now extinct Caribbean monk seal and the Hawaiian monk
seal, Mediterranean monk seal pups are born with a white belly patch on
the otherwise black to dark chocolate, woolly coat.
Extirpated from much of its original habitat by human persecution and
disturbance, females now tend to give birth only in caves in remote
areas, often along desolate, cliff-bound coasts.
Males and females are thought to reach sexual maturity between 5 and 6
years, although some females may mature as early as 4 years. Although
pups may be born during any part of the year, over most of the species‘
current distribution range, pupping takes place in summer or autumn.
Observations suggest that whelping is asynchronous in this species and
may take place year round. Gestation considered being 11 months.
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Monk seal pups can swim and dive with ease by the time they are about
two weeks old and are weaned at about 16-17 weeks. Monk seals are
mainly thought to feed in shallow coastal waters for fishes like Sea
Bream, Sea bass, Mullet, Bonito and cephalopods, such as octopus and
squid. Individuals are believed to live up to 20-30 years in the wild.
Status
The Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) is one of the
world‘s most endangered marine mammals, with fewer than 500
individuals currently surviving.
The species is described as ‖critically endangered‖ by the World
Conservation Union (IUCN) and is listed on Appendix I of the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
Other international legal mechanisms which recognise and attempt to
address the monk seal‘s critically endangered status include the Bonn
Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals), the Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation
of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats), the Convention on
Biological Diversity and the EU Habitats Directive.
History and Exploitation
In ancient Greece, Nature was safeguarded by deep religious faith, not
legislation. Earth was venerated as the ‗oldest of the gods‘, Gaia, the
mother of all. Monk seals were placed under the protection of Poseidon
and Apollo because they showed a great love for sea and sun, and the
killing of a seal or dolphin was often regarded as a sacrilege. One of the
first coins, minted around 500 BC, depicted the head of a monk seal, and
the creatures were immortalized in the writings of Homer, Plutarch and
Aristotle. To fishermen and seafarers, catching sight of the animals
frolicking in the waves or loafing on the beaches was considered to be
an omen of good fortune.
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Detail from a Caeretan hydria (water jug), c. 520-510 BC.
For the following two thousand years the monk seal had the protection
of no god or human law. The seals lived in large herds, throughout the
Mediterranean, the Marmara and Black seas, as well as the north-west
Atlantic coast of Africa. From prehistoric times until the early 19th
century, humans hunted seals for the basic necessities of their own
survival – fur, oil and meat – but did not kill them in large enough
numbers to endanger their existence as a species. The pelts were used to
make boats and tents and were said to give protection against Nature‘s
more hostile elements, especially lightning. The skins were also made
into shoes and clothing, and the fat used for oil lamps and tallow
candles, and the fat was also used to treat wounds and contusions in both
humans and domestic animals. Because the animal was known to sleep
so soundly, the right flipper of a seal, placed under the pillow, was
thought to cure insomnia.
Evidence suggests that the species was severely depleted during the
Roman era. Following the fall of the empire, a reduction in demand may
have allowed the monk seal to stage a temporary recovery, but not to
earlier population levels. Commercial exploitation peaked again in
certain areas during the Middle Ages, effectively wiping out the largest
surviving colonies. Increasingly, survivors no longer congregated on
open beaches and headlong rocks, but sought refuge along inaccessible
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cliff-bound coasts and in caves (often with underwater entrances). By
the 19th century, however, the seal slaughter had become a commercial
enterprise verging on genocide, and numerous colonies were becoming
extinct. Because of their trusting nature they were easy prey. Tens of
thousands were bludgeoned to death, their skins put on sale in the
fashionable capitals of Europe. Although hunting of the creatures on this
scale rapidly became unfeasible, they never recovered. The massive
disruption of two world wars, the industrial revolution, a boom in
tourism and the onset of industrial fishing all contributed to the
Mediterranean monk seal‘s decline. Their numbers may have been
reduced by go per cent in the last seventy years and the species will be
virtually extinct by 2010 if nothing is done to save them.
A Renaissance woodcut of a Mediterranean monk seal (from Guillaume
Rondelet, 1554).
As the fishing grounds begin to collapse under fierce commercial
competition, the seals are faced with a scarcity of food. The hungry
animals then tear their way into fishing nets to obtain their meal. In this
vicious circle, fishermen have come to regard the seal as an enemy
which destroys their nets and steals their fish. Although the seals often
get trapped in the nets and drown, the fishermen usually don‘t hesitate to
kill the creature when the opportunity presents itself. Depressingly
frequent reports have revealed that the seals are often the victims of
deliberate cruelty, unjustly held responsible for a sea which is rapidly
becoming exhausted by human greed. Kicked, stoned, shot and
dynamited, this is the price that the monk seal has to pay for our own
ecological ignorance.
The centuries of persecution have also had a profound psychological
effect upon the seals, and they are now literally terrified of human
disturbance. Only in Mauritania have the seals managed to retain their
frolicsome nature and their innocent curiosity towards the few human
98

eings who venture into their peaceful refuge of sandy beaches and
arching caves. Here, undisturbed, the seals have formed their largest
colonies, numbering up to sixty individuals.
Mauritania may represent one of the last truly natural habitats of the
monk seal, where the animals can still be seen basking in the sun or
playing with their pups in the gentle surf. But in the Mediterranean,
mass tourism and urbanization have driven the seals away from the
beaches to inhabit rocky and desolate coastlines. With a boom in
pleasure-boating, even these areas are now coming under threat,
particularly as the seals give birth between May and November, during
the height of the tourist season. The killing of a monk seal may be illegal
on paper, but the animals are still the target of sports hunters and even
tourists with spear-guns. The last seals of Tunisia, in the Galite
archipelago, disappeared in 1985. Two were reportedly captured for an
Italian travelling circus, and another speared by a snorkeling Italian
tourist.
Fisherman mending his seal-damaged nets on Leros
Once renowned for their friendly and confiding nature, the seals have
now been forced to hide and give birth in dismal caves as a last refuge
for their lives. It is doubtful that this will help them survive. Autumn and
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winter storms often cause breakers to surge into the caves, washing the
weaning pups out into the sea where they drown. Human disturbance
can also break the fragile mother-pup bond during the 16-week weaning
period, leaving the infant seal to perish, unable to fend for itself. There
has even been evidence of mothers aborting their young, apparently
because of the fright and panic inspired by their only predator, Homo
sapiens.
Today, no more than 350-500 seals have managed to survive this
relentless persecution, and the species has disappeared from most of its
former range. Scattered colonies, often numbering no more than two or
three individuals, are now found along the coasts of Madeira, Spain,
Morocco, Algeria, Sardinia and ex-Yugoslavia. But almost threequarters
of the entire remaining monk seal population has found its last
refuge in the Aegean, especially on the Greek and Turkish borders, a
tense military zone.
Military exercises with warships, fighter planes, tanks and artillery, the
sowing of minefields along beaches, the relentless growth of habitatdevouring
military installations – all of these have a silent but insidious
bearing on Mediterranean wildlife. And the military threat to the seals is
not only apparent in the eastern Aegean, but also in Spain and
Mauritania. Each summer, 1,500 Spanish soldiers invade the tiny island
of Cabrera, just off the coast of Majorca, to practice artillery and small
arms fire. By the early 1960s, the last two monk seals of the island had
disappeared; the maneuvers had either driven them away or they had
perished during target practice. On the coast, entire caves had been sunk
and demolished with artillery shells. Other endangered species had also
been killed under the direct impact of cannon fire. The osprey,
Eleonora‘s falcon and Audouin‘s gull, the rarest seagull in the world –
their bodies littered the island.
A monk seal colony north of Mauritania‘s border with the Sahara has
also suffered the casualties of war. The territory has been proclaimed as
the Arab Democratic Republic of the Sahara by Polisario (Frente
Popular para la Liberación de Saguia el Hamra y Río de Oro) guerrillas
who are waging a bitter war against Morocco. Although Mauritania
reached an accord with the Polisario in 1980, travel north of the border
is still considered dangerous, due in part to the guerrillas‘ own triggerhappiness.
Bored soldiers on both sides of the border have been taking
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pot shots at the seals and, despite the area‘s remoteness; several seal
deaths have been recorded.
The precise origins of the monk seal‘s name have long been lost to
obscurity and the flow of time. In Greek mythology the seal was
represented as the god Phokos, son of Poseidon. Several towns and
villages were named after the seal god, and even today the Greek word
for seal continues to be phokia. Pliny the elder, ancient Rome‘s
renowned scholar of natural history, knew the animals as sea-calves and
remarked that they ‗could be taught to salute the public with their voice,
and when called by name to reply with a harsh roar.‘ Rather more
mystically, he added that at night ‗their eyes change frequently into a
thousand colours.‘ But it was not until 1779 that the German naturalist
Johann Hermann officially christened the species Monachus. The choice
may have been inspired by Hermann‘s belief in the animal‘s innate
reclusiveness following his discovery of a lone seal on the Dalmatian
coast. On the other hand, some naturalists believe that Hermann merely
adopted a traditional name for the seal from certain local fishing
communities on the shores of the Mediterranean which knew the
creature as ‗monk‘ because of the colour of its fur. Indeed, many
centuries earlier, Pliny too thought that the rows of seals he observed
stretched out on the sands bore a striking resemblance to a congregation
of hooded humans. Sometimes, the darker fur around the head of the
seal lends weight to this impression.
In Italy, monk seals were once numerous along the coasts of Sicily,
Sardinia Tuscany and the Adriatic. The Roman Emperor Octavius
Augustus kept seals as exotic pets in 29 BC, just as the empire was
razing forests for its fleets of warships and devastating almost every wild
species it came across. Two thousand years later, in 1951, the London
Times reported that passers-by were astonished to see a seal swimming
in Rome‘s Piazza da Trevi fountain. ‗The animal was the property of
two Roman journalists,‘ the Times reported, ‗who had brought it back
from Sardinia and who apparently thought it suitable that the seal should
have a swim in such famous surroundings. A literal-minded policeman
fined them for contravening a by-law which prohibits the throwing of
anything but money in the fountain, and they and the seal then departed
in a motor-car.‘
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Today it is estimated that only two seals live around the shores of
Sardinia, in the east coast‘s Golfo d‘Oresei. They may share the tragedy
of being the only surviving members of their species in the whole of
Italy. With tens of thousands of holiday-makers visiting the island every
summer and a boom in pleasure-boating and spear-fishing, the last seals
of Italy could literally become extinct at any moment. The coasts of
Sicily and Tuscany probably lost their last seals more than ten years ago.
In 1978, another pair of seals was regularly observed around the island
of Montecristo, but once again, government protection, in the form of a
marine sanctuary, came too late to save them. The tragedy illustrates the
archetypal reaction of bureaucracies to the plight of the monk seal, that
of reluctantly taking measures which are habitually too little, too late.
A neonate monk seal pup photographed in a cave
in the Golfo d‘Orosei in Sardinia in 1971.
In a similar bureaucratic blunder, Corsica‘s last pair of seals was killed
by fishermen in 1976, just eight weeks before the inaugural ceremonies
of a marine sanctuary designed to protect the animals. The last seals of
greater France died on the Isles d‘Hyeres in 1935, and today the only
trace of the monk seal is its depiction in the prehistoric cave paintings
found in the Pyrenees. The seal became extinct in Palestine, Libya, Syria
and Lebanon in the 1950s, helped on its way by war. Up to fifty seals
may survive along the coasts of Algeria, in part because Moslem
fishermen still believe the killing of the animals to be a sin. Further west,
small groups of seals are still found along the shores of Morocco and the
nearby Chafarinas Islands which belong to Spain. Of the Atlantic monk
seals, which may differ genetically from their Mediterranean cousins,
the wounded seal that was captured on one of the Lanzarote Islands in
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1983 probably spelled the extinction of the species in the Canary
Islands.
Monk seals were abundant around the precipitous and volcanic
coastlines of Madeira during the last centuries, but human pressure has
driven them away to the desolate and uninhabited Desertas islands lying
off the southern tip of Madeira. Here, no more than six individuals have
managed to retain a precarious hold on life. The Desertas also lie in
traditional fishing grounds where fishermen often lose their nets to the
rocky seabed. Because these are now made of synthetic materials, they
then become what are known as ‗ghost nets‘, trapping and killing marine
wildlife almost forever. As young seals play with the debris, the net
fragments can become entwined about their throats and gradually, over
many months as the seal grows, the animal is choked to death in agony.
On the Dalmatian coast of ex-Yugoslavia and its scattering of offshore
islands, no more than twenty seals have managed to survive the
onslaughts of mass tourism. Little is known of the Russian seals,
inhabiting the waters of the Crimea, but they are reliably believed to be
extinct. Further west, however, some individuals may still survive in the
ex-Soviet waters of the Black sea, if only because on the Turkish side,
up to thirty animals are thought to be still alive.
Since the monk seal has become so shy and retiring, only one thing can
be said with certainty, and that is that the war against the species and its
habitat rages unabated, and all in the name of progress. As for the
sanctuaries that benevolent humankind is willing to provide for the
creature, they are few and far between. Ironically, it was one of the
poorest Third World countries, Mauritania, which first opened a refuge
for the seals. There are two more in Turkey and one perennially due to
open in the Northern Sporades islands of Greece, far away from the
eastern Aegean but an important colony, perhaps holding up to thirty
individuals. Other parks are planned for Madeira‘s Desertas islands, for
the Chafarinas of Spain and the Golfo d‘Oresei in Sardinia. But
bureaucracy being what it is, some of these may well open to protect no
more than a desolate memory, their last seals killed before the
departments and committees and conferences have written and sifted
through their mountains of paperwork.
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It became obvious that saving the monk seal would be one of the most
formidable tasks ever undertaken by the conservation movement. So
numerous, so diverse and so critical were the problems facing this
persecuted animal that only a holistic campaign would have any chance
of success. And it would be a fight against time. For decades, its plight
had aroused little more than reluctant platitudes of concern. The monk
seal was perhaps one of the most forgotten endangered species in the
entire world. While Europeans were waging a bitter struggle against the
slaughter of harp seal pups on Canada‘s distant, blood-stained ice-floes,
their own monk seals were being allowed to perish in total obscurity.
There was no public outcry, no great media extravaganza, no one willing
to risk their reputation let alone their life for the species.
What then is the cause of this neglect? One reason is the virtually secret
triage strategy which has been adopted by the world‘s most influential
conservationists. Swamped by a seemingly endless series of ecological
catastrophes, and facing the extinction of up to a million animal and
plant species by the year 2010, the movement, rather than reform itself,
is now faced with the hideous dilemma of salvaging whatever life it can
from the holocaust and leaving the rest to perish. It borrowed the triage
strategy from the Allied commanders of the First World War who,
during the hellish nightmares of trench warfare, were forced to divide
the wounded into three separate groups; those that would be left to die
since they were not worth squandering precious medicines upon, those
that would hopefully survive without any medical attention at all, and
finally, those that were deemed worthy of help. The decisions were
pitiless, devoid of sentiment or favouritism. Even the best of friends
could be left to die in slow agony. But in today‘s triage, it is often the
demigods in the hierarchies of the world‘s conservation organizations, in
their plush offices, Hotels and conference rooms, who are deciding
which species to rescue and which will be left to die. More often than
not, the decision is entirely subjective and may be based on no more
than pettiness and personal prejudice. Each conservationist may have
their own favourite and so a species may also be sacrificed by whoever
happens to be gaining the upper hand in a particular internal feud. This
is how Homo sapiens play God in the 21st century.
The harp seal slaughter had all the ingredients of media sensation: the
evil hunters, the fluffy white pups, innocent and vulnerable, the
crusaders who put their own bodies between seal and club. No issue
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could be more clear-cut, and so the triage made another of its expedient
decisions. It didn‘t matter that there were literally hundreds of thousands
of seals on the ice, or that they are not strictly considered to be an
endangered species.
But the very foundations of triage are rooted in division, something that
the conservation movement is no stranger to. It was not until years later
that it was realized why triage had sacrificed the monk seal. The answer
lay in the complex and interrelated factors which were killing off the
species. For the realists who control most of the world‘s conservation
organizations, the monk seal presented no easy and mediacommunicable
solutions.
Many of those attending the Rhodes monk seal conference in May 1978,
had been scientists whose professional interests lay primarily in
research, not conservation. This was a distinction not altogether clear at
first, since almost every working paper was concluded with a list of
desirable protective measures. But who was to implement those
measures? The gulf between ecology in theory and conservation in
practice, like so many others in our fragmented society, is a limbo of
confusion. Furthermore, it is the research, the conferences, the Paper
Mountains of ecological bureaucracy which bleed and starve meaningful
conservation of its resources, talent and ingenuity.
A detailed and ambitious project plan was written on Samos. A holistic
project was needed, not only to assure the survival of the monk seal, but
also to carve out viable alternatives for the islands, suffering the same
onslaughts of mass tourism, urbanization and pollution.
The first priority would be the creation of a network of twenty or more
biogenetic reserves in the eastern Aegean. Since the seal colonies were
so small and scattered, the ‗one reserve at a time‘ mentality, often taking
up to a decade to accomplish, would have to be replaced with a decisive
policy of isolating all the most important whelping sites from human
disturbance. As a temporary measure, it was suggested that this could be
achieved by semi-unilateral action, though with the support of the
government. The fishermen would be paid to stay out of the most critical
areas, and appoint Greek observers to monitor the whelping sites. At the
same time, pressure would be brought to bear on the government to have
the areas declared strictly protected by law.
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The biogenetic reserves, being in remote areas, would also protect other
endangered species and could also incorporate reforestation
Programmes, helping to sustain the ecological equilibrium of the entire
island. In the buffer zones to the reserves, it was proposed that pesticide
use should be banned and that a sub-project on biodynamic farming be
established. Tackling the over fishing crisis of the islands, it was hoped
that the undisturbed reserves would also act as fish breeding grounds,
but a pilot project was also advocated in small-scale aquaculture, in
which a family or group of families could raise fish for their own
consumption or for the marketplace. This might allow other important
fishing grounds around the islands to recover.
It was hoped that alternative energy sources might also be utilized in
these sub-projects, and perhaps even in the exhibition centers which was
envisaged would be built in the buffer zones to the reserves. The use of
sun, wind and water energy might show how individual families could
lessen their dependence on the polluting and oil-burning generators of
the islands.
We would get the message across to the local population with
educational Programmes in schools, with concerts and exhibitions. We
would thus try to point out the links between the cultural decline of the
islands, the dying villages and crafts, and the dying forests, sea and
seals. Only when these links could be clearly perceived would
alternatives be embraced voluntarily by the people. By restoring
traditions and local crafts, for instance, and by portraying their island as
a friend of Nature, an alternative and dignified kind of tourism might
develop in harmony with a fragile culture and environment.
We would also need to establish a bond of trust with the traditional
subsistence fishermen of the islands who feel most threatened by the
monk seal. We would have to convince them that the seal has become
little more than a convenient scapegoat, eclipsing the culpability of the
commercial fisheries which are poaching and exhausting their fishing
grounds. Although the larger open-sea trawlers are not permitted to
lower their nets within 3 kilometers of the coast, they regularly flout the
law, taking advantage of the fishery authority‘s lack of staff end patrol
boats. The end result is that the traditional fishermen are left with
dwindling catches, and prompted by hunger; the seals then attack their
nets to obtain the food that they and their pups need to survive. It is a
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vicious circle, and one largely ignored by the government because only
the commercial fisheries have lobbying power in the city.
There is a government-run Hydrobiological Station on Rhodes, the
aquarium there, had over the years, tried to rear a number of monk seals
in captivity. The facilities in the aquarium are shabby and primitive. It
was wondered how on earth any scientist worthy of the name could
expect a monk seal to thrive under such deplorable conditions, the filthy
concrete pools, the squalid hutches meant to simulate the protection of
their caves, the rusty railings behind which goggling visitors could
observe the most endangered seal species in the world. And indeed
every seal that had been brought into captivity here had perished; a total
of eight individuals between 1960 and 1980. On one occasion,
apparently desperate for seals, fishermen had been asked to bring to the
aquarium any that they happened to find wounded, orphaned or
abandoned. Not surprisingly, some fishermen promptly wounded a
number of seals and dutifully brought them to the aquarium. But still this
did not quench the vain curiosities of Science, all cloaked in the glowing
altruism of conservation. One over-zealous employee of the aquarium
had even barged into the nearest seal cave and virtually snatched a pup
from its mother. Bringing it back to these concrete pools, the creature
perished after only 40 days, and perhaps predictably, Science was unable
to determine the cause of death, since to its clinical mind the pup could
not possibly have succumbed to something as simple as loneliness and a
broken heart.
Another seal, an adult, had been brought to the aquarium by a fisherman
who had captured it by clubbing it over the head with a piece of wood.
Although it survived for a remarkable ten years after this event, the seal
remained antagonistic to humans until its last breath, bitterly resenting
its captivity.
Snatched from the wild, most monk seals promptly begin to starve
themselves – often to death. The pups that were brought to the Rhodes
aquarium were therefore force-fed with a pair of wooden pincers, or
sometimes through a syringe delivering a bizarre mixture of Ovaltine
and sugar. None of the seals ever accepted their captivity and all but one
died within a few weeks. They would tremble violently in their concrete
habitat and were often heard to cry out in anguish (William Johnson in:
The Monk Seal Conspiracy).
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Habitat
Mediterranean monk seals mostly seek refuge in inaccessible caves,
often along remote, cliff-bound coasts. Such caves may have underwater
entrances, not visible from the water line.
Known to inhabit open sandy beaches and shoreline rocks in ancient
times, the occupation of such marginal habitat is believed to be a
relatively recent adaptation in response to human pressures – hunting,
pest eradication by fishermen, coastal urbanisation, and tourism.
Distribution
At one time, the Mediterranean monk seal occupied a wide geographical
range. Colonies were found throughout the Mediterranean, the Marmara
and Black Seas. The species also frequented the Atlantic coast of Africa,
as far south as Mauritania, Senegal and the Gambia, as well as the
Atlantic islands of Cape Verde, the Canary Islands, Madeira and the
Azores.
In 1978, the distribution of the Mediterranean monk seal was described
as follows: "The main center of population of the species is the Aegean
Sea, especially its southern and eastern part, in the Dodecanese Islands
of Greece and adjacent coasts of Turkey. This distribution extends in
lesser numbers of animals north to the Cyclades, the Northern Sporades
and the Sea of Marmara, west towards Crete, the Peloponnesus and the
Ionian Sea, and east along the western part of the southern coast of
Turkey. The second, lesser concentration within the Mediterranean Sea
lies along the southern coasts of the western basin, from the
Mediterranean coast of Morocco along the Algerian coast to Tunisia. A
few animals remain at the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, the Tyrrhenian Sea
and Sicily, but the species is extinct or nearly so at Corsica. A third,
minor concentration exists in the eastern Mediterranean in south-central
Turkey, around the coasts of Cyprus, and on the Lebanese coast. The
Atlantic population exists in discrete, widely separated populations at
the Desertas Islands, rarely at the main island of Madeira, and in
southern Spanish Sahara [Arab Democratic Republic of the Sahara].
There are a few recent records from the Azores" (Sergeant et al. 1978).
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More recently, however, the species has disappeared from most of its
former range, with the most severe contraction and fragmentation
occurring during the 20th century. Nations and island groups where the
monk seal has been extirpated during the past century include France
and Corsica, Spain and the Balearic Islands, Italy and Sicily, Egypt,
Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. More recently, the species is also thought
to have become extinct in the Black Sea. Despite sporadic sightings –
possibly of stragglers from other regions – Monachus monachus may
also be regarded as effectively extinct in Sardinia, the Adriatic coasts
and islands of Croatia, and the Sea of Marmara. Reports also suggest
that the monk seal may have been eradicated from Tunisia. Similarly,
only a handful of individuals reportedly survive along the Mediterranean
coast of Morocco.
In 1997, a severe mass mortality affected the Cap Blanc Mediterranean
monk seal colony off the coast of Mauritania. The exact cause is
unknown, but a viral epidemic and poisoning by toxic algae are the most
likely candidates. The Cap Blanc colony was the largest population of
Mediterranean monk seals (Macdonald, 2001).
The Mediterranean monk seal is now restricted to a handful of small and
scattered colonies in the Ionian and Aegean Seas and the southern coast
of Turkey in the Mediterranean, as well as scattered populations in
northwest Africa on the coasts of Western Sahara (Arab Democratic
109

Republic of the Sahara) and Mauritania, and the Desertas Islands,
Madeira. It is thought that just two of these populations are viable, in
Greece and northwest Africa (Arkive, 2006).
As a result of this range contraction, the monk seal has been virtually
reduced to two populations, one in the northeastern Mediterranean and
the other in the northeast Atlantic, off the coast of northwest Africa.
Interchange between the two populations is thought improbable given
the great distances separating them.
Confusion over Palestinian stranding
Debate – and lingering confusion – continues amongst scientists
regarding the identity of a seal washed ashore on ―Dolphinarium Beach‖
in Tel Aviv-Jaffa, Occupied Palestine, on 27 January 2004.
According to an announcement by Dan Kerem and Oz Goffman of
IMMRAC (Israel Marine Mammal Research & Assistance Center), the
decaying body was discovered partly buried on the beach. It was
subsequently moved to the Maritime School in Mikhmoret for further
inspection.
Kerem and Goffman reported that ―the body was recognized as that of a
seal, most likely a female, but was already in an advanced state of
decomposition and disintegration. The caudal remains were no more
than the skin of the belly, to which were attached the tail and remnants
of the hind flippers. By a process of elimination, we believe that the
body is that of a Mediterranean Monk seal (Monachus monachus),
although the lack of the nose, vibrissae, front of the upper jaw and ilea,
as well as a worn out, faded and peeling fur, have prevented us from
making a definite identification.‖
―As best we could judge,‖ they continued, ―the body length (tip of snout
to tip of tail) was ca. 120 cm, which if indeed a monk seal, would make
the individual a few months old pup. On the one hand, this finding is
exciting, considering that the last time a monk seal pup was observed in
this area was in the mid 1930‘s. On the other hand, it is obvious that
there are no active breeding caves anywhere near the beaching point.
The decomposed state of the body, the low water temperature and the
110

ough winter storms support the assumption that the body may have
drifted a long distance.‖
The authors went on to postulate that the animal – if indeed it was a
monk seal – may have drifted towards Palestine from the Cilician Basin
in Turkey, Cyprus or even Cyrenaica in Libya.
Following preliminary examination of the photographic evidence, other
experts also voiced the opinion that the dead animal was almost certainly
a monk seal. According to others, however, the seal‘s anatomical
remains invited a different conclusion. Faxed drawings of the skull,
compared with specimens held in the Zoological Museum in Cambridge
in the UK, led Prof. Yoram Yom-Tov of Tel Aviv University to voice
his opinion that the animal was not a monk but a young Caspian seal
(Pusa [Phoca] caspica, Gmelin 1788).
―I have no idea where it came from,‖ he admitted, ―and can only guess
that it was discarded by some zoo. However, as far as I know there were
(and are) no Caspian seals in Israeli zoos, so it must have come from
another country.‖
Other experts have meanwhile reiterated their faith in the monk seal
hypothesis.
A DNA analysis has yet to be conducted (The Monachus Guardian).
Threats
The main threats arrayed against the Mediterranean monk seal include:
1- Habitat deterioration and loss by coastal development, including
disturbance by tourism and pleasure boating;
2- Deliberate killing by fishermen and fish farm operators, who consider
the animal a pest that damages their nets and ‗steals‘ their fish,
particularly in depleted coastal fishing grounds;
3- Accidental entanglement in fishing gear leading to death by
drowning;
4- Decreased food availability due to over-fishing pressures;
5- Stochastic events, such as disease outbreaks.
111

19th century seal hunt in Tunisia
The Mediterranean monk seal is particularly sensitive to human
disturbance, with coastal development and tourism pressures driving the
species to inhabit increasingly marginal and unsuitable habitat. In some
pupping caves, pups are vulnerable to storm surges and may be washed
away and drowned.
Unforeseen or stochastic events, such as disease epidemics, toxic algae
or oil spills may also threaten the survival of the monk seal. In the
summer of 1997, two thirds of the largest surviving population of
Mediterranean monk seals was wiped out within the space of two
months at Cabo Blanco (the Côte des Phoques) in the Western Sahara
(Arab Democratic Republic of the Sahara). While opinions on the
precise causes of this epidemic remain sharply divided, the mass die-off
emphasized the precarious status of a species already regarded as
critically endangered throughout its range.
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Vital statistics (all figures are
averages)
Monachus
monachus
Adult
male
Adult
female
Pup
Status:
Habitat:
Length:
Weight:
Colour:
Length:
Weight:
Colour:
Length:
Weight:
Colour:
Critically endangered.
Sea caves along remote cliff-bound coasts for
resting and giving birth; originally congregated
on open beaches and shoreline rocks. Feeds in
coastal waters.
2.4 meters (nose to tail).
250-300 kg (estimate only).
Predominantly black with a white belly patch,
but several variations exist.
Slightly smaller than male (2.4 m).
250-300 kg (estimate only).
Predominantly grayish, with several variations.
94 cm (nose to tail).
15-20 kg.
Soft woolly hair, black to chocolate, with
distinctive white belly patch.
Conservation
Conservation of the Mediterranean monk seal has been underway since
the late 1970s but, given the species‘ obscurity among the general public
and the forces arrayed against it, progress has generally been patchy and
slow. Chronic deficiencies in funding, both from state and private
sources, have compounded the problem.
In situ conservation efforts focus on the establishment of marine
protected areas, no-fishing zones, rescue and rehabilitation of orphaned
and wounded seals, education and public awareness. Scientific research,
113

while gaining additional insights into little understood aspects of the
monk seal‘s biology and behaviour, can also play a key role in furthering
in situ conservation aims.
To date, marine protected areas for the species have been established in
only a fraction of the areas scientific opinion deems necessary: in the
Desertas Islands of Madeira; in the Northern Sporades Islands and
northern Karpathos in Greece; on the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts
of Turkey, and along the Côte des Phoques (Cabo Blanco) in the
Western Sahara (Arab Democratic Republic of the Sahara).
Taking into consideration the feeding and breeding movements of monk
seals between remnant colonies, a consensus of scientific opinion
believes that a network of well-managed and guarded reserves are
essential for the survival of the species.
Although proposed on a number of occasions, ex situ conservation
measures – such as captive breeding and translocation – have been
abandoned in the face of concerted opposition from the international
monk seal scientific and conservation communities. So sensitive is the
monk seal to human disturbance that ex situ schemes of this kind are
viewed in some quarters as an additional threat to the species. Monachus
monachus has never been known to breed successfully in captivity.
Scientists also question whether there is any single colony large enough
to withstand the removal of donor animals for the purposes of
translocation or captive breeding without jeopardising its own viability.
Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus Hermann, 1779).
http://www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/redbook/txt/monach.htm
114

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1-4. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%
D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%
D9%8A%D9%86
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
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and Europe between 2005-2008. / Carnivora Arabica. Eine Zoologische
Reise in Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 2005-2008. First
Edition, September 2008, Ramadan 1429 AH. 396 pps. Publisher: Dr.
Norman Ali Khalaf, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates & Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Federal Republic of Germany. ISBN 978-9948-03-459-9.
(In Arabic, English and German).
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Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Cetacea Palaestina: The Whales and Dolphins in Palestinian
Waters. Cetacean Species Guide for Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 83, November 2008, Thu Al-Qi‘ada 1429
AH. pp. 1-14. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2008).
Amphibia Palaestina: The Amphibians of Palestine. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 84, December 2008, Thu Al-
Hijja 1429 AH. pp. 1-18. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Amphibia_Palaestina.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2009).
The Mediterranean Monk Seal (Monachus monachus, Hermann 1779) in
Palestinian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Waters. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 85, January 2009, Muharram 1430 AH. pp.
1-20. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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121

Carnivora Palaestina
The Carnivores of Palestine
Die Raubtiere Palästinas
لواحن
‏)ضواري(‏
فلسطين
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Order: CARNIVORA (Carnivores):
Family: Canidae (Dogs, Jackals, Wolves, Foxes):
1. Palestine Golden Jackal (Canis aureus palaestina, Khalaf 2008)
[Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 80, August 2008,
Rajab / Sha‘ban 1429 AH. pp. 1-13. Type from Rafah and Al-Bureij
Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine]:
Description: The Palestinian Golden Jackal subspecies (canis aureus
palaestina) is morphologically and geographically distinct from the
other three Jackal subspecies living in the area around Palestine: The
Syrian Golden Jackal (Canis aureus syriacus Hemprich and Ehrenberg,
1833), The Egyptian Golden Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster Hemprich
and Ehrenberg, 1833) and the Arabian Golden Jackal (Canis aureus
hadramauticus Noack, 1896).
The Palestinian Jackal is a small race of the Golden or Asiatic Jackal. It
is smaller than a wolf, with relatively shorter legs and tail. It is larger
than a fox and can be distinguished by its relatively smaller, rufous ears
and shorter, black-tipped tail. It is similar to a small dog in appearance.
The fur is rather short and coarse. The dorsal colour is usually variable
black, yellowish-gray or brown-yellowish tinged with rufous, grayer on
the back, which is grizzled with varying amounts of black. A dark band
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uns along the back from the nose to the tip of the tail. This mane
becomes wider on the back, extending into the lateral surfaces. There are
two dark bands across the lower throat and upper breast. There is also a
reddish phase. The under parts are almost white or yellowish-brown.
The winter coat is longer and grayer. The tail is relatively short, usually
with a black tip. The size of the Palestinian Jackal is moderate if
compared with the larger Egyptian Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster) and
the smaller Arabian Jackal (Canis aureus hadramauticus) (Khalaf,
2008).
Size: Head and body 600-900 mm., female smaller than male; ear 70-89
mm.; hind foot 140-162 mm.; tail 200-300 mm; skull length 148-180
mm; weight 5-12 kg.
Ecology: The Palestine Golden Jackal lives in hills, plains, around
orange groves, in forests and on the outskirts of towns and villages.
Distribution: Canis aureus palaestina is common throughout the
northern half of Palestine and Israel to just south of Gaza Strip and Beer
Al-Saba‘ (Beersheba) (Khalaf, 2008).
2. Syrian Golden Jackal, Syrian Asiatic Jackal (Canis aureus
syriacus, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833):
The Golden Jackal is distributed in southern Europe, North Africa,
Egypt, Asia Minor, Arabia, to India and the Indochinese Peninsula. The
subspecies Canis aureus syriacus is common throughout the northern
half of Palestine to just south of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), but does
not penetrate the desert.
3. Egyptian Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster, Hemprich and Ehrenberg
1833):
The Egyptian Jackal is a valid subspecies, and is distributed in Egypt
and perhaps Sinai and the Naqab Desert. The Egyptian subspecies was
quoted from Palestine by Flower (1932).
4. Hadramaut or Arabian Jackal (Canis aureus hadramauticus,
Noack 1896):
The Hadramaut or Arabian Jackal is distributed in southern Arabia. In
Palestine, jackals found near the Dead Sea (Ein Fashkhah and Neot
Hakikar) probably belong to this subspecies.
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A sleeping Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs) at the Arabia's Wildlife Centre,
Desert Park, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Foto: Dr. Norman Ali Khalaf-von
Jaffa, with a Motorola SLVR Mobile Camera, 16.08.2008.
www.fotocommunity.de/pc/pc/mypics/1213259/display/13914492
5. Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs, Pocock 1934):
The Arabian Wolf is distributed in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait (where
it may intergrade with the Indian subspecies), and Egypt (the southern
and eastern Sinai desert). In Palestine, Canis lupus arabs inhabits the
southern Wadi Araba and appears to intergrade with the Indian
subspecies in the northern Naqab Desert and northern Wadi Araba.
6. Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes, Sykes 1831):
The Indian Wolf is widespread from northern India to Sind, south to
Dharwat, Baluchistan, southern Iraq, Kuwait, northern Arabia, Syria,
Lebanon and Palestine, where the subspecies Canis lupus pallipes is
extirpated from the coastal plain, but still occurs in the Judean hills, and
is an intruder in the Huleh Valley from the occupied Golan Heights. A
slightly smaller and paler population appears to inhabit the northern
Naqab Desert and northern Wadi Araba.
7. Egyptian Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes aegyptiacus, Sonnini
1816) and (Vulpes vulpes niloticus, Geoffroy 1803):
The Egyptian Red Fox is known from Libya and Egypt. It may be the
race that inhabits the mountains of the Naqab and Sinai Deserts.
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8. Arabian Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes arabica, Thomas 1902):
The Arabian Red Fox is distributed in Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and
Palestine, where the subspecies Vulpes vulpes arabica is found in the
southern half of the country, in the stony desert hills and wadis of the
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba,
9. Palestine Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes palaestina, Thomas
1920) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 5: 122. Type from Ramleh, near
Jaffa, Palestine. Synonym of Vulpes vulpes aegyptiacus]:
The Palestine Red Fox is distinguished by its gray colour, particularly
along its sides, with a nearly complete suppression of rufous, except the
face. The forelegs are grayish-rufous or fulvous. The underparts are
whitish or black. The upper tail is buffy, washed with black.
Measurements: Head and body 455-625 mm.; ear 83-105 mm.; hind foot
121-148 mm.; tail 305-412 mm.
The Palestinian subspecies Vulpes vulpes palaestina is known from
Lebanon and Palestine, where it is common along the coastal plain and
as far south as Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
10. Mountain Common Red Fox, Tawny Fox (Vulpes vulpes
flavescens, Gray 1843):
The Mountain Fox is distributed in northern Iran, Kurdistan and Iraq.
Vulpes vulpes flavescens may be the subspecies found in the northern,
more mountainous regions of Palestine.
11. Rüppell’s Sand Fox (Vulpes rueppelli, Schinz 1825) and (Vulpes
rueppelli sabaea, Pocock 1934):
Rüppell‘s Sand Fox is distributed in North Africa, from Algeria, Libya
and Egypt, south to Sudan, Somaliland and Asben, Iran and
Afghanistan. The subspecies Vulpes rueppelli sabaea is known from
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Palestine, where it inhabits the western
side of the Dead Sea, and Wadi Araba. It may intergrade with the
African subspecies Vulpes rueppelli rueppelli in the Naqab and Sinai
Deserts where intermediate forms occur.
12. Afghan Fox, Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana, Blanford 1877):
The Afghan Fox is distributed in Uzbek, southern Turkman, Russia,
Afghanistan, Iran, northwestern Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Oman, United
Arab Emirates, Jordan, Palestine and Sinai. In Palestine, it was
125

discovered by G. Ilani, where it is known from the western side of the
Dead Sea (Ein Gedi), and south to Eilat.
13. Fennec Fox (Vulpes [Fennecus] zerda, Zimmerman 1780):
The Fennec Fox is almost certain to be found in sandy desert areas in the
Naqab and in eastern Jordan, because it was reported in similar habitats
in Kuwait, Egypt and western Sinai (Harrison, 1968; Khalaf, 1984;
Qumsiyeh, 1996). There is a record of an Epipaleolithic Fennec Fox
from Qasr Al Kharana in Jordan (Hatough-Bouran and Disi, 1991).
Family: Felidae (Cats):
14. Palestine Wild Cat, Bush Cat (Felis silvestris tristrami, Pocock
1944) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 11, 11: 125. Type from Ghor Seisaban,
Moab, Jordan (collected by Tristram). Perhaps a valid subspecies: Felis
silvestris tristrami]:
The Wild Cat is widespread in Europe, Asia, Arabia and Africa. The
Palestinian subspecies Felis Silvestris tristrami is found in Lebanon,
Syria, Jordan and Palestine, where it is fairly common throughout most
of the country.
15. Iraqi or Mesopotamian Wild Cat, Desert Wild Cat (Felis
silvestris iraki, Cheesman 1920):
The Iraqi Wild Cat Felis silvestris iraki was described from Kuwait and
northeast Arabia. In Palestine, a specimen fitting the description of this
race, which had been killed by a car, was found by Walter W. Ferguson
on the western side of the Dead Sea between Ein Zohar and Ein Boqek.
16. Sand Cat (Felis margarita, Loche 1858) and the Arabian Sand
Cat (Felis margarita harrisoni, Hemmer, Grubb and Groves 1976):
The Sand Cat is distributed in North Africa, Egypt (Sinai), Russian
Turkestan and Arabia. In Palestine, it is confined to the Wadi Araba
(Hatseva).
17. Palestine Jungle Cat, Swamp Cat (Felis chaus furax, de Winton
1898) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, 2: 293. Type from Areeha (Jericho),
Palestine (based on a specimen collected by Tristram). Valid subspecies]
and (Lyncus chrysomelanotis, Nehring 1902) [Schriften Berl. Ges.
Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1902: 145. Type from near the Jordan River. Synonym
of Felis chaus furax]:
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The Jungle Cat is distributed in Asia, from the Caucasus and Turkestan
to India and the Indochinese Peninsula, and Egypt. The Palestinian
subspecies Felis chaus furax is known from Iraq, Jordan and Palestine,
where it is found in the Huleh and Jordan Valleys, Galilee, the coastal
plain, reaching just north of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), Areeha
(Jericho), and the southern end of the Dead Sea.
18. Arabian Caracal Lynx, Desert Lynx (Felis [Caracal] caracal
schmitzi, Matschie 1912) [Schriften Berl. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1912:
64. Type from ―Wadis opening to the Dead Sea‖. Type specimen at the
Berlin Zoological Museum is from Ain ed Dachubeijir, Jordan. Valid
subspecies] :
The Caracal Lynx is distributed in northern Africa, Arabia, the Near East
and India. The Arabian subspecies Caracal caracal schmitzi is known
from Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and
Oman. In Palestine, it has been found in the occupied Golan Heights,
Upper Galilee, the Jordan Valley, Mount Carmel, near the Dead Sea, in
the Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, south to Eilat.
19. Arabian Leopard, Nimer or Nimr (Panthera [Felis] pardus nimr,
Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the Sinai Leopard (Panthera
[Felis] pardus jarvisi, Pocock 1932):
Many literary sources, chiefly the Bible, note the presence of leopards
all over Palestine (except for sandy regions). Ancient Near Eastern
sources, including the Gilgamesh epic and Akkadian lists, indicate that
leopards lived throughout the region (the Caucasus, Turkey, Syria,
Palestine, Iraq, Sinai and Arabia).
Their existence in any region depended then - and still depends today -
on the availability of the three basic conditions essential for leopards:
suitable cover, to enable successful hunting; varied prey, to provide
food; and minimal involvement with man and his economy.
Over the centuries, areas with these conditions gradually shrank. Woods
and thickets were cleared and settled by man and his domestic animals;
potential leopard prey was hunted down; and the leopards had no choice
but to prey on domestic stock.
At the turn of the 20th century, leopards lived in all the wooded and hilly
regions of Palestine, including Mount Carmel and the Judean Hills.
However, by mid-century their distribution had declined drastically, and
their populations were confined to two areas. One was the forested,
deeply fissured regions of Galilee (Al-Galeel). The second area
127

comprised the Judean Desert and the Naqab (Negev) highlands,
particularly the steep cleft landscapes that lie east of the watershed line.
The only ecosystem in Palestine that remains fully undisturbed is a
stretch of mountains and cliffs over the Dead Sea. All of the fauna and
flora components of this ecosystem are still there, except for the recent
extinction of the lammergeier. Not only that, the ecosystem is also
complete in the original food chain, the energy flow from primary
production up to the highest trophic level, with leopards, wolves, and,
may be, additional carnivores on top of the food chain. The leopard
population there is considered to belong to the subspecies known as the
Sinai leopard Panthera pardus jarvisi. But our males weigh up to 40 kg,
quite unlike the subspecies type, and our females are 25-26 kg, which
agrees closely with the size and standards of the Arabian leopard
Panthera pardus nimr. It is a question if there will be time to study the
subspecific position of this population (Ilani 1989/90).
The Dead Sea Mountains is the habitat of the Palestinian Leopard.
Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine
Wildlife Society.
Leopards occurred on a surprisingly large number of occasions in
Palestine, even in recent years when the human population has greatly
increased. Harrison (1968) mention that it has repeatedly appeared in
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Galilee, particularly near the Lebanese frontier. Hardy (1947) notes that
in 1939 a female was shot near Safad, and the Beth Gordon settlement
possesses a skin of one killed about 1938 near Elon, a locality where
leopards appeared again in 1942 and 1943. According to Hardy, Aharoni
obtained a specimen from Mount Carmel and it has occurred in the
Jerusalem area, also on Mount Tabor and in Wadi Araba south of the
Dead Sea. Von Lehmann (1965) knew of one killed in Wadi Daraja, on
the west coast of the Dead Sea. A specimen from Bethoren, killed in
1910 was in the Schmitz collection (Anon 1946). Tristram (1866) knew
of its occurrence in the Dead Sea Region, Mount Carmel, Gilead and
Bashan. A specimen in the Tel Aviv University was obtained at Hanita
in 1925, as well as another in 1952, one caught near Pekin in 1948,
another near Kfar Aramu in 1952 and another near Ashona in 1956. It is
remarkable how many of these records originate from quite a small area
in the hills of Galilee; the area has evidently been visited by leopards for
a long time, since it was recorded that during the earthquake at Safad in
1834 leopards entered the wrecked village from the hills. It has been
supposed that they periodically enter northern Palestine from the
mountains of south Lebanon and Mount Hermon. If this is the case it is
curious that there are no reports of the animal yet available from those
regions (Harrison 1968).
One specimen was obtained by P. E. Schmitz from El-Ammur, 20 km
from Jerusalem; it was for a female obtained in 1911, and it is in the
Zoological Museum of Berlin. This specimen was described as
(Panthera pardus tulliana). Blake (1966, 1967) noted one killed near Ain
Turabi, north-west of the Dead Sea.
In 1965 a leopard attacked a Beduin shepherd in Upper Galilee; the
animal was stabbed by the wounded shepherd, and they were both found
lying side by side, alive but unable to move. The shepherd was fortunate
indeed to survive this attack. A leopard cub captured in the same region
in 1940 (Anon 1946) was taken to Safad, where the half-grown cub was
eating 15-20 pounds of meat a day. Subsequently named Tedi, he was
moved to Tel Aviv Zoo,where he grew into a fine and powerful adult
described by Hardy (1947) as more heavily built than Indian leopards.
Attempts to mate Tedi at first failed, indeed his courtship with a
promising young female Indian panther proved fatal, for Tedi killed her
with his strong paws (Harrison 1968, Khalaf 1983, 2005).
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A Leopard (Panthera pardus) at the Kuwait Zoo, Kuwait, State of Kuwait.
Foto: Dr. Norman Ali Khalaf-von Jaffa, with a Motorola SLVR Mobile
Camera, 06.01.2007.
Three different leopard subspecies live in Palestine:
Palestine's northern leopards, the Anatolian leopard (Panthera pardus
tulliana) are larger and darker in colour than the desert Arabian or Nimr
leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), which is smaller, and lighter in both
weight and colour. The Arabian leopard is the smallest race of leopard,
and one of the most beautiful: dark spots are scattered on almost white
fur. The leopards of the north had almost completely disappeared by the
1960s. The occasional reports of sightings are not always reliable.
However, in recent years a few leopards (four) were reported in the
north of Palestine.
The conditions are not suitable for the survival and development of the
northern population. Although there is enough plant cover, and sufficient
animals for prey (gazelle, hyrax, jackal, wild boar and porcupine), man
and his activities may be a disturbing factor.
The leopards of Palestine's southern regions were totally unknown
between the 1930s and 1964. In April of the latter year, however, an
adult female leopard was killed by a Beduin in Wadi Tze'elim; the
Beduin reported that her two cubs had fled the scene. In early 1967
Beduins again killed a young male leopard at Einot Qaneh (the West
Bank of Jordan River).
A third subspecies, the Sinai or Jarvisi Leopard (Panthera pardus
130

jarvisi) lives in the Judean Desert in Palestine. This subspecies was
described by Pocock in 1932. The type specimen is in the British
Museum collection, and it was obtained in Sinai, and presented by Col.
C. S. Jarvis.
In the end of 1984, 25 adults were known to live in an area of 2,000 sq
km, which was declared a nature reserve in 1973.
Palestine‘s leopards appear to be making a dramatic increase and
expanding into formerly unoccupied territories.
Leopards have penetrated much of the southern half of Palestine, from
the Ein Gedi region near the Dead Sea, all the way down to the Elat
Mountains. They are also seen on the Egyptian Sinai border in the Wadi
Paran region.
Many recent sightings have been made in regions not considered
preferred habitats for leopards, and we can only surmise that these big
cats seen in such diverse regions is a result of effective conservation of
ibex and other prey animals (Ilani and Shalmon 1985, Khalaf 1987,
2005).
20. Anatolian Leopard (Panthera [Felis] pardus tulliana,
Valenciennes 1856):
The Leopard is widespread from South Africa to Arabia, Iran and Asia,
as far east as Japan. The Anatolian subspecies Panthera pardus tulliana
is known from Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it has been
recorded from Upper Galilee, formerly Mount Carmel, and the Judean
hills (near Al-Quds [Jerusalem]).The Anatolian Leopard is a valid
subspecies in northern Palestine.
21. Asiatic or Iranian Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus, Griffith
1821):
The Asiatic cheetah once ranged from Arabia to India, through Arabia,
Iran, central Asia, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and, particularly in Iran
and the Indian subcontinent, it was numerous. Cheetahs were easy to
train, and rulers kept huge numbers for hunting gazelles. The Moghul
Emperor of India, Akbar, is said to have had 1,000 at a time. It appears
in many Persian and Indian miniature paintings. But by 1900 it was
already headed for extinction in many areas. The last physical evidence
of cheetahs in India was three shot (with two bullets) by the Maharajah
of Surguja in 1947 in eastern Madhya Pradesh. In Palestine, it was
scarce by 1884, though more common east of the Jordan River. By 1930,
it was rare, but still common in the southern steppe. The last Palestinian
131

cheetah was seen in the Naqab Desert (near Yotvata) in 1959. By 1990,
Asiatic cheetahs are apparently extirpated except from Iran, and possibly
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Estimated to number over 200 during the
1970s in Iran, current estimates by Iranian biologist Hormoz Asadi put
the number at 50 to 100 (Jackson, 1998).
A Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) at the Arabia's Wildlife Centre, Desert Park,
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Foto: Dr. Norman Ali Khalaf-von Jaffa, with a
Motorola SLVR Mobile Camera, 16.08.2008.
22. Asiatic or Persian Lion (Panthera [Felis] leo persica, Meyer
1826):
"Then what is wrong with them that they turn away from receiving
admonition. As if they were frightened wild donkeys. Fleeing from a
lion (Qaswara)." (The Holy Qur‘an, Suret Al-Muddather, Aya 49-51).
Lions are the most powerful of all carnivorous animals. Although not
now found in Palestine, they must have been in ancient times very
numerous there. They had their lairs in the forests (The Bible: Jeremiah
5:6; Jeremiah 12:8; Amos 3:4), in the caves of the mountains (Song of
Solomon 4:8; Nahum 2:12), and in the canebrakes on the banks of the
Jordan (Jeremiah 49:19; Jeremiah 50:44; Zechariah 11:3).
The Asiatic or Persian Lion (Felis leo persica), this proud symbol of
strength and courage, must have been abundant in Biblical times.
According to the Bible, in which it appears under several different
names, the lion must have been quite common at that time. The species
132

appears often on mosaics from the Roman and Byzantine periods. The
thickets of the Jordan River were a preferred habitat. It became extinct
after the time of the Crusaders. The last mention of them being by Arab
writers of the 13th, 14th century, and the 17th century, when lions still
existed near Samaria, the Jordan River area, and other areas. One
specimen has been hunted at Lejun, near Megiddo, in the thirteenth
century. Alfaras Bin Shawer, Wali of Ramla, wrote that he saw eleven
dead lions after heavy rain in Ramla and the area of Nahr (River) Al-
Auja in 1294. Sanqarshah Almansouri, Naib of Safad (1304-1307),
killed in the coastal forests 15 lions; and according to Palestinian sources
from Deir Hijlah, they reported the appearance of a lion in 1630 near the
Jordan River.
At this time, lions certainly roamed over parts of Syria and Arabia and
along the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq, where in ancient times
lions figured prominently in the great royal hunts in Assyria. It is clear
that lions survived in Mesopotamia until the nineteenth century, and
there are several references to them by travellers of that period. The
Persian Lion has not been reported from Iran since 1942. However, it is
possible that it still exists there.
The last remnant of the Asiatic Lion, which in historical times ranged
from Greece to India through Iran (Persia), lives in the Gir Forest
National Park of western India. About 300 lions live in a 1,412 km² (558
square miles) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat. In 1907 there were only
13 lions left in the Gir, when the Nawab of Junagadh gave complete
protection to them.
Unlike the tiger, which prefers dense forests with adequate cover, the
lion inhabits the scrub-type deciduous forests. Compared to its African
counterpart, the Indian lion has a scantier mane. The lion seldom comes
into contact with the tiger which also lives in India, but not in the Gir
region as this forest is hotter and more arid than the habitat preferred by
the tiger.
In Al-Jaleel (Galilee) there is a hill called Tel el Assad (Lion Hill in
Arabic), and there is a village nearby called Deir el Assad (Monastery of
the Lion), that may refer to a quite late occurrence of this species. Bie‘r
Al-Sabe‘e (Well of the Lion) is a famous Palestinian city in the Naqab
(Negev) desert (Khalaf-von Jaffa, 2006).
133

The Jordan River was the last habitat of the Palestinian Lion.
Photograph by Mr. Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine
Wildlife Society. Picture taken in 2012.
Family: Herpestidae or Viverridae (Genets, Mongooses
and Civets):
23. Palestine Genet (Genetta genetta terraesanctae, Neumann 1902)
[Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 183. Type from Mount Carmel
area, Palestine]:
The Palestine Genet was recorded from the Mount Carmel area by
Tristram (1866). Unspecified additional specimens were reported from
Sejera (Schedschera) and Wadi Fauar near the Dead Sea by Aharoni
(1930).
24. Egyptian Mongoose, Ichneumon (Herpestes ichneumon,
Linnaeus 1758):
The Egyptian Mongoose is distributed in southern Spain, North, East
and Southwest Africa, Asia Minor, Turkey and Palestine, where it is
common in the northern half of the country, in the Huleh Valley, along
the coastal plain, with several isolated populations near the Dead Sea
and the Wadi Araba.
134

Family: Hyaenidae (Hyaenas and Aardwolves):
25. Syrian Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena syriaca, Matschie 1900):
The Striped Hyaena is distributed in North and East Africa, Egypt and
Sinai, through Asia Minor, southern Russia, Iran, Arabia, Lebanon,
Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Iraq to Nepal and India. The Syrian subspecies
Hyaena hyaena syriaca is known from Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and
Palestine, where it has disappeared from the coastal plain and is
becoming rare in the Huleh Valley, Upper Galilee, Mount Carmel and
the Judean hills, south to the Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba.
26. Arabian Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena sultana, Pocock 1934):
The Arabian Striped Hyaena is known from southern Arabia. In
Palestine, it occurs near the southern end of the Dead Sea (Neot
Hakikar). A specimen in the collection of the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem constitutes the first geographical record for Palestine. It may
be that the Arabian race intergrades with the Syrian subspecies in the
northern part of its range.
27. Dubbah, Sudan Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena dubbah, Meyer
1793):
The Dubbah is a valid subspecies and perhaps enters Palestine from the
Sinai.
Family: Mustelidae (Weasels, Polecats, Martens, Badgers,
Otters & Skunks):
28. Common Weasel, Least Weasel, Snow Weasel (Mustela nivalis,
Linnaeus 1766) and the Egyptian Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis
subpalmata, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the Mediterranean
Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis boccamela, Bechstein 1800):
The common Weasel is the smallest carnivore in the region. It is
distinguished by its slender body; long neck; low, rounded ears; short
limbs; and tail which is less than a quarter of the length of the head and
body. In the summer, the upper parts are a uniform brown, and the under
parts are white, sharply demarcated along the flanks. The dorsal surface
of the forefeet is white. The tail is brown, becoming darker towards the
tip. The winter coat is presumably all white, as in the colder parts of its
range. Measurements: Head and body 160-290 mm; hind foot 20.5-30.5
mm; tail 40-70 mm. (Ferguson, 2002).
135

The common Weasel is active day and night. It inhabits holes, often the
burrows of rodents and hollow trees, among boulders and rock crevices.
It lives also in mountains, as high as the sub-alpine zone. In Egypt, this
species appeared to be more commensal than feral and was mostly
obtained around human habitations and near cultivated areas (Setzer,
1958). Flower (1932) remarked that in Egypt, these animals frequented
clubs, restaurants, homes, and other buildings. Such habitat choice was
not seen in Egypt later by Osborn and Helmy (1980).
The Common Weasel feeds on insects, small rodents, birds, lizards,
amphibians, fish and occasionally larger animals. Gestation period is 34-
37 days; and in Armenia, it usually produces 3-9 young in the late spring
and summer (Dahl, 1954); and in Egypt, a litter of five was noted born
in December (Flower, 1932).
The Common Weasel is widespread in Europe eastwards through
Russia, Asia Minor, Iran, northern Arabia, Afghanistan, Mongolia,
Korea, China, Japan and North Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Algeria and
North America.
Considered by some authors a definite Pleistocene rodent specialist, the
Common Weasel seems to have made its first appearance in Europe
during the Mindel glacial episode (about 400,000 years ago) and is
commonly found in cave deposits from the beginning of the Late
Pleistocene. It represents a Palaearctic species of the Euro-Siberian
Region, widely distributed in Europe, Asia and North Africa (Masseti,
1995).
In the Mediterranean region, the Common Weasel occurs today in
northern Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia), in most of southern
Europe and in Anatolia. In the Levant its distribution is restricted to the
northern areas of the region, including Lebanon (Harrison and Bates,
1991) and northern Syria. In the northern Arabian Peninsula, it has not
been reported since the Early Bronze Age (Dayan and Tchernov, 1988).
In fact, in Palestine, the species does not exist at present (Dayan and
Tchernov, 1988; Dayan, 1989). Beyond this distribution gap in
Palestine, the Common Weasel occurs again in Egypt, along the Nile
delta and valley, with a population characterized by large body size. This
Egyptian population is almost completely commensal with man (Osborn
and Helmy, 1980) and has been occasionally considered either a Roman
introduction or a glacial relic. Even if they do not reach the size of the
Egyptian Weasel, The Mediterranean Weasels are all characterized by a
very large body size (King, 1989; Masseti, 1995).
136

The subspecies found in Lebanon is the Mediterranean Mustela nivalis
boccamela, and is smaller than the Egyptian subspecies Mustela nivalis
subpalmata.
The status of the weasel in Palestine is not clear. Two Common Weasel
subspecies may occur in Palestine: The Egyptian Common Weasel
(Mustela nivalis subpalmata, Hemprich and Ehrenberg 1833) and the
Mediterranean Common Weasel (Mustela nivalis boccamela, Bechstein
1800). Zoologists (Aharoni, 1930; Bodenheimer, 1958) of the first half
of last century failed to confirm Tristram‘s listing of this species (as
Mustela boccamela) as a member of the Palestinian fauna, from the
vicinity of Mount Tabor. The common Weasel is reported from
Holocene fossils (11,000 to about 5000 years before present) from
Areeha (Jericho), Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba), and the Galilee
(Tchernov, 1988). It probably became extirpated in Palestine due to
increasing aridity. However, relict populations survived around the Nile
Valley in northern Egypt (Osborn and Helmy, 1980), and two specimens
are known from Lebanon (Harrison and Lewis, 1964). Thus, a
population perhaps still survives in the Holy Land. Indeed, Harrison and
Lewis (1964) reported undocumented skins in the collection of Salah
(Selah) Merrill, who made most of this collection, while an American
Consul in Jerusalem between 1882-1907 (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
The word Mustela is Latin for weasel; and the name nivalis is derived
from nix, Latin, genitive nivis, snow. Hence, also, the common name
Snow Weasel (Qumsiyeh, 1996; Khalaf-von Jaffa, 2006); and I would
like to mention that the Weasel Tribe are common in Palestine.
29. Syrian Stone Marten, Rock Marten, Beech Marten (Martes foina
syriaca, Nehring 1902) [Type from Wadi Sir or Syr, Jordan (specimen
is at the Zoological Museum in Berlin). Valid subspecies]:
The Stone Marten is widespread across Europe, Asia Minor and Asia.
The Syrian subspecies Martes foina syriaca occurs in Iraq, Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it was formerly common in the
Judean hills and was extirpated on Mount Carmel. It has recently
appeared at Ramat Shaul and Kiryat Shprinzak. It is now rare in the
Galilee and the occupied Golan Heights, but has increased in the Hula
Valley near Kibbutz Dan.
30. Syrian Marbled Poleacat (Vormela peregusna syriaca, Pocock
1936) [Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1936: 720. Type from near Lake
Tiberias (Sea of Galilee), Palestine]:
137

The Marbled Polecat ranges from southeastern Europe and southwestern
Asia, Russia into Mongolia. The Syrian subspecies Vormela peregusna
syriaca is found in Syria, western and northern Iraq, and Palestine,
where it is fairly common in the northern half of the country up to the
edge of the desert.
31. Persian Honey Badger or Ratel (Mellivora capensis wilsoni,
Cheesman 1920):
The Honey Badger is widespread in most of Africa, Arabia to Russian
Turkestan, east to Nepal and India. The Persian subspecies Mellivora
capensis wilsoni is known from Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, southern
Arabia and Palestine, where it is rare but widespread from Upper Galilee
(Umm Falik) to the Judean hills and the Naqab Desert (Ein Hussub). It
has also been recorded from Gaza.
32. Persian Common Badger, Old World Badger, Eurasian Badger
(Meles meles canescens, Blanford 1875):
The Common Badger is the only species of its genus, and it is
widespread throughout Europe and Asia, Tibet, northern Burma and
southern China. The Persian race Meles meles canescens occurs in Iran,
Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is uncommon but has been
recorded in Upper Galilee, Jezreel Valley, upper Jordan Valley and the
coastal plain.
Common Badger at Beit Sahour, Palestine in 2012. Photograph by Mr.
Imad Atrash, the Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society.
138

33. Persian Common River Otter (Lutra lutra seistanica, Birula
1912):
The Common River Otter is widespread across Europe and Asia, from
England to Japan, Asia Minor, Arabia and North Africa. In Palestine, the
Persian subspecies Lutra lutra seistanica is widespread, though
uncommon, in the northern half of the country, from the Huleh Valley to
the mouth of the Jordan River at the Dead Sea, and the coastal plain.
Family: Ursidae (Bears):
34. Syrian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos syriacus, Hemprich and
Ehrenberg 1828) [Type from near Bischerre, Mount Makmel, Lebanon]
and the Hermon Brown Bear (Ursus arctos schmitzi, Matschi 1917)
[Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 33. Type from Mount Hermon,
Palestine. Synonym]:
The Brown Bear ranges widely across the northern parts of the New and
Old Worlds.
The Syrian subspecies Ursus arctos syriacus is known from Asia Minor,
Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it formerly
occurred in Galilee and the Judean hills during Biblical times. Prophet
David boasts of having strangled a bear, which had attacked his herd,
and two bears killed the 42 boys, who scoffed at the Prophet Elisha. In
the nineteenth century it was observed in a ravine near Tiberias, near
Beisan and in the Golan Heights. The last wild Syrian Bear was killed
near Majdal Shams in the southern Mount Hermon in 1917. They were
140 cm in height and dark brown. It has not been a menace to flocks of
sheep and goats for a long time, but occasional visits to vine-yards and
fruit-groves are still reported from Syria. The Bear is extinct on the
Hermon and Anti-Lebanon, mainly because it was so drastically hunted
by German officers during the war (Khalaf, 1983, 2001). Today, it exists
in Palestine only in zoos.
139

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http://gazelle.8m.net/catalog.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). The Common Weasel. In: Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin Homepage. Extinct and Endangered
Animals and Reintroduction. http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2004). Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische
Biologische Bulletin. Eine Wissenschaftliche Reise in Palaestina,
Arabien und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. / Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and
Europe between 1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage, Juli 2004: 452 Seiten.
Zweite erweiterte Auflage, August 2004: 460 Seiten. Norman Ali
Khalaf, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Germany.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gazelle_Bulletin.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Leopards of Palestine.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. Number 41, Twenty-third Year, May 2005. pp. 1-9.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Palestine_Leopard.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). Der Arabische Leopard, Panthera
pardus nimr. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. Number 42. Twenty-third Year. June 2005. pp. 1-
146

8. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Arabischer_Leopard.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Mammals in Dubai Zoo,
Dubai City, United Arab Emirates. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
bulletin. Number 45, Twenty-third Year, September 2005, Sha‘ban
1426. pp. 1-14. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Rafah Zoo in the Rafah
Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine : A Story of Destruction by the
Israeli Occupation Army. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 46, Twenty-third Year, October 2005, Ramadan 1426. pp. 1-11.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (2005). The Qalqilia Zoo and the
Natural History Museum in the City of Qalqilia, West Bank, Occupied
Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47,
Twenty-third Year, November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 1-10. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (Member of PALESTA) (2005).
Palestinian Scientists and Technologists Abroad (PALESTA). Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47, Twenty-third Year,
November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 11-12. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Arabian Carnivores in the
Arabia‘s Wildlife Centre, Sharjah Desert Park, United Arab Emirates.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 48, Twenty-third
Year, December 2005, Thu Alqi‘da 1426. pp. 1-9. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali (2005, 2006). Chapter 3: Geography, Flora and
Fauna. Pages 33-39. in: Palestine: A Guide. By Mariam Shahin,
Photography by George Azar. Northampton, Massachusetts: Interlink
Publishing Group, 2005, 2006. xi + 471 pages. Appendices to page 500.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Der Asiatische oder Persische
Loewe (Panthera leo persica). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 49, Twenty-fourth
Year, January 2006, Thu Alhijja 1426. pp. 1-5.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Asiatischer_Loewe.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Felidae Palaestina: The Wild Cats
of Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 52,
Twenty-fourth Year, April 2006, Rabie‘ Althani 1427. pp. 1-15. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Felidae_Palaestina.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Der Asiatische oder Iranische
147

Gepard (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 53, Twenty-fourth Year, May 2006, Rabie‘
Althani 1427. pp. 1-7. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Asiatischer_Gepard.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Die Rohrkatze (Felis chaus).
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 54, Twenty-fourth
Year, June 2006, Jumada Al-Ulla 1427. pp. 1-8. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Rohrkatze.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Mammalia
Palaestina: The Mammals of Palestine. / Die Saeugetiere Palaestinas.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 55, Twenty-fourth
Year, July 2006, Jumada Al-Thania 1427. pp. 1-46. Sharjah, United
Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina1.html (Part 1) &
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina2.html (Part 2)
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Palaestina3.html (References).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Mammalia Arabica. Eine
Zoologische Reise in Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980-
2006. / Mammalia Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia
and Europe between 1980-2006. Erste Auflage, Juli 2006, 484 pp.
Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Deutschland & Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Arabica.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The Asiatic or
Persian Lion (Panthera leo persica) in Palestine. In: Mammalia Arabica.
A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between 1980-
2006. Erste Auflage, Juli 2006. Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Deutschland und Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. pp. 147-
149. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Lion_Palestine.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Eine Persönlichkeit aus
Jaffa, Palästina / A Personality from Jaffa, Palestine: Bassam Ali Taher
Khalaf (Abu Ali) (1938-2006). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 56, Twenty-fourth Year, August 2006. pp. 8-19.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Bassam_Khalaf.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The Common
Weasel (Mustela nivalis, Linnaeus 1766) in Palestine and the East
Mediterranean Region. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 57, Twenty-fourth Year, September 2006. pp. 1-7. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
148

www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Weasel_Palestine.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The Asiatic or
Persian Lion (Panthera leo persica, Meyer 1826) in Palestine and the
Arabian and Islamic Region. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 58, October 2006, Ramadan 1427 H. pp. 1-13.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Asiatic_Lion.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Ein
Besuch im Neunkircher Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Deutschland / A
Visit to Neunkirchen Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Germany. Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 59, November 2006. pp. 1-
25. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabisch / Arabic).
http://khalaf.homepage24.de/Ein%20Besuch%20im%20Neunkircher%2
0Zoo-%20Neunkirchen-%20Saarland-%20Deutschland
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The
Chinese Leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray 1862) in
Neunkirchen Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Germany / Der Chinesische
Leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray 1862) im Neunkircher Zoo,
Neunkirchen, Saarland, Deutschland. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 60, December 2006. pp. 1-10. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Chinese_Leopard.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). The Mustelids
of Palestine. www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Palestine_Mustelid.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Behavioural Observations on the Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus
nimr, Hemprich & Ehrenberg 1833) in the Arabia‘s Wildlife Centre,
Desert Park, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 61, January 2007, Thu Al-Hijja 1427 AH.
pp. 1-14. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (Article in Arabic; References
in English and German).
http://khalaf.homepage24.de/Behavioural%20Observations%20on%20th
e%20Arabian%20Leopard%20in%20the%20Arabias%20Wildlife%20Centre-%20Sharjah-%20UAE
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Zum 1. Todestag : Eine
Persönlichkeit aus Jaffa, Palästina / The First Death Anniversary : A
Personality from Jaffa, Palestine : Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf (Abu Ali)
(1938-2006). Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische Biologische Bulletin.
Nummer 62, Februar 2007, Muharram 1428 AH. Seite 11. Sharjah,
Vereinigte Arabische Emirate.
149

www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Bassam_Khalaf.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). A
Recent Record of the Arabian Sand Cat (Felis margarita harrisoni,
Hemmer, Grubb and Groves 1976) from the Kuwaiti Desert, State of
Kuwait. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 64, April
2007, Rabi‘e Al-Awal 1428 AH. pp. 1-20. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (Article in Arabic; Abstract in English, Kurzfassung in
Deutsch; References in English, German and Arabic).
http://khalaf.homepage24.de/A%20Recent%20Record%20of%20the%2
0Arabian%20Sand%20Cat%20from%20the%20Kuwaiti%20Desert-
%20State%20of%20Kuwait
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Qit
Sahrawi (Desert Cat or Sand Cat). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a
Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 64, April 2007, Rabi'e Al-Awal 1428 AH. p. 21.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7_%D8%B5%D8%AD%
D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). The
First Sight Record of the Arabian Sand Cat (Felis margarita harrisoni,
Hemmer, Grubb and Groves 1976) from the Gaza Strip, Palestine.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 65, May 2007,
Rabi‘e Al-Akher 1428 AH. pp. 1-19. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
(Article in English; Abstract in English and Arabic, Kurzfassung in
Deutsch; References in English, German and Arabic).
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gaza_Sand_Cat.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). The
Presence of the Arabian Sand Cat (Felis margarita harrisoni) in the
State of Qatar. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 65,
May 2007, Rabi‘e Al-Akher 1428 AH. p. 20. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Qatar_Sand_Cat.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Die
Sandkatze oder Wüstenkatze (Felis margarita, Loche 1858). Gazelle:
Das Palaestinensische Biologische Bulletin. Nummer 66, Juni 2007,
Jamada Al-Ulla 1428 AH. Seiten 1-13. Sharjah, Vereinigte Arabische
Emirate. (Article in German; References in English, German and
Arabic). http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Sandkatze.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Mus
musculus gazaensis Khalaf, 2007: A New House Mouse Subspecies
from the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
150

Bulletin. Number 66, June 2007, Jamada Al-Ulla 1428 AH. pp. 14-24.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (Abstract in English).
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gaza_House_Mouse.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Der
Karakal oder Wuestenluchs (Caracal caracal, von Schreber 1776).
Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische Biologische Bulletin. Nummer 67, Juli
2007, Jamada Al-Akhera 1428 AH. Seiten 1-12. Sharjah, Vereinigte
Arabische Emirate. (Article in German; References in English, German
and Arabic). http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Karakal.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Felidae Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe
between 1980-2007 / Felidae Arabica. Eine Zoologische Reise in
Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980-2007. Erste Auflage
(First Edition), Juli 2007, 300 pp. Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Deutschland & Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic,
German and English).
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Felidae_Arabica.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Fa‘r
Ghaza Al-Manzeli (Gaza House Mouse or Palestine House Mouse). In:
Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia).
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 68, August 2007,
Rajab 1428 AH. p. 1. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A3%D8%B1_%D8%BA%
D8%B2%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D
9%84%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Haywanat Filistin (Fauna of Palestine). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 69, September 2007, Sha‘ban 1428 AH. pp.
1-4. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%
D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%
D9%8A%D9%86
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Sanuriyat (Family Felidae). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a Al-Hurra
(The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 70, October 2007. pp. 1-2. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9
%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA
151

Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Nimer A‘rabi (The Arabian Leopard). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 70, October 2007. pp. 3-4. (Article in
Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D
8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007).
Fahed A‘rabi (Arabian Cheetah). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a Al-
Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 70, October 2007. pp. 5-6. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%87%D8%AF_%D8%B9%
D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Qit
Al-Adghal (Jungle Cat). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a Al-Hurra
(The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 70, October 2007. pp. 7. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%
D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%BA%D8%A7%D9%84
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Um
Rishat (Caracal or Desert Lynx). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-Mawsu'a Al-
Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 70, October 2007. pp. 8. (Article in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%85_%D8%B1%D9%8A%
D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%AA
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). The Story of Sabrina, the Gaza Zoo Lioness. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 73, January 2008. pp. 1-20.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gaza_Lioness_Sabrina.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). The Zanzibar Leopard (Panthera pardus adersi, Pocock 1932).
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 74, February
2008. pp. 1-13. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Zanzibar_Leopard.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Nimer Zanjibar (Zanzibar Leopard). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 74, February 2008. Page 14. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. (Article in Arabic).
152

http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D
9%86%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1
Khalaf, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2008). Zum 2. Todestag
: Eine Persönlichkeit aus Jaffa, Palästina / The Second Death
Anniversary : A Personality from Jaffa, Palestine : Bassam Ali Taher
Khalaf (Abu Ali) (1938-2006). Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische
Biologische Bulletin. Nummer 74, Februar 2008, Muharram 1429 AH.
Seite 15. Sharjah, Vereinigte Arabische Emirate.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Bassam_Khalaf.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Leopard Stamps from Zanzibar and Tanzania. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 75, March 2008. pp. 1-4.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). The Sri Lanka leopard (Panthera pardus kotiya, Deraniyagala
1956). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 76, April
2008. pp. 1-17. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Sri_Lanka_Leopard.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Nimer Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka leopard). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 76, April 2008. Page 18. Sharjah, United
Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D
8%B1%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%83%D8%A7
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). The Persian or Iranian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor,
Pocock 1927). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 77,
May 2008. pp. 1-15. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Persian_Leopard.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Royal White Tigers (Panthera tigris, Linnaeus 1758) at Zoo
d'Amnéville (Amneville Zoo), Amneville, Lorraine, France. Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 78, June 2008. pp. 1-26.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/White_Tiger_Amneville.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). The Jaguarundi (Puma yaguarondi, Lacépède 1809) at Parc
Merveilleux, Bettembourg, Luxembourg. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 79, July 2008. pp. 1-3. Sharjah, United
153

Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Jaguarundi_Merveilleux.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008: A New Golden Jackal
Subspecies from the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 80, August 2008, Rajab / Sha‘ban 1429
AH. pp. 1-13. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (Abstract in English).
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Palestine_Golden_Jackal.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Taxon Profile: Subspecies: Palestine Golden Jackal Canis
aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008. BioLib.
http://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id540278/
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Taxon Profile: Subspecies: Palestine Golden Jackal Canis
aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 80, August 2008, Rajab / Sha‘ban 1429 AH. pp. 19.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Profil Taxonu: Poddruh: Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008.
BioLib. http://www.biolib.cz/cz/taxon/id540278/
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Profil Taxonu: Poddruh: Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 80, August 2008,
Rajab / Sha‘ban 1429 AH. pp. 20. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Iben Awa Al-Filistini (Palestine Golden Jackal). In: Wikipedia-
Arabic. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 81,
September 2008, Ramadan 1429 AH. pp. 1-2. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. (in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%A2%
D9%88%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D
8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Carnivora Palaestina: The Carnivores of Palestine / Die
Raubtiere Palästinas. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 82, October 2008, Shawal 1429 AH. pp. 1-25. Sharjah, United
Arab Emirates.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Carnivora_Palaestina.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Nimer Farisi (Persian leopard). In: Wikipedia-Arabic, Al-
154

Mawsu'a Al-Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). (in Arabic).
http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D8%B1_%D9%81%D
8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%8A
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2008).
Carnivora Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia and
Europe between 2005-2008. / Carnivora Arabica. Eine Zoologische
Reise in Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 2005-2008. ISBN
978-9948-03-459-9. Book in preparation, September 2008. In Arabic,
English and German.
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Carnivora_Arabica.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(Text) and Nora Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf (Drawings) (2008). Qisset
Al-Labu‘a Sabrina fi Hadiqet Haywanat Ghaza / The Story of Sabrina,
the Gaza Zoo Lioness. First Edition. Dr. Norman Ali Khalaf-von Jaffa,
Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Germany & Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
(Publication in Summer 2008, in Arabic and English). ISBN 978-9948-
03-603-6. English article Website:
http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gaza_Lioness_Sabrina.html &
Arabic Story Website:
http://khalaf.homepage24.de/The%20Story%20of%20Sabrina,%20the%
20Gaza%20Zoo%20Lioness
Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa,
Zoologist, Ecologist and Geologist: The Scientific References (1980-
2008). http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Khalaf_References.html
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158

Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf,
2008 : A New Golden Jackal
Subspecies from the Gaza Strip,
Palestine
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Abstract: A new subspecies of Golden Jackal of the genus Canis
(Carnivora: Canidae) from the Gaza Strip, Palestine is described. This
subspecies is distinguished from the other three subspecies of Canis
aureus living around Palestine, by its distinctive colouration on the fur
and the moderate size. It is morphologically and geographically distinct
from the other subspecies. The new subspecies was named Canis aureus
palaestina Khalaf, 2008.
On 10.07.2008, I received an e-mail (with attached photos) from
Assistant Professor Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou from the
Biology Department, Islamic University of Gaza, Gaza Strip, Palestine.
The first photo showed three Golden Jackals in an enclosure at Rafah
Zoo, Al-Brazil Suburb, Rafah City, Gaza Strip, Palestine. The second
photo showed two Golden Jackals in an enclosure at Al-Wasat Zoo, Al-
Bureij Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine.
Description and Distinctive Features:
From the given photos, I began comparing with the other Golden Jackal
subspecies. There are three Jackal subspecies living in the area around
Palestine: The Syrian Golden Jackal (Canis aureus syriacus Hemprich
and Ehrenberg, 1833), The Egyptian Golden Jackal (Canis aureus
lupaster Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833) and the Arabian Golden Jackal
(Canis aureus hadramauticus Noack, 1896).
159

The Palestinian Golden Jackal subspecies is morphologically and
geographically distinct from these three subspecies. The Palestinian
Jackal is a small race of the Golden or Asiatic Jackal. It is smaller than a
wolf, with relatively shorter legs and tail. It is larger than a fox and can
be distinguished by its relatively smaller, rufous ears and shorter, blacktipped
tail. It is similar to a small dog in appearance. The fur is rather
short and coarse. The dorsal colour is usually variable black, yellowishgray
or brown-yellowish tinged with rufous, grayer on the back, which is
grizzled with varying amounts of black. A dark band runs along the back
from the nose to the tip of the tail. This mane becomes wider on the
back, extending into the lateral surfaces. There are two dark bands
across the lower throat and upper breast. There is also a reddish phase.
The under parts are almost white or yellowish-brown. The winter coat is
longer and grayer. The tail is relatively short, usually with a black tip.
The size of the Palestinian Jackal is moderate if compared with the
larger Egyptian Jackal (Canis aureus lupaster) and the smaller Arabian
Jackal (Canis aureus hadramauticus).
Head and body 600-900 mm., female smaller than male; ear 70-89 mm.;
hind foot 140-162 mm.; tail 200-300 mm; skull length 148-180 mm;
weight 5-12 kg.
The New Palestinian Golden Jackal Subspecies Canis aureus palaestina
Khalaf, 2008, at Rafah Zoo, Al-Brazil Suburb, Rafah City, Gaza Strip,
Palestine. Foto: Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou, 2008.
160

Habitat:
The Palestine Golden Jackal lives in hills, plains, around orange groves,
in forests and on the outskirts of towns and villages.
Distribution:
Canis aureus palaestina is common throughout the northern half of
Palestine and Israel to just south of Gaza Strip and Beer Al-Saba‘
(Beersheba).
Conclusion:
After comparing the different jackal subspecies, and examining the two
photos, and referring to many zoological references, and searching the
Internet, I came finally to a conclusion that we are in front of a new
subspecies of the Golden Jackal from the Gaza Strip, Palestine.
I gave it the scientific name Canis aureus palaestina, new subspecies.
The subspecies name ―palaestina‖ is Latin for ―Palestine‖.
Canis aureus palaestina, new subspecies:
Scientific trinomial name: Canis aureus palaestina Khalaf, 2008.
Common Name: Palestine Golden Jackal.
Location: Rafah and Al-Bureij Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip,
Palestine.
Date of capture: 2008.
Acknowledgment: A Special thanks is due to the Palestinian
Zoologist Assistant Professor Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou from
the Biology Department, Islamic University of Gaza, who sent the
Golden Jackal photos, and gave me the opportunity to discover a new
Palestinian Golden Jackal Subspecies.
161

The New Palestinian Golden Jackal Subspecies Canis aureus palaestina
Khalaf, 2008, at Al-Wasat Zoo, Al-Bureij Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip,
Palestine. Foto: Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou, 2008.
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168

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Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (Member of PALESTA) (2005).
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Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Arabian Carnivores in the
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169

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176

Rodentia Palaestina :
The Rodents of Palestine
قوارض فلسطين
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Order: RODENTIA (Rodents or Gnawing Mammals):
Family: Sciuridae (Squirrels and Marmots):
1. Syrian Squirrel, Persian Squirrel, Caucasian Squirrel (Sciurus
anomalus syriacus, Ehrenberg 1828) [Type from Lebanon Mountains.
Valid subspecies Sciurus anomalus syriacus in southern Turkey, Syria,
Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine]:
The Caucasian Squirrel is widespread in Europe, Asia Minor and Asia.
The Syrian subspecies Sciurus anomalus syriacus is known from
southern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it was
found in northern Palestine at the beginning of the 20th century, and was
thought to be extirpated, but in 1967, it was rediscovered in Wadi Assal,
several kilometers from Dan at the foot of Mount Hermon. It is also
known from the occupied Golan Heights.
Family: Hystricidae (Porcupines):
2. Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica, Kerr 1792) and the
Palestine Crested Porcupine (Hystrix hirsutirostris aharonii, Müller
1911) [Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1911: 123. Type from
Emmaus, Palestine. Synonym] and (Hystrix hirsutirostris schmidtzi,
Müller 1911) [Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., 1911: 126. Type from
Ain Dschuheijir, northwestern Dead Sea, Palestine. Synonym]:
The Indian Crested Porcupine is distributed in India, Iran, Iraq, Syria
and southern Arabia. In Palestine, it is fairly common throughout the
country.
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Family: Capromyidae (Coypus):
3. Nutria or Coypu (Myocastor coypus, Molina 1782):
The Nutria or Coypu is a large rodent, with partially webbed hind feet
and a rather bare cylindrical tail. It is amphibious and inhabits marshes,
ponds and rivers. A native of central and southern South America, it was
introduced into Palestine, for the purpose of fur farming, but some
escaped or were set free, and are now feral in the Huleh and Beit Shean
Valleys, coastal plain (Ma‘agan Michael, Ma‘ayan Zvi, Alexander
River) and in the Naqab Desert (Ein Yahav) (Ferguson, 2002).
Family: Cricetidae (Hamsters):
4. Syrian Gray Hamster (Cricetulus migratorius cinerascens, Wagner
1848):
The Gray Hamster is distributed in Greece, eastwards through Asia
Minor, Arabia, southern Russia, the Ukraine, the Caucasus,
Transcaucasia, Russian Turkestan, Chinese Turkestan, Iran,
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir and southwest Siberia. The Syrian
subspecies Cricetulus migratorius cinerascens is known from Syria,
Iraq, Lebanon and Palestine, where it reaches the southern limit of its
range in the northern half of the country, on Mount Hermon, the
occupied Golan Heights, Upper Galilee and the Mediterranean region.
5. Syrian Hamster, Golden Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus, Waterhouse
1839) [Type from Aleppo, Syria]:
The Syrian Hamster is distributed in Rumania and Bulgaria,
southwestern republics of the U.S.S.R., Iran, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon
and Palestine. Tristram (1884) reported seeing this species in northern
Palestine. Aharoni (1930) reported that this species is known from
Metullah, and later (1932) listed three specimens collected by Siehe at
Mersina (southern Lebanon). A specimen at the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem is from Qiryat Saide (Qumsiyeh, 1996).
Family: Arvicolidae (Voles, Lemmings and Muskrats):
6. Syrian Water Vole (Arvicola terrestris hintoni, Aharoni 1932):
The Water Vole is distributed in Eurasia, Asia Minor and northern
Arabia. The Syrian subspecies Arvicola terrestris hintoni is known from
Asia Minor, Turkey (Lake Antioch). In Palestine, its presence is a
178

mystery. It has been reported as common near the Banias, but the only
specimens known are skulls found in owl pellets in the vicinity of Lake
Huleh at Yessod Hama‘ale and near Melaha.
7. Hermon Snow Vole (Microtus nivalis hermonis, Miller 1908) [Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 8, 1: 103. Type from Mount Hermon, Palestine.
Valid subspecies].
The Snow Vole is distributed in Europe, southwestern Turkestan, Iran,
Asia Minor and northwestern Arabia. The Hermon subspecies Microtus
nivalis hermonis is known from Lebanon and Palestine, where it is
found on Mount Hermon from 1,650 m. to just under 2,000 m. above sea
level.
8. Mediterranean Vole, Günther‘s Social Vole, Levant Vole (Microtus
socialis guentheri, Danford and Alston 1880) and the Philistine Vole
(Microtus philistinus, Thomas 1917) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 8, 19:
450. Type from Ekron, Palestine. Synonym of Microtus guentheri]:
The Mediterranean Vole is distributed in Greece, Asia Minor to northern
Arabia, Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, and Libya. The subspecies Microtus
socialis guentheri is found in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine,
where it is widespread throughout the northern half of the country, south
to Mishmar HaNegev.
The occurrence of Günther‘s Social Vole in Palestine was first
discovered not in Palestine, but in the British Museum in London, when
a specimen of the snake Caelepeltis lacertina, collected by Tristram in
1863 on the Plain of Gennesaret, was found to contain a perfect
specimen of Günther‘s Social Vole in its stomach.
Family: Spalacidae (Blind Mole Rats):
9. Palestine or Jaffa Mole Rat, Greater Mole Rat, Blind Mole Rat
(Spalax microphthalmus ehrenbergi, Nehring 1898) or (Spalax leucodon
ehrenbergi, Nehring 1898) [Schriften Berl. Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl., (for
1897), p. 178, pl. 2. Type from Jaffa, Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Greater Mole Rat is distributed in Libya, Egypt and Sinai, eastern
Europe, Asia Minor, southern Russia and Arabia. The Palestinian
subspecies Spalax microphthalmus ehrenbergi is known from Iraq,
Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, where it is widespread on Mount
Hermon, the occupied Golan Heights, from the Galilee to the northern
179

Naqab Desert. Four sibling species (chromosomal forms) interbreed and
hybridize in Palestine.
Family: Gerbillidae (Gerbils, Jirds and Sand Rats):
10. Arabian Cheesman‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus cheesmani arduus, Cheesman
and Hinton 1924) and Cheesman‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus cheesmani, Thomas
1919):
The Cheesman‘s Gerbil is distributed in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq and
Iran. Qumsiyeh (1996) collected four specimens of Cheesman‘s Gerbil
from near Disi in Wadi Rum, Jordan. The species is known from 30 km.
west of Badanah, and 5 km. west of Turaif, both in northern Saudi
Arabia, close to the Jordanian border. The species may occur in the
Naqab Desert.
11. Wagner‘s Gerbil, Rough-tailed Dipodil (Gerbillus dasyurus, Wagner
1842) and (Gerbillus dasyurus dasyuroides, Nehring 1901) [Type from
the mountains of Moab, Jordan. Perhaps a valid subspecies]:
The Wagner‘s Gerbil is distributed in Arabia, Egypt (Sinai) and possibly
Africa. It is known from Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Palestine,
where it is found in the southern half of the country, from the northwest
end of the Dead Sea and south from Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e (Beersheba).
12. Lehmann‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus dasyurus leosollicitus, von Lehmann
1966):
The Lehmann‘s Gerbil is known from Syria and probably Lebanon. In
Palestine, it is found in the northern half of the country, from Upper
Galilee (Rosh Hanikra), Mount Carmel (Haifa), the coastal plain (Wadi
Ara), and the Judean Hills (Jerusalem).
13. Lesser Egyptian Gerbil (Gerbillus gerbillus, Olivier 1801) and the
Asyut Gerbil (Gerbillus gerbillus asyutensis, Setzer 1960):
The Lesser Egyptian Gerbil is distributed in Africa, from Egypt
eastwards to Iraq and Iran, south through the Arabian Peninsula and
Sinai (Nabeq). The Asyut subspecies Gerbillus gerbillus asyutensis is
known from Upper Egypt (southeast of Asyut, Eastern Desert). In
Palestine, it has been recorded from the northwestern Naqab Desert, and
is slightly larger in Wadi Araba.
180

14. Greater Egyptian Gerbil (Gerbillus pyramidum, E. Geoffroy St.-
Hilaire 1803) and (Gerbillus pyramidum floweri, Thomas 1919) [Type
from Wadi Hareidin, South of Al Arish, northern Sinai. Valid subspecies
in Palestine]:
The Greater Egyptian Gerbil is distributed in North Africa, from
Morocco eastwards to Egypt, and southwards to Asben and Sudan, and
northwestern Arabia. The subspecies Gerbillus pyramidum floweri is
known from the northern Sinai Desert (south of Al Arish) and Palestine,
where there is a morphologically indistinguishable chromosomal cline
from the northern Naqab Desert, up the coastal plain to Holon. An
allopatric population is found as far north as Akka (Acre).
15. Baluchistan Gerbil (Gerbillus nanus arabium, Thomas 1918):
The Baluchistan Gerbil is distributed in Baluchistan, Arabia and Egypt.
The subspecies Gerbillus nanus arabium is known from northwestern
Arabia, southwestern Iraq, Oman, South Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Egypt (Sinai), Jordan and Palestine, where it is widespread in the Naqab
Desert, from the southern end of the Dead Sea (Sdom), south through
Wadi Araba to Eilat.
16. Pygmy Dipodil, Henley‘s Gerbil, Pygmy Gerbil (Gerbillus henleyi,
de Winton 1903) and (Gerbillus henleyi mariae, Bonhote 1909):
The Pygmy Gerbil is distributed in the North African Sahara, from
Algeria through Libya, Egypt and northwestern Arabia. The subspecies
Gerbillus henleyi mariae is known from Sinai, Jordan and Palestine,
where it has been found in the northern and central Naqab Desert,
practically to Eilat.
17. Anderson‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni, de Winton 1902) and
(Gerbillus andersoni bonhotei, Thomas 1919):
The Anderson‘s Gerbil is distributed in Libya, Egypt, Jordan and
Palestine. The subspecies Gerbillus andersoni bonhotei is found in the
northern coastal plain of Sinai, Jordan and Palestine, where it occurs in
the southern coastal plain and northwestern Naqab Desert. It intergrades
with Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi between Ashkelon and Kerem
Shalom.
18. Allenby‘s Gerbil (Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi, Thomas 1918) [Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 9, 2: 146. Type from Rehobot, near Jaffa, Palestine.
Valid subspecies]:
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The Allenby‘s Gerbil is endemic in Palestine, where it is confirmed to
the narrow littoral zone of the Mediterranean, from Haifa south to
Ashkelon, where it intergrades with the more richly coloured Gerbillus
andersoni bonhotei.
19. Bushy-tailed Jird (Sekeetamys [Meriones] calurus, Thomas 1892):
The Bushy-tailed Jird is distributed in eastern Egypt, Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine, where it inhabits the western side of the Dead Sea, south
through the eastern and southern Naqab Desert, as far as Eilat.
20. Tristram‘s Jird (Meriones tristrami, Thomas 1892) [Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. ser. 6, 9: 148. Type from the Dead Sea region, Palestine]:
The Tristram‘s Jird is distributed in Asia Minor, Iran, Iraq, Syria,
Turkey, Lebanon, Sinai (Al Arish), and Palestine, where the subspecies
Meriones tristrami tristrami is common in the north in the valleys, and
less common on the mountains and the coastal plain.
21. Tristram‘s Syrian Jird (Meriones tristrami bodenheimeri, Aharoni
1932): The Tristram‘s Syrian Jird is known from Syria, Lebanon and
Palestine, where it is found on the occupied Golan Heights.
22. Tristram‘s Desert Jird (Meriones tristrami deserti):
The Tristram‘s Desert Jird is a previously unrecognized subspecies of
Tristram‘s Jird, and inhabits the northern Naqab Desert, and the northern
coast of the Sinai Desert. The Type locality is 5 km. south of Bi‘er Al-
Sabe‘e (Beersheba). It was deposited in the Zoological Museum of Tel
Aviv University. Body Measurements: Head and body 107-138 mm.; tail
98-138 mm.; hind foot 29-30 mm.; ear 17-18 mm.; length of skull 39+
mm.; tympanic bullae 12.5-14 mm. The upper parts are pale sandy-fawn
with little red or black; the under parts are white. The tail has a blackish
tip.
23. Vinogradov's Jird (Meriones vinogradovi, Heptner 1931):
The Vinogradov's Jird was recorded from Gaza, Palestine.
24. Libyan Jird (Meriones libycus, Lichtenstein 1823) and (Meriones
libycus syrius, Thomas 1919):
The Libyan Jird ranges from Libya, Egypt, Arabia, and southwestern
Asia to Azerbaijan SSR and Pakistan. It has been reported from areas
east of the Rift Valley in Jordan. The species was first reported from
182

Beersheba and Nahr Al Rubin (near Jaffa) (Aharoni, 1932). However,
these records actually belong to Meriones sacramenti (Zahavi and
Wahrman, 1957). The species was also reported from northern Sinai at
Bir Lehfan (14 km. south of Al Arish) (Wassif, 1954).
25. Sundevall‘s Jird, Silky Jird, Sand Jird, Gentle Jird (Meriones
crassus, Sundevall 1843):
The Sundevall‘s Jird is distributed in North Africa from Morocco, east
to Egypt and south to Asben and Sudan, throughout Arabia, Iran,
southern Russian Turkestan, Afghanistan and Waziristan. The typical
subspecies Meriones crassus crassus is known from Egypt (Sinai),
Palestine, Jordan, northern and central Arabia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and
Oman. In Palestine, it is found in the southern half of the country, in the
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, south to Eilat.
26. Buxton‘s Jird, Palestine or Naqab (Negev) Jird (Meriones
sacramenti, Thomas 1922) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9, 10: 552. Type
from 10 miles south of Bir As Seba (Beersheba), Palestine] and
(Meriones erythrourus legeri, Aharoni 1932) [Z. Saeugetierkd., 7: 202.
Type from Wadi el Abiad, southwest of Bir As Seba (Beersheba),
Palestine. Synonym]:
The Naqab (Negev) Jird is confined to Palestine, where there are two
populations, a slightly larger one in the coastal plain as far north as the
Yarkon River, and the other population is from the Naqab Desert (area
of Beersheba).
27. Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus, Cretzschmar 1828) and the
Palestine Fat Sand Rat (Psammomys obesus terraesanctae, Thomas
1902) [Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 7, 9: 363. Type from the Dead Sea
region, Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Fat Sand Rat is distributed in North Africa, from Algeria to Egypt,
south to Sudan and east across Arabia. The Palestinian subspecies
Psammomys obesus terraesanctae occurs in Sinai, Syria, Jordan and
Palestine, where it is found north and west of the Dead Sea, the central
Naqab Desert and Wadi Araba, from south of Bi‘er Al-Sabe‘e
(Beersheba) to Yotvata.
183

Family: Dipodidae (Jerboas, Birch Mice, Jumping Mice):
28. Greater Egyptian Jerboa, Oriental Jerboa (Jaculus orientalis,
Erxleben 1777):
The Greater Egyptian Jerboa is distributed in North Africa, Algeria,
Tunis, Libya, Egypt and Palestine, where it has been recorded from the
northern Naqab Desert (northeast of Beersheba) and western Judean
Desert (Arad).
29. Lesser Egyptian Jerboa, Thomas‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa, Muscat
Lesser Jerboa (Jaculus jaculus vocator, Thomas 1921):
The Lesser Egyptian Jerboa is distributed in southwestern Iran, Arabian
Peninsula, North Africa and the Sinai Desert. The Muscat subspecies
Jaculus jaculus vocator occurs in southeastern Syria, eastern Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Palestine, where it occurs in Wadi Araba and
may penetrate the southern Jordan Valley.
30. Wagner‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa, Sinai Lesser Jerboa (Jaculus
jaculus macrotarsus, Wagner 1843):
The Wagner‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa is distributed in southwestern
Iran, Arabia, North Africa, Sinai and Palestine, where the Sinai
subspecies Jaculus jaculus macrotarsus is found in the northwestern
Naqab Desert.
31. Schlueter‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa, Palestine or Jaffa Lesser
Jerboa (Jaculus jaculus schlueteri, Nehring 1901) [Schriften Berl. Ges.
Naturf. Fr. Berl., p. 163. Type from the coastal region south of Jaffa,
Palestine. Valid subspecies]:
The Schlueter‘s Lesser Three-toed Jerboa is distributed in southwestern
Iran, Arabian Peninsula and North Africa. The Palestinian or the Jaffa
subspecies Jaculus jaculus schlueteri is found along the southern coast
of Palestine, as far north as Jaffa. It may intergrade with Jaculus jaculus
macrotarsus in the northwestern Naqab and Sinai Deserts.
Family: Gliridae (Dormice):
32. Sinai Dormouse, Levant Garden Dormouse, Southwest Asian
Garden Dormouse (Eliomys quercinus melanurus, Wagner 1839):
The Levant Garden Dormouse lives in Europe and Asia. The Sinai
subspecies Eliomys quercinus melanurus is known from Asia Minor,
184

Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Sinai and perhaps Africa. In Palestine, it
occurs on Mount Hermon, the Huleh Valley (Dan) and the Naqab Desert
(Wadi Naphekh).
33. Golan Dormouse, Sooty Garden Dormouse (Eliomys quercinus
fuscus).The Sooty Garden Dormouse lives in the occupied Golan
Heights and Jordan. The Holotype is deposited at the Zoological
Museum of Tel Aviv University. Type locality is Bab El Hawa, Golan
Heights. It was named after its sooty colour.
34. Turkish Forest Dormouse (Dryomys nitedula phrygius, Thomas
1907):
The Forest Dormouse is widespread across southeast Europe, Asia
Minor, and Arabia and as far east as India. The Turkish subspecies
Dryomys nitedula phrygius is known from Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine
and probably Lebanon. In Palestine, it occurs only in Upper Galilee.
Family: Muridae (Rats and Mice):
35. Broad-toothed Field Mouse, Big Levantine Field Mouse, Rock
Mouse (Apodemus mystacinus, Danford and Alston 1877):
The Rock Mouse is distributed in Greece, Yugoslavia, Crete, Iraq,
Jordan, Lebanon and Palestine, where the Turkish subspecies Apodemus
mystacinus mystacinus is found in the northernmost part of the country
on Mount Hermon, in Upper Galilee, the Huleh Valley, an allopatric
population on Mount Carmel, and south to the Judean hills (Jerusalem).
36. Wood Mouse, Common Field Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis,
Melchior 1834) and the Persian Wood Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis
arianus, Blanford 1881) and the Hermon Wood Mouse (Apodemus
flavicollis hermonensis, Filippucci, Simson and Nevo 1989):
The Wood Mouse lives in most of the western Palearctic region
including all of Europe. The species was reported from the ―plains of
Palestine‖ (Tristram, 1884). No specific localities were given by
Tristram or subsequently by Bodenheimer (1935, 1958). Specimens at
the Hebrew University of Jerusalem are from Masada North, Moza,
Sasa, and Horshat Ha‘arbaim (Horshat Tel). Specimens at the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University (Cambridge,
Massachusetts) were obtained from Shiba, Rasheya, and Ain Hersha in
185

southern Lebanon (Allen, 1915). Filippucci, Simson and Nevo (1989)
reported on populations in Galilee, Mount Hermon, and Tel Arad.
37. Mount Hermon Field Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus iconicus, Heptner
1952):
The species is distributed in Iceland, Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and
North Africa. The Mount Hermon subspecies Apodemus sylvaticus
iconicus occurs in Asia Minor, northern Iraq, northwest Syria, Lebanon
and Palestine, where it is found in the northern part of the country, at the
base of Mount Hermon, Upper Galilee and Mount Carmel.
38. Yellow-necked Field Mouse, Long-tailed Field Mouse (Apodemus
flavicollis argyropuloi, Heptner 1948):
The species lives in Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and Asia. The
Armenian subspecies Apodemus flavicollis argyropuloi is known from
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, where it is found only in the north,
on Mount Hermon, the occupied Golan Heights and Mount Carmel.
39. Alpine Field Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus chorassanicus, Goodwin 1940):
The Alpine Field Mouse lives in the western Palearctic region, Iceland,
Europe, Asia Minor, Arabia and North Africa. The Apodemus sylvaticus
chorassanicus is a pale coloured form, inhabiting rocky mountain slopes
above the tree line. There is no reason to consider the alpine form on
Mount Hermon as different from the alpine form in Iran, unless the two
are shown to be different (Ferguson, 2002).
40. House Mouse (Mus musculus, Linnaeus 1758) and the Syrian House
Mouse (Mus musculus praetextus, Brants 1827):
The House Mouse is Cosmopolitan. The Syrian subspecies Mus
musculus praetextus is known from Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan,
Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Egypt (Sinai). In Palestine, it is found mostly in
cities and settlements throughout the country.
41. Gaza or Palestine House Mouse (Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf,
2007) [The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 66, June 2007,
Jamada Al-Ulla 1428 AH. pp. 14-24. Type from Beit Lahia, North Gaza
Strip, Palestine].
The Gaza House Mouse or Palestine House Mouse (Mus musculus
gazaensis) is a house mouse subspecies, which was discovered in 2005
in an agricultural field in Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip, Palestine.
186

The new subspecies was named "Mus musculus gazaensis" in June 2007
by the Palestinian-German zoologist Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali
Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa. The subspecies name "gazaensis" is
Latin for "Gaza".
Description: The Gaza House Mouse is distinguished from the other
subspecies of
Mus by its light and dark brown colouration with white big patches on
the fur.
Distribution: Endemic to the Gaza Strip, Palestine (Khalaf-Sakerfalke
von Jaffa, August 2007).
The New Palestinian House Mouse Subspecies Mus musculus gazaensis
Khalaf, 2007 from Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip. Foto: Dr. Abdel Fattah
Nazmi Abd Rabou, 2005.
42. Egyptian House Mouse (Mus musculus gentilis, Brants 1827):
The Egyptian House Mouse was recorded in the Jordan Valley and the
Naqab Desert.
43. Oriental House Mouse (Mus musculus orientalis, Cretzschmar
1826):
The Oriental House Mouse was recorded in the Jordan Valley and the
Naqab Desert.
44. Macedonian Common Mouse, Wild Mouse, Short-tailed Mouse
(Mus macedonicus, Petrov and Ruzic 1983):
The Macedonian Common Mouse is distributed in Yugoslavia, Greece,
Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, Cyprus and Palestine, where it is found in the
Mediterranean Zone.
45. Porcupine Mouse, Common Spiny Mouse, Egyptian Spiny Mouse,
Cairo Spiny Mouse, Sinai Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus dimidiatus,
Cretzschmar 1826-1827):
187

The Porcupine Mouse ranges from southern Iran, southern Asia Minor
and Cyprus, Arabia, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, southern Algeria, south to
Tanzania, and west to Niger. In Palestine, the Sinai subspecies Acomys
cahirinus dimidiatus is widespread from Galilee to the coastal plain,
Mount Carmel, the southern Judean hills (around Jerusalem), near the
Dead Sea, and the Naqab Desert.
46. Southern Spiny Mouse (Acomys cahirinus homericus, Thomas
1923):
The Southern Spiny Mouse occurs mainly in southern Arabia and Oman,
but apparently is distributed in a kind of mosaic, influenced by the dark
substrate of soil and rocks. In Palestine, it is found on the occupied
Golan Heights (near Kibbutz Sneer).
47. Golden Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus, Wagner 1840) and the
Palestine Golden Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus harrisoni, Atallah
1970) [Univ. Conn. Occas. Pap. Biol. Sci. Ser., 1(4): 202. Type from
half a km south of Qumran Caves, near Ain Faschkha, West Bank of
Jordan, Palestine. Perhaps a valid subspecies] and the Jordanian Golden
Spiny Mouse (Acomys russatus lewisi, Atallah 1967) [J. Mammal., 48:
258. Type from 3 km northwest of Azraq Shishan, Jordan. Valid
subspecies]:
The Golden Spiny Mouse is distributed in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen and Palestine, where the Sinai subspecies Acomys russatus
russatus is found from the western side of the Dead Sea (Ain Faschkha),
south through the Naqab Desert to Eilat. The Palestinian subspecies
Acomys russatus harrisoni was described by the Palestinian Zoologist
Dr. Sana Issa Atallah (1970) from the western shore of the Dead Sea.
Harrison (1972) notes that ―the status of the population on the west
shore of the Dead Sea in Israel is uncertain, possibly representing
Acomys russatus harrisoni.‖ He also states that ―the material available is
scarcely adequate to assess the full degree of individual variation in the
species.‖ The distinctive characters of Acomys russatus harrisoni, of
smaller size and paler colour, are based on only two specimens. Atallah
(1970) found the Palestine Golden Spiny Mouse on steep rock slides in
semi-arid areas near the Dead Sea at Ain Faschkha, where it is strictly
diurnal, with peaks of activity in the morning and evening. Acomys
russatus lewisi was found along the edge of the basalt desert, where it
adjoins a rocky limestone plateau, as well as in gardens around human
habitations (Atallah, 1967). The Jordanian Golden Spiny Mouse occurs
188

northwest of Azraq Shishan in the Syrian Desert, and was also noted by
Atallah (1967) from Azraq ed Druz. Body Measurements: Head and
body 100-115 mm.; ear 13-18 mm.; hind foot 15-19 mm.; tail 57-75
mm. (Ferguson, 2002).
48. Common Rat, House Rat, Black Rat, Ship Rat (Rattus rattus,
Linnaeus 1758) and the Alexandrian House Rat (Rattus rattus
alexandrinus, E. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire 1803) and the Arabian House Rat
(Rattus rattus flaviventris, Brants 1827):
The Common Rat originates from Asia Minor and the Orient; it has
spread throughout the World, and is most common in warm countries.
The subspecies Rattus rattus rattus is found in Lebanon, Palestine,
Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman and Bahrain. In Palestine, it occurs
throughout the country, wherever there is human habitation.
49. Brown Rat, Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus, Berkenhaut 1769) and
the Egyptian Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus maniculatus, Wagner 1848):
The Brown Rat originates from Japan and the Far East, and it has spread
throughout the World. The typical race is found in Iraq, Lebanon,
Bahrain and Palestine, where it has established itself in the port cities,
from Haifa and Jaffa to Eilat.
50. Palestine Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat (Nesokia indica bacheri,
Nehring 1897) [Zool. Anz., 547: 503. Type from Ghor es Safi, Holy
Land. Valid subspecies]:
The Short-tailed Bandicoot Rat is distributed in Egypt, Syria, northern
Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, western Pakistan, northern India,
Russian and Chinese Turkestan. The Palestinian subspecies Nesokia
indica bacheri is known only from Jordan (southeast of the Dead Sea),
and from Palestine, where it occurs in Sdom and Ein Bedda, the Naqab
Desert (Ein Avdat), Wadi Araba (Ein Yahav) to Eilat.
Introduced and Domesticated Mammals:
51. Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus, Linnaeus 1758):
Guinea pigs are South American rodents that were domesticated for
meat and pelts at least 3000 years ago. Unlike the nutria, the time since
domestication and the way guinea pigs are reared in captivity would
probably prevent any establishment of feral populations. Guinea pigs
give birth to one to four young following a gestation period of about 2
189

months. They have been known to live 8 years in captivity. Domestic
guinea pigs have been used for research since the 18 th century
(Qumsiyeh, 1996).
My Daughter Nora with our Siberian Dwarf Hamster ―Lucy‖. Foto: Ola
Mostafa Khalaf, Sharjah, U.A.E., 21.08.2008.
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205

Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf,
2007 : A New House Mouse
Subspecies from the Gaza Strip,
Palestine
By: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke
von Jaffa
Abstract: A new subspecies of house mouse of the genus Mus
(Rodentia: Murinae) from the Gaza Strip, Palestine is described. This
subspecies is distinguished from the other subspecies of Mus by its light
and dark brown colouration with white big patches on the fur. The new
subspecies was named Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf, 2007.
On 29.05.2007 I received an e-mail (with attached photos) from Dr.
Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou from the Biology Department, Islamic
University of Gaza, Gaza Strip, Palestine.
The 2 photos showed a live ―small rodent‖ from the Gaza Strip,
Palestine. Dr. Abd Rabou asked me ―for classification‖. He wrote that
these photos which were taken by him show a ―small rodent having
white spots on its back‖.
Later on 06.06.2007 Dr. Abd Rabou wrote that this ―patched species was
caught in Beit Lahia, North Gaza in an agricultural field in 2005.‖
My first impression when I saw the photos, was that of a spiny mouse
(Acomys spp.), because it seemed like it was having the stiff guard hairs
on its coat; but this assumption proved to be wrong. I also thought that it
could be a hybrid or a mutant rodent.
The most distinctive feature of this rodent is the light and dark brown
colouration with white big patches on the fur.
Dr. Abd Rabou sent the photos also to Prof. Yoram Yom-Tov from the
Zoology Department, Tel Aviv University for Identification. Prof. Yom-
206

Tov wrote that this rodent ―is a mutant (partial albino) of house mouse
(Mus musculus).‖
After examining the photos, and referring to many zoological references,
and Middle Eastern zoologists and wildlife experts, and searching the
Internet, I came finally to a conclusion that we are in front of a new
subspecies of house mouse from the Gaza Strip, Palestine.
I gave it the scientific name Mus musculus gazaensis, new subspecies.
The subspecies name ―gazaensis‖ is Latin for ―Gaza‖.
Mus musculus gazaensis, new subspecies:
Scientific trinomial name: Mus musculus gazaensis Khalaf, 2007.
Common Name: Gaza House Mouse, Palestine House Mouse.
Location: Agricultural Field, Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip,
Palestine.
Date of capture: 2005.
Distinctive Features: The most distinctive feature is the light and dark
brown colouration with white big patches on the fur. No measurements
are available.
The New Palestinian House Mouse Subspecies Mus musculus gazaensis
Khalaf, 2007 from Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip. Foto: Dr. Abdel Fattah
Nazmi Abd Rabou, 2005.
207

The New Palestinian House Mouse Subspecies Mus musculus gazaensis
Khalaf, 2007 from Beit Lahia, North Gaza Strip. Foto: Dr. Abdel Fattah
Nazmi Abd Rabou, 2005.
Acknowledgments: Special thanks are due to the Palestinian
Zoologist Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou from the Biology
Department, Islamic University of Gaza, who sent the rodent photos for
identification, and gave me the opportunity to discover a new Palestinian
house mouse subspecies; and my thanks are also due to the Kuwaiti
wildlife expert Eng. Abd Al-Rahman Abd Allah Al-Sirhan Al-A‘try, the
webmaster of the website Wildlife of Kuwait, and to Prof. Yoram Yom-
Tov from the Zoology Department, Tel Aviv University, for their
valuable comments on the photos.
208

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219

220

Cetacea Palaestina : The Whales
and Dolphins in Palestinian
Waters.
Cetacean Species Guide for
Palestine
قياطس فلسطين
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Cetacea Palaestina: Applies to species, individuals of which have either
been sighted offshore or have beached in an apparently good nutritional
status.
Cetaceans of the Mediterranean continental shelf (presented in
descending order of body size):
1. Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus
2. Minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata
3. Cuvier's beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris
4. False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens
5. Risso's dolphin Grampus griseus
6. Common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncates
7. Rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis
8. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis
9. Short-beaked Common dolphin Delphinus delphis
10. Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba
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Cetaceans of the Gulf of Aqaba / Eilat (absent from the Mediterranean):
11. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus
12. Arabian Common Dolphin Delphinus tropicalis
13. Pantropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata
14. Long-snouted spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris
1. Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus):
Meaning of species name is "big head".
Cosmopolitan, the largest toothed-whale and record holder of both dive
depth (2 km) and dive duration (2 h) among marine mammals.
At sea identification: The largest regional cetacean and the only one
demonstrating marked sexual bimorphism, males reaching 18 m and
females only 11 m. The crate-shaped head is disproportionately large,
especially in the mature male, where it comprises a third of the body
length. Unlike other cetaceans, the skin is wrinkled. Pectoral fins are
very small relative to body size and the dorsal fin is essentially lacking,
being replaced by an inconspicuous hump, and trailed by a series of
small ridges. Color ranges from dark grey to brown, the under part of the
head showing lighter coloration. The blow is very prominent and
distinctly diagonal, aimed forward and leftward. Uses a "fluke-up" dive
when sounding (tailstock exposed vertically, with the under part of the
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flukes visible). Sperm whales dive very deep and long, up to an hour or
more. Lives above the slope, but may approach close to shore over
undersea canyons and cliffs. Swim speed usually 3 knots, may increase
to 12.
Identifying marks on land: No room for error. Lower jaw is very
narrow, with two rows of 20-25 teeth. Teeth in the upper jaw do not
erupt.
The Mediterranean population is probably endemic but its social
structure (especially of males) is largely unknown. The pattern of mature
males roving between groups of females with calves probably holds. In
other parts of the world, male calves leave the maternal pod at the age of
six to form bachelor groups and may only reach physical and sexual
maturity at the age of 20, at which time they may become solitary. Feeds
on squid and octopus and very rarely on cartilaginous fish. Females give
birth every 4-6 years after an 18 month long pregnancy. Calves may
suckle for several years.
Has been acoustically spotted on June of 2005 off Isdud/Ashdod and a
near-term or newborn calf has beached on El-Khdera/Hadera Port on
August of 2005. Several unauthenticated but apparently credible
sightings of sperm whale by fishermen and divers exist in the ―Israel
Marine Mammals Research & Assistance Center‖ (IMMRAC) records.
Additional facts:
Weight: 57 tons for males and 24 tons for females.
Newborn length is 4 meters and weight is 1 ton.
Life expectancy: 70 years.
2. Minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata):
Meaning of species name is "sharp/pointed
snout".
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Smallest and most abundant of the rorquals ("red-throats", named after
the pinkish tint of their vascularized ventral grooves). Cosmopolitan.
At sea identification: Mature animals are 8 m in length, black or dark
grey in color, with a light underside. Small, sickle-shaped dorsal fin at
the front of the posterior 1/3 of the back. Seen from above, the head
looks flat, V-shaped, with a single central ridge. Exposes little of its
body when surfacing to breath and has an inconspicuous blow. Travels
solitary, in pairs, or in small groups, it is rather inquisitive and tends to
approach vessels
Identifying marks on land: Baleen plates, double blow hole and
flashing white strip in the middle of the pectoral fins (also noticeable at
sea when at close range).
Feeds on schooling pelagic fish and shrimps and is preyed upon by killer
whale. Pregnancy lasts 10 months and calves are born every second year
during the cold season. Rare in the Mediterranean, genetically related to
the North Atlantic population. Individuals (including mother-lactating
calf pairs) apparently venture seasonally into the region during late
winter and spring.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 9 tons.
Newborn length is 2.8 meters and weight is 320 kg.
Sexual maturity: 6-7 years.
Life expectancy: 50 years.
3. Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris):
Meaning of species name is "hollow/cavitated snout", on account of the
distinct concavity in the skull, in the region of the melon.
Cosmopolitan in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate waters, the most
abundant and widespread of the beaked whales.
At sea identification: Adult body length is 5.5-7 m, coloration variable
from brown to purplish-black, lightens with age, occasionally with
round, white spotting/scarring on flanks and anal area. Does not show
counter-shading (dark above, light below) but mostly the opposite.
Frequently bears long sinuous white double tooth rakes, caused by the
single pair of teeth in the lower jaw of mature males of its own species.
Robust and fusiformed body with a small head, goose-like beak, small
pectoral fins and small dorsal fin in front of the posterior 1/3 of the back.
Very wide tale flooks, up to a 1/4 of body length. Lurches through
water, exposing head when swimming fast. Dives deep and long for up
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to 40 minutes. Lives in water 1,500-3,000 m deep, solitary or in small
groups of up to 7 individuals. Rather boat-shy.
Identifying marks on land: Mouth line is a "grinning" S shaped.
Toothless except the two front teeth that erupt in 5-6 year old males. A
V-shaped throat groove is a feature common to all beaked whales and a
distinctive indentation behind the blow hole may help differentiate
Cuvier's from other beaked whales.
Feeds on deep benthic squid which are located by sonar echoes and are
sucked into the beak. Apparently by mistaken identification this species
accumulates large quantities of plastic debris (up to 13 kg have been
recorded) in its fore stomach. The vulnerability of beaked whales to low
frequency active sonar used during Naval maneuvers (which causes
mass strandings) has recently spurred intensive research on this least
known of the toothed whale families.
Widespread in the Mediterranean, Cuvier's beaked whale has never been
sighted in our region. Yet several well-nourished individuals have
stranded along the beach, more so on the northern part of Palestine.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 2.5 tons (females somewhat heavier)
Newborn length is 2.7 meters and weight is 300 kg
Sexual maturity: 6-7 years.
Life expectancy: At least 40 years and up to 60 years and more.
4. False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens):
Meaning of species name is "thick-toothed". Circum-global in deep
warm waters. Total world population estimated at 80,000.
At sea identification:
Adult length is 5-6 meters, uniform black color. It has a lithe
hydrodynamic body with a long and slender beakless head, oval-shaped
from above and conic from the side. Large prominent concave dorsal fin
at mid-length. Short and narrow pectoral fins with an "elbow". Sociable,
readily approaches boats to bow-ride (the only black whale to do so).
Lives in water deeper than 1,000 meters, active and acrobatic. Travels in
groups of 10-20.
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Identifying marks on land: Unmistaken head shape. Eight to twelve
very large conical teeth in each half jaw.
Feeds on large fish and squid and occasionally on small cetaceans. Interbirth
period may extend to 6 years, pregnancy may last up to 16 months
and lactation up to 2 years. Rare in the Mediterranean (though common
in the Red Sea). Single sighting of a large group in our region.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 1.2 tons.
Newborn length is 1.9 meters and weight is 80 kg.
Sexual maturity: 8-14 years.
Life expectancy: 60 years.
5. Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus):
Meaning of species name is "grey". World-wide distribution, similar to
the false killer whale.
At sea identification: Adult body length is 4 meters, at the upper range
of the "dolphin" terminology. Grey color than brightens with age,
mainly on account of scarring by conspecific tooth rakes and octopus
arm suckers, to the point of looking white. Round, beakless head with a
distinct central fold from blow-hole to upper lip. Marked difference
between the broad and stout front and the slender rear of body. Very
prominent and tall triangular dorsal fin (up to 50 cm), possibly with the
highest ratio to body length of all cetaceans. Usually sighted over steep
shelf slopes, at depths of 300-1,000 m, in groups of tens. Not too
sociable, but allows close approach. When approaching vessels, will
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swim alongside, rather than bow-ride. May dive up to 30 min, but usual
dive time is 2 min, with up to 10 inter-dive ventilations.
Identifying marks on land: Apart from the above, adults lack teeth in
the upper jaw and bear 1-7 teeth on each half of the lower.
Nocturnal feeders, mainly on vertically migrating squid. Common in the
Mediterranean and in our region (sightings of large groups with calves
as well as strandings of live calves), more so in the north of Palestine.
Very common in the gulf of Aqaba/Eilat.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 400 Kg.
Newborn length is 1.5 meters.
Life expectancy: Over 30 years.
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6. Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates):
Species name refers to the short, truncated beak. Circum-global in cold
temperate to tropical waters
At sea identification: Mean adult body length in our region is 2.5 m,
occasionally reaching to 3m. This is in line with a slimmer and shorter
near-shore morph, which in other world locations is genetically distinct
from a larger (up to 4 m long) off-shore morph. Short, thick, cylindrical
beak, well separated from the melon by a sharp crease. Robust body
with grey to brown uniform coloration and a light belly. Variable shape
of dorsal fin (aids in individual identification). Seen close to shore in
groups of 5-6 (average) females and calves or juveniles, very fluid in
number and composition. Adult males travel solitary or in pairs,
occasionally joining encountered groups. Sociable and inquisitive, likes
to bow-ride. Trails bottom trawlers, diving for 2-4 minutes and coming
up for 4-5 breaths between dives.
Identifying marks on land: The shape of the beak is characteristic. Up
to 24 large, smooth and conical teeth in each half jaw. The majority of
Palestinian strandings are of this species.
Common in the Mediterranean, but in a declining trend, with fragmented
populations. The only truly inshore species in our region. An extremely
versatile forager, feeding on a variety of bottom and shallow water
schooling fish. Natural predators are large sharks. Most solitary sociable
dolphins are of this species, yet they are strong, wild animals and should
be thus treated. Breads year round, pregnancy lasting 12 months and
calves are usually weaned at 20 months but stay with their mother at
least until the next birth.
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Additional facts (local population):
Adult weight: Up to 300 Kg.
Newborn length is 1.1 meters and weight is 20 kg.
Oldest individual: 30 years.
7. Rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis):
Species name after the artist Van Breda. Circum-global in deep warm
waters.
At sea identification: Mean adult body length is 2.5 m, dark coloration
with a white to pinkish belly. Creamy or pinkish white blotches and
spots on lower parts of flanks. Relatively long pectoral fins and tall
triangular dorsal fin. Up close, identification is certain, on account of it
being the only dolphin with the melon smoothly sloping into the beak,
with no hint of a crease or change in angle. Usually sighted over deep
waters, in groups of 10-20 with very tight formation and synchronous
movement. Tends to swim near the surface with its dorsal fin exposed
(could be confused with a shark). Rather boat-shy and not acrobatic.
May dive up to 15 min.
Identifying marks on land: Apart from the front of the head, the
distinct mark is the longitudinal grooved or furrows on the teeth, that can
be seen or felt. Relatively large eyes.
Little is known about this dolphin. Feeds on a large variety of fish (of all
sizes) and squid. Considered rare in the Mediterranean, but in our region
strands regularly in late winter-spring and a large group entered Haifa
Harbor on March 2005.
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Additional facts:
Adult weight: 160 Kg.
Newborn length is 1 m
Life expectancy: Over 30 years.
8. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis):
Meaning of species name "Chinese". Coastal, from the Cape of Good
Hope to China and south to both sides of northern Australia.
At sea identification: Mean adult body length is 2.4 m. Coloration
ranges from grey, bluish grey, tan to pink and even white (in China),
either uniform or with dark cape and tip of dorsal fin. Robust body, long
and slender, separated beak, broad pectoral fins with rounded tips. The
distinct mark of the western Indian Ocean and Red Sea population is the
mid-back hump from which rises the dorsal fin (causing the exposed
back to look like a 3-staired pyramid). Rarely seen in water deeper than
20 m. Solitary, in pairs or small groups, seemingly unsegregated by age
or sex. Unsocial and non-acrobatic. Typically exposes beak prior to
blow-hole upon surfacing. Also tends to expose head and a single
pectoral fin when resting or milling. Flukes surface before sounding.
Most dives are less than a minute. Especially when foraging, mat be
found in mixed groups with bottlenose dolphins.
Identifying marks on land: Hump and pectorals. 30-38 teeth in each
half jaw.
Feeds on a wide variety of shallow water fish. Sexual maturity at 10
years for both sexes, pregnancy lasts 10-12 months, calving peaks in
spring and summer. Calf is weaned by 2, mother-calf bond lasts 3-4
years. Occurs in the Red Sea, up to the tip of the Gulf of Suez and the
Bitter Lakes. Occasional Lessepsian migrant to the Mediterranean. A
single sighting of one individual along the Palestinian coast, traveling
and foraging in mid winter from Atlit to Isdud/Ashdod.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 150-280 Kg.
Newborn length is 1 m and weight is 25 kg
Life expectancy: Probably 30-40 years.
9. Short-beaked Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis):
Identification: The common dolphin is a medium sized dolphin, smaller
than the more popular bottlenose dolphin. Adults range between 1.6 to
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2.7 meters long, and can weigh between 70 and 235 kilograms. The
colour pattern on the body is unusual. The back is dark and the belly is
white, while on each side is an hourglass pattern colored light grey,
yellow or gold in front and dirty grey in back. It has a long, thin rostrum
with up to 50-60 small, sharp, interlocking teeth on each side of each
jaw.
Distribution: The common dolphin is widely distributed in temperate,
sub-tropical and tropical waters throughout the world in a band roughly
spanning 40 degrees south to 50 degrees north. The species typically
prefer enclosed bodies of water such as the Red and Mediterranean Seas.
Deep off-shore waters and to a lesser extent over continental shelves are
preferred to shallow waters. Some populations may be present all year
round; others appear to move in a migratory pattern. Preferred surface
water temperature is 10-28 degrees Celsius. The sum population is
unknown but numbers in the hundreds of thousands.
Behaviour: Common dolphins travel in groups of around 10-50 in
number and frequently gather into schools numbering 100 to 2000
individuals. These schools are generally very active - groups often
surface, jump and splash together. Typical behaviour includes breaching,
tail-slapping, chin-slapping, bow-riding and porpoising. Common
dolphins are among the fastest swimming cetaceans, possibly reaching
speeds of over 40 kph.
The dolphins have been seen to mix with other cetaceans such as other
dolphins in the Yellowfin tuna grounds of the eastern Pacific and also
schools of Pilot Whales. An intriguing theory suggests that dolphins
'bow-riding' on very large whales was the origin of bow-riding on boats.
The gestation period is about 11 months and the calving period is
between one and three years. Sexual maturation occurs at five years and
longevity is twenty to twenty-five years. These figures are subject to
large variation across different populations.
10. Striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba):
Meaning of species name is "blue-white". Circum-global in deep warm
waters.
At sea identification: Mature animals are 2 m in length, Similar in form
to the common dolphin and only identified by the distinct coloration of a
dark blue back, white belly, grey flanks with a broad finger-shaped
marking invading the dark mantle below the dorsal fin. Three dark
231

stripes extend from the eye: to anus, to pectoral fin and a thin short one
in between. Pellagic, over water deeper than 1,000 m. Acrobatic but
boat-shy. In the Mediterranean, group size is 7-25.
Identifying marks on land: If coloration pattern is not preserved, one
should verify the lack of palate grooves, to differentiate from common
dolphin.
Feeds on mesopellagic (in the mid water column) squid and fish (more
on the former), at depths between 200-700 m. Females in the
Mediterranean reach maturity at 12 y, calves staying in their maternal
group till 4 y before forming bachelor pods. The most abundant cetacean
in the Mediterranean, with an endemic population of 100,000. In
Palestine known solely from beachings (second most common).
Additional facts:
Adult weight: Up to 150 Kg.
Newborn length is 0.9 m and weight is 10 kg
Life expectancy: Up to 60 years.
11. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus
Distribution roughly overlies that of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin.
All wild bottlenose dolphins in the Gulf of Aqaba belong to this species,
which is genetically closer to Stenella species and to the common
dolphin than to the common bottlenose dolphin.
At sea identification: Mature animals are 2-2.5 m in length, smaller and
slimmer than the common bottlenose dolphin and with a more slender
beak. Sexually mature animals acquire dark spots on the light under
parts. This species is coastal only.
232

Identifying marks on land: As of the common bottlenose dolphin.
Feeds on fish and cephalopods, both bottom (reef) dwellers and pelagic.
Rather common throughout the Gulf of Aqaba.
12. Arabian Common Dolphin (Delphinus tropicalis):
Identification: All common dolphins are slender and have a long
beak sharply demarcated from the melon. The dorsal fin is high
and moderately curved backwards. Common dolphins are
distinguished from other species by a unique crisscross colour
pattern formed by interaction of the dorsal overlay and cape. This
yields a four-part pattern of dark grey to black dorsally, buff to
pale yellow anterior thoracic patch, light to medium grey on the
flank and a white abdominal field. In the long-beaked species, the
colour pattern is less crisp and colourful than in D. delphis.
The Arabian common dolphin is characterized by an extremely
long and thin beak and is found in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean,
and is distinguished from the long-beaked species Delphinus
capensis by its longer rostrum and higher tooth count.
D. tropicalis lacks both the heavy black stripe coming forward on the
sides from the vent and the black or smudgy face patterning often visible
among individuals in large schools of D. capensis. D. tropicalis was
separable from D. delphis by the extreme length of the rostrum alone
(even longer than that of D. capensis). The overall impression was that
D. tropicalis has a D. capensis body shape (but with a noticeably longer
beak) and a D. delphis colour pattern. These features are clearly evident
in the photograph above.
Distribution: The Arabian Common Dolphin is distributed is found in
the Red Sea, and the coastal waters of the Arabian Sea, from the Gulf of
Aden and the Persian Gulf to the Malabar Coast of India; South China
Sea.
233

13. Pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuate):
Circum-global in tropical and some warm temperate waters. One of the
most abundant cetaceans (estimated world population: 2 million).
At sea identification: Mature animals are 1.7-2.5 m in length, similar
in shape to other Stenella species. The countershaded juvenile
gradually acquires spotting, contrasted to the background (light on
dark and vice versa). Tip of snout is white. Stripes from snout to eye
and pectorals. Open water dolphin, over depths exceeding 1,000 m.
Very acrobatic and sociable to boats. Fast, energetic and surface-active
swimmer, seen from afar by the splash of its long shallow leaps.
Breaches frequently. Dives short (up to 3 min) and shallow relative to
related species. Group size in the Red Sea is 5-20.
Identifying marks on land: It is hard to positively identify beached
Stenella species, unless coloration pattern is preserved. Teeth like in
striped dolphin.
Feeds at night on vertically migrating fish, cephalopods and shrimp at
the top water layer, down to 200 m. Sexual maturity at 10 y in females
and 14 y in males. Peak calving in summer, calf weaned at 18 m, with
2-3 years between births. The most common cetacean in the Red Sea.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 100 Kg.
Newborn length is 0.8 m
Life expectancy: Not known.
14. Long-snouted Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris):
Meaning of species name is "long-snouted". Circum-global in tropical
and subtropical waters. The most abundant dolphin species in the
tropics.
At sea identification: Mature animals are 1.5-2.3 m in length (several
varieties, including a dwarf morph, exist). Slender, elongated body,
usually tri-color pattern (dark back, grey flanks and light belly). Dark
stripe from eye to pectoral fin. Erect triangular dorsal fin. The most
distinctive feature is the long and slender snout and the aerial display of
up to 7 "screw" spins around the longitudinal axis while leaping.
Readily approaches boats, usually sighted close to shore in variablesized
groups, depending on activity and food availability, often in mixed
groups with pantropical spotted dolphin. In many areas rests/sleeps
during the day in closed lagoons.
234

Identifying marks on land: Up to 60 teeth in each half jaw.
Feeds on vertically migrating schooling fish, squid and shrimps, up to
20 cm in size, down to a depth of 200 m. Sexual maturity at 6 y for
females and 8 y for males, year round promiscuous breading, pregnancy
10 months long, weaning at 2 y and inter-breath interval is 3 years.
Common in the Red Sea, single sighting in the south part of the Gulf of
Aqaba.
Additional facts:
Adult weight: 80 Kg.
Newborn length is 0.8 m
Life expectancy: Not known.
References and Internet Websites:
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Dhabi‘s coastal sabkha.
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3586-4ddd-9038-2e493ccfc26b&newid=162&mid=162
Arutz Sheva (2008). Distressed Whale Reaches Haifa Port. 24 Tammuz
5768, July 27, '08.
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Baldwin, Robert (2003). Whales and Dolphins of Arabia. Mazoon
Printing Press, Muscat, Oman.
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tropical Indian Ocean: Distribution, relative abundance, and
comparisons with cetacean communities of two other tropical
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Casinos, A. (1984). A note on the common dolphin of the South
American Atlantic coast, with some remarks about the speciation of the
genus Delphinus. Proceedings of the Third International Theriological
Congress, Helsinki, 15 20 August 1982 4 Symposia on Ecology,
Management and Protection of Mammal Populations Jaervinen, O ed.
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s.htm
Cousteau , Jacques-Yves & Philippe Diole (Translated by J.F. Bernard)
(1972). The Whale: Mighty Monarch of the Sea. (The Undersea
235

Discoveries of Jacques-Yves Cousteau Ser.). Garden City, New York:
Doubleday & Company, Inc, 1972. First Edition.
Cousteau , Jacques-Yves & Philippe Diole (1975). Dolphins. Bookthrift
Co (March 1988). pps. 304.
Cousteau, Jacques-Yves & Philippe Diole (1987). The Whale. Arrowood
Press, New York, 1987. [A review of the intimate relationship between
man and whales, their physical attributes, and the Calypso‘s adventures
as they film the leviathans. 124 full colour photographs].
Dolphin Reef Eilat. www.dolphinreef.co.il/
Dubai Dolphinarium. http://www.dubaidolphinarium.ae/
Efrat, Miriam Lock. Study Dolphins in Eilat.
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lphins_in_israel.shtml
Eyadat, Fadi (Haaretz Correspondent) (2007). Dozens attend funeral
after whale found dead in Haifa Port. 18/02/2007.
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Heyning, J. E. & Perrin, W. F. (1994). Evidence for two species of
common dolphins (genus Delphinus) from the eastern North Pacific.
Contributions in Science (Los Angeles) 442: 1-35.
Israel Marine Mammals Research & Assistance Center. Cetacean
species guide for Israel.
http://immrac.haifa.ac.il/english/introduction.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1980). Tabie‘t Al-Talawon fi Al-
Haywanat (The Colouration of Animals). Al-Biology Bulletin. Number
1. January 1980, Safar 1401. Biological Society, Kuwait University,
State of Kuwait. pp. 4-5. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman (1982). A‘maar Al-Haywanat (Animal Ages). Al-
Biology Bulletin. Number 18, Third Year, First Semester, Saturday
6.11.1982. Biological Society, Kuwait University, State of Kuwait. pp.
7. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1987). Blue Whales (Balaenoptera
musculus) from the State of Kuwait, Arabian Gulf. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Federal Republic
of Germany. Number 14, Fifth Year, Shawal 1407 AH, June 1987 AD.
pp. 1-14.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). The Minke Whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in the Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und
Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 26, Tenth Year, January 1992. pp. 1-3.
236

Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Gazelle. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number
30, Tenth Year, October 1992. pp. 1-7. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1994). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n (Anemone coronaria). A
Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program EAI (Education for
Awareness and for Involvement). Environmental Education / Children
for Nature Protection. In Cooperation with Dept. of General and Higher
Education. P.L.O., Palestine. Number 4. Huzairan (June) 1994. pp. 16-
21. (in Arabic).
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Biologische Bulletin. Eine Wissenschaftliche Reise in Palästina, Arabien
und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. / Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between
1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage (First Edition), Juli 2004: 452 Seiten. Zweite
erweiterte Auflage, August 2004: 460 Seiten. Norman Ali Khalaf, Bonn-
Bad Godesberg, Germany.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gazelle_Bulletin.html
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"Delphinidae Delphionidae" und "Kleinwale in Nord- und Ostsee" im
Museum Alexander Koenig in Bonn, Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg,
Federal Republic of Germany. Number 35, Twenty-second Year,
September 2004. pp. 1.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2004). Der Schweinswal (Phocoena
phocoena) in der Nord- und Ostsee...The Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena
phocoena) in the North Sea and Baltic Sea. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 36, Twenty-second Year, October 2004. pp. 1-7.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). Thema des Tages (5. Januar
2005): In See gespuelter Indopazifischer Buckeldelfin (Sousa chinensis)
in Thailand nach Tagen gerettet. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 37, Twenty-third
Year, January 2005. pp. 1-3.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Story of Prophet Yunus
(Jonah) and the Whale. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
237

Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 38, Twenty-third Year,
February 2005. pp. 9-13.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). Jaffa (Yaffa): The History of an
Old Palestinian Arab City on the Mediterranean Sea. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number
39, Twenty-third Year, March 2005. pp. 7-8.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Andromeda Sea Monster of
Jaffa. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. Number 39, Twenty-third Year, March 2005. pp. 8.
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Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between 1980 - 2005.
/ Aquatica Arabica. Eine Aquatische Wissenschaftliche Reise in
Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980 - 2005. Erste Auflage,
August 2005: 376 Seiten. Publisher: Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Bundesrepublik Deutschland & Sharjah, United Arab
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2006. / Mammalia Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia
and Europe between 1980-2006. Erste Auflage, Juli 2006, 484 pp.
Publisher: Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Deutschland &
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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D9%8A%D9%86
238

Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher
(2008). Cetacea Palaestina: The Whales and Dolphins in Palestinian
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_dolphin
239

240

Gray Whale (Eschrichtius
robustus Lilljeborg, 1861)
sighted off the Mediterranean
Coast of Palestine
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
A Gray Whale off the Mediterranean Coast of Palestine
http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8672000/8672970.st
m
The appearance of a gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus Lilljeborg,
1861) off the coast of Palestine in May 2010 has stunned scientists,
in what was thought to be the first time the giant mammal has
been seen outside the Pacific in several hundred years.
The whale, which was first sighted off Herzliya, north of Jaffa in
central Palestine on Saturday 8 th May 2010, is believed to have
travelled thousands of miles from the north Pacific after losing its
way in search of food.
"It's an unbelievable event which has been described as one of the
most important whale sightings ever," said Dr. Aviad Scheinin,
241

chairman of the Israel Marine Mammal Research and Assistance
Center which identified the creature (The Independent, 2010).
A population of gray whales once inhabited the north Atlantic
but became extinct in the 17th or 18th centuries and has not been
seen there since. The remaining colonies live in the western and
eastern sectors of the north Pacific.
A Gray Whale off the Mediterranean Coast of Palestine
http://news.discovery.com/earth/global-warming/gray-whale-spotted-onwrong-side-of-world.htm
"What has amazed the entire marine mammal research
community is there haven't been any gray whales in the Atlantic
since the 18th century," he said. Dr. Scheinin said the creature, a
mature whale measuring some 12 metres (39 feet) and weighing
around 20 tonnes, probably reached the Atlantic through the
Northwest Passage, an Arctic sea route that connects the Pacific
and Atlantic oceans and is normally covered with ice. Dr.
Scheinin said: "Here you have an animal that is supposed to live
in the Pacific and because the ice in the Arctic is melting, it
managed to get through this corridor near the Bering Strait," (The
Independent, 2010).
The population which lives in the northeastern Pacific normally
migrates southwards in around October, heading for warmer
waters around the Gulf of California in a huge round trip of at
least 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometres).
242

So when autumn came, this particular gray whale began
travelling south, keeping the land mass on the left and heading
for the Californian Gulf with the aim of "turning left" into the bay.
But instead, it reached Gibraltar and turned left into the
Mediterranean and ended up off the shores of Palestine.
"The question now is: are we going to see the re-colonisation of
the Atlantic?" Dr. Scheinin said. "This is very important
ecologically because of the change of habitat. It emphasises the
climate change that we are going through."
So far, the whale seems to be happy enough in the waters off the
shores of Palestine.
"It is pretty thin, which indicates the trip was quite harsh, but we
think it can survive here," Dr. Scheinin said. "Gray whales are
very generalist in what they feed on." Now experts are mulling
the possibility of tracking the whale by satellite - a costly
operation that would need outside funding and expertise, Dr.
Scheinin said. "It's quite a big operation to do this. If it stays
around here for the next month, it's worth having someone come
in and do this professionally," he said. "It will be interesting to see
where it goes and to follow it" (The Independent, 2010).
A Gray Whale off the Mediterranean Coast of Palestine
http://news.discovery.com/earth/global-warming/gray-whale-spotted-onwrong-side-of-world.htm
243

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Year, Shawal 1407 AH, June 1987 AD. pp. 1-14.
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Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany.
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244

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245

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%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%
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Fauna Palaestina – Teil Eins. Eine Zoologische Reise in Palästina, Arabien und
Europa zwischen 1983 – 2006. ISBN 978-9948-03-865-8. Erste Auflage/First
Edition, September 2009: 412 Seiten/Pages. Self Publisher: Dr. Norman Ali
Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates & Rilchingen-
Hanweiler, Bundesrepublik Deutschland. http://dr-norman-ali-khalafbooks.webs.com/faunapalaestinapart1.htm
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2010). Fauna
Emiratus - Part One. Zoological Studies in the United Arab Emirates between
2004 - 2009. / Fauna Emiratus – Teil Eins. Zoologische Studien in die
Vereinigten Arabischen Emirate zwischen 2004 - 2009. ISBN 978-9948-15-
462-4. Erste Auflage/First Edition, November 2010: 350 Seiten / Pages. Self
Publisher: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa, Dubai and Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates & Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
http://dr-norman-ali-khalaf-books.webs.com/faunaemiratuspart1.htm
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2012).
Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus Lilljeborg, 1861) sighted off the
Mediterranean Coast of Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 100, January 2012. pp. 1-6. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
http://de.groups.yahoo.com/group/Fauna_Palaestina/message/90 &
http://de.groups.yahoo.com/group/Wale_und_Delphine/message/344
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Dr. Norman Ali Bassam (2012). Fauna Palaestina – Part
Two. Zoological Studies in Palestine between 1983 – 2009 / Fauna Palaestina -
Teil Zwei. Zoologische Studien in Palästina zwischen 1983 – 2009. ISBN 978-
9948-16-667-2. 1. Auflage / First Edition : July 2012, Shaaban 1433 H. 208
Seiten / Pages (Arabic Part 120 Pages and the English Part 88 Pages).
Publisher: Dar Al Jundi Publishing House, Jerusalem, Palestine. http://drnorman-ali-khalaf-books.webs.com/faunapalaestinapart2.htm
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Dr. Norman Ali Bassam (2013). Fauna Palaestina – Part
Three. Zoological Studies in Palestine between 2005 – 2012 / Fauna Palaestina
- Teil Drei. Zoologische Studien in Palästina zwischen 2005 – 2012. ISBN
978-9950-383-35-7. Erste Auflage / First Edition : July 2013, Shaaban 1434 H.
Publisher: Dar Al Jundi Publishing House, Jerusalem, Palestine. (In
Publication). http://dr-norman-ali-khalaf-
246

ooks.webs.com/faunapalaestinapart3.htm
Scheinin, Aviad P. , Dan Kerem, Colin D. Macleod, Manel Gazo, Carla A.
Chicote and Manuel Castellote (2011). Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) in
the Mediterranean Sea: anomalous event or early sign of climate-driven
distribution change?. Marine Biodiversity Records, page 1-5. Marine
Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 2011,
doi:10.1017/S1755267211000042; Vol. 4; e28; 2011. Published online.
http://www.oceanicsociety.org/sites/default/files/images/pdf_files/Scheinin%20et%20a
l_Gray%20whale%20in%20the%20Med_MBR_2011%5B1%5D.pdf
The Independent (2010). Scientists stunned as grey whale sighted off Israel.
WEDNESDAY 12 MAY 2010.
http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/scientists-stunned-as-grey-whalesighted-off-israel-1971890.html
Walker, Matt (Editor, Earth News) (2010).
Mediterranean gray whale appears 'back from the dead'.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8672000/8672970.stm
247

248

The Story of Prophet Yunus
(Jonah) (Peace Be Upon Him) and
the Whale
قصة النبي يونس عليه السالم والحوت
by: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
Prophet Yunus (Jonah or Jonas) (Peace Be Upon Him) was a prophet
from Al-Galeel (Galilee) in Palestine and his story takes place
somewhere between 780 B.C and 760 B.C. During this period of history,
Assyria was a powerful nation and Israel‘s most dreaded enemy.
The inhabitants of the town of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, were
idolaters who lived a shameless life. Prophet Yunus (Jonah) (pbuh) was
sent to teach them the worship of Allah. The people disliked his
interference in their way of worship, so they argued. "We and our
forefathers have worshipped these gods for many years and no harm has
come to us."
Prophet Yunus (Jonah) (peace be upon him) was also known as Dha Al-
Nun. About his people Almighty Allah said: Was there any town
community that believed after seeing the punishment, and its Faith at
that moment, saved it from the punishment? (The answer is none)--
except the people of Yunus; when they believed, We removed from them
the torment of disgrace in the life of the present world, and permitted
them to enjoy for a while. (Sura 10:98 The Holy Quran)
Try as he might to convince them of the foolishness of idolatry and of
the goodness of Allah's laws, they ignored him. He warned them that if
they kept on with their foolishness, Allah's punishment would soon
follow. Instead of fearing Allah, they told Yunus (Jonah) that they were
249

not afraid of his threats. "Let it happen," they told him. Yunus was
disheartened. "in that case, I will leave you to your misery!" so saying,
he left Nineveh, fearing that Allah's anger would soon follow.
Remember Dha Al-Nun (Jonah), when he went off in anger, and
imagined that We shall not punish him (the calamities which had
befallen him)! (Sura 21:87)
Hardly had he left the city when the skies began to change colour and
looked as if they were on fire. The people were filled with fear by this
sight. They recalled the destruction of the people of 'Ad, Thamud and
Noah. Was theirs to be a similar fate? Slowly faith penetrated their
hearts. They all gathered on the mountain and started to beseech Allah
for His mercy and forgiveness. The mountains echoed with their cries. It
was a momentous hour, filled with sincere repentance.
Allah removed His wrath and showered His blessings upon them once
again. When the threatening storm was lifted, they prayed for the return
of Yunus so that he could guide them.
Meanwhile, Yunus had boarded a small ship in the company of other
passengers from the port of Jaffa (Joppa), Palestine. Yunus ran from
God and headed for Tarshish. The ship sailed all day in calm waters with
a good wind blowing at the sails. When night came, the sea suddenly
changed. A horrible storm blew as if it were going to split the ship into
pieces. The waves looked wild. They rose up as high as mountains then
plunged down like valleys, tossing the ship and sweeping over the deck.
Behind the ship, a large whale was splitting the water and opening its
mouth. A command had been issued from Almighty Allah to one of the
greatest whales of the sea to surface. It obeyed. The whale hurried to the
surface of the sea and followed the ship as it had been commanded.
The tempest continued and the chief crewman asked the crew to lighten
the ship's heavy load. They threw their baggage overboard, but this was
not enough. Their safety lay in reducing the weight further, so they
decided among themselves to lighten their load by removing at least one
person.
The captain directed: We will make lots with all of the travelers' names.
The one whose name is drawn will be thrown into the sea." Yunus knew
250

this was one of the seamen's traditions when facing a tempest. It was a
strange polytheistic tradition, but it was practiced at that time. Jonah's
affliction and crisis began.
Here was the prophet, subjected to polytheistic rules that considered the
sea and the wind to have gods that riot. The captain had to please these
gods. Yunus reluctantly participated in the lot, and his name was added
to the other travelers' names. The lot was drawn and "Yunus" appeared.
Since they knew him to be the most honorable among them, they did not
wish to throw him into the angry sea. Therefore, they decided to draw a
second lot. Again Yunus's name was drawn. They gave him a final
chance and drew a third lot. Unfortunately for Yunus, his name came up
again.
Yunus realized that Allah's hand was in all this, for he had abandoned
his mission without Allah's consent. The matter was over, and it was
decided that Yunus should throw himself into the water. Yunus stood at
the edge of the ship looking at the furious sea. It was night and there was
no moon. The stars were hidden behind a black fog. But before he could
be thrown overboard, Yunus kept mentioning Allah's name as he jumped
into the raging sea and disappeared beneath the huge waves.
The whale found Yunus floating on the waves before it. It swallowed
Yunus into its furious stomach and shut its ivory teeth on him as if they
were white bolts locking the door of his prison. The whale dived to the
bottom of the sea, the sea that runs in the abyss of darkness.
Three layers of darkness enveloped him, one above the other; the
darkness of the whale's stomach, the darkness of the bottom of the sea,
the darkness of the night. Yunus imaged himself to be dead, but his
senses became alert when he found he could move. He knew that he was
alive and imprisoned in the midst of three layers of darkness. His heart
was moved by remembering Allah. His tongue released soon after
saying: La ilaha illa Anta (none has the right to be worshipped but You
(O Allah), Glorified (and Exalted) be You (above all that evil they
associate with You), Truly, I have been of the wrong doers." (Sura 21:87
The Holy Quran)
251

Yunus continued praying to Allah, repeating this invocation. Fishes,
whales, seaweeds, and all the creatures that lived in the sea heard the
voice of Jonah praying, heard the celebration of Allah's praises issuing
from the whale's stomach. All these creatures gathered around the whale
and began to celebrate the praises of Allah in their turn, each in its own
way and in its own language.
The whale also participated in celebrating the praises of Allah and
understood that it had swallowed a prophet. Therefore it felt afraid;
however, it said to itself; "Why should I be afraid? Allah commanded
me to swallow him."
Allah Almighty saw the sincere repentance of Yunus and heard his
invocation in the whale's stomach. Allah commanded the whale after
three days and three nights to surface and eject Jonah onto the shore or
an island. The whale obeyed. Allah commanded it to rise towards the
warm, refreshing sun and the pleasant earth.
The whale ejected Yunus onto a remote shore or island. His body was
inflamed because of the acids inside the whale's stomach. He was ill, and
when the sun rose, its ray burned his inflamed body so that he was on
the verge of screaming for the pain. However, he endured the pain and
continued to repeat his invocation to Allah.
252

Almighty Allah caused a vine to grow to considerable length over him
for protection. Then Allah Exalted caused Yunus to recover and forgave
him. Allah told Yunus that if it had not been for his praying to Him, he
would have stayed in the whale's stomach till the Day of Judgment.
Almighty Allah recounted: And, verily, Yunus was one of the
Messengers. When he ran to the laden ship, he agreed to cast lots and he
was among the losers, Then a whale (or big fish, Al-Hut in Arabic)
swallowed him and he had done an act worthy of blame. Had he not
been of them who glorify Allah, he would have indeed remained inside
its belly (the whale) till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth
on the naked shore while he was sick and We caused a plant of gourd to
grow over him. And We sent him to a hundred thousand people or even
more, and they believed; so We gave them enjoyment for a while. (Sura
37:139-148 The Holy Quran).
Yunus Whale in Jaffa.
Gradually he regained his strength and found his way to Nineveh. He
was pleasantly surprised to notice the change that had taken place there.
The entire population turned out to welcome him. They informed him
that they had turned to believe in Allah. Together they led a prayer of
thanksgiving to their Merciful Lord.
Ibn Abbas narrated: "The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said:
'One should not say I am better than Yunus Ibn Matta.'" (Sahih Bukhari).
253

The Place of Al-Nabi
Yunus (Prophet
Jonah): It is one of
several memorial places
recalling the prophet
Jonah's being vomited unto
dry land by the whale or
big fish (Bible: Jonah
2:10). The most important
ones are: An-Nabi Yunus
near Sarafand southwest
of ancient Sidon (Sayda);
Tall Yunes, 5 km south of
Jaffa (Yafa); An-Nabi Yunes, 4 km northeast of Mina’a Ashdud, the
ancient harbour of Ashdod; Khan Yunis southwest of Gaza. All of
them are situated near the seashore. On the ancient Ma’daba map ,
probably Tall Yunes near Jaffa (Yafa) is meant, for it seems to be too
far from Ashdod harbour. The connection of the prophet Yunus with
Jaffa (Yafa) might have been influenced by the famous myth of
Perseus, Andromeda and the Monster whose bones were shown in
the harbour of Jaffa (Yafa). The brownish round object in the sea
beneath the santuary of Jonah, however, is hardly part of Jonah's
whale - as often suggested -, but rather the bow or the stern of a
ship.
Was Prophet Yunus swallowed by a fish, or a whale?
A whale is not a fish; it is a mammal. In the Old Testament we are told
Jonah was swallowed by a ―great fish,‖ and in the New Testament we
are told it was a ―whale.‖ In the Holy Quran God told us it was an ―Al-
Hut‖ (It means whale or fish in Arabic). Is this a contradiction?
No. And this is why.
The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek — not in English.
And both ―whale‖ and ―great fish‖ are English translations of the
original words. If we look in a Greek New Testament dictionary, such as
the popular James Strong's Dictionary of the Words in the Greek New
Testament, we find the explanation.
254

The Greek word translated ―whale‖ is ketos (pronounced kay-tos), and it
means ―a huge fish (as gaping for prey).‖ Other scholars say it can mean
a huge aquatic creature, which could be a fish, a whale, or some other
giant sea animal. In any case, the Bible says God prepared the creature
to swallow Jonah, so it could have been a creature created for this
particular purpose and no other.
When the King James Version of the Bible was released in 1611, our
modern taxonomic distinctions between fishes and mammals had not yet
been decided on, so the translators were justified in choosing a whale as
the giant ―fish.‖ It was the greatest sea creature known to them.
References and Internet Websites:
Khalaf, Norman Ali, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Germany.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Gazelle_Bulletin.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2004). Gazelle : Das Palästinensische
Biologische Bulletin. Eine Wissenschaftliche Reise in Palästina, Arabien
und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. Gazelle : The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and Europe between
1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage (juli 2004): 452 Seiten. Zweite erweiterte
Auflage (August 2004): 460 Seiten.
The (Place) of Saint Jonah – Nabi Yunis. Jordan: The Madaba Mosaic
Map. http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/091discuss.html
The Prophets of Allah.The Story of Jonah (Yunus).
www.netmuslims.com/info/yunus.html
Was Jonah swallowed by a fish, or a whale?. Creation Tips Website.
www.users.bigpond.com/rdoolan/jonah.html
255

256

The Andromeda Sea Monster
of Jaffa
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
The Romans loved sensational displays of natural curiosities. But the
skeleton of the Sea monster of Jaffa surpassed all expectations for
Marcus Aemilius Scaurus's extravagant victory celebrations in 58 BC.
According to Greek myth, the hero Perseus had rescued the maiden
Andromeda, who was chained to a rock and exposed to the monster at
Joppa (Jaffa). The rescue was a favorite scene in Roman art. People said
that the sea around Jaffa was still stained red with gore from the monster
(Perseus petrified it with the Gorgon's head and smashed it with rocks).
Traces of Andromeda's chains were pointed out to travelers on the
promontory at Jaffa. The Andromeda Rocks can still be seen today from
the seaport of Old Jaffa.
And now Scaurus had obtained the monster's skeleton. His men loaded
the thing onto a huge grain transport ship sailing from Alexandria by
way of Joppa to Rome. After a two-month voyage, the bone assemblage
was unloaded at Rome's harbor at Ostia, hauled to Rome, and
reassembled as the centerpiece of Scaurus's "marvels from Judaea." The
ancient historian Pliny the Elder tells us that the backbone was 40 feet
long (12 m) and 1.5 feet thick, with ribs taller than an Indian elephant.
What kind of skeleton was billed as Andromeda's dragon? Most scholars
believe that Scaurus must have shipped the bleached bones of a whale
from Palestine. The huge proportions seem to suggest a cetacean. Jewish
lore located Prophet Yunus's (Jonah, Jonas) whale at Jaffa, and sperm
whales (up to 60 feet long) are known to beach on those shores. The
immense "dragon" at near Beirut reported by the Roman historian
Posidonius a few years earlier also sounds like a whale carcass. Nearly a
plethrum long (100 feet), that carcass was so thick men on horseback
couldn't see over it, and the jaws were wide enough to swallow a man on
a horse. Other Roman writers described whale strandings in the
Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Arabian Sea. In about 54 BC, the Romans
staged a spectacular naval battle with a live whale that was trapped in
Ostia harbor. And the emperor Septimius Severus (AD 193-211) once
constructed a lifelike restoration of a whale skeleton in the Circus in
Rome (fifty live bears were led inside the belly!).But the magical
257

petrifaction of Andromeda's monster in the Greek myth raises the
possibility that petrified skeletons of large extinct mammals might have
influenced the Joppa lore, so it's worth mentioning that the impressive
remains of proboscideans do exist in Palestine. The historian Josephus
alluded to ancient Hebrew traditions about enormous bones dug up
around Hebron, Palestine. In Jewish Antiquities (written for a Roman
audience in the first century AD) he stated that the early Israelites had
wiped out "a race of giants, who had bodies so large and countenances
so entirely different from humans, that they were amazing to the sight
and terrible to the hearing. These bones are still shown to this very day."
Perseus sees Andromeda being sacrificed to a sea monster. Perseus falls in love
with her and rescues her. With Andromeda, he had a child named Persues.
www.classicsunveiled.com/mythnet/pics/pics21.gif
Old Postcard: City of Jaffa with the Andromeda Rocks.
www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3791860,00.html
Reference: Jaffa City Website. www.jaffa.8m.net
258

259

The Story of Prophet Musa
(Moses) (Peace Be Upon Him)
and the Fish
by: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
According to the Holy Quran, Prophet Musa (Moses) (Peace Be Upon
Him) was born into a family of Israelites that lived in Egypt and then
became a Prophet.
The Holy Quran told us the Story of Prophet Musa (Moses) (Peace Be
Upon Him) and the Fish.
One day, Prophet Musa (Peace Be Upon Him) delivered such an
impressive sermon that all who heard it were deeply moved. Someone in
the congregation asked: "O Messenger of Allah, is there another man on
earth more learned than you?" Prophet Musa replied: "No!", believing
so, as Allah had given him the power of miracles and honored him with
the Torah.
However, Allah revealed to Musa that no man could know all there is to
know, nor would one messenger alone be the custodian of all
knowledge. There would always be another who knew what others did
not. Musa asked Allah: "O Allah, where is this man? I would like to
meet him and learn from him." He also asked for a sign to this person's
identity.
Allah instructed him to take a live fish. Where the fish disappeared, he
would find the man he sought. Prophet Musa set out on his journey,
accompanied by a young man who carried the fish. They reached the
junction of the two rivers or seas and decided to rest there. Instantly,
Prophet Musa fell asleep.
While he was asleep, his companion saw the fish slipping away into the
water and swam off. However, he forgot to relate this incident to Musa.
When he awoke, they continued their journey until they were exhausted
260

and hungry. Musa asked for his morning meal. Only then did his
companion recall that the fish they had brought with them had got away.
Hearing this, Moses exclaimed: "This is exactly what we are seeking!"
They hurriedly retraced their steps to the junction of the two rivers or
seas and where the fish had slipped away. There they found a man, his
face partly covered with a hood. His bearing showed he was a saintly
man. He was Al-Khidr, the guide.
Allah the Almighty narrated: «And (remember) when Musa said to his
boy-servant: "I will not give up (travelling) until I reach the junction of
the two seas (rivers) or (until) I spend years in travelling. But when they
reached the junction of the two seas, they forgot their fish, and it took its
way into the sea, being free. So when they had passed further on
(beyond that fixed place), Musa said to his boy-servant: "Bring us our
morning meal; truly, we have suffered much fatigue in this, our journey.
He said: "Do you remember when we betook ourselves to the rock? I
indeed forgot the fish, none but Satan made me forget to remember it. It
took its course into the sea; what a wonder!". (Musa) said: "That is what
we have been seeking." So they went back retracing their footsteps.
Then they found one of Our slaves, unto whom We had bestowed mercy
from Us, and whom We had taught knowledge from Us. Musa said to
him (Khidr) "May I follow you so that you teach me something of that
knowledge (guidance and true path) which you have been taught (by
Allah)?" (Surat Al-Kahf 60-66).
Moses Perch (Lutjanus russelli Bleeker, 1849)
Moses perch grow to about 53cm (2kg). At maturity they are around
29cm in length. They vary in colour from pale pinkish-red to olive-
261

green or silvery white. All fish have a prominent black spot or blotch
above the lateral line and below the junction of the spiny and soft
dorsal fins. Their pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are yellow and they
may have yellowish lines marking the scale rows along the sides.
Juvenile Moses Perch look similar to adults, but have four to five brown
stripes on the body, and an ocellus on the back.
Adult Moses Perch inhabit inshore reefs and rocky areas. They may
occasionally enter estuaries. Juvenile Moses Perch however, are
frequently seen in the lower reaches of freshwater streams and mangrove
estuaries.
It is found at depths from 3m to 80m.
The Moses Perch feeds primarily on benthic invertebrates and fishes.
It occurs in tropical marine waters of the Indo-West Pacific, from the
Red Sea and East Africa, north to Japan, south to Australia and east to
Fiji.
The Fish of Musa (Samak Musa):
Order Pleuronectiformes:
Families: Psettodidae (toothed flounders),
Soleidae(soles), Cynoglossidae (tongue soles),
Bothidae (left-handed flounders).
Diagnosis:
Adults have asymmetrical skulls with both eyes on same side
Larvae are symmetrical and free-swimming in plankton until
metamorphosis, which involves migration of one eye to the other
Color on blind side usually pale
Fins usually spineless
Pelvic fins have less than seven rays
Base of pelvic fin attached to cleithrum
262

Gas bladder present
Usually demersal
Ctenoid scales on the eyed side; cycloid scales on blind side
Flounder (Samak Musa)
References and Internet Websites:
Fish Note: Moses Perch (fingermark bream). Queensland Government.
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.
www.dpi.qld.gov.au/fishweb/2543.html
Order Pleuronectiformes.
http://palaeo-electronica.org/2001_2/fish/ord_pleu.htm
The Prophets of Allah. The Story of Moses.
www.netmuslims.com/info/musa7.html
263

264

An Ocean Sunfish or Common
Mola (Mola mola, Linnaeus 1758)
caught off the coast of Gaza:
The First Record from Palestine,
East Mediterranean Sea
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
Abstract:
The catching of an Ocean Sunfish or Common Mola (Mola mola,
Linnaeus 1758) off the coast of Gaza, in December 2006, confirms the
existence of this marine fish species in the Palestinian coastal waters and
the East Mediterranean Sea. This is the first documented record for this
fish species from the Palestinian Mediterranean Coast.
هُلخص:‏
في ميبه
إن صيد صمكت انشمش انمُحيطيت أو صمكت مىال انشبئعت مىال مىال
غزة انضبحهيت ، في شهز ديضمبز مه عبو ، 2006 يؤكد تىاجد هذا اننىع مه األصمبك انبحزيت
في انميبه انضبحهيت انفهضطينيت وشزق انبحز األبيض انمتىصط ويُعتبز هذا انتضجيم هى انتىثيك
األول نهذا اننىع مه األصمبك عهى انضبحم انفهضطيني نهبحز األبيض انمتىصط
، نينيىس )1758
.
.
(
The Ocean Sunfish (Mola mola) on Al-Mawasi Beach of Khan Younis, Gaza
Strip, Palestine. December 2006.
http://www.elaph.com/ElaphWeb/Reports/2006/12/200254.htm
265

On the 12 th of December 2006 the world media brought a story about
a fisherman from Gaza, who thought that he had caught the catch of
the day, but the giant fish was bony and inedible.
The fisherman Maher Ibrahim Al-‗Amoudi, aged 45, was working 2
kilometer off the coast of Khan Younis, in the southern Gaza Strip,
Palestine, when he snagged what residents said was the biggest fish
ever caught in the area.
He threw his nets into the water and was surprised when the fish was
stuck in five of his nets. Al-‗Amoudi used his car to pull the fish out
of the water, saying it was 'solid as iron'. His fishing nets were
destroyed in the action. It turned out that he had trapped an Ocean
Sunfish, which measured 3.5 meters (11 feet) in length, 1 meter in
width and weighed one tonne (2,200 pounds) (Reuters, 2006).
Mr. Al-‗Amoudi is since 25 years a fisherman; he stated that he
knows more than 125 fish species and marine creatures, but this was
the first time that he sees such a fish. Many other fisherman from the
area, aged 80 and more, stated also that this is the first time they are
seeing this fish species.
About 20 men tried to pull the fish out from the water, but they
failed. A tractor was needed to pull the fish out on the beach of Al-
Mawasi area in Khan Younis. Many people gathered coming from
different areas to see this rare, strange and giant fish lying dead on
the Beach.
Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou, from the Biology Department, Islamic
University of Gaza, is giving information to the gathered students and pupils
about the ocean sunfish on Al-Mawasi area of Khan Younis, Gaza Strip,
Palestine. www.elaph.com/ElaphWeb/Reports/2006/12/200254.htm
266

The Palestinian Zoologist Dr. Abdel Fattah Nazmi Abd Rabou, from the
Biology Department, Islamic University of Gaza, visited Al-Mawasi
Beach, with some biology students, and identified the fish, and took the
approximate measurements. According to Dr. Abd Rabou the sunfish
measured 2.5-3 meters from the head to the pseudo-tail, and about 3
meters from the tip of the dorsal fin to the tip of the anal fin. He said that
the appearance of such a fish off the Gaza Strip waters is rare (Elaph
Electronic Newspaper, 2006).
It was noted that many long tape-worms were coming out from the fish‘s
mouth.
The Palestinian Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture in Gaza,
said that such fishes were caught several times in the past, by the
fisherman along the coast of Gaza Strip.
The Executive Director of the Palestine Wildlife Society Mr. Imad F.
Atrash considers Al-Mawasi area in Khan Younis, one of the important
areas for biological diversity in the Gaza Strip. He added many fish
species like the ocean sunfish migrate to this area in winter (Elaph
Electronic Newspaper, 2006).
The Ocean Sunfish (Mola mola) on Al-Mawasi Beach of Khan Younis,
Gaza Strip, Palestine. December 2006.
http://www.iugaza.edu.ps/ara/newsdetails.asp?newsid=1964
The Ocean Sunfish or Common Mola (Mola mola):
The ocean sunfish (Mola mola) or common mola is the heaviest bony
fish in the world, with an average weight of 1000 kilograms. The
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species is native to tropical and temperate waters around the globe. It
resembles a fish head without a tail, and its main body is flattened
laterally. Sunfish can be as tall as they are long, when their dorsal and
anal fins are extended.
Sunfish live on a diet that consists mainly of jellyfish. As this diet is
nutritionally poor, they consume large amounts in order to develop
and maintain their great bulk. Females of the species can produce
more eggs than any other known vertebrate. Sunfish fry resemble
miniature pufferfish, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin and body
spines uncharacteristic of adult sunfish.
Adult sunfish are vulnerable to few natural predators, but sea lions,
orcas and sharks will consume them. Among humans, sunfish are
considered a delicacy in some parts of the world, including Japan and
Taiwan, but sale of their flesh is banned in the European Union.
Sunfish are frequently, though accidentally, caught in gillnets, and
are also vulnerable to harm or death from encounters with floating
trash, such as plastic bags.
A member of the order Tetraodontiformes which includes pufferfish,
porcupinefish and filefish, the sunfish shares many traits common to
members of this order. It was originally classified as Tetraodon mola
under the pufferfish genus, but it has since been given its own genus,
Mola, with two species under it. The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, is the
type species of the genus.
Naming and Taxonomy:
Many of the sunfish's various names allude to its unique flattened
shape. Its specific name, mola, is Latin for "millstone", which the fish
resembles because of its grey colour, rough texture, and rounded
body. Its common English name, sunfish, refers to the animal's habit
of "sunbathing" at the surface of the water. The Arabic-, German-,
Portuguese-, French- and Spanish-language names, respectively
Samaket Al-Qamar, Mondfisch, peixe lua, poisson lune and pez luna,
mean "moon fish", in reference to its rounded shape. In German, the
fish is also known as Schwimmender kopf, or "swimming head",
because it has no true tail. In Arabic, the fish is also known as
Qaysanah and Samaket Al-Shams (sunfish). Some Taiwanese refer to
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it as the "toppled car fish" for its tendency to lie on its side while
sunbathing. In Taiwan's Hualien County, where sunfish are featured
as the official mascot, they are known as the "mambo fish" for their
swimming motions.
The ocean sunfish has various obsolete binomial synonyms, and was
originally classified in a pufferfish genus, as Tetraodon mola. It is
now placed under its own genus, Mola, with two species under it:
Mola mola and Mola ramsayi. The ocean sunfish, Mola mola is the
type species of the genus.
The Mola genus belongs to the Molidae family. This family
comprises 3 genera: Masturus, Mola and Ranzania. The common
name "sunfish" without qualifier is used to describe the Molidae
marine family as well as the freshwater sunfishes in the family
Centrarchidae which are unrelated to Molidae. On the other hand, the
name "ocean sunfish" and "mola" refer only to the family Molidae.
The Molidae family belongs to the order Tetraodontiformes, which
includes pufferfish, porcupinefish and filefish. It shares many traits
common to members of this order, including the four fused teeth that
form the characteristic beak and give the order its name (tetra=four,
odous=tooth, and forma=shape). Indeed, sunfish larvae resemble
spiky pufferfish more than they resemble adult molas (Wikipedia).
Description:
The ocean sunfish resembles a fish head without a tail. Its caudal fin
is replaced by a rounded clavus, creating the body's distinct shape.
The main body is flattened laterally, giving it a long oval shape when
seen head-on. The pectoral fins are small and fan-shaped. However,
the dorsal fin and the anal fin are lengthened, often making the fish as
tall as it is long. Specimens up to 3.2 meters (10.5 feet) in height have
been recorded.
The ocean sunfish has an average length of 1.8 meters (5.9 feet), and
an average weight of 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lbs), although
individuals up to 3.3 meters (10.8 feet) in length and weighing up to
2,300 kilograms (5,100 lbs) have been observed.
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The spinal column of M. mola contains fewer vertebrae and is shorter
in relation to the body than that of any other fish. The spinal cord of a
specimen measuring 2.1 meters (7 feet) in length is less than
25 millimeters (1 in) long. Even though sunfish descended from bony
ancestors, its skeleton actually contains largely cartilage tissues
which is lighter than true bone and allows it to grow to sizes
uneconomical for other bony fishes.
The sunfish lacks a swim bladder. Some sources indicate that the
internal organs contain a concentrated neurotoxin, tetrodotoxin, like
the organs of other poisonous tetraodontiformes, while others dispute
this claim (Wikipedia).
Fins:
In the course of its evolution, the caudal fin (tail) of the sunfish
disappeared, to be replaced by a lumpy pseudo-tail, the clavus. This
structure is formed by the convergence of the dorsal and anal fins.
The smooth-denticled clavus retains twelve fin rays, and terminates
in a number of rounded ossicles. Without a true tail to provide thrust
for forward motion and equipped with only small pectoral fins, Mola
mola relies on its long, thin dorsal and anal fins for propulsion,
driving itself forward by moving these fins from side to side.
Ocean sunfish often swim near the surface, and their protruding
dorsal fins are sometimes mistaken for those of sharks. However, it is
possible to distinguish a shark from a sunfish, by observing the
trajectory made by the dorsal fin on the surface, while the fish itself
moves underwater and remains unseen. Sharks, like most fish, swim
by waving the tail sideways while keeping the dorsal fin moving in a
straight line. The sunfish, on the other hand, swings its dorsal fin and
anal fin in its characteristic sculling motion. Thus, the sideways
movement of the dorsal fin on the surface can be used to identify the
sunfish (Wikipedia).
Skin:
Adult sunfish range from brown to silvery-gray or white, with a
variety of mottled skin patterns; some of these patterns may be
region-specific. Colouration is often darker on the dorsal surface,
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fading to a lighter shade ventrally as a form of counter-shading
camouflage. Mola mola also exhibits the ability to vary skin
colouration from light to dark, especially when under attack. The skin
made of large amounts of reticulated collagen, can be up to 3 inches
(7.6 cm) thick in the keel of the body, and is covered by denticles and
a layer of mucus instead of scales. The skin on the clavus is smoother
than that on the body which can be as rough as sandpaper.
More than 40 species of parasites may reside on the skin and
internally, motivating the fish to seek relief in a number of ways. In
temperate regions, drifting kelp fields harbor cleaner wrasses and
other fish which remove parasites from the skin of visiting sunfish. In
the tropics, the mola will solicit cleaner help from reef fishes. By
basking on its side at the surface, the sunfish also allows seabirds to
feed on parasites from their skin. Sunfish have been reported to
breach more than ten feet above surface, possibly as another effort to
dislodge parasites on the body (Wikipedia).
Range and Behaviour:
Ocean sunfish are native to the temperate and tropical waters of every
ocean in the world. Mola genotypes appear to vary widely between
the Atlantic and Pacific, but genetic differences between individuals
in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are minimal.
Sunfish are pelagic and swim at depths of up to 591 meters
(1,939 feet). Contrary to the general perception that sunfish spend
much of their time basking at the surface, research suggests that adult
M. mola actually spend a large portion of their lives submerged at
depths greater than 200 meters (656.2 feet), occupying both the
epipelagic and mesopelagic zones. They stay in water warmer than
10 °C (50 °F) most of times. In fact, prolonged periods spent in water
at temperatures of 12°C (53 °F) or lower can lead to disorientation
and eventual death. Researches theorize that the basking behavior at
the surface may be a method of "thermally recharging" following
dives into deeper, colder water. Others point to sightings of the fish in
colder waters such as those southwest of England outside of its usual
habitat as evidence of increasing marine temperatures.
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Sunfish are usually found alone, but occasionally in pairs or in large
groups while being cleaned. They swim primarily in open waters, but
are sometimes seen near kelp beds taking advantage of resident
populations of smaller fish which remove ectoparasites from their
skin. Because sunfish must consume a large volume of prey, their
presence in a given area may be used as an indicator of nutrient-rich
waters where endangered species may be found (Wikipedia).
Feeding:
The diet of the ocean sunfish consists primarily of various jellyfishes.
But it also consumes salps, comb jellies, zooplankton, squid,
crustaceans, small fishes, fish larvae, and eel grass. This diet is
nutritionally poor, forcing the sunfish to consume large amount of
food in order to maintain its size. The range of food items found
inside sunfish indicates that the sunfish feeds at many levels, from the
surface to deep water, and occasionally down to the seafloor in some
areas.
Sunfish can spit out and pull in water through its small mouth to tear
apart soft-bodied prey. Its teeth are fused into a beak-like structure,
allowing it to break up harder organisms. In addition, pharyngeal
teeth located in its throat grinds food into smaller pieces before
passing them to the stomach (Wikipedia).
Life Cycle:
Ocean sunfish may live up to ten years in captivity, but their lifespan
in a natural habitat has not yet been determined. Their growth rate is
also indeterminate. However, it is known that a young specimen at
the Monterey Bay Aquarium increased in weight from 26 kg (57 lbs)
to 399 kg (880 lbs) and reached a height of nearly 1.8 m (6 ft) in
fifteen months.
The sheer size and thick skin of an adult of the species deters many
smaller predators, but younger individuals are vulnerable to predation
by bluefin tuna and mahi mahi. Adults are consumed by sea lions,
orcas and sharks. Sea lions appear to hunt sunfish for sport, tearing
the fins off, tossing the body around, and then simply abandoning the
still-living but helpless fish to die on the seafloor.
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The mating practices of the ocean sunfish are poorly understood, but
spawning areas have been suggested in North Atlantic, South
Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian Oceans. Females
can produce as many as 300 million eggs at a time, more than any
other known vertebrate. Sunfish eggs are released into the water and
externally fertilized by sperm.
Newly-hatched sunfish larvae are only one-tenth of an inch long.
They grow to become fry, and those which survive grow many
millions of times their original size before reaching adult proportions.
Sunfish fry, with large pectoral fins, a tail fin and body spines
uncharacteristic of adult sunfish, resemble miniature pufferfish, their
close relatives in the evolutionary tree. Young sunfish school for
protection, but this behavior is abandoned as they grow (Wikipedia).
Human Interaction:
Despite their size, ocean sunfish are docile, and pose no threat to human
divers. Areas where they are commonly found are popular destination
for sport dives, and sunfish at some locations have reportedly become
familiar with divers. In fact, the fish is more threatening to boaters than
swimmers, as its immense size and weight can cause significant damage
when impacted by watercraft. Collisions with sunfish may cause damage
to the hull of a boat, and their bodies can become lodged in the
propellers of larger ships.
The flesh of the ocean sunfish is considered a delicacy in some regions,
the largest markets being Taiwan and Japan. All parts of the sunfish are
used in cuisine, from the fins to the internal organs. Some parts of the
fish are used in some areas of traditional medicine.
Sunfish are accidentally but frequently caught in drift gillnet fisheries,
making up nearly 30% of the total catch of the swordfish fishery
employing drift gillnet in California. The by-catch rate is even higher for
the Mediterranean swordfish industry, with a 71% to 90% of total catch
being sunfish.
The fishery, by-catch and destruction of ocean sunfish are unregulated
worldwide. In some areas, the fish are "finned" by fishermen who regard
them as worthless bait thieves. This process, in which the fins are cut
off, results in the eventual death of the fish, because it can no longer
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propel itself without its dorsal and anal fins. The species is also
threatened by floating trash such as plastic bags which resemble
jellyfish, its main diet. Bags can choke and suffocate an individual or fill
its stomach to the extent that it starves.
Many areas of sunfish biology remain poorly understood, and various
research efforts are underway, including aerial surveys of mola
populations, satellite surveillance using pop-off satellite tags, genetic
analysis of tissue samples, and collection of amateur sighting data.
Recent studies indicate a decrease in sunfish populations that may be
caused by more frequent by-catch and the increasing popularity of
sunfish in human diet (Wikipedia).
Sunfish in Captivity:
Sunfish are not widely held in aquarium exhibits, due to the unique and
demanding requirements of their care. Some Asian aquariums display
them, particularly in Japan. The Kaiyukan Aquarium in Osaka, Japan is
one of few aquariums with mola on display, where it is reportedly as
popular an attraction as the larger whale sharks. The Oceanario in
Lisbon, Portugal is another aquarium where sunfish is showcased in the
main tank.
The first ocean sunfish to be held in an aquarium in the United States
arrived at the Monterey Bay Aquarium in August of 1986. Because
sunfish had not been kept in captivity on a large scale before, the staff at
Monterey Bay was forced to innovate and create their own methods for
capture, feeding, and parasite control. By 1998, these issues were
overcome, and the aquarium was able to hold a specimen for more than
a year, later releasing it after its weight increased by more than fourteen
times. Mola mola have since become a permanent feature of the Outer
Bay exhibit.
As the ocean sunfish is not highly maneuverable, preventing specimens
from injuring themselves by rubbing against the walls of a tank is of
major concern to aquarists. In a smaller tank, hanging a vinyl curtain has
been used as a stopgap measure to convert a cuboid tank to a rounded
shape and prevent the fish from scraping against the sides. A more
effective solution is simply to provide enough room for the sunfish to
swim in wide circles. The tank must also be sufficiently deep to
accommodate the vertical height of the sunfish, which can be nearly as
tall as it is long, and may reach a height of 3.2 meters (10.5 feet).
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Feeding captive sunfish in a tank with other faster-moving, more
aggressive fish can also present a challenge. Eventually, the fish can be
taught to feed from the end of a pole or from human hands (Wikipedia).
References:
Adult Emperor angelfish (Pomacanthus imperator) clean Giant
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(2006) 25: 208 Al-‗Issa, Osama (from Jerusalem) (2006). Akbar wa
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Eliot, John L. (1994). "Queerest Fish in the Sea? The Massive Mola."
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Keeping Molas in Captivity at the Monterey Bay Aquarium.
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oc.depth=1&toc.id=ch21%20&brand=eschol
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1980). Tabie‘t Al-Talawon fi Al-
Haywanat (The Colouration of Animals). Al-Biology Bulletin. Number
1. January 1980, Safar 1401. Biological Society, Kuwait University,
State of Kuwait. pp. 4-5. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1981). Fawa'ed Alasmak. (The Benefits of
Fishes). Al-Biology Magazine, Biological Society, Kuwait University,
State of Kuwait. Number 1. Sunday 7.6.1981, 5. Sha'ban 1401. pp. 54-
55. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1982). Samak Al-Coelacanth (The
Coelacanth Fish). Al-Biology Magazine. Number 2. February 1982.
Biological Society, Kuwait University, State of Kuwait. pp. 14-15. (in
Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman (1982). A‘maar Al-Haywanat (Animal Ages). Al-
Biology Bulletin. Number 18, Third Year, First Semester, Saturday
6.11.1982. Biological Society, Kuwait University, State of Kuwait. pp.
7. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman (Translator) (1982). Al-Miah Al-Mulawatha Tohaded
Al-Asmak Bi‘ilinqiraad (Water Pollution threatens the Fish Fauna with
Extinction). Al-Biology Bulletin. Number 18, Third Year, First
Semester, Saturday 6.11.1982. Biological Society, Kuwait University,
State of Kuwait. pp. 7. (Translation from German into Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali (1983). Al-Samaka Al-‗Auljumiyah Al-Naqaqa fi
Al-Khaleej Al-Arabi [The Toad Fish (Batrachus grunniens) in the
Arabian Gulf]. Bulletin of the Biological Studies Club, Kuwait
University, State of Kuwait. First Year, Number 3, 23 November 1983.
pp. 10-11. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali (1983). Al-Hayat Al-Bahriyah fi Al-Kuwait (Sea
Snakes in Kuwait). Bulletin of the Biological Studies Club, Kuwait
University, State of Kuwait. First Year, Number 4, 7.12.1983. pp. 1-5.
(in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali (Translator) (1983). Al-Tasjeel Al-Hay Al-Awal li-
Samaket Kozat Al-Snobar (Monocentris japonicus, Houttuyn) min Al-
Bahr Al-Ahmar [The Pinecone Fish (Monocentris japonicus, Houttuyn),
A First Live Record from the Red Sea] by: Chaim Kropach. Bulletin of
the Biological Studies Club, Kuwait University, State of Kuwait. First
Year, Number 4, 7.12.1983. pp. 6-8. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali B. (1986). The Schooling of Fishes. Gazelle: The
276

Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 9. Fourth Year. Ramadan 1406.
May 1986. Department of Zoology, University of Durham, Durham,
United Kingdom. pp. 1-13.
Khalaf, Norman Ali B. (1986). The Fish Fauna in Van Mildert Pond,
Durham City, North East England. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 9. Fourth Year. Ramadan 1406. May 1986.
Department of Zoology, University of Durham, Durham, United
Kingdom. pp. 14-20.
Khalaf, N.A.B. (1986). The Schooling of Sumatra Barbs (Barbus
tetrazona tetrazona) and Minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus). Dissertation,
Master of Science in Ecology, Departments of Zoology and Botany,
University of Durham, England. pps. 59.
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1987). Blue Whales (Balaenoptera
musculus) from the State of Kuwait, Arabian Gulf. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Federal Republic
of Germany. Number 14, Fifth Year, Shawal 1407 AH, June 1987 AD.
pp. 1-14.
Khalaf, Norman Ali B. (1987). The Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae)
in the Science and Natural History Museum, State of Kuwait. Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 15. Fifth Year. July 1987.
Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Germany. pp. 1-8.
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1987). On a Collection of Devon Period
Animal Fossils from the Saarland, in the Geologische Museum Saarberg
in Saarbrücken, Germany. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Federal Republic of Germany. Number 15, Fifth
Year, Thul Qi‘dah 1407 AH, July 1987 AD. pp. 9-10.
Khalaf, Norman Ali B. (1987). The Great White Shark (Carcharodon
carcharias) from the State of Kuwait, Arabian Gulf. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 16. Fifth Year. Safar 1408 AH.
September 1987 AD. Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Federal Republic of
Germany. pp. 1-7.
Khalaf, Norman Ali (1989). Qa‘ema li-ba‘d Asmak Al-Kuwait fi Al-
Mathaf Al-‗Ilmi Bi-Dawlat Al-Kuwait (A List of some Kuwaiti Fishes
from the Science & Natural History Museum, State of Kuwait). Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 19. Seventh Year.
December 1989. Bonn 2-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany.
pp. 3. (in Arabic and English).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1991). A Trip to Zoo Budapest,
Hungary. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad
Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number 21, Ninth Year,
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January 1991. pp. 1-4.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1991). The Otter (Lutra lutra) in
Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad
Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number 22, Ninth Year,
February 1991. pp. 1-4.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1991). The Gulf War and its
effect on the Arabian Ecosystem (Part One). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 23, Ninth Year, July 1991. pp. 1-12.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1991). The Gulf War and its
effect on the Arabian Ecosystem (Part Two). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 24, Ninth Year, August 1991. pp. 1-10.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1991). The Gulf War and its
effect on the Arabian Ecosystem (Part Three). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of
Germany. Number 25, Ninth Year, September 1991. pp. 1-7.
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). The Minke Whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in the Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut
und Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Gazelle: The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic
of Germany. Number 26, Tenth Year, January 1992. pp. 1-3.
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). Notes on the Biological Ecology of
the Marshes in Southern Iraq. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number
29, Tenth Year, September 1992. pp. 1-9. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). The United Nations Ecological
Report confirms: The Regime of Saddam is destroying the Marshes (Al-
Ahwar) Ecosystem. Sawt Al-Kuwait International Newspaper. Saturday
17 October 1992, 21 Rabi‘e Al-Thani 1412. pp. 15. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1992). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Gazelle. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Federal Republic of Germany. Number
30, Tenth Year, October 1992. pp. 1-7. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali B. (1993). Al-Mushkilatan Al-Ma‘eyah
wa Al-Bi‘eyah fi Al-Dafah Al-Gharbiyah wa Qita‘ Ghaza Al-Muhtalain
(Ka-Juzu‘ min Al-Sharq Al-Awsat) [The Water and the Ecological
Problems in the Occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip (As Part of the
Middle East)]. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 31.
Eleventh Year. December 1993. Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany.
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pp. 1- 29. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (1994). An Introduction to the
Animal Life in Palestine. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n (Anemone coronaria). A
Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program EAI (Education for
Awareness and for Involvement). Environmental Education / Children
for Nature Protection. In Cooperation with Dept. of General and Higher
Education. P.L.O., Palestine. Number 4. Huzairan (June) 1994. pp. 16-
21. (in Arabic).
Acquaintance Card: Majallet Al-Ghazzal (Gazelle Magazine): The
Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Bonn, Germany. Shqae‘q Al-Nouma‘n
(Anemone coronaria). A Quarterly Magazine Issued by the Program
EAI (Education for Awareness and for Involvement). Environmental
Education / Children for Nature Protection. In Cooperation with Dept. of
General and Higher Education. P.L.O., Palestine. Number 4. Huzairan
(June) 1994. pp. 51-52. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali B.(1995). Alasmak fi Filistin (Die Fische
von Palaestina / The Fishes of Palestine). Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Number 33. Thirteenth Year. December 1995.
Bonn, Germany. pp.1-35. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Ali Bassam (1997). Amir Al-Bahar Al-Arabi (The Arabian Sea
Prince) Shihab Al-Deen Ahmad Bin Majed. Magazin der Akademie.
Nummer 1. Zu Elke‘da 1417 H, Maerz 1997. König Fahad Akademie –
Bonn, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Deutschland. pp. 23-24. (in Arabic).
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). A Palestinian Zoologist: Dr. Sana
Issa Atallah. In: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin Home
Page. Environmental Affairs 2 & Dinosaurs.
http://gazelle.8m.net/custom3.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). The Extinct and Endangered
Animals in Palestine. In: Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin
Home Page. Extinct and Endangered Animals and Reintroduction.
http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam (2001). Threatened Mammals. In: Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin Home Page. Extinct and Endangered
Animals and Reintroduction. http://gazelle.8m.net/photo3.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (Gründer)
(seit Juni 2001).
Yahoo! Deutschland Group: Wale und Delphine.
http://de.groups.yahoo.com/group/Waleunddelphine/
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2004). Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische
Biologische Bulletin. Eine Wissenschaftliche Reise in Palaestina,
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Arabien und Europa zwischen 1983 – 2004. / Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. A Scientific Journey in Palestine, Arabia and
Europe between 1983 – 2004. Erste Auflage, Juli 2004: 452 Seiten.
Zweite erweiterte Auflage, August 2004: 460 Seiten. Norman Ali
Khalaf, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Germany.
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280

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the Arabia‘s Wildlife Centre, Sharjah Desert Park, Sharjah, United Arab
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August 2005: 376 Seiten. Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-
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and Europe between 1980 - 2005. Erste Auflage, August 2005.
Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen- Hanweiler, Bundesrepublik
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Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2005). The Rafah Zoo in the Rafah
Refugee Camp, Gaza Strip, Palestine : A Story of Destruction by the
Israeli Occupation Army. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin.
Number 46, Twenty-third Year, October 2005, Ramadan 1426. pp. 1-11.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (2005). The Qalqilia Zoo and the
Natural History Museum in the City of Qalqilia, West Bank, Occupied
Palestine. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47,
Twenty-third Year, November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 1-10. Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates. (in Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam (Member of PALESTA) (2005).
Palestinian Scientists and Technologists Abroad (PALESTA). Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 47, Twenty-third Year,
November 2005, Shawal 1426. pp. 11-12. Sharjah, United Arab
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Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). A Bryde‘s Whale (Balaenoptera
edeni) Stranding on Al Mamzar Beach, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab
Emirates. Number 50, Twenty-fourth Year, February 2006, Muharram
1427. pp. 1-5. http://www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Brydes_Mamzar.html
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). The Sumpters (Animals) of the
Prophet Muhammad Peace be upon him. Gazelle: The Palestinian
Biological Bulletin. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Number 51,
Twenty-fourth Year, March 2006, Rabie‘ Alawal 1427. pp. 1-4. (in
Arabic).
Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali (2006). Mammalia Arabica. Eine
Zoologische Reise in Palaestina, Arabien und Europa zwischen 1980-
2006. / Mammalia Arabica. A Zoological Journey in Palestine, Arabia
and Europe between 1980-2006. Erste Auflage, Juli 2006, 484 pp.
Norman Ali Khalaf, Rilchingen-Hanweiler, Deutschland & Sharjah,
United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Mammalia_Arabica.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Eine Persoenlichkeit aus
Jaffa, Palaestina / A Personality from Jaffa, Palestine: Bassam Ali Taher
Khalaf (Abu Ali) (1938-2006). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
282

Bulletin. Number 56, Twenty-fourth Year, August 2006. pp. 8-19.
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Bassam_Khalaf.html
Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006). Ein
Besuch im Neunkircher Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Deutschland / A
Visit to Neunkirchen Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Germany. Gazelle:
The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 59, November 2006. pp. 1-
25. Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. (in Arabisch / Arabic).
http://khalaf.homepage24.de/text_88839638_85658724_59480041_deut
sch.html
Khalaf, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2007). Zum 1. Todestag : Eine
Persoenlichkeit aus Jaffa, Palaestina / The First Death Anniversary : A
Personality from Jaffa, Palestine : Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf (Abu Ali)
(1938-2006). Gazelle: Das Palaestinensische Biologische Bulletin.
Nummer 62, Februar 2007, Muharram 1428 AH. Seite 11. Sharjah,
Vereinigte Arabische Emirate.
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Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (Gründer)
(seit Juni 2007).
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Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (Gründer)
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Hurra (The Free Encyclopedia). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological
Bulletin. Number 69, Twenty-fifth Year, September 2007 CE, Sha‘ban
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(2007). A Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus, Smith 1828) caught off the
Kuwaiti Coast: The Second Record from the State of Kuwait, Arabian /
Persian Gulf. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 71,
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286

Samak Al-Luchs (Al-Hamoor) or
the Orange-Spotted Grouper
(Epinephelus coioides) in Palestine
(Mediterranean Sea) and the
United Arab Emirates (Arabian
Gulf)
by: Dr. Norman Ali Bassam Khalaf-von Jaffa
Family Serranidae, SEA BASSES AND GROUPER
Scientific Name: Epinephelus coioides
(Hamilton, 1822)
Common Names: Orange-spotted grouper, Orange-spotted rock cod,
Estuary cod, Green grouper, Estuary grouper, Estuary rock cod, Al-
Luchs (in Palestine), Al-Hamoor (in the Arabian Gulf).
Short Description: Body moderately elongated, only slightly
compressed. Dorsal fin continuous. The interspinous membrane of
dorsal fin moderately incised. The posterior margin of dorsal, caudal,
anal and pectoral fins is round. Large head with large mouth. Jaw
287

extends back past the vertical or posterior edge of eye. Subequal teeth in
2-3 rows. Serrated preoperculum, subangular shaped. Three flat spines
near the upper-posterior corner of operculum.
The Orange-spotted Grouper has a characteristic large mouth. Their
head, body and fins are olive green or creamy brown, covered with
brownish, orange spots, either rounded or oblong, and they have five
blotchy dark bars across the body. This species reaches up to around 230
cm. in length and 230 Kilogram in weight. They live for around 17 years
and are mature at about 4 years of age (49 cm.). Orange-spotted Grouper
are carnivorous, being major predators of fishes and benthic
invertebrates such as prawns and crabs.
colour : body covered with orange to reddish-brown spots on pale
greyish background with several irregular shaped darker bars. Large
specimens have numerous but smaller spots.
Size and weight : Up to 230 cm. in length, and up to 230 Kilogram in
weight. One year old hamoor is 26 cm. long and six year old is 73 cm. in
the United Arab Emirates (Arabian Gulf) population. In the State of
Kuwait (Arabian Gulf) it is 25 cm. and 63 cm. long for a similar aged
fish. The growth rate obtained in U.A.E. is slightly higher than in
Kuwait (Al Janhi et al.).
In the Sharjah fish market (United Arab Emirates), the smallest hamoor
is 20 cm. total length and the biggest fish is 110 cm. The biggest fish in
the Kuwait fish market is 130 cm. which is rather very occasional to
occur in the landings (Samuel et al., 1987).
The Hamoor Fish at the Sharjah Fish Market, United Arab Emirates,
24.1.2005. Foto: Norman Ali Khalaf-von Jaffa
288

Distinguishing Characteristics: Other Mediterranean Sea Serranids:
lack of orange to reddish-brown spots. The closely related Epinephelus
malabaricus, another lessepsian migrant, has also numerous black and
white spots and blotches and usually 19 pectoral rays (usually 20 in
Epinephelus coioides).
Other families: lack of three flat spines on the upper posterior corner of
the operculum.
Biology / Ecology: Feeds mainly on fishes, crustaceans and
cephalopods. Protogynous hermaphrodite species. Females reach
maturity at the age of 2-3 years (55-75 cm). Sex change occurs at the
size of 55-75 cm. Eggs and larvae are pelagic. Optimal survival at
temperature 30°C and salinity of 3%.
Habitat: Orange-spotted Grouper inhabit tropical and subtropical
waters. They occur on coral reefs and rocky sea beds in turbid areas, to
depths of 100m. They are often found in brackish water over mud and
rubble. They make frequent use of shelters, which suggests an ambush
method of feeding. Younger fish are commonly caught in estuaries.
1st Mediterranean Sea Record: Palestine, 1969.
Distribution: Worldwide: wide Indo Pacific. Red Sea, Arabian
(Persian) Gulf, eastern African coast south to Durban to Ryukyo Islands,
northern Australia to New Caledonia. Mediterranean Sea: recorded
first, misidentified as Epinephelus tauvina, in Palestine (Ben-Tuvia and
Lourie, 1969). A young specimen was caught in 1998 near Trieste,
North Adriatic Sea (likely cause: ballast transport) (Parenti and Bressi,
2001).
Mode of Introduction: Via the Suez Canal.
Establishment Success: Rare. Only few specimens have been collected
in the Mediterranean.
289

Importance to Humans: Rare in the Mediterranean. Epinephelus
coioides was tested in several countries as potential species to
maricultures.
Other Groupers (Al-Luchs) in Palestine (Gaza Coast): Other Grouper
species include the Dusky Grouper Epinephelus guaza and the Golden
Grouper or the Striped Grouper Epinephelus alexandrinus. Al-Luchs
are considered as one of the prime fish families by the local Palestinian
community. The average Grouper (Al-Luchs) Price in Palestine is 17
Dollars per Kilogram , and in Israel it costs 35 Dollars per Kilogram.
Epinephelus in the United Arab Emirates
Epinephelus species is the second largest fish species landed in the
Emirates. The average price varies from 15-20 Dirhams per kilogram. It
is considered as one of the prime fish families by the local community.
The important and commonly occurring fish species in the Serranidae
family in U.A.E. waters include the following in the order of their
abundance in the landing:
Epinephelus coioides (Hamoor)
Epinephelus chlorostigma (Saman)
Epinephelus bleekeri (Subati)
Epinephelus diacanthus (Disco)
Epinephelus latifasciatus (Saman)
Epinephelus areolatus (Gathow)
Epinephelus jayakari (Saman)
Epinephelus malabaricus (Saman)
Epinephelus stoliczkac (Khor hamoor)
Cephalopholis miniatus (Arosa)
Of all these species E. coioides is the most abundant species in Abu
Dhabi and Sharjah. E. diacanthus, E. latifasciatus are available in Dibba
(Fujairah) where as E. chlorostigma, E. bleekeri, E. jayakari are
abundent in the fish landings of Sharjah. E. areolatus, C. miniatus are
landed all over the Emirates in small quantities (Al Janhi et al.).
Fairly large quantities of small sized hamoor (Epinephelus coioides) is
caught and landed in the U.A.E. Market. About 12 - 34% of the fish are
less than 40 cm. in length. The spawning season of hamoor occurrs
during the month of March - May with peak spawning in April and May.
The minimum size at maturity is 44 cm. A substantial quantity of
290

immature fish is landed. Growth in hamoor is faster during the early
years probably up to six years and then the growth slows down.
Maximum age was a 22 years old hamoor. 73% of the landed fish are
four years or less old, while the rest are above five years old. There is an
urgent need to ban fishing of under sized hamoor to protect the stock and
allow the fish to grow above the minimum size at maturity so as to
improve the spawning stock of hamoor (Al Janhi et al.).
The Hamoor Fish at the Sharjah Fish Market, United Arab Emirates,
24.1.2005. Foto: Norman Ali Khalaf-von Jaffa
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1985. Validation of ring formation in the Otolith's of newaiby and other
fin fish in Kuwait waters. In proceedings of the shrimp and fin fisheries
management workshop, 9-10 October 1983. Kuwait, editor, C.P.
Mathews, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research.
Samuel, M. and C.P. Mathews. 1985. Validating the ageing of Newaiby,
Hamoor and Hamra in Kuwait. In proceedings of the 1984 shrimp and
fin fisheries management workshop, 15-17 December 1984. Ed: C.P.
Mathews, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait.
Samuel, M., C.P. Mathews and A.S. Bawazeer. 1987. Age and
validation of age from Otoliths for warm water fishes from the Arabian
Gulf. Pages 253-265 in R.C. Summerfelt and G.E. Hall, editors. Age and
growth of fish, lowa state university press, Ames, lowa.
Sivasubramaniam K. 1981 - Biological information collected during the
Demersal Resources Survey. Part 2 FAO. FI:DP/RAB/71/278/10. PAO
Rome 57-88 pp. White, A.W. and M.A. Barwani. 1971. Common sea
fishes of the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Dubai, Trucial States
Council, 170 p. Williams, T. and B.C. Bedford. 1974. The use of
Otoliths for age determination. Pages 114-123. In T.B. Bagenal, editor,
Ageing of fish. proceedings of an International Symposium, Unwin
Brothers, Old woking, Surrey.
صنارة السمك ح
ل فلسطينيي غزة لمقاومة الحصار الصهيوني
www.intiqad.com/archive/2004/2506/palastine/doc2.htm
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The Amphibians of Palestine
برهائيات فلسطين
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-
Sakerfalke von Jaffa
―So We sent on them: the flood, the locusts, the lice, the frogs, and the
blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant,
and they were of those people who were criminals / polytheists /
sinners.‖ (The Noble Qur‘an, Surah Al-A‘raf, Al-Aya 133).
Eight amphibian species have been recorded in Palestine: One newt
species, one salamander species and five species of frogs and toads.
Amphibians in Palestine belong to two orders; (i) Caudata; (ii) Salientia
or Anura; six families: (i) Salamandridae; (ii) Bufonidae; (iii) Hylidae,
(iv) Ranidae, (v) Pelobatidae, (vi) Discoglossidae; and seven genera,
five of which are important wetland species.
The most commonly seen in Palestine is the European Green Toad (Bufo
viridis). The other species are: The Syrian or Eastern Spadefoot Toad
(Pelobates syriacus), The Anatolian or Savigny's Tree Frog (Hyla
savignyi), The Marsh or Lake Frog (Rana ridibunda), The Edible or
Water Frog (Rana esculenta), and the extinct Palestinian or Hula Painted
Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer) (Khalaf-von Jaffa, February 2007). The
two other amphibians are: The endangered Near Eastern Fire
Salamander (Salamandra maculosa infraimmaculata) and the rare
Southern Banded Newt or Triton (Triturus vittatus).
Below, Table 1, outlines the threatened amphibian species in Occupied
Palestine and the Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip).
ORDER: CAUDATA (Salamanders and Newts)
Family Salamandridae:
1. Near Eastern Fire Salamander or Arouss Al Ayn (Salamandra
maculosa infraimmaculata, Martens 1885):
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The Arouss Al Ayn is a species of salamander in the Salamandridae
family. The black - yellow/orange colours are a warning colouratin. It is
found in Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey. Its natural
habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland, rivers, and freshwater
springs. It is threatened by habitat loss and is classified as being in
danger of extinction.
In Palestine, it lives in Al-Matalla, Safad, Beit Orben, Tal Al-Qadi,
Tarshiha, Kherbet Sumaqa, Wadi Karkara, Harfeesh, and Gaza Strip.
Near Eastern Fire Salamander, Palestine. Foto: Rei Segali, 2005.
http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo11549.htm
2. Southern Banded Newt or Triton (Triturus vittatus, Triton vittatus
or Ommatotriton vittatus Gray In Jenyns 1853):
The Southern Banded Newt is a species of salamander in the
Salamandridae family. It is found in Armenia, Georgia, Iraq, Palestine,
Jordan, Lebanon, Russian Federation, Syria, Turkey.
Its natural habitats are temperate forests, temperate grassland, rivers,
intermittent rivers, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes,
freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, caves, arable land,
pastureland, rural gardens, urban areas, ponds, aquaculture ponds, open
excavations, and canals and ditches. It is threatened by habitat loss.
Two subspecies occur in the region: Triturus vittatus chuldaensis
(Bodenheimer, 1926) from Khulda/Hulda, central Palestine; and Triturus
vittatus excubitor (Wolterstorff, 1905) from the border area between
Syria and Lebanon.
In Palestine, it lives in Rubin River, Ayn Bura, Al-Ouja River, Malbes,
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Kherbet Om Al-Toot, Naqab/Negev, Al-Jaleel/Galilee, and Lake
Tabaria/Tiberius.
Southern Banded Newt. Foto: César L. Barrio Amoros, 2006.
http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?query_src=photos_browsei
mgs_amphibian_sci&enlarge=1111+1111+1111+5253
ORDER: SALIENTIA or ANURA (Frogs and Toads)
Family Bufonidae:
3. European Green Toad (Bufo viridis, Laurenti 1768):
The European Green Toad Bufo viridis is a toad found in mainland
Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. They live in many areas, including
steppes, mountainous areas, semi-deserts, and urban areas. There are
variations in the colours and patterns of these toads across their range.
The spots their backs are usually anything from green to dark brown and
sometimes red spots appear, too. Most toads have white or very lightly
coloured stomachs.
The toads eat a variety of insects and invertebrates, mainly crickets,
meal worms, earth worms, moths, beetles and caterpillars.
These toads will change their colour in response to heat and light
changes, but to a greater degree than others. Also similar to other toads,
the European Green Toad has glands behind its neck that secrete a toxin
when the toad is threatened. Female toads are larger than males and can
lay 9,000 to 15,000 eggs at a time. These toads can reach 15 centimeters
(5.9 inches) in length, but most will only grow to a length of about 8
centimeters (3.15 inches).
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In Palestine, it lives in most of the Palestinian territories (West Bank and
Gaza Strip). It is also found in the vicinity of the Dead Sea,
Naqab/Negev, Al-Jaleel/Galilee, and the Palestinian coastal plain.
European Green Toad. Foto: Jacob van der Weele, 2005.
http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo76584.htm
Family Hylidae:
4. Anatolian, European or Savigny's Tree Frog (Hyla arborea
savignyi, Audouin 1827):
Palestine's smallest and most charming amphibian is also the region's
smallest, the Anatolian or Savigny's Tree Frog (Hyla savignyi). This frog
is only about 4 cm long and lives on and around plants and trees. Its
regular colouring is a bright pea green with a black stripe across the eyes
and along the flanks, though it has a chameleon-like ability to change
colour, adapting to different shades of green according to nearby foliage
or morphing to a mottled grey-brown when foraging on the ground or
sheltering under a stone (Khalaf-von Jaffa, February 2007).
Hyla savignyi is a species of frog in the Hylidae family. It is found in
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Palestine,
Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Yemen. Its natural
habitats are temperate shrubland, subtropical or tropical dry shrubland,
Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, temperate grassland, subtropical
or tropical dry lowland grassland, rivers, freshwater lakes, intermittent
freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marches,
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freshwater springs, temperate desert, arable land, rural gardens, canals
and ditches, and introduced vegetation. It is threatened by habitat loss.
It lives in the Palestinian territories including Jerusalem, the vicinity of
the Dead Sea, Gaza Valley, Al-Karmel, and Haifa.
A male European Tree Frog, looking for food on dead leaves near the
stream of Al-Qarn/ Kziv River in the Western Al-Jaleel/Galilee,
Palestine. Foto: Rei Segali, 2005.
http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo42891.htm
Family Ranidae:
5. Marsh or Lake Frog (Rana ridibunda ridibunda, Pallas 1761):
The Marsh Frog (Rana ridibunda) is the largest frog native to Europe,
and belongs to the family of true frogs. It is very similar in appearance to
the closely related Edible Frog and Pool Frog. These three species are
often referred to as 'green frogs' to distinguish them from the other, more
terrestrial, European Rana species, which are known as 'brown frogs'.
The Marsh Frog is a water-dwelling, generally green-colored frog
species. It can reach a maximum length of 17 centimeters, but males
remain smaller (around 12 cm). The head is proportionally large and the
hind legs are long, which gives them excellent jumping abilities.
There is a large variation in colour and pattern, ranging from dark green
to brown or grey, sometimes with some lighter green lines; a lighter line
on the back is generally present. The Western European populations are
generally dark green to black with dark spot on the back and sides and
three clearly green lines on the back.
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The diet of the Marsh Frog consists of dragonflies and other insects,
spiders, earthworms and slugs. Larger frogs also eat mice, and
sometimes salamanders and fish.
This green frog occurs in the largest part of Europe, in Asian Russia to
Afghanistan and Pakistan and in the Chinese province of Xinjiang. They
prefer a water temperature of approximately 15 degrees Celsius.
In Palestine, it lives in the vicinity of the Dead Sea, Jordan Valley, Al-
Ouja Valley, northern Beer Al-Sabe‘a/Beersheba, and Gaza Strip.
Marsh Frog. Foto: Jacob van der Weele, 2007.
http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo137932.htm
6. Edible or Water Frog (Rana esculenta, Rana klepton esculenta or
Pelophylax klepton esculentus, Linneaus 1758):
The Edible Frog is a name for a common European frog, also known as
the common water frog or green frog. It is used for food, particularly in
France for the delicacy frogs' legs. Females are between 5 to 9 cm long,
males between 6 to 13 cm. Males can be heard calling during the
breeding season, at this time they will also develop nuptial pads on the
first two digits of the forelimbs.
Pelophylax esculentus is the fertile hybrid of the Pool Frog (Pelophylax
lessonae) and the Marsh Frog (Pelophylax ridibundus), hence the
addition of the "kl." (for klepton or synklepton) in the species name.
During the ice ages the population of the common ancestor of both
species was split into two. These populations diverged, but remained
genetically close enough to be able to create fertile hybrids. However,
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when edible frogs mate with each other, their offspring are often
misformed, so there are no pure populations of edible frogs. The hybrid
populations are propagated by female edible frogs mating with males of
one of the parental species.
In Palestine, it lives in the vicinity of the Dead Sea and Galilee.
Edible Frog. Foto: Jacob van der Weele, 2003.
http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo147621.htm
Family Pelobatidae:
7. Syrian or Eastern Spadefoot Toad (Pelobates syriacus, Boettger
1889):
Range: The Syrian or Eastern Spadefoot Toad occurs in the south-east
Balkans, east to south-eastern Transcaucasia and northern Iran, and
south to the Levant. In the Balkans it occurs in Greece, Macedonia,
eastern Serbia, southern Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey. It occurs
widely, but in scattered populations in Turkey. In Caucasian region it is
found in southeastern Armenia, Georgia north to Tbilisi and Azerbaijan,
north to southern Daghestan in Russia, and east to the Caspian coastal
area of Iran. In the Levant it occurs in northern Syrian Arab Republic
and in the southern Coastal Plain [Isdud/Ashdod] of Palestine (the
southernmost limit of its range), but it is probably extinct in Jordan
where it has not been observed since 1984. It has been recorded from
two sites in Lebanon in 2005; in the Hasbani Valley and in the Beka‘a
Valley near the A‘ammiq marsh. The species is also expected to occur in
301

Albania, Ukraine and Moldova, but there appear not to be confirmed
records from these countries, and records from northern Iraq require
confirmation. It occurs from sea level to 2,000m above sea level.
Population: It appears not to be a common species; although a number of
populations are often highly fragmented and subject to significant
population fluctuations especially in the south of its range. The species
is uncommon in Serbia. It is relatively common in Iran, and populations
are considered to be stable in Turkey. In Lebanon there are very
localized but small populations. It is a threatened species in Palestine.
The species is possibly extinct in Jordan.
Syrian or Eastern Spadefoot Toad, young specimen. Foto: Paolo Mazzei.
http://www.amphibiainfo.com/gallery/anura/pelobatidae/pelobates/syria
cus/pelobates_syriacus_mazzei.jpg
Habitat and Ecology: It is a largely fossorial species. Terrestrial habitats
occupied are generally open uncultivated lands such as light forests,
steppe (and steppe-like habitats), semi-desert, rocky areas and mountain
valleys. It probably avoids the forest belt and is distributed in open
landscapes, and is generally less selective than Pelobates fuscus in terms
of soil preference, inhabiting not only soft soils suitable for a fossorial
life (although they are preferred), but also solid, rocky soils, particularly
friable clay with pebbles.
The overall population numbers appear to be low due to patchy
distribution of this species. However, local density reaches 5-7 adults
per 4000-5000 m 2 . Pelobates syriacus is active at night and displays
302

nightly site-fidelity. The burrows are made in the same manner as the
Common Spadefoot burrows. The species also uses rodent burrows and
holes under stones. In steppes and semideserts, where the summer air
temperatures sometimes exceed +40ºC, the spadefoot occurs in deep
holes with water, along riverbanks and in oases. It probably spends hot
and dry periods in the soil, i.e. aestivation is possible. Droughts lead to
mass mortality, which may influence population abundance. Eastern
Spadefoots hibernate in soil, in plant debris, and below tree roots and
large rocks. As a rule, they hibernate singly, but sometimes groups of 2-
6 individuals are found. Reproduction occurs from February to mid-
May, depending on latitude. Spawning sites include stagnant temporary
water bodies; river or lakeside temporary waterbodies and large
permanent pools. It can occur in slightly modified areas, including
intensively grazed areas. During the reproductive period, the male
shoulder gland becomes more prominent. The clutch contains about
5500-6500 eggs and is similar in shape to the clutch of P. fuscus.
Metamorphosis is completed in summer or in autumn. Many toadlets
bury themselves on the pond shores. In some water bodies‘ tadpoles
overwinter and complete metamorphosis the following year. Tadpoles
consume mainly algae and plant debris. Adults forage on land surface
dwellers, including Mollusca, Myriapoda, Aranae, Orthoptera etc.
In Palestine, it lives in Al-Quds/Jerusalem, Beer Salem, Haifa, Al-
Jaleel/Galilee and Isdud/Ashdod.
Family Discoglossidae:
8. Palestine or Hula painted frog (Discoglossus nigriventer,
Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943):
The Palestinian painted frog, Israel painted frog or Hula Painted Frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943) is an extinct
amphibian, whose range was limited to the Lake Hula (Huleh) marshes
and swamps in northern Palestine, just north of the Sea of Galilee
(Tabaria/Tiberius Lake), and possible in adjacent parts of Syria and
Lebanon. Due to drainage of the marshes by Israel in the 1950‘s, this
rare species disappeared. It was classified as extinct in 1996, but
continues to be listed as an endangered species in Palestine on the slim
hope that a relict population may be found in the Golan Heights. Almost
nothing is known about its life history, because it was only found by
scientists from two localities on the eastern shores of the Hula wetlands
(Lake Hula): once, four specimens were collected in 1940 by the
303

zoologist Prof. Heinrich Mendelssohn, of which one still exists (type
specimen); and a single adult specimen was collected by the biologist
Dr. Heinz Steinitz in 1955. This was the last record of this species. The
two tadpole paratypes have been lost . (Khalaf-von Jaffa, February
2007).
Palestine or Hula painted frog. Foto: Professor Heinrich Mendelssohn.
http://www.arkive.org/media/A5625856-79E0-4232-86F0-
8567D5843BF9/Presentation.Large/photo.jpg
The wetlands where the Palestinian painted frog relied on were drained
for mainly agricultural purposes in the 1950‘s like making the land
suitable for agriculture, but also in an attempt to eradicate malaria. Of
the original 60 km² of wetlands, only an area of 3.20 km² has remained;
although this remaining area was set aside as a nature reserve in 1964,
this could not prevent the extinction of certain endemic species,
including the Palestinian Painted Frog. This species has not been
reported since 1955, when Dr. Heinz Steinitz collected it. (Khalaf-von
Jaffa, February 2007).
Very little is known about this two-inch-long (5 cm) frog that was last
recorded in 1955. Its back was a colourful combination of ochre
(yellow-brown), rust, gray, and black. Small white spots dappled its dark
belly. It lived in northern Palestine and possibly adjacent parts of Syria
and Lebanon. Herpetologists believe that it went extinct because so
much of its wetland habitat was drained in an effort to produce farmland
for a growing population. (Khalaf-von Jaffa, February 2007).
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Taxonomy:
Kingdom: ANIMALIA
Phylum: CHORDATA
Class: AMPHIBIA
Order: ANURA
Family: DISCOGLOSSIDAE
Genus: Discoglossus
Species: Discoglossus nigriventer
Palestine or Hula painted frog. Foto: Professor Heinrich Mendelssohn.
http://www.arkive.org/media/54367C60-B349-4D12-B401-
98D577F716D7/Presentation.Large/photo.jpg
Major Threats: The Hula swamp areas were drained in the 1950‘s in an
attempt to eradicate malaria and to make the land suitable for
agriculture. Of the original 6,000ha of swampland, only 300ha remained
and this area was set aside as a nature reserve (a considerable distance
from the recorded localities) in 1964, but it seems that this action was
too late to save the species. It is presumed to be extinct due to swamp
drainage and agricultural development.
Conservation Measures: This species is protected by national legislation
in both Palestine and Israel. Surveys of the A‘ammiq marsh in southeast
Lebanon in April 2004 and April 2005 failed to find any individuals.
This marsh is the only remaining wetland fragment of the Beqa‘a
305

(Beka‘a) valley, which was once a major wetland of the Middle East but
has been drastically reduced by agriculture and urban development.
In 2000 a scientist of the Lebanese nature protection organisation La
Rocha Lebanon, claimed he had seen a frog species which could be
Discoglossus nigriventer in the A‘ammiq marshes south of the Beqa‘a
Valley in Lebanon. Two French-Lebanese-British expeditions in the
years 2004 and 2005 brought no confirmation of the further existence of
this species. (Khalaf-von Jaffa, February 2007).
Amphibians in Palestine: Threats and Impacts.
Almost all amphibians in Palestine are endangered due to intensive
farming, degradation of wetland habitats in the Dead Sea basin, Gaza
Strip and fresh and brackish springs, rivers and wadi systems. Recently
many swamps have been drained causing a great reduction in the
abundance of many local species, as indicated in Table (1). This
phenomenon is very obvious in Gaza Strip where the drying of the main
wadis and intensive use of remaining water resources has not given
amphibians much chance to exist. Loss of amphibian species and
diversity has led to an increase in the number of disease vector insects
such as mosquitoes.
In addition to the loss of wetland habitat, a significant portion of the
remaining wetlands are exposed to untreated sewage water from human
settlements and industrial activities and vegetation cover loss. This
impact is deemed severe and is threatening some amphibian species with
extinction.
Another main threat is the Israeli systematic destruction of the
Palestinian environment, which is inflicted by the Israeli occupation
forces, and it has been affecting the whole ecosystem in Palestine since
many decades.
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Table 1: Status of Amphibians in Occupied Palestine and the
Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip).
Species Status Habitat
Salamandra maculosa
infraimmaculata
Endangered
Wetlands
Triturus vittatus Endangered Wetlands
Bufo viridis
Common/
Endangered
Terrestrial
Hyla arborea savignyi Rare Wetlands and
Forests
Rana ridibunda Endangered Wetlands
Rana esculenta Endangered Wetlands
Pelobates syriacus Endangered Terrestrial
Discoglossus
nigriventer
Extinct
Wetlands
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315

316

The Palestinian Frogs and
Toads
By: Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke
von Jaffa
―So We sent on them: the flood, the locusts, the lice, the frogs, and the
blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant,
and they were of those people who were criminals / polytheists /
sinners.‖ (The Noble Qur‘an, Surah Al-A‘raf, Al-Aya 133).
Five species of Frogs and toads live in Palestine. You are far more likely
to hear frogs or toads than to see them. The most commonly seen is the
European Green Toad (Bufo viridis). The other species are: The Syrian
or Eastern Spadefoot Toad (Pelobates syriacus), The Anatolian or
Savigny's Tree Frog (Hyla savignyi), The Marsh or Lake Frog (Rana
ridibunda), The Edible or Water Frog (Rana esculenta), and the extinct
Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer).
Palestine's smallest and most charming amphibian is also the region's
smallest, the Anatolian or Savigny's Tree Frog (Hyla savignyi). This frog
is only about 4 cm long and lives on and around plants and trees. Its
regular colouring is a bright pea green with a black stripe across the eyes
and along the flanks, though it has a chameleon-like ability to change
colour, adapting to different shades of green according to nearby foliage
or morphing to a mottled grey-brown when foraging on the ground or
sheltering under a stone.
Sadly one native frog, the Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer), once endemic to the Hula (Huleh) swamp is
now extinct. Its habitat was devastated in the early 1950‘s by the
draining of the swamp and lake, part of a campaign to eradicate malaria
mosquitoes which then plagued the region. In recent years parts of the
Hula swamp and lake have been restored as a nature reserve, but the
move came too late to save the Palestinian painted frog.
317

A European Green Toad from Palestine. Foto: Leiah Elbaum.
www.geocities.com/jelbaum/creatures.html
The extinct Palestine or Hula Painted Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer).
http://www.eduplace.com/science/hmxs/ls/mode/cricket/sect3cc.shtml
Reference: www.geocities.com/jaffacity/Palestine_Frogs_Toads.html
318

319

The Extinction of the Palestinian
or Hula Painted Frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer,
Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943):
The Result of Israeli Drainage of
the Lake Hula
By: Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke von
Jaffa
The Palestinian painted frog, Israel painted frog or Hula Painted Frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943) is an extinct
amphibian, whose range was limited to the Lake Hula (Huleh) marshes
and swamps in northern Palestine, just north of the Sea of Galilee
(Tiberius Lake), and possible in adjacent parts of Syria and Lebanon.
Due to drainage of the marshes by Israel in the 1950‘s, this rare species
disappeared. It was classified as extinct in 1996, but continues to be
listed as an endangered species in Palestine on the slim hope that a relict
population may be found in the Golan Heights. Almost nothing is known
about its life history, because it was only found by scientists from two
localities on the eastern shores of the Hula wetlands (Lake Hula): once,
four specimens were collected in 1940 by the zoologist Prof. Heinrich
Mendelssohn, of which one still exists (type specimen); and a single
adult specimen was collected by the biologist Dr. Heinz Steinitz in 1955.
This was the last record of this species. The two tadpole paratypes have
been lost.
The wetlands where the Palestinian painted frog relied on were drained
for mainly agricultural purposes in the 1950‘s like making the land
suitable for agriculture, but also in an attempt to eradicate malaria. Of
the original 60 km² of wetlands, only an area of 3.20 km² has remained;
although this remaining area was set aside as a nature reserve in 1964,
this could not prevent the extinction of certain endemic species,
320

including the Palestinian Painted Frog. This species has not been
reported since 1955, when Dr. Heinz Steinitz collected it.
The Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog (Discoglossus nigriventer).
Very little is known about this two-inch-long (5 cm) frog that was last
recorded in 1955. Its back was a colourful combination of ochre
(yellow-brown), rust, gray, and black. Small white spots dappled its dark
belly. It lived in northern Palestine and possibly adjacent parts of Syria
and Lebanon. Herpetologists believe that it went extinct because so
much of its wetland habitat was drained in an effort to produce farmland
for a growing population.
Taxonomy:
Kingdom: ANIMALIA
Phylum: CHORDATA
Class: AMPHIBIA
Order: ANURA
Family: DISCOGLOSSIDAE
Genus: Discoglossus
Species: Discoglossus nigriventer
Red List Category: Extinct.
Extinction Justification:
Listed as Extinct because extensive searches over the last almost 50
years have failed to locate this
Description:
As the name implies, this species has a dark belly, with small white
spots. The colour pattern is as follows: ochre (yellow-brown) above and
rust colour grading into dark olive-grey to grayish-black on the sides. It
differs from the common Painted Frog (Discoglossus pictus) in a
number of characteristics: it has a greater interocular distance, longer
321

forelimbs, and a less projecting snout. For a more extensive description
see (Mendelssohn and Steinitz, 1943).
Life History, Abundance, Activity, and Special Behaviour:
There is no information on the life history of this species.
Range:
This species was known only from two localities on the eastern shore of
Lake Hula (Huleh), Palestine. It is possible that it occurred in adjacent
parts of Syria and Lebanon.
Dorsal view of the Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog (Discoglossus
nigriventer).
Population:
It is known only from a few specimens; an adult was collected in 1955,
this is the last known record of the species.
Habitat and Ecology:
It was recorded from marginal habitats in the Lake Hula (Huleh)
freshwater wetland area of Palestine. It is presumed to have bred in
wetland habitat and have larval development as in other members of the
genus.
Biomes:
Terrestrial, Freshwater.
Major Threats:
The Hula swamp areas were drained in the 1950‘s in an attempt to
eradicate malaria and to make the land suitable for agriculture. Of the
original 6,000ha of swampland, only 300ha remained and this area was
set aside as a nature reserve (a considerable distance from the recorded
localities) in 1964, but it seems that this action was too late to save the
species. It is presumed to be extinct due to swamp drainage and
agricultural development.
322

Conservation Measures:
This species is protected by national legislation in both Palestine and
Israel. Surveys of the Ammiq marsh in southeast Lebanon in April 2004
and April 2005 failed to find any individuals. This marsh is the only
remaining wetland fragment of the Beqa‘a (Beka‘a) valley, which was
once a major wetland of the Middle East but has been drastically
reduced by agriculture and urban development.
In 2000 a scientist of the Lebanese nature protection organisation La
Rocha Lebanon, claimed he had seen a frog species which could be
Discoglossus nigriventer in the Ammiq marshes south of the Beqa‘a
Valley in Lebanon. Two French-Lebanese-British expeditions in the
years 2004 and 2005 brought no confirmation of the further existence of
this species.
Ventral view of the Palestinian or Hula painted frog (Discoglossus
nigriventer).
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329

330

Das Aussterben der
Palästinensischer
Scheibenzüngler oder Hulesee-
Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossus
nigriventer, Mendelssohn und
Steinitz 1943): Das Resultat der
Israelischen Trockenlegung des
Hulesees
Von: Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-Sakerfalke
von Jaffa
„Da sandten Wir über sie die Überschwemmung, die
Heuschrecken, die Zecken / Kopfläuse, die Frösche und das Blut
als einzeln vorgebrachte Zeichen. Aber sie verhielten sich
hochmütig und waren ein Volk von Übeltätern”. (Der edle
Qur’an. Surah Al-A’raf, Al-Aya 133).
Der Palästinensischer Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossus nigriventer),
auch manchmal als Hulesee-Scheibenzüngler, Israelische
Scheibenzüngler oder Schwarzbäuchiger Scheibenzüngler
bezeichnet, ist ein ausgestorbener Froschlurch aus der Familie der
Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossidae).
Beschreibung:
Der Palästinensischer Scheibenzüngler wurde 1940 entdeckt und
1943 wissenschaftlich beschrieben. Er erreichte eine Kopf-Rumpf-
Länge von fünf bis acht Zentimetern. An der Oberseite war er
ocker und rostrot gefärbt. An den Seiten ging die Färbung in ein
dunkles Olivgrau über und zum Bauch hin war sie grauschwarz.
331

Ähnlich wie andere Eigentliche Scheibenzüngler wies auch er
große, dunkle, hellgesäumte Flecken am Rücken auf. Im
Gegensatz zu den anderen Arten der Gattung Discoglossus hatte
er jedoch einen größeren inneren Pupillenabstand, längere
Vorderbeine und eine weniger hervorstehende Schnauze. Die
dunkle Unterseite war mit kleinen weißen Punkten getüpfelt.
Lebensraum und Lebensweise:
Sein Lebensraum waren die Marschen und Sumpfgebiete entlang
des Hulesees in Nord-Palästina. Eine weitere Population wurde
in den nahegelegenen Golanhöhen in Syrien vermutet; dies
wurde allerdings nie bestätigt. Über seine Lebensweise ist nur
wenig bekannt. Man weiß von einem gefangenen Frosch, dass er
nachtaktiv war. Tagsüber grub er sich im Sand ein oder lugte mit
seinem Kopf aus dem Wasser heraus.
Aussterben:
Zwischen der Entdeckung und dem vermutlichen Aussterben der
Art nach 1955 wurden nur fünf Exemplare gesichtet (zwei
Weibchen, ein Jungtier und zwei Kaulquappen). Im Zuge der
intensiven landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung der Huleebene wurden
die Marsch- und Sumpfgebiete zwischen 1951 und 1958 bis auf
kleine Reste trockengelegt. Dies führte zur Zerstörung des
Lebensraumes und damit zum Aussterben dieser Froschart. 1996
wurde sie von der IUCN offiziell in der Kategorie „ausgestorben“
geführt.
Im Jahre 2000 behauptete ein Wissenschaftler der libanesischen
Naturschutzorganisation „La Rocha Lebanon“, er hätte in den
Aammiq-Sümpfen, einem Naturreservat südlich der Bekaa-Ebene
im Libanon, einen Frosch gesehen, auf den die Beschreibung von
Discoglossus nigriventer zuträfe. Zwei libanesisch-französischenglische
Expeditionen in den Jahren 2004 und 2005 brachten
jedoch kein Ergebnis über die weitere Existenz des Israelischen
Scheibenzünglers.
Systematik:
Klasse: Amphibien / Lurche (Amphibia).
332

Unterklasse: Lissamphibia.
Überordnung: Salientia.
Ordnung: Froschlurche (Anura).
Unterordnung: Urtümliche Froschlurche (Archaeobatrachia).
Überfamilie: Discoglossoidea.
Familie: Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossidae).
Gattung: Eigentliche Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossus).
Art: Palästinensischer Scheibenzüngler (Ausgestorben).
Wissenschaftlicher Name: Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn
und Steinitz 1943.
Die Familie der Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossidae):
Die Familie der Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossidae) gehört zur Ordnung
der Froschlurche. Ihre Verbreitung reicht von Nordwestafrika über
Europa bis nach Vorderasien. Mehrere anatomische Merkmale trennen
sie von anderen Familien, beispielsweise den Kröten (Bufonidae). So
besitzen sie als urtümliche („niedere“) Froschlurche (Archaeobatrachia)
noch echte Rippen. Ihre Zunge ist rundlich, dick und zum größten Teil
am Mundboden verwachsen. Sie kann daher nicht, wie bei „höheren“
Froschlurchen (Neobatrachia), zum Beutefang hervorgeschnellt
werden. Der Amplexus zur Paarungszeit erfolgt in der Lendengegend.
Die Familie umfasst die beiden Gattungen Geburtshelferkröten (Alytes)
und Eigentliche Scheibenzüngler (Discoglossus). Die oft ebenfalls noch
zu den Scheibenzünglern gestellten Unken werden inzwischen als
eigene Familie Bombinatoridae behandelt. Dies betrifft auch die
Gattung Barbourfrösche (Barbourula).
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342

343

The Re-Discovery of the
Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog
(Discoglossus nigriventer,
Mendelssohn and Steinitz 1943)
in Palestine
By: Dr. Sc. Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher Khalaf-von
Jaffa
Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog female specimen that was found
on 15 November 2011 at Lake Hula, Palestine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Israel_painted_frog.JPG
The Hula painted frog (Discoglossus nigriventer, Mendelssohn and
Steinitz 1943), sometimes also called the Palestinian painted frog,
was thought to be extinct, but was rediscovered in the Hula
marshes in 2011. This elusive species of frog was never
344

widespread and now is nearly impossible to find because of its
small numbers and limited distribution.
Physical Description
The Hula painted frog is one of only 12 known species of disctongued
frogs. This family got its name because unlike most frogs
that have long, thin tongues, they have flat, round, broad
tongues. Adult Hulas that have been studied were about 2 inches
from snout to rear. Discoglossus nigriventer is named after its darkcoloured
belly, which is speckled with white. The frog's back is
blackish brown with reddish, olive, and gray stripes and spots.
The skin on nigriventer's back is bumpy. Disc-tongued frogs'
pupils are distinct because they are shaped like an inverted
teardrop.
First Discovery
The Hula painted frog was first found in and around Hula Lake
in Palestine. Professor Heinrich Mendelssohn of Tel-Aviv
University and Heinz Steinitz were the first to catalog the
Discoglossus nigriventer species in 1940. They first collected four
specimens for study in 1940 -- two adults and two tadpoles -- and
found another adult frog in 1955. The tadpoles have since been
lost and one of the adults, so only two preserved specimens
remains in existence.
Presumed Extinction
When Hula Lake was drained in the 1950s as an effort against
malaria outbreaks in the region, one of the side effects was the
supposed extinction of the Hula painted frog. Already limited as
a species to such a small living area, the Hula painted frogs
weren't expected to live long after their habitat was seriously cut
down in size, from 14,800 acres of marshland to only 740 acres.
While a section of the marshland was set aside for Hula Marsh
Nature Reserve in the 1960s, this area did not include the
345

locations where Discoglossus nigriventer had been previously
recorded. Expeditions to find specimens in the Hula marsh, as
well as countries neighbouring Palestine proved unfruitful, even
after the lake was reflooded in the 1990s.
Ecology
Because Discoglossus nigriventer is so rare, researchers know very
little about its behaviour, breeding habits or preferred
environments. Hula painted frogs are known to live near and in
water of marshy areas and ponds. Because tadpoles were
discovered, scientists know they go through a larval life process.
After failed attempts to find breeding Hula painted frogs in the
spring, researchers have determined it's possible these frogs
breed in February and the tadpoles complete their development
in March. Researchers also surmise that Discoglossus nigriventer
spends a good deal of time on land, which is why expeditions
focusing on watery habitats proved unrewarding. The Hula
painted frog feeds largely on mosquitoes and their larvae, which
the lake drainage project aimed to eliminate. It's likely the Hula
painted frog has had difficulty rebounding because of the great
number of water bird species in the Hula Lake marshes, who
most likely eat the frogs, their tadpoles and their eggs.
Rediscovery
After Lake Hula was reflooded in the 1990s, hope rose that the
Palestinian painted frog would regain numbers. Many of the
once-native animals returned, but when no Discoglossus
nigriventer were spotted, the species was declared extinct in 1996
by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
However, 15 years later a Hula painted frog was spotted by
chance and later confirmed. Nature and Parks Authority warden
Yoram Malka happened across the frog when he was performing
his routine duties at the Hula Marsh Reserve in November 2011.
At the time of publication Discoglossus nigriventer is classified as
critically endangered by the IUCN.
346

The Palestinian or Hula Painted Frog. www.bbc.co.uk/news/scienceenvironment-22770959
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348

The Hula Valley was drained in the 1950s, but scientists think the frogs
remained hidden in patches of the swampy habitat that remained.
www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22770959
349

350

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كما أىدي كِتابي ىذا إلى أمي الحَبيبة ريناتو ، أطال اهلل تعالى في عُمرىا ، فيي كانت
مُربيتي ومُعممتي األولى ، كما عممتني عمى أىمية الكِتاب وحُسن القِراءة ، وحببتني في قِراءة الكُتب وا قتناء
القِصص وكُتب األطفال والكُتب الثقافية وخاصة تمك المُتعمقة بالحيوانات ، وشجعتني عمى تكوين مَكتبتي
. األولى
كما أىدي كِتابي ىذا إلى زوجتي الحبيبة ورفيقة دَربي ومُستشارتي األولى عُال ، والتي صاحبتني
في مِشواري العِممي والحياتي خالل سِ‏ نين زواجنا ، كما كانت مُعممتي في مجال الحاسوب ، ومُصورة
فوتوجرافية مُحترفة
–
عمى األرض وفي السماء وتحت الماء
المُختمفة وساعدي األيمن في طِباعة صفحات كُتبي
-
.
، وكذلك مُصممة ألغمفة كُتبي العِممية
كما أىدي كِتابي ىذا إلى إبنتي الحبيبة نورة ، والتي
تريد أن تُصبح إما عالمة حَيوان أو فنانة أو مُيندسة ديكور عندما تكبر ، وتيتم بالحيوانات الموجودة في
منزلنا وبخاصة قطتنا
" تويتي " وطير الكناري " توسي "
وسمكتنا الكناسة
" كنوس "
دائماً‏ أثناء كِتاباتي العِممية وتُعطيني المُالحظات التي ال تنقطع ، وتتحمل إنشغالي عنيا
، وىي التي تالزمني
.
كما أىدي كِتابي ىذا إلى كل الباحثين والدارسين والمُيتمين بحيوانات فمسطين والتي تم تكريم الكثير منيا
بذكرِىا في سُور وآيات القرآن الكريم ، وا لى كل من يُساىم في حِماية ىذه المخموقات من اإلنقِراض عمى
أرضنا المُباركة ، وا لى كل من يُحافظ عمى البيئات الطبيعية الفمسطينية والعربية من التدمير والتخريب
والتموث ، حتى تظل ىذه البيئات بما عمييا من ثروات طبيعية من حيوانات ونباتات ومُكونات غير حية ذخراً‏
لألجيال القادمة ، ألنيا أمانة في أعناقنا جميعاً‏ ، وال يجب التفريط فييا بأي حال من األحوال ؛ فبيئاتنا
الطبيعية تعتبر جُزءاً‏ من التراث الحي لإلنسانية جَمعاء ، ويجب عدم التأثير سَمباً‏ في التوازن البيئي اليَش
الموجود في األراضي المُقدسة وبالدنا العربية الجميمة األخرى ، وال نزيد من رُقعة الخمل والدمار والتموث
البيئي الحاصل في منطقتنا العربية جمعاء ، والذي يزداد لألسف يوماً‏ بعد يوم
قال في كتابوِ‏ الكريم في سورة الروم
الذِى عَمِموا لعَميُم يَرجعُون
.
"
)41 . ‏)اآلية "
وصدق اهلل العظيم حين
ظيَرَ‏ الفسَادُ‏ في البَر والبَحر بمَا كسَبَت أيدِى الناس ليُذيقيُم بَعضَ‏
3

4

إهدوءتخنصتإلىتعنلمتعربيتج حل
صورة تجمعني مع األستاذ الدكتور فاروق الباز أثناء إفتتاح معرض الشارقة الدُولي لمكتاب في الشارقة
بتاريخ
5 ديسمبر 2006 ميالدية .
)www.fotocommunity.de/pc/pc/display/22168298(
لقد كان شرفاً‏ كبيراً‏ لي أن ألتقي ىذه الشخصية العربية و العِممية المُتميزة و واحداً‏ من أكبر العُمماء في العالم
في مجال عُموم الفضاء واإلستشعار عن بُعد
.
وبالفعل كان لقاءاً‏ مُميزاً‏ وأستفدت مِنو الكثير وتعرفت فيو
عمى شخصية رائعة في قمة التواضع والعطاء ، مما جعمني فخوراً‏ أن أكون عربياً‏ ومُسمماً‏ ؛ وذكرني
بالعصور الذىبية لمحضارة اإلسالمية والعربية حين كانت الحضارات األخرى تنيل منا عِمماً‏ وثقافة وفناً‏
وعِمارة وطريقة حياة ، وكُنا في صدارة األمم وأصحاب شأن وقرار
صدق اهلل العظيم
" .
كُنتم خير أمة أخرجت لمناس
. "
.
5

6

تددمت
تاشرةتولغزولتهيتوألسنس
لم تكن البداية ناتجة عن معرفة سابقة أو معرفة عائمية
...
فالدكتور نورمان فمسطيني األصل ومن
سكان ألمانيا ؛ وأنا فمسطيني أسكن بمدينتي الفمسطينية بيت ساحور بمحافظة بيت لحم موقع ميالد
السيد المسيح عميو السالم
...
ولكن بيت لحم كانت البداية بيننا ، حينما كنت أعمل في جامعة بيت لحم
، وكان شغفي وحبي وعشقي لفمسطين وطبيعيتا المميزة ولحيواناتيا ولطيورىا ونباتاتيا
بسيطة لمغاية تأتي من ألمانيا بالبريد إلى الجامعة
...
...
تفاجئت بنشرة
كان إسميا نشرة الغزال الفمسطينية ؛ ولكنيا تصدر
في ألمانيا وتوزع بالبريد العادي ؛ ألنو لم يكن ىناك وفي تمك الفترة البريد اإلليكتروني
باالطالع عمى األعداد السابقة ، وراسمت محررىا وصاحبيا
اإلشتراك ، ولكن د.‏ نورمان بدأ بإرساليا لي مجاناً‏
....
...
...
...
وبدأت
لم يكن لدي أي مانع في دفع قيمة
وحينيا أدركت أن ىذا الميتم بطبيعة وأرض
فمسطين لديو الغيرة الكاممة عمى فمسطين ، وعشقو ليا دفعو ليؤسس ىذه النشرة ومن حسابو الخاص
أدركت أن ىذا الشخص يريد خدمة بمده ووطنو وشعبو من دون مقابل ؛ أدركت بأنو صادق ويعمل
من صميم قمبو
...
وحان ليا أن تنطمق
.
فصممت عمى متابعتو ألنو قد أنار لي طريق ، قد أقول أنيا كانت في دمي مدفونة
تركت العمل في مختبر األحياء في جامعة بيت لحم عام ، 1992 وبدأت أعمل كمشرف بيئي لنشاطات
مدرسية في القدس
...
وكانت الغيرة لدي من د.‏ نورمان
...
...
لماذا نشرة الغزال فقط ؟ لماذا ال أقوم
بتأسيس مجمة شقائق النعمان ؟؟؟ حيث كانت نشرة الغزال قوة الدافع األساسية لي لتأسيس ىذه المجمة
وفعالً‏ قمت بتأسيسيا وانطمقت عمى مستوى الوطن ؛ ال لكي تزاحم نشرة الغزال ، ولكن لتكمل رسالتيا
ولتستمر في الجيد الذي بذلو عالم الطبيعة د.‏ نورمان خمف
.
وفعالً‏ بدأت بمتابعتيا وقراءة ما قد يكتب فييا عن الحياة البرية
مراسمتي ؛ وذلك زاد لدي من حب التعرف إليو شخصياً‏
...
...
7
ولم ينقطع د.‏ نورمان يوماً‏ ما عن
حتى جاءت لحظة زيارة لي إلى ألمانيا في عام
2000 ؛ وقمت بمراسمتو قبل ذلك وا خباره بأنني قادم إلى ألمانيا ، وىل من الممكن اإللتقاء بو
رده بنعم
...
...
فكان
لم يكن الرد فيو إستغراب ، ولكن الشيء الذي أستغربتو بأنو أعطاني بطاقة عممو بأنو يعمل
سائق تكسي ؟؟؟؟ فكيف ذلك ؟ ما ىي عالقة سائق تكسي
-
وأنا ال أقمل من قيمة أي انسان
بالطبيعة -

الفمسطينية ؟ وبالحياة البرية ؟؟؟ ولكنني شعرت بقيمة اإلنتماء لموطن في قمب ىذا الشاب الوسيم ،
والذي لم تستمر المقابمة معو إال لدقائق معدودة ، بالقرب من نير الراين في مدينة بون ، حين نزلنا أنا
ومجموعتي البيئية من القارب لنزور بون ولنشاىد تجاربيا البيئية
أسرع مقابمة لي في تاريخ حياتي
...
كانت لحظات لم أتوقعيا
...
...
ولكنني أيقنت أنني أعرف ىذا الشاب منذ صغري
قال لي أنا ...
أعيش في ألمانيا وجذوري فمسطينية وأعشق فمسطين حتى الممات ، وسأبذل جيدي ميما كمفني ذلك
وقمت لو أنا أعيش في فمسطين وحياتي ممك لفمسطين
كانت
...
...
فمسطين واحدة ، ولن تكون مقسمة بيننا ، فجيتنا ىي واحدة
وىنا أدركنا وميما كان الموقع الجغرافي ، فإن
...
وقمبنا واحد وحبنا لفمسطين يجمعنا
...
لم أدرك بأن ىذا السائق يقوم بالتدريس في الجامعة ، ألن بطاقتو لم تشر إلى ذلك ؛ ولكنني أدركت الحقاً‏
بأنو إنسان عصامي
...
حاول أن يعتمد عمى نفسو
وأىمو وطبيعة بالده مما زاد من قناعتي بو
...
...
لكي يؤمن قرش حالل ، كي يخدم بمده ووطنو
لم أفقد األمل بأن ألتقي بو مرة ثانية
فمسطين
...
ولم أفقد األمل في الحب الذي غرسو في نفسي
...
...
حب طبيعة
فقد تركت العمل في المدارس الخاصة ، وقمت بتأسيس جمعية الحياة البرية في فمسطين ؛
أنا ومجموعة من الشباب الغيورين عمى ىذه الطبيعة
ترخيص ليا ؛ لكي نتابع مشروع وحب الدكتور نورمان
البيئي لجميورنا الفمسطيني
...
مباشرة بعد عودتي من ألمانيا
...
...
...
وحصمنا عمى
وعممت الجمعية بكل طاقتيا لزيادة الوعي
وأنطمقت وبقي األمل عمى لقاء د.‏ نورمان عمى أرض فمسطين الطاىرة
.
في يوم من أيام صيف العام الماضي ، 2012 فإذ بجرس جوالي يدق ويقول لي أنا صديقك د.‏ نورمان
في الخميل ، وأرغب بزيارتك أخي عماد
...
لم تكن الفرحة بسيطة ؛ فعام 2000 كان في الماضي ؛
ولحظات اإللتقاء بو كانت سريعة ؛ ولكن في ىذه المرة نريد المقاء بأن يكون أطول
أعتقدت ، ولكنو كان أطول من عام 2000 ؛ وحتى لو كان في عام
...
...2012
لم يكن طويالً‏ كما
فزارنا في بيت ساحور
وفي بيتي ومكتبي وجمعيتنا ، وزرنا كنيسة الميد في بيت لحم ، وزرنا برية القدس ، وقمنا بمراقبة إبن
عم الفيل حيوان الوبر الصخري في منطقة دير مار سابا والتي تطل عمى وادي قدرون
إقامة أعمال مشتركة
...
...
فكرنا في لقاء عائمي فقط لقصر الزيارة
...
ولم نتحدث عن
ولكن وبعد أن عاد إلى اإلمارات ، طرحت عميو مسابقة عصفور الشمس الفمسطيني ، كمسابقة بين طمبة
المدارس الفمسطينية لزيادة الوعي البيئي بيذا الطير الجميل ، والذي نعشقو لألبد
وشغف كبير
...
...
وتمقفيا بحب
8

... إنو الطائر
وا نو التنوع الحيوي
...
في مجال حماية الطبيعة والحياة البرية
البرية في فمسطين
وا نيا طبيعة فمسطين
...
...
...
وا نو د.‏ نورمان خمف الذي أضاء حياتي
إنيا نشرة الغزال ومجمة شقائق النعمان ، وأخيراً‏ جمعية الحياة
إنو العيد الذي بدأنا بو لحماية أغمى ما نممك
...
ألف تحية لمدكتور نورمان خمف عمى جيده المتواصل الذي لم ينقطع منذ أن تعرفت عميو ، وعمى نشرتو
منذ عام 1983 وحتى ىذه المحظات
...
لقد مر أكثر من 30 عاماً‏ عمى ىذه الصداقة المتينة
.........
األستاذ عماد األطرش ‏)أبو باسيل(‏
المدير التنفيذي لجمعية الحياة البرية في فمسطين
بيت ساحور ، دولة فمسطين
14 حزيران ‏)يونيو(‏ 2013
األستاذ عماد األطرش مع د.‏
نورمان عمي خمف أمام مبنى جمعية الحياة البرية في فمسطين في بيت ساحور ، دولة
يوليو ‏)تموز(‏ . فمسطين
2012
9

10

وللتددمت
ت
بلمتوهللتولر ليتولر حم
ت
.
.
.
.
‏ْي ‏ِش ‏َفَو ‏ُح ‏ْي ‏ُح زَو ‏ُح ‏َوا ‏َو ‏َوى
‏َو تَّطى إِشذَو أَوتَفَو ‏ْي ‏ِش ‏ِش اَو ‏ُح ‏ُح وُح ‏ُح ‏ِش ‏ْي ‏ْي ‏ِش ‏ِّن ‏َو اِش ‏ْي ‏ِش ‏َو لَّط
‏َو ‏ُح ‏َو ‏ُح ‏َوْي ‏َو
‏َو ‏ِش وي ‏َّط ‏ْي لِش قَو ‏َوتْي ‏َو ‏ْي ‏َوةٌ‏ ‏َو أَو ‏َفَُّو ‏َّط ‏ْي ل ‏ُح وْيخُح ‏ُح ‏َو ‏َو ك ‏ِش ‏َوكُح ‏ْي ال ‏َو ح ‏ْيل ‏َو ‏ِش ‏َّطكُح ‏ْي ‏ُح س ‏َوْي ‏َو اُح ‏َو ‏ُح ‏ُح وُح ‏ُح
‏ِشي أَواْي أَوشْيكُح ‏َو ‏ِشعْي ‏َو تَوكَو ‏َّطتِشي
‏َو هُح ‏ْي ال ‏َو ‏ْي ع ‏ُح ‏ُح ‏َوا ‏َفَوتَو ب ‏َو ‏َّط ‏َو ضَو ‏ِش ك ً ‏ْي ‏ِش قَفَو ‏ْي ‏ِش ‏َو ‏َو قَو لَو ‏َو ر بِّن أَو ‏ْي ‏ِش زْي
أَو ‏َو ‏َفْيع ‏ْي تَو ‏َو ‏َويَّط ‏َو ‏َو ‏َوى ‏َو ‏ِش دَويَّط ‏َو أَواْي أَو ‏ْي ‏َو ‏َو ل ‏َو ص ‏ِش ح ً تَفَو ‏ْي ضَو ‏ُح ‏َو ‏ِش أَووْيخْي ‏ِشي ب ‏ِش ‏َو ‏ْي ‏َو تِشكَو ‏ِش ي ‏ِش ب ‏َو ‏ِش و ‏َوك
. )19 –
–
آل ت 17
ل ‏)س رة صَّط ‏ِش ‏ِش ح ‏َو ت
الجسء ال
حيواوات فلسطيه دِراسات عِلمية حَيواوية في فلسطيه بيه األعوام
. 2012 – 2005
ثالث .
إن الحمد هلل نحمدهُ‏ ونستعينوُ‏ ونستغفرهُ‏ ، ونعوذ باهلل من شرورِ‏ أنفسنا ومن سيئاتِ‏ أعمالنا ، من يُيده اهلل فال
مُضل لوُ‏ ، ومن يُضمل فال ىادي لو ، وأشيد أن ال إلو إال اهلل وحدهُ‏ ال شريك لو وأن مُحمداً‏ عبدهُ‏ ورسولوُ‏
والحمد هلل ربِ‏ العالمين الذي بنعمتوِ‏ تتم الصالحات ، وصمى اهلل وسمم عمى خاتم األنبياءِ‏ والمُرسمين سيدنا
مُحمد وعمى آلوِ‏ وصحبوِ‏ ومن أتبع ىُداه إلى يوم الدين
أما بعد
.
.
....
إن تاريخ الحيوانات البرية في فمسطين يمكن تتبعو من العصر الفجري ‏)الحديث السابق أو األيوسين(‏
عندما تراجع البحر عن مناطق شاسعة كان يغطييا لماليين من السنين
،
.
11
وقد كانت فمسطين ما تزال جُزءاً‏
من شبو القارة العربية النوبية ، والتي أمتدت جنوباً‏ وشرقاً‏ ، والتي منيا جاءت أولى الحيوانات البرية
.
وعندما حدث في العصر الحديث القريب ‏)البميوسين(‏ إرتباطاً‏ أرضياً‏ مع جنوب شرق أوروبا ، فقد تبعو تدفق
لمحيوانات من شبو جزيرة البمقان
.
وفي العصر الحديث األقرب السُفمي ‏)البميوسين السُفمي(‏ ، كانت ىناك
بعض األنواع من الحيوانات التي كانت تعيش في فمسطين ألجيال عديدة مثل الخنزير ، والبرنيق ‏)فرس

النير(‏ ، والكركدن ، والضبع المُنقط ، وكذلك جاءت الحقاً‏ حيوانات أخرى من اليند ، ومن بينيا الذئاب
والغزالن والخيول البرية
.
ثم حدثت تغيرات مناخية خالل العصر الحديث األقرب األوسط واألعمى حتى العصر الحجري الحديث
‏)النيوليثيك(‏ أي منذ سبعة آالف سنة ، والتي أحضرت تغيرات جديدة في تركيبة الحياة الحيوانية المحمية ؛
ىذا مع العمم أن الحياة الحيوانية في فمسطين لم يحدث ليا أية تغيرات عميقة منذ ذلك الحين ، مع أن الكثير
من األنواع تمت إبادتيا من خالل الصيد وتدمير الغابات
.
وتورد التوراة واإلنجيل والقرآن الكريم ذِكر الكثير من الحيوانات التي كانت تعيش بفمسطين في قديم الزمان ،
والتي لم تعد موجودة في الفترة الحالية ومنيا
:
الرافدين ، الظبي ‏)البقر الوحشي(‏ ، الثور البري ، وحتى النعامة والتمساح
الكريم الكثير من الحيوانات األىمية مثل
األسد ، الببر ، الدُب ، األيل ، الظبي اليحمور من بالد
.
كما تورد التوراة واإلنجيل والقرآن
: الحِصان ، الحِمار ، الماعز ، الخِراف ، الدجاج ، النحل ،
والماشية ، وكذلك دودة القز ‏)دودة الحرير(‏ . وبالنسبة لمحيوانات البحرية ، فقد تم ذِكر األسماك ، وقوقعة
المُريك التي كان يتم جمعيا إلستخراج المون األرجواني الممكي منيا
.
والبعوض ، كما تم التفريق بين األنماط العديدة والمراحل المختمفة لنمو الجراد
.
وبالنسبة لمحشرات ، فقد تم ذِكر القمل
كما تم ذِكر الكثير من الحيوانات في القرآن الكريم والسُنة النبوية الشريفة ، والتي كانت ليا عالقة بأرض
فمسطين المُباركة ، ال سيما أنو كان يعيش عمى أرضيا الكثير من األنبياء والرُسل
.
:
)
فمن قصص القرآن
الكريم والسُنة النبوية الشريفة قصة سيدنا إبراىيم عميو السالم ‏)أبو األنبياء(‏ وا بنو إسماعيل عميو السالم
‏)أبو العرب(‏ والكبش ، وقصة سيدنا سُميمان عميو السالم ‏)الذي عُمم منطق الطير(‏ مع اليُدىُد ، وأيضاً‏
قصتو عميو السالم مع النمل في وادِ‏ النمل ، وكذلك قصة موتِوِ‏ عميو السالم ودابة األرض ‏)األرضة(‏ التي
أكمت مِنسأتوُ‏ ‏)عَصاهُ(‏ ، وقصة سيدنا يوسف عميو السالم مع الذئب ، وقصة سيدنا يونس عميو السالم ‏)ذا
النون أو صاحب الحوت مع الحوت في بحر يافا بفمسطين ، وقصة بني إسرائيل وصيدىم لمحيتان
‏)األسماك(‏ يوم السبت ، وكذلك قصة بني إسرائيل والذين جعل اهلل تعالى منيم القردة والخنازير ، وأيضاً‏
قصة سيدنا مُحمد صمى اهلل عميو وسمم ودابة البُراق في رحمة اإلسراء والمعراج
.
.
ويعيش في فمسطين حالياً‏ ما بين 80-70 نوعاً‏ من الثدييات ، وما بين 520-500 نوعاً‏ من الطيور ، وما
بين 120-100 نوعاً‏ من الزواحف ، وحوالي 400 نوعاً‏ من األسماك ، وحوالي 5000 نوعاً‏ من الحشرات
12

وبالنسبة لي ، فمنذ إلتحاقي بكمية العموم بجامعة الكويت لمتخصص في مجال عِمم الحيوان ، فقد قمت
بنشر مقاالتي العِممية األحيائية في نشرة ومجمة الجمعية البيولوجية بجامعة الكويت ، والتي كانت أوالىا
" مقاالً‏ بعنوان
طبيعة التمون في الحيوانات " ، في شير يناير ‏)كانون الثاني(‏
مقال لي عن حيوانات فمسطين بعنوان
‏)شباط(‏
. 1980
"
حيوان الغرير في فمسطين وشبو الجزيرة العربية
"
، 1983 في نشرة "
" الخالصة
وفي شير يوليو ‏)تموز(‏ 1983 قمت بإصدار العدد األول من نشرة
األحياء " ، ذات الترقيم الدولي لمنشرات
مُتخصصة في العالم
وقد قمت بنشر أول
في شير فبراير
والتي كان يصدرىا التجمع الوطني الفمسطيني بجامعة الكويت
.
: الغزال "
النشرة الفمسطينية لعمم
، ISSN 0178 - 6288 لتكون أول مطبوعة عِممية فمسطينية
.
وقد توالت المقاالت فييا عبر السنوات ، وتم صُدور 100 عدداً‏ متوالياً‏ من نشرة
‏"الغزال"‏ حتى يومنا ىذا ؛ وخالل الثالثين سنة الماضية ، قمت بالكثير من األبحاث والدراسات وكتابة
المقاالت المُتعمقة بحيوانات فمسطين ، وقمت بنشرىا في نشرة ‏"الغزال"‏ وكذلك الكتب والمجالت العِممية
. المُتخصصة
وخِالل رحمة عممية أستغرقت ثمث قرن من الزمان ، قمت خِالليا بالكثير من األبحاث والدراسات العِممية في
مجاالت عموم األحياء والجيولوجيا والبحار والبيئة ، في العديد من البُمدان اآلسيوية واألوروبية واألفريقية ،
وتم خِالليا نشر العديد من أبحاثي العِممية في المجالت العِممية والكتب المُتخصصة ، وفي نشرة ‏"الغزال"‏
األحيائية الفمسطينية ، كما تم نشر العديد من المواضيع العِممية منذ العام 2001 عمى موقع اإلنترنت
www.gazelle.8m.net ومواقع عديدة عمى www.webs.com في شبكة اإلنترنت ، كما تم صُدور
كِتابي العِممي األول بعنوان
الثاني
– الغزال "
النشرة الفمسطينية لعمم األحياء
"
في يوليو ‏)تموز(‏
، 2004 وكِتابي
"
رِحمة عِممية في العموم المائية العربية
العربية " في يوليو ‏)تموز(‏
وكِتابي الخامس
"
في أغسطس
( بآ ) 2005 ، وكِتابي الثالث "
، 2006 وكِتابي الرابع "
السنوريات العربية
"
في يوليو ‏)تموز(‏
الثدييات
، 2007
"
المواحم العربية
الجزء األول " في سبتمبر ‏)أيمول(‏
"
في سبتمبر ‏)أيمول(‏
، 2008 وكِتابي السادس "
حيوانات فمسطين
-
، 2009 وكِتابي السابع "
حيوانات اإلمارات
" الجزء األول –
–
"
في نوفمبر
‏)تشرين الثاني(‏ ، 2010 وكذلك صُدور كِتابي العِممي الثامن حيوانات فمسطين الجزء الثاني من دار "
الجندي لمنشر والتوزيع في القدس الشريف في يوليو ‏)تموز(‏ ، 2012 وأخيراً‏ قررت أن أنشر الجزء الثالث
" من كِتاب
بين األعوام
حيوانات فمسطين " والذي يتضمن أبحاث ومقاالت مُختارة عن حيوانات فمسطين والتي نُشرت ما
. 2012 - 2005
عاصمة دولة فمسطين المُحتمة ، والعاصمة الدائمة لمثقافة العربية
.
وبكل فخر وا عتزاز يتم صدور ىذا الكتاب في زىرة المدائن القدس الشريف
آمل أن يكون كِتابي ىذا إحدى المبنات في صَرح المكتبة العِممية الفمسطينية والعَربية ، وأسأل اهلل عز وجل
أن يجعمو خالصاً‏ لوجيوِ‏ الكريم ، وأن ينفعني بوِ‏ في حَياتي وبعد مَماتي ، وأن ينفع بو المُيتمين في مَجاالت
13

عُموم الحَيوان والبيئة الفمسطينية والعربية ، وأن يتقبموُ‏ مني ويَجعموُ‏ في مِيزان حَسناتي يوم القيامة ، إنوُ‏
السميعُ‏ المُجيب
.
" :
عن أبي ىُريرة رضي اهلل عنو قال
، سَيلَ‏ اهللُ‏ لوُ‏ بوِ‏ طريقاً‏ إلى الجنة
:
قال رَسولُ‏ اهللِ‏ صَمى اهللُ‏ عميوِ‏ وسَمم
مَن سَمك طريقاً‏ يمتمِسُ‏ فيوِ‏ عِمماً‏
"
‏)رواهُ‏ الترمذي ، الحديث
. )2646
بسم اهلل الرحمن الرحيم
" :
بَارَكْنَا حَوْ‏ لَوُ‏ لِنُرِيَوُ‏ مِنْ‏ يَاتِنَا إِنَّوُ‏ ىُوَ‏ السَّمِيعُ‏ البَصِ‏ يرُ‏
"
سُبْحَانَ‏ الَّذِي أَسْرَى بِعَبْدِهِ‏ لَيْالً‏ مِّنَ‏ الْمَسْجِدِ‏ الْحَرَامِ‏ إِلَى الْمَسْجِدِ‏ األَقْصَى الَّذِي
‏)سورة اإلسراء ، اآلية
. )1
.
والحمدُ‏ هللِ‏ رب العالمين .
والسالمُ‏ عميكم ورحمة اهلل وبركاتو
) نُعمان ( د.‏ نورمان
القدس الشريف ، دولة فمسطين
عمي بسام عمى طاىر خمف اليافاوي
.
26 شعبان ‎1434‎ىِجرية ، 5 يوليو
‏)تموز(‏
2013 ميالدية
‏)الذكرى الحادية والخمسين لميالدي(‏ .
14