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UNIT-I<br />
INTRODUCTION TO AVIONICS<br />
NEED FOR AVIONICS IN CIVIL AND MILITARY AIRCRAFT AND SPACE<br />
SYSTEMS:<br />
‘Avionics’ is a word derived from the combination of aviation and electronics.<br />
The term ‘avionic system’ or ‘avionic sub-system’ is used in the aircraft which is<br />
dependent on electronics for its operation, although the system may contain electromechanical<br />
elements.<br />
For example, a Flyby-Wire (FBW) flight control system depends on electronic digital<br />
computers for its effective operation, but there are also other equally essential elements<br />
in the system.<br />
These include solid state rate gyroscopes and accelerometers to measure the angular and<br />
linear motion of the aircraft and air data sensors to measure the height, airspeed and<br />
incidence.<br />
The <strong>avionics</strong> industry is a major multi-billion dollar industry world-wide and the<br />
<strong>avionics</strong> equipment on a modern military or civil aircraft can account for around 30% of<br />
the total cost of the aircraft.<br />
Modern general aviation aircraft also have significant <strong>avionics</strong> content. For example,<br />
colour head down displays, GPS satellite navigation systems, radio communications<br />
equipment. Avionics can account for 10% of their total cost.<br />
Other very important drivers for avionic systems are increased safety, air traffic control<br />
requirements, all weather operation, reduction in fuel consumption, improved aircraft<br />
performance and control and handling and reduction in maintenance costs.<br />
In civil airlines<br />
The avionic systems are essential to enable the flight crew to carry out the aircraft<br />
mission safely and efficiently, whether the mission is carrying passengers to their<br />
destination in the case of a civil airliner.<br />
In the case of a modern civil airliner, this means a crew of two only, namely the First<br />
Pilot (or Captain) and the Second Pilot. This is only made possible by reducing the crew<br />
workload by automating the tasks which used to be carried out by the Navigator and<br />
Flight Engineer.<br />
The reduction in weight is also significant and can be translated into more passengers or<br />
longer range on less fuel.<br />
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In Military<br />
In the military case, intercepting a hostile aircraft, attacking a ground target,<br />
reconnaissance or maritime patrol.<br />
A major driver in the development and introduction of avionic systems has been the<br />
need to meet the mission requirements with the minimum flight crew.<br />
In the military case, a single seat fighter or strike (attack) aircraft is lighter and costs<br />
less than an equivalent two seat version.<br />
The elimination of the second crew member (Navigator/Observer/Radar Operator) has<br />
also significant economic benefits in terms of reduction in training costs. (The cost of<br />
training and selection of aircrew for fast jet operation is very high.<br />
Military avionic systems are also being driven by a continuing increase in the threats<br />
posed by the defensive and offensive capabilities of potential aggressors.<br />
CORE ARCHITECTURE COMMON FOR BOTH CIVIL AND MILITARY<br />
AIRCRAFT:<br />
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3<br />
Display systems:<br />
It consisting of 3 types of displays<br />
i. Head up displays (HUDs),<br />
ii. Helmet mounted displays(HMDs)<br />
iii. Head Down displays (HDDs).<br />
Head up displays (HUDs):<br />
Most combat aircraft are now equipped with a HUD. A small but growing number of<br />
civil aircraft have HUDs installed.<br />
The HUD now provides the primary display for presenting the essential flight<br />
information to the pilot and in military aircraft has transformed weapon aiming<br />
accuracy.<br />
The HUD can also display a forward looking infrared (FLIR) video picture one to one<br />
with the outside world from a fixed FLIR imaging sensor installed in the aircraft. The<br />
infrared picture merges naturally with the visual scene enabling operations to be carried<br />
out at night or in conditions of poor visibility due to haze or clouds.<br />
Helmet mounted displays(HMDs)<br />
The HMD is also an essential system in modern combat aircraft and helicopters.<br />
The HMD enables the pilot to be presented with information while looking in any<br />
direction, as opposed to the limited forward field of view of the HUD.<br />
An essential element in the overall HMD system is the Helmet Tracker system to<br />
derive the direction of the pilot’s sight line relative to the aircraft axes.<br />
The HMD can also form part of an indirect viewing system by driving a gimballed<br />
infrared imaging sensor to follow the pilot’s line of sight.<br />
Communications Systems:<br />
The Communications Systems play a vital role; the need for reliable two way<br />
communication between the ground bases and the aircraft or between aircraft is self<br />
evident and is essential for air traffic control.<br />
A radio transmitter and receiver equipment was in fact the first avionic system to be<br />
installed in an aircraft.
The communications radio suite on modern aircraft is a very comprehensive one and<br />
covers several operating frequency bands.<br />
Long range communication is provided by high frequency (HF) radios operating in the<br />
band 2–30 MHz.<br />
Near to medium range communication is provided in civil aircraft by very high<br />
frequency (VHF) radios operating in the band 30–100 MHz, and in military aircraft by<br />
ultra high frequency (UHF) radio operating in the band 250–400 MHz. (VHF and UHF<br />
are line of sight propagation systems).<br />
Satellite communications (SATCOM) systems are also installed in many modern<br />
aircraft and these are able to provide very reliable world wide communication.<br />
Data entry and control systems:<br />
The Data Entry and Control Systems are essential for the crew to interact with the<br />
avionic systems.<br />
Such systems range from keyboards and touch panels to the use of direct voice input<br />
(DVI) control, exploiting speech recognition technology, and voice warning systems<br />
exploiting speech synthesisers.<br />
Flight control systems:<br />
The Flight Control Systems exploit electronic system technology in two areas,<br />
namely<br />
1) Auto-Stabilisation (or stability augmentation) systems and<br />
2) FBW flight control systems.<br />
Auto-Stabilisation :<br />
Most swept wing jet aircraft exhibit a lightly damped short period oscillatory motion<br />
about the yaw and roll axes at certain height and speed conditions, known as ‘Dutch<br />
roll’, and require at least a yaw auto-stabiliser system to damp and suppress this<br />
motion; a roll auto-stabiliser system may also be required.<br />
Most combat aircraft and many civil aircraft in fact require three axis auto-stabilisation<br />
systems to achieve acceptable control and handling characteristics across the flight<br />
envelope.<br />
FBW flight control systems:<br />
FBW flight control enables a lighter, higher performance aircraft to be produced<br />
compared with an equivalent conventional design by allowing the aircraft to be<br />
designed with a reduced or even negative natural aerodynamic stability.<br />
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It does this by providing continuous automatic stabilisation of the aircraft by computer<br />
control of the control surfaces from appropriate motion sensors.<br />
A very high integrity, failure survival system is of course essential for FBW flight<br />
control<br />
Aircraft state sensor systems:<br />
These comprise the<br />
i Air data systems and<br />
ii.The Inertial sensor systems.<br />
Air data systems:<br />
The Air Data Systems provide accurate information on the air data quantities, that is the<br />
altitude, calibrated airspeed, vertical speed, true airspeed, Mach number and airstream<br />
incidence angle. This information is essential for the control and navigation of the<br />
aircraft.<br />
The air data computing system computes these quantities from the outputs of very<br />
accurate sensors which measure the static pressure, total pressure and the outside air<br />
temperature. The air-stream incidence angle is derived from air-stream incidence<br />
sensors.<br />
Inertial Sensor Systems:<br />
The Inertial Sensor Systems provide the information on aircraft attitude and the<br />
direction in which it is heading which essential information for the pilotfor is flying in<br />
conditions of poor visibility, flying in clouds or at night.<br />
Accurate attitude and heading information are also required by a number of avionic subsystems<br />
which are essential for the aircraft’s mission – for example, the autopilot and<br />
the navigation system and weapon aiming in the case of a military aircraft.<br />
Navigation systems:<br />
Accurate navigation information, that is the aircraft’s position, ground speed and track<br />
angle (direction of motion of the aircraft relative to true North) is clearly essential for<br />
the aircraft’s mission, whether civil or military.<br />
i. Dead reckoning (DR) systems and<br />
ii. Position fixing systems<br />
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Dead Reckoning Navigation:<br />
The Dead Reckoning Navigation Systems derive the vehicle’s present position by<br />
estimating the distance travelled from a known position from a knowledge of the speed<br />
and direction of motion of the vehicle.<br />
They have the major advantages of being completely self contained and independent of<br />
external systems.<br />
The main types of DR navigation systems used in aircraft are:<br />
(a) Inertial navigation systems. The most accurate and widely used systems.<br />
(b) Doppler/heading reference systems. These are widely used in helicopters.<br />
(c) Air data/heading reference systems These systems are mainly used as a reversionary<br />
navigation system being of lower accuracy than (a) or (b).<br />
The Position Fixing Systems:<br />
The Position Fixing Systems used are nowmainly radio navigation systems based on<br />
satellite or ground based transmitters.<br />
A suitable receiver in the aircraft with a supporting computer is then used to derive the<br />
aircraft’s position from the signals received from the transmitters.<br />
Outside World Sensor Systems<br />
i. Radar and<br />
ii. Infrared sensor<br />
Radar Systems:<br />
The Radar Systems installed in civil airliners and many general aviation aircraft aircraft<br />
provide weather warning. The radar looks ahead of the aircraft and is optimized to<br />
detect water droplets and provide warning of storms, cloud turbulence and severe<br />
precipitation so that the aircraft can alter course and avoid such conditions, if possible.<br />
These radars can also generally operate in ground mapping and terrain avoidance<br />
modes.<br />
The Infrared Sensor Systems:<br />
Infrared Sensor Systems have the major advantage of being entirely passive systems.<br />
Infrared (IR) sensor systems can be used to provide a video picture of the thermal image<br />
scene of the outside world either using a fixed FLIR sensor, or alternatively, a<br />
gimballed IR imaging sensor. The thermal image picture at night looks very like the<br />
visual picture in daytime, but highlights heat sources, such as vehicle engines,<br />
Task automation systems:<br />
i.Navigation Management<br />
ii.Autopilots and FlightManagement Systems<br />
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iii.The Engine Control and Management Systems<br />
iv.House Keeping Management<br />
Navigation Management:<br />
Navigation Management comprises the operation of all the radio navigation aid systems<br />
and the combination of the data from all the navigation sources, such as GPS and the<br />
INS systems, to provide the best possible estimate of the aircraft position, ground speed<br />
and rack<br />
Autopilots and FlightManagement Systems:<br />
The Autopilots and FlightManagement Systems have been grouped together. Because<br />
of the very close degree of integration between these systems on modern civil aircraft. It<br />
should be noted, however, that the Autopilot is a ‘stand alone’ system and not all<br />
aircraft are equipped with an FMS.<br />
The tasks carried out by the FMS include:<br />
Flight planning.<br />
• Navigation management.<br />
• Engine control to maintain the planned speed or Mach number.<br />
• Control of the aircraft flight path to follow the optimised planned route.<br />
• Control of the vertical flight profile.<br />
• Ensuring the aircraft is at the planned 3D position at the planned time slot; often<br />
referred to as 4D navigation. This is very important for air traffic control Flight envelope<br />
monitoring.<br />
• Minimising fuel consumption<br />
The Engine Control and Management Systems:<br />
The Engine Control and Management Systems carry out the task of control and the<br />
efficient management and monitoring of the engines.<br />
The electronic equipment involved in a modern jet engine is very considerable: it forms<br />
an integral part of the engine and is essential for its operation. In many cases some of<br />
the engine control electronics is physically mounted on the engine.<br />
Many modern jet engines have a full authority digital engine control system (FADEC).<br />
Other very important engine avionic systems include engine health monitoring systems<br />
which measure, process and record a very wide range of parameters associated with the<br />
performance and health of the engines. These give early warning of engine performance<br />
deterioration, excessive wear, fatigue damage, high vibration levels, excessive<br />
temperature levels, etc.<br />
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8<br />
House keeping management:<br />
House Keeping Management is the term used to cover the automation of the<br />
background tasks which are essential for the aircraft’s safe and efficient operation.<br />
Such tasks include:<br />
• Fuel management. This embraces fuel flow and fuel quantity measurement and<br />
control of fuel transfer from the appropriate fuel tanks to minimise changes in<br />
the aircraft trim.<br />
• Electrical power supply system management.<br />
• Hydraulic power supply system management.<br />
• Cabin/cockpit pressurisation systems.<br />
• Environmental control system.<br />
• Warning systems, Maintenance and monitoring systems.<br />
INTEGRATED AVIONICS SYSTEM:<br />
Major avionic systems generally comprise a number of smaller sub-systems which are<br />
combined to form an overall system. The combination, interconnection and control of<br />
the individual sub-systems so that the overall system can carry out its tasks effectively<br />
is referred to as ‘systems integration’.<br />
Aircraft/Spacecraft Design often involves integrating parts, large and small, made by<br />
other vendors, into an airframe or space frame (also called “the bus.”)<br />
Parts include engines, landing gear, shock absorbers, wheels, brakes, tires, <strong>avionics</strong><br />
(radios, antennae, flight control computers)cockpit instruments, actuators that move<br />
control surfaces, retract landing gears, etc...<br />
The number of sub-systems which need to be integrated to form a major system can be<br />
appreciated from the previous chapter on flight management systems.<br />
• Radar – target acquisition in all weather conditions.<br />
• Doppler – accurate ((4 knots) velocity sensor for DR navigation. (Note: IN<br />
systems capable of accurate initial alignment at sea on a moving carrier were still under<br />
development in the early 1960s.) The Doppler radar velocity sensor system is ussed to<br />
measure the aircraft’s ground speed and drift angle. The aircraft heading is provided by the<br />
AHRS.<br />
• Attitude heading reference system (or master reference gyro system – UK<br />
terminology) attitude and heading information for pilot’s displays, navigation computer,<br />
weapon aiming computer, autopilot.
• Air data computer – height, calibrated airspeed, true airspeed, Mach number<br />
information for pilot’s displays, weapon aiming, reversionary DR navigation, autopilot.<br />
• Radio altimeter – very low level flight profile during attack phase and all<br />
weather operation.<br />
• Navigation computer – essential for mission.<br />
• Autopilot – essential for reduction of pilot work load.<br />
• Weapon aiming computer – essential for mission.<br />
• HUD – all the advantages of the HUD plus weapon aiming for low level<br />
attack;<br />
for example, ‘toss’ bombing.<br />
• Stores management system – control and release of the weapons.<br />
• Electronic warfare (EW) systems – radar warning receivers, radar jamming<br />
equipment. Essential for survivability in hostile environment.<br />
• Identification system (identification friend or foe – ‘IFF’) – essential to avoid<br />
attack by friendly forces.<br />
• Radio navigation aids – location of parent ship on return from mission.<br />
• Communications radio suite – essential for communicating to parent ship,<br />
cooperating aircraft, etc.<br />
A significant degree of integration was required between the avionic sub-systems.<br />
For example, the weapon aiming system required the integration of the HUD, weapon aiming<br />
computer, AHRS, air data computer and the radar system.<br />
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Interconnections of avionic sub-systems by multiplexed data bus.
Civil integratedmodular avionic systems:<br />
As in military systems, the use of new hardware, software and communication<br />
technologies has enabled the design of new system architectures based on resource<br />
sharing between different systems.<br />
Current microprocessors are able to provide computing capabilities that exceed the<br />
needs of single <strong>avionics</strong> functions. Specific hardware resources, coupledwith the use of<br />
operating Systems with a standardised Application Programming Interface provide the<br />
means to host independent applications on the same computing resource in a<br />
segregated environment.<br />
The AFDX Communication Network provides high data throughput coupled with low<br />
latencies to multiple end users across the bus network..<br />
The basic Line Replaceable Unit, LRU, becomes an <strong>avionics</strong> application which is<br />
hosted on one, or more, Integrated Avionic Modules (IAMs), providing shared<br />
computing resources (processing and memory and I/O).<br />
External components like displays, sensors, actuators and effectors can be connected to<br />
standard or specific interfaces in the module or to Remote Data Concentrators (RDCs),<br />
normally located close to the sensors and actuators. The RDCs are connected to the<br />
IMA modules through data buses ARINC 429.<br />
DESIGN APPROACHES:<br />
Design constraints:<br />
i. Purpose<br />
ii. Aircraft regulations<br />
iii. Financial factors and market<br />
iv. Environmental factors<br />
v. Safety<br />
Purpose:<br />
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are<br />
designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel<br />
efficiency whereas fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and<br />
provide close support to ground troops.<br />
Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes have a unique<br />
design that allows them to operate from both land and water, some fighters, like the<br />
Harrier Jump Jet, have VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) ability, helicopters have<br />
the ability to hover over an area for a period of time.<br />
The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a<br />
British Air Ministry specification, or fill a perceived "gap in the market.<br />
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Aircraft regulations:<br />
Another important factor that influences the design of the aircraft are the regulations put<br />
forth by national aviation airworthiness authorities.<br />
Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan<br />
allowed for a conventional aircraft is 80 m to prevent collisions between aircraft while<br />
taxiing.<br />
Financial factors and market:<br />
Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on the design<br />
process and comprise the non-technical influences on aircraft design along with<br />
environmental factors. Competition leads to companies striving for better efficiency in<br />
the design without compromising performance and incorporating new techniques and<br />
technology.<br />
Environmental factors:<br />
<br />
An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions.<br />
Environmental scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution<br />
associated with aircraft, mainly noise and emissions.<br />
<br />
Aircraft engines have been historically notorious for creating noise pollution and the<br />
expansion of airways over already congested and polluted cities have drawn heavy<br />
criticism, making it necessary to have environmental policies for aircraft noise.<br />
Noise also arises from the airframe, where the airflow directions are changed. [8]<br />
Improved noise regulations have forced designers to create quieter engines and<br />
airframes. Emissions from aircraft include particulates, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), Sulfur<br />
dioxide(SO 2 ), Carbon monoxide (CO), various oxides of nitrates.<br />
Safety:<br />
The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards<br />
(thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of the many hazards<br />
that pose a threat to air travel.<br />
Airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly. The<br />
responsibility for airworthiness lies with national aviation regulatory bodies,<br />
manufacturers, as well as owners and operators.<br />
The International Civil Aviation Organization sets international standards and<br />
recommended practices for national authorities to base their regulations. The national<br />
regulatory authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers<br />
and operators and the standards of personnel training Every country has its own<br />
regulatory body such as the Federal Aviation Authority in USA, DGCA (Directorate<br />
General of Civil Aviation) in India, etc.<br />
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The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the aircraft meets existing design standards,<br />
defines the operating limitations and maintenance schedules and provides support and<br />
maintenance throughout the operational life of the aircraft. The aviation operators<br />
include the passenger and cargo airliners, air forces and owners of private aircraft. They<br />
agree to comply with the regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the<br />
limitations of the aircraft as specified by the manufacturer, report defects and assist the<br />
manufacturers in keeping up the airworthiness standards.<br />
Design Optimization:<br />
Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all the<br />
constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually headed<br />
by a Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives and<br />
coordinated the team accordingly.<br />
As time progressed, the complexity of military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern<br />
military and airline design projects are of such a large scale that, every design aspect is<br />
tackled by different teams and then brought together. In general aviation a large number<br />
of light aircraft are designed and built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts. [26]<br />
Computer-aided design of aircraft[edit]<br />
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The external surfaces of an aircraft modelled in MATLAB<br />
In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to do the<br />
various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a lot of<br />
experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time consuming.<br />
. With the rise of programming languages, engineers could now write programs that<br />
were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe computers<br />
and used high level programming languages that required the user to be fluent in the<br />
language and know the architecture of the computer. With the introduction of personal<br />
computers, design programs began employing a more user-friendly approach
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DESIGN ASPECTS:<br />
The main aspects of aircraft design are:<br />
1. Aerodynamics<br />
2. Propulsion<br />
3. Controls<br />
4. Mass<br />
5. Structure<br />
All aircraft designs involve compromises of these factors to achieve the design mission.<br />
Aerodynamics (Wing design):<br />
The wings of a fixed wing aircraft provide the necessary lift for take-off and cruise<br />
flight. Wing geometry affects every aspect of an aircraft’s flight.<br />
The wing area will usually be dictated by aircraft performance requirements (e.g. field<br />
length) but the shape of the planform and other geometry may be influenced by wing<br />
layout factors. The wing can be mounted to the fuselage in high, low and middle<br />
positions.<br />
The wing design depends on many parameters such as selection of aspect ratio, taper<br />
ratio, sweepback angle, thickness ratio, section profile, washout and dihedral. The<br />
cross-sectional shape of the wing is its airfoil. The construction of the wing starts with<br />
the rib which defines the airfoil shape. Ribs can be made of wood, metal, plastic or even<br />
composites.<br />
Aerodynamics (Fuselage):<br />
The fuselage is the part of the aircraft that contains the cockpit, passenger cabin or<br />
cargo hold.<br />
Propulsion:<br />
Aircraft propulsion may be achieved by specially designed aircraft engines, adapted<br />
auto, motorcycle or snowmobile engines, electric engines or even human muscle power.<br />
The main parameters of engine design are:<br />
Maximum engine thrust available<br />
Fuel consumption<br />
Engine mass<br />
Engine geometry<br />
The thrust provided by the engine must balance the drag at cruise speed and be greater<br />
than the drag to allow acceleration. The engine requirement varies with the type of<br />
aircraft. For instance, commercial airliners spend more time in cruise speed and need
more engine efficiency. High-performance fighter jets need very high acceleration and<br />
therefore have very high thrust requirements.<br />
Weight:<br />
The weight of the aircraft is the common factor that links all aspects of aircraft design<br />
such as aerodynamics, structure, propulsion together. An aircraft's weight is derived<br />
from various factors such as empty weight, payload, useful load, etc.<br />
The various weights are used to then calculate the center of mass of the entire aircraft.<br />
The center of mass must fit within the established limits set by the manufacturer.<br />
Structure:<br />
The aircraft structure focuses not only on strength, stiffness, durability (fatigue),<br />
fracture toughness, stability, but also on fail-safety, corrosion resistance, maintainability<br />
and ease of manufacturing. The structure must be able to withstand the stresses caused<br />
by cabin pressurization, if fitted, turbulence and engine or rotor vibrations.<br />
DESIGN PHASES:<br />
i. Conceptual Design<br />
ii. Preliminary design phase<br />
iii. Detail design phase<br />
Conceptual Design:<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
The first design step, involves sketching a variety of possible aircraft configurations that<br />
meet the required design specifications. By drawing a set of configurations, designers<br />
seek to reach the design configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well<br />
as go hand in hand with factors such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance,<br />
structural and control systems. This is called design optimization.<br />
Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration and location, engine<br />
size and type are all determined at this stage.<br />
Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken into account at this stage<br />
as well. The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on paper or<br />
computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers.
Preliminary design phase:<br />
The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then tweaked and<br />
remodeled to fit into the design parameters. In this phase, wind tunnel testing and<br />
computational fluid dynamic calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are done.<br />
Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this phase.<br />
Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final design<br />
is drawn and finalized. Then after the finalization of the design lies the key decision<br />
with the manufacturer or individual designing it whether to actually go ahead with the<br />
production of the aircraft.<br />
At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and performance, might<br />
have been opted out of production due to their being economically nonviable.<br />
Detail design phase:<br />
This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be manufactured. It<br />
determines the number, design and location of ribs, spars, sections and other structural<br />
elements.<br />
All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have already<br />
been covered in the preliminary design phase and only the manufacturing remains.<br />
Flight simulators for aircraft are also developed at this stage.<br />
“ILITIES” OF AVIONICS SYSTEM:<br />
Major Ilities of Avionics System<br />
• Capability<br />
• Reliability<br />
• Maintainability<br />
• Certificability<br />
• Survivability(military)<br />
• Availability<br />
• Susceptibility<br />
• vulnerability<br />
• Life cycle cost(military) or cost of ownership(civil)<br />
• Technical risk<br />
• Weight & power<br />
Capability:<br />
• How capable is <strong>avionics</strong> system?<br />
• can they do the job and even more?<br />
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• Designer to maximize the capability of the system within the constraints that are<br />
imposed.<br />
Reliability:<br />
• Designer strives to make systems as reliable as possible.<br />
• High reliability less maintenance costs.<br />
• If less reliable customer will not buy it and in terms of civil airlines the<br />
certificating agencies will not certify it.<br />
Maintainability:<br />
• Closely related to reliability<br />
• System must need preventive or corrective maintenance.<br />
• System can be maintained through built in testing, automated troubleshooting and<br />
easy access to hardware.<br />
Availability:<br />
• Combination of reliability and maintainability<br />
• Trade of between reliability and maintainability to optimize availability.<br />
• Availability translates into sorties for military aircraft and into revenue flights for<br />
civil aircrafts.<br />
Certificability:<br />
• Major area of concern for <strong>avionics</strong> in civil airlines.<br />
• Certification conducted by the regulatory agencies based on detailed, expert<br />
examination of all facets of aircraft design and operation.<br />
• The <strong>avionics</strong> architecture should be straight forward and easily understandable.<br />
• There should be no sneak circuits and no noobvious modes of operation.<br />
Avionics certification focus on three analyses: preliminary hazard, fault tree, and<br />
FMEA<br />
Survivability:<br />
It is a function of susceptibility and vulnerability.<br />
Susceptibility: measure of probability that an aircraft will be hit by a given threat.<br />
Vulnerability: measure of the probability that damage will occur if there is a hit<br />
by the threat<br />
Life cycle cost(LCC)or Cost of ownership:<br />
It deals with economic measures need for evaluating <strong>avionics</strong> architecture.<br />
It includes costs of varied items as spares acquisition, transportation, storage and<br />
training (crew and Maintenance personnel's), hardware development and test,<br />
depreciation and interest.<br />
16
Risk:<br />
Amount of failures and drawbacks in the design and implementation.<br />
Overcome by using the latest technology and fail proof technique to overcome<br />
both developmental and long term technological risks.<br />
Weight and power:<br />
Minimize the weight and power requirements are two fundamental concepts of<br />
<strong>avionics</strong> design.<br />
So the design must be light weight and power consuming which is possible<br />
through the data bus and latest advancement of electronics devices.<br />
TYPICAL AVIONICS SUBSYSTEMS:<br />
The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment, including control,<br />
monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The<br />
majority of aircraft power their <strong>avionics</strong> using 14- or 28-volt DC electrical systems;<br />
however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat<br />
aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115 volts AC.<br />
There are several major vendors of flight <strong>avionics</strong>, including Panasonic Avionics<br />
Corporation, Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King), Rockwell Collins,.<br />
One source of international standards for <strong>avionics</strong> equipment are prepared by the<br />
Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) and published by ARINC.<br />
Communications:<br />
Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the<br />
passengers. On-board communications are provided by public-address systems and<br />
aircraft intercoms.<br />
The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to<br />
136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe,<br />
25 kHz elsewhere.<br />
VHF is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and<br />
aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is<br />
performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF<br />
(especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.<br />
Navigation:<br />
Navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the<br />
Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems (such as GPS and WAAS), groundbased<br />
systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof.<br />
17
Navigation systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew<br />
on moving map displays. Older <strong>avionics</strong> required a pilot or navigator to plot the<br />
intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern<br />
systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving<br />
map displays.<br />
Monitoring:<br />
The Airbus A380 glass cockpit featuring pull-out keyboards and two wide computer<br />
screens on the sides for pilots.<br />
A "glass" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other<br />
analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and<br />
information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention.<br />
Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G-IV private jet in 1985.<br />
One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated<br />
and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight<br />
operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed.<br />
Aircraft flight-control systems:<br />
Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Today automated flight control<br />
is common to reduce pilot error and workload at key times like landing or takeoff.<br />
Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War II to fly bomber<br />
planes steady enough to hit precision targets from 25,000 feet.<br />
. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in<br />
order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff.<br />
The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and<br />
had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces.<br />
In helicopters, auto-stabilization was used in a similar way. The first systems were<br />
electromechanical. The advent of fly by wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather<br />
than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments,<br />
critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical<br />
systems, the software is very strictly tested.<br />
Collision-avoidance systems:<br />
To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones<br />
use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location<br />
of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision.<br />
Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are<br />
passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not<br />
provide advisories for conflict resolution.<br />
18
To help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such as groundproximity<br />
warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as a key element.<br />
One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of "look-ahead" information,<br />
because it only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". In order to overcome this<br />
weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system (TAWS).<br />
Black Boxes:( Flight recorder):<br />
Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as a "black box", store<br />
flight information and audio from the cockpit. They are often recovered from a plane<br />
after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident.<br />
Weather systems:<br />
Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft)<br />
and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument<br />
meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead.<br />
Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning<br />
activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and<br />
weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.<br />
Lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive<br />
enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning<br />
detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now<br />
available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions<br />
far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems.<br />
Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain,<br />
and traffic onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.<br />
Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain<br />
and traffic warning systems. In-plane weather <strong>avionics</strong> are especially popular in Africa,<br />
India, and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is<br />
not as well developed<br />
Aircraft management systems:<br />
There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex<br />
systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management.<br />
It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and the latest generation of airliners.<br />
Mission or tactical <strong>avionics</strong>:<br />
Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and<br />
ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used<br />
for whatever tactical means required.<br />
19
As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E-3D, JSTARS,<br />
ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers.<br />
Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.<br />
Military communications:<br />
While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems<br />
are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30–<br />
88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography<br />
secure the communications.<br />
Data links such as Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the<br />
means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).<br />
Radar:<br />
Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing<br />
range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include<br />
airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar<br />
(Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.<br />
The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market<br />
has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the<br />
aircraft.<br />
Sonar:<br />
Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect<br />
shipping assets from submarines or surface threats.<br />
Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices and these are also<br />
used to determine the location of hostile submarines.<br />
<br />
Electro-Optics:<br />
Electro-optic systems include devices such as the head-up display (HUD), forward<br />
looking infrared (FLIR), and passive infrared devices (Passive infrared sensor).<br />
These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery<br />
is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target<br />
acquisition.<br />
ESM/DAS:<br />
Electronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather<br />
information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in<br />
some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also<br />
used to determine the state of a threat and identify it.<br />
Aircraft networks:<br />
20
The <strong>avionics</strong> systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft<br />
are interconnected using an <strong>avionics</strong> data bus. Common <strong>avionics</strong> data bus protocols,<br />
with their primary application, include:<br />
Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft<br />
Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX): Specific implementation of ARINC<br />
664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft<br />
ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial Aircraft<br />
ARINC 664: See ADN above<br />
ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)<br />
ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft<br />
ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft<br />
IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft<br />
MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft<br />
MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft<br />
TTP – Time-Triggered Protocol: Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A380, Fly-By-Wire<br />
Actuation Platforms from Parker Aerospace<br />
TTEthernet – Time-Triggered Ethernet: NASA Orion Spacecraft<br />
Disaster relief and air ambulance:<br />
Disaster relief and EMS aircraft (mostly helicopters) are now a significant market.<br />
Military aircraft are often now built with a role available to assist in civil obedience.<br />
Disaster relief helicopters are almost always fitted with video/FLIR systems to allow<br />
them to monitor and coordinate real-time relief efforts. They can also be fitted with<br />
searchlights and loudspeakers.<br />
EMS and disaster relief helicopters will be required to fly in unpleasant conditions, this<br />
may require more aircraft sensors, some of which were until recently considered purely<br />
for military aircraft.<br />
RECENT ADVANCES -<br />
Advances in fusing EFVS with SVS:<br />
Development of operational credits for enhanced flight vision systems (EFVS) by FAA<br />
and certification agencies in other countries is expanding the operational utility of the<br />
technology for both bizav and airline operations.<br />
EFVS technology allows a pilot to see using a weather-penetrating real-time imaging<br />
sensor when the human eye cannot due to low visibility.<br />
Bombardier's launch of the Global Vision flight deck with Rockwell Collins Pro Line<br />
Fusion is aimed at integrating EFVS and SVS on the HUD. In an industry first,<br />
21
Transport Canada and FAA recently approved the display of SVS on HUDs by<br />
Bombardier.<br />
The tests are also evaluating the integration of EFVS and SVS as an additional means to<br />
support the head-down to eyes-out transition during the visual segment of landing.<br />
FAA has also moved recently to increase the use of HUD and auto land for lower than<br />
standard minimums at selected Cat I runways, with a new 150 ft DH in visibility as low<br />
as 1400 ft RVR.<br />
FAA Order 8400.13D is based on the agency's recognition that new technology in the<br />
aircraft may be compensating for a lack of ground infrastructure.<br />
In addition, FAA has commissioned RTCA Special Committee 213 with developing a<br />
path for future system standards and system safety criteria in parallel with industry.<br />
This group has provided FAA with minimum system performance standards for<br />
displays, EFVS sensors and SVS for current instrument operations, which have been<br />
incorporated within the new AC 20-167 for EVS.<br />
Potential uses of EFVS for trajectory based operations, first proposed by Gulfstream,<br />
could save tremendous amounts of fuel (read money), but will require a new mindset by<br />
air traffic control to clear an operator at the top of descent 200 miles away at 50,000 ft<br />
for an approach in 1000-ft RVR fog.<br />
SVS on the Bombardier Global Vision flight deck for the HUD and PFD. Bombardier,<br />
in collaboration with Rockwell Collins, is now moving to the next phase of fusing the 2<br />
images—SVS and EFVS IR sensor—to provide continuous vision to the pilot in all<br />
phases of flight.<br />
For NextGen implementation, FAA is sponsoring NASA in advanced testing of EFVS<br />
and SVS technology in low visibility to explore the potential for additional operational<br />
credit.<br />
Testing includes having sample pilots from industry, the military and FAA conduct<br />
landings in low visibility to validate potential new operations.<br />
Current flight testing requires sample pilots to fly and evaluate EFVS's ability to<br />
provide the required visibility at standard minimums, and then continue to land in<br />
visibilities as low as 1000 ft RVR solely on enhanced vision. FAA's end goal is<br />
expanded EFVS operational rules.<br />
APPLICATION TECHNOLOGIES:<br />
Communications:<br />
Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the<br />
passengers. On-board communications are provided by public-address systems and<br />
aircraft intercoms.<br />
22
The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to<br />
136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe,<br />
25 kHz elsewhere.<br />
VHF is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and<br />
aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is<br />
performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF<br />
(especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.<br />
Navigation:<br />
Navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the<br />
Earth. Avionics can use satellite-based systems (such as GPS and WAAS), groundbased<br />
systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof.<br />
Navigation systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew<br />
on moving map displays. Older <strong>avionics</strong> required a pilot or navigator to plot the<br />
intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern<br />
systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving<br />
map displays.<br />
Monitoring:<br />
The Airbus A380 glass cockpit featuring pull-out keyboards and two wide computer<br />
screens on the sides for pilots.<br />
A "glass" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other<br />
analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and<br />
information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention.<br />
Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G-IV private jet in 1985.<br />
One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated<br />
and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight<br />
operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed.<br />
Aircraft flight-control systems:<br />
Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Today automated flight control<br />
is common to reduce pilot error and workload at key times like landing or takeoff.<br />
Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War II to fly bomber<br />
planes steady enough to hit precision targets from 25,000 feet.<br />
. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in<br />
order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff.<br />
The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and<br />
had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces.<br />
23
In helicopters, auto-stabilization was used in a similar way. The first systems were<br />
electromechanical. The advent of fly by wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather<br />
than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments,<br />
critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical<br />
systems, the software is very strictly tested.<br />
Collision-avoidance systems:<br />
To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones<br />
use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location<br />
of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision.<br />
Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are<br />
passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not<br />
provide advisories for conflict resolution.<br />
To help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such as groundproximity<br />
warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as a key element.<br />
One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of "look-ahead" information,<br />
because it only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". In order to overcome this<br />
weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system (TAWS).<br />
Black Boxes:( Flight recorder):<br />
Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as a "black box", store<br />
flight information and audio from the cockpit. They are often recovered from a plane<br />
after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident.<br />
24<br />
Weather systems:<br />
Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft)<br />
and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument<br />
meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead.<br />
Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning<br />
activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and<br />
weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.<br />
Lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive<br />
enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning<br />
detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now<br />
available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions<br />
far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems.
Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain,<br />
and traffic onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.<br />
Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain<br />
and traffic warning systems. In-plane weather <strong>avionics</strong> are especially popular in Africa,<br />
India, and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is<br />
not as well developed<br />
Aircraft management systems:<br />
There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex<br />
systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management.<br />
It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and the latest generation of airliners.<br />
Mission or tactical <strong>avionics</strong>:<br />
Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and<br />
ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used<br />
for whatever tactical means required.<br />
As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E-3D, JSTARS,<br />
ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers.<br />
Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.<br />
Military communications:<br />
While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems<br />
are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30–<br />
88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography<br />
secure the communications.<br />
Data links such as Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the<br />
means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).<br />
Radar:<br />
Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing<br />
range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include<br />
airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar<br />
(Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.<br />
The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market<br />
has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the<br />
aircraft.<br />
Sonar:<br />
Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect<br />
shipping assets from submarines or surface threats.<br />
25
26<br />
Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices and these are also<br />
used to determine the location of hostile submarines.<br />
Electro-Optics:<br />
Electro-optic systems include devices such as the head-up display (HUD), forward<br />
looking infrared (FLIR), and passive infrared devices (Passive infrared sensor).<br />
These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery<br />
is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target<br />
acquisition.<br />
ESM/DAS:<br />
Electronic support measures and defensive aids are used extensively to gather<br />
information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in<br />
some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also<br />
used to determine the state of a threat and identify it.<br />
Disaster relief and air ambulance:<br />
Disaster relief and EMS aircraft (mostly helicopters) are now a significant market.<br />
Military aircraft are often now built with a role available to assist in civil obedience.<br />
Disaster relief helicopters are almost always fitted with video/FLIR systems to allow<br />
them to monitor and coordinate real-time relief efforts. They can also be fitted with<br />
searchlights and loudspeakers.<br />
EMS and disaster relief helicopters will be required to fly in unpleasant conditions, this<br />
may require more aircraft sensors, some of which were until recently considered purely<br />
for military aircraft.