National Theatre of the Philippines

Cultural Centre of the Philippines: Theatre of Performing Arts
Its past, present and legacy
A dissertation presented to the Faculty of Arts, Design and Architecture
Kingston University London
2017
Dissertation Studies for the Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Architecture
Camille Cervania Trinidad
K1457716
Word Count: 7289
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Table of Contents:
3 Introduction
5 Leandro Locsin
9 The architect’s architectural style and
the Philippine architecture
16 Awarding of project to Locsin
17 The Theatre of Performing Arts
36 The Cultural Centre of the Philippines
as a complex
43 The Architecture of Power
47 The commissioner and the political
atmosphere of that time
50 Conclusion: The common denominator
52 The legacy
55 Primary Research
79 List of Illustrations
81 Bibliography
fig. 0.1 Measured drawing North pedestrian entrance elevation 1:20 on A1
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Introduction
Architecture can be political. It can unite or divide a nation. In ancient Greece, rulers in
history built structures as a testament for their time of reign. A singular magnificent
monument can put a country in the world map. Most newly independent countries used
architecture as their preliminary gateway to the western world. Unlike super power
nations like China, Japan and currently, South Korea, unfortunately, until today, little is
known about the Philippine’s existence, its culturally diverse community and their
architecture, arts and culture even with the effort of the government explicitly exposing
talents across the world.
To foster awareness about modern architecture in South East Asia, particularly the
Philippines, the author who is currently living in United Kingdom visited the country
she was born and raised to extensively learn about a building built during a
controversial period in their political history and the rise of identity crisis of newly
developed countries.
This dissertation will be a study about The Tanghalang Pambansa (National Theatre of
the Philippines), formerly known as the Theatre of Performing Arts; the politics that
relate to both the historical and architectural development of the country; its
commissioner, the architect and, the constant search of the country’s architectural
identity. Each chapter, divided into key topics that would help the reader understand the
building in context of:
Chapter 1: The Architect, his architectural style and the Philippine architecture –
In light of the architect’s background, influences and his sought to find the evasive
national architectural character; the building is introduced as a cross by-product of
different architectural influences from their colonisers and the use of core elements that
respond to Philippine’s geographical climate and needs.
Chapter 2: The Theatre of Performing Arts – The chapter talks about the building
concept, design, construction, materiality, aesthetics and the experience as a visitor of
the building.
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Chapter 3: The Architecture of Power, the commissioner and the political
atmosphere of that time – It explores how the idea of creating a National Theatre came
forward and why the building was built.
Chapter 4: Conclusion – The common denominator and questions about the
building’s legacy as a national theatre to the Philippines – The last chapter argues
about the co-incidental objective of both the architect and the client that was never
planned as it discusses the building’s viability in present time and its legacy.
In hope to use this dissertation as an opportunity to show and learn in depth about the
history and architecture of the Philippines enough to enlighten the readers concerning a
country far from the west, a thorough research was carried out. This is through visiting
the site, watching documentaries and recorded architectural conferences, live projects,
reading dissertations, essays, newspaper articles, government websites, published books
and peer-reviewed journals about the building in study, the architect and the client with
the help of the RIBA library, The British library, Dame Elizabeth Esteve-Coll Centre
and the CCP Library and Archives.
This dissertation was carefully prepared alongside with my tutors Deny Jones and Laura
Evans as big help in structuring my dissertation as a part of my final year as a student of
BA Architecture in Kingston University.
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fig.1.1 Leandro Locsin: National Artist Award for Architecture,
1990
fig.1.2 The Partners in the photo, left to right: Edgardo “Ed” Ledesma Jr., Leandro “Lindy Locsin”, Raul Locsin, Ruben “Ben” Protacio, and Orlando “Orly” Mateo
having fun discussing plans around the marble table | Photo courtesy of LVLP and Bluprint
Leandro Locsin
Born in the central region of the Philippines and a grandson to the first governor of their
province, Leandro Locsin was a Filipino architect, interior designer, artist and an
aficionado of Philippine arts, culture and heritage. He came back to Manila after the
Second World War to study Pre-Law but instead pursued a degree in Music and then
again changed his course into Architecture. 1 On an interview with his son, there was a
question about how did his father know that he wanted to take up architecture and he
answered
‘Somewhere along the line, my father realised that he wasn’t gifted with the chops that
his friend had. In his own assessment, that’s what it took to be the best at what one does
—to get where you want to go at the top of one’s field. While he was pretty good
technically and completely passionate about it, he just didn’t have ”The Gift” of a true
virtuoso. Some people thought he did, but as a deeply knowledgeable musician, he knew
better—he could hear and feel the difference.
So in his second or third year, he was completely honest with himself and he accepted
that it wasn’t going to work in the long run. Every day on the path to the Conservatory,
1 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
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he would pass through the Art and Architecture building. As he was walking through the
Architecture department one day, he thought, “Maybe I’ll try one of these courses!” So
he signed up for an Architecture course. The moment he became involved in
architecture, he discovered that he was unbelievably good at it.’ 2
He attended University of Santo Thomas in which during the 50’s looked up to
Industrial design, Modernism and the 20th century architects like Frank Lloyd Wright,
Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe. 3 Not only with academia but during the post war
period, the Philippine government set a particular task to local architects to create a
master plan for the capital city of Manila and study American Modernism - having
‘form follows function’ as a principle in which they loosely base their design; and Latin
American architecture – where they focus on climatic and technical characteristics that
led to the use of staple design elements such as sun shades, overhang, etc.
4
which are
sensible to use considering the similarity to Philippines’ tropical climate and
environment.
As a young architect, Locsin’s break was a rare and incredible opportunity. A prominent
family asked Locsin to design a circular chapel. Unfortunately, the client, Frederick
Ossorio left for the United States for good; so the chapel was never built. But not long
until Locsin received a project from the Catholic chaplain of a state university where he
was asked to build ‘an open sided chapel seating one thousand that would be receptive
of whatever faith’
5. This time, the client is a priest who is ‘open-minded and completely
unbound by tradition’ 6. With the consent of Mr. Ossorio, he developed the original
scheme of his first commission which was never realised. The result is the Chapel of the
Holy Sacrifice. Nicholas Polites described it in his book as ‘modified design specified a
thin-shell concrete dome that could span a large space at minimal cost’
7. It was a
triumphant construction and the chapel became an overnight sensation.
2 Succeeding Success: Lindy and Andy Locsin, 2017 http://bluprint.ph/succeeding-success-lindy-and-andy-locsin/ (accessed 18 December 2017)
3 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
4 Ábalos, Iñaki. Latin American Architecture Today, Harvard Design Magazine No. 34 http://www.harvarddesignmagazine.org/issues/34/latin-american-architecture-today (accessed 18 December
2017)
5 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
6 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
7 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
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Following the success of his first building, he started working for an established real
estate firm. He was to design the first building that would set the architectural idiom for
subsequent buildings on what was then the frontier of urban development and what has
become Manila’s premiere business district. 8 He had numerous projects ahead of him
before he came to be the architect for the Theatre of Performing Arts in 1965. His
projects range from chapel to private commercial buildings; hotels and large numbers of
residential housing projects. His early works were often made up of concrete due it
being low-cost and the labour being inexpensive. Most of his buildings were heading
through the direction of solid and fluid forms but still vernacular to accommodate the
existing built environment and microclimate.
In 1959, Locsin won a specialist grant from the US State Department to make an
architectural viewing tour of the States. He met Eero Saarinen – whose works he
admired due to its exciting shapes and forms – and Paul Rudolph – whose buildings left
a big impression on him as he study the architect’s works. He describe them as ‘textured
and finished concrete surfaces in various ways to articulate elements, to embellish and
enrich, to create changing patterns caught by the rays of the moving sun’
9. These two
architects and his experiences left him thinking, ‘If concrete was regarded as one of the
most exciting modern materials – as it can create plastic shapes, forms and sculptural
buildings, why should Filipino architects feel deprived using it?’ 10 Following the trip,
his fascination for concrete as a material for modern buildings became a pivotal turn on
his succeeding works.
fig.1.3 Temple Street Garage, New Haven Connecticut, Paul
Rudolph 1961
fig.1.4 TWA Terminal, Queens New York, Eero Saarinen, 1962
8 https://arkitekturaph.wordpress.com/portfolio/cultural-center-of-the-philippines/ (accessed 9 January 2018)
9 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
10 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
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During the late 50’s, Brutalism started to flourish in the United States
11
and concrete,
although abundant, were ignored by the young Filipino architects as they wanted to do
something more European, like metal and glass 12 – which are expensive materials for
such a newly independent country. As he developed his perspective in Architecture,
along with his new ideas of Brutalism and greater respect for concrete, he then adapted
them to coincide with his cultural heritage as a response to contemporary Philippine
architecture. Indeed, this has led to the birth of what has become now the National
Theatre of the Philippines.
11 Modernism and Brutalism, Architectural styles of America and Europe https://architecturestyles.org/post-war-modern/ (accessed 25 September 2017)
12 Nicholas Polites, Akio Kawasumi. The Architecture of Leandro Locsin. New York: Weatherhill, 1977
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The Architect’s architectural style and Philippine Architecture
So what does it take to make a product of Architecture, Filipino? How can you
successfully call it Philippine Architecture?
The Philippines is a young developing nation that only got their true independence
when the Treaty of Manila was signed in 1946 with USA granting the country its full
independence 13, a year before Leandro Locsin entered university. Originally,
Architecture was not a subject one could study in the country and this resulted its first
generation of architects to be educated mostly from the United States.
14
But as this
group of architects grows older, another emerges. The time eventually came where they
can produce their original breed of architects.
In the Philippines, architecture students learn their nation’s historical types of building
along with climate responsive design as a particular subject in university. This is a
method that enables students to be aware of their own architectural structure and history.
With Locsin being locally educated, there was a great influence on the teaching he
received to the kind of work he produced. In addition to it, having exposed to the arts
for a very young age – having an opera enthusiast as a grandfather and the fact that he
himself is a Philippine Art supporter became stimuli on the patriotic approach on his
designs. But the trend in architecture in his country was changing.
In the early 50’s vast structural development swooped the capital. As much as the
country being originally Spanish-Latin influenced, the architects envied the all glass and
steel buildings in the western world. They were trying to keep up with the style but
cannot afford to do so –the country being poor and just starting to stand on its own.
Number of buildings were designed to be precedent with American and European
architecture. This gave a challenging opportunity to the native architects. It triggered a
start in pursuing a goal on creating an architectural identity that they can call their own.
13 "Treaty Of Manila (1946)", En.Wikipedia.Org, 2017 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Manila_(1946) (accessed 25 September 2017)
14 United Architects of the Philippines. History of UAP. https://united-architects.org/about/history-of-uap (accessed September 24 2017)
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fig.1.5 Chapel of the Holy Sacrifice
Locsin became well known after the emergence of the third generation of architects
during the 1950s. And up to that point, nobody has really answered the question of
‘What is Philippine architecture?'
In 1955, the Church of the Holy Sacrifice also called as ‘the flying saucer’, the
architect’s first project was built. The dome like structure that encapsulates the
complexity of the Philippines’ colonial past and seen as a modernist expression received
a lot of love from people around the world. 15 The design’s floating quality reminded
fellow architects and architecture enthusiast of the Nipa Hut, although originally a
Malay influence was one of the country’s traditional houses.
16
It is a house built above
water using stilts of wood on all edges as a support. Over the years, this particular
method of building was adapted and developed with Spanish colonial housing and
constantly being used as a starting point of form and construction in house building.
15 AD Classics: Parish Of The Holy Sacrifice / Leandro V. Locsin", Archdaily, 2016 http://www.archdaily.com/790290/ad-classics-parish-of-the-holy-sacrifice-leandro-v-locsin (accessed 25 September
2017)
16 Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986)
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fig.1.6 Traditional Bahay Kubo, 1989
A duality formed through a series of horizontal or vertical slicing
17
creating an illusion
of a floating volume kept reappearing in his works after his initial project. These include
the Davao Insular Hotel (1961), Manila Memorial Park Chapel (1965), Locsin Building
(1966), Hyatt Regency Hotel (1967) and Church of Saint Andrew (1968). And on one
interview, Locsin said ‘at the time I was designing the theatre (The Theatre of
Performing Arts) I was obsessed with massive forms. I wanted something that was
massive yet light. Two things might sound contradicting but I felt we could do something
that would not be overbearing. It has to have a certain floating feeling.’ 18
1n 1969, the Theatre of Performing Arts was built, becoming the peak of the
paradoxical architectural language the Filipino architects were trying to pursue – A
traditional yet contemporary approach to design which adapts to our geography, climate
and culture. It became a symbol of contemporary Filipino architecture in a monumental
scale.
17 Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986) p. 202
18 Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986)
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From the top
fig.1.7 Hyatt Regency Hotel
fig 1.8 Church of St. Andrew
fig 1.9 Davao Insular Hotel
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fig.1.10 Theatre of Performing arts view from the ramp, 2016
The cantilevered floating block, which was supported by an offset podium that makes
the mass of the building seems to disappear to an inward curve, gave a massive yet light
quality. The architect interpreted the support structure of the traditional house hut in a
sophisticated way. The concept of visual lightness applied to a suspended buoyant
volume is characteristically Filipino. It is achieved idiosyncratically in the vernacular
house resting on stilts, which gives it its volumetric buoyancy.
19
The openness for
structural innovation, rational use of materials and the translation of ornaments into
form were adapted from the modernist movement. It was his desire to give an artistic
expression on a larger scale of the only native building type in the Philippines and the
certain apprehension against monumentality in architecture common to his generation
of architects in turn, gave form to the building. 20
19 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p.480
20 Klassen, Winand W, “TOWARDS A FILIPINO ARCHITECTURE.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 6, no. 4, 1978
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fig.1.11 East and Main lobby of Theatre of Performing Arts, 2016
Meanwhile, the interior of the building bridges the lacuna between tradition and
modernity. It was ingeniously produced along with the unanticipated special poetry
creating an impression of transparent order and organic unity in his architectural
composition. The use of concrete, which has a highly tactile texture were made by
mixing cement with crushed seashell particles were done to achieve for the building to
have a strong congruity with a place that was previously in water.
21
On the topic of his purpose as an architect, Locsin said on an interview, ‘I believe that
my particular role in Architecture is to be the bridge between the past and future’
22. One
has to go back within their roots but at the same time move forward and use the modern
technology as an advantage to be up to par with the world. The Philippines’ national
hero, Jose Rizal’s saying comes to mind ‘He who does not know how to look back
where he came from will never get to his destination'
23
– which is metaphorically
similar in his approach to the newly hybrid form of Philippine Architecture.
21 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p.481
22 “Works of Locsin, Filipino architect.” Philippine Architecture & Building Journal, 1960: 13-19.
23 Jose P Rizal
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Using elements of what we sought to identify as Filipino, he interprets them as symbols
in his buildings. Locsin’s architectural trademarks were the lightness in form,
transparency, and grace imparted by slender tapering columns, delicately thin sun
breakers and the projecting and suspended balconies and overhangs. They are
sculptural, interpenetrating spaces, governed by his fascination with strict geometrical
inclination. 24
The refined minimalism in his works acts as the purest form of aesthetic manifestation,
which is evident in his treatment of raw textures, grains and repeated rhythm of
materials, luminosity elevating the structure’s materiality and sensuality to transcend the
ephemeral interpreting them in accordance with contemporary aesthetic sensibilities in
terms of construction technique or use of materials. 25 His works were sculptural
manipulations, which were established through the interplay of geometric solids and
voids while transgressing the defined boundary between enclosure and the environment.
By intimately observing vernacular structure, he came to realise that longstanding
building practices were valid for the Philippine geographic climatic conditions, even in
an era of cutting edge technology driven society.
26
24 Klassen, Winand W, “TOWARDS A FILIPINO ARCHITECTURE.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 6, no. 4, 1978
25 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p.479
26 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p.481
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Awarding of Project to Locsin
In 1961, then First Lady, Imelda Marcos had seen Leandro Locsin’s presentation
drawing for a cultural centre, commissioned by the Philippine-American foundation.
That building was never realised.
27
Through the success of his early works and being a
resident architect for the Zobel-Ayala (a prominent family in the Philippines), he met
well-connected people along the way that helped him link in receiving the big
commission from Mrs. Marcos. This was no surprise as during that time, oligarchs were
a big part of the Philippine society. The affluent families will always have a connection
with politics as these families provide investments and money towards the government’s
projects. Imelda Marcos even made them contribute through donating some of their
wealth in pursuing her image of the ‘Beautiful Philippines’. The money for the
unrealised theatre was then moved to CCP. She was determined to see the building
through to completion as one of her initial projects as a First Lady and designing a
flagship structure for a site is not new to Locsin. The project is then in full force and
along with is the realisation in Leandro Locsin’s architectural style.
27 Polites
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fig. 2.1 Theatre of Performing Arts main facade
The Theatre of Performing Arts
Serving as a focal point and main gateway for the Philippines’ then only arts and
cultural centre is the Theatre of Performing arts. The building is the central piece of a
complex called Cultural Centre of the Philippines (CCP), located within the heart of
Metro Manila, it is situated on the northeast of the site facing along the palm-lined
Roxas Boulevard with Manila Bay on its East.
The overall concept of the building is a piece of a sculpture reflected by a pool and
silhouetted against the sky. He wanted it to have a very strong and precise form that
would act as a Manila landmark that is both symbolic and real 28. Acoustics became the
most important consideration for the theatre. He designed the foyer to give a grand and
sophisticated feeling that allow spaces to be flexible for showcasing Philippine art
pieces and sculpture.
28 Polites
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History of the location
In South East Asia, the Philippines is a tropical country made of more than 7000 islands
and known for its territory being surrounded by water. The CCP site was originally
enclosed by Manila bay on all three sides (north, west, south) but as a part of drastic
infrastructure development, an extended reclamation was done on its south. It was
originally built on 71 percent of the said 88-hectare of landfill from the northern
shoreline of Manila bay that is connected to the South China Sea.
Before the land reclamation, Manila Bay served important roles in socio-economic,
political and historical development of the central capital. Strategically positioned on
the west of the city, it operated as a natural harbour for the Port of Manila, which
facilitated trade and commerce for the Philippines and its neighbouring countries. The
bay also attested to the naval battle of the 1898 American-Spanish war that ended the
300-year Spanish colonial period of the Philippines.
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fig. 2.2 Current Noli Plan 1:7500
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fig. 2.3 Land use of plan , 1995
The site
The original site proposal consisted of various pedestrian and vehicular roads and a lot
of manmade tropical landscaping to equal out the amount of area where they are
building massive volumes of concrete buildings. Today, the complex lost almost 60
percent of landscaping due to it becoming more commercialised as tourist attraction and
has become an interest for commercial development. It is still the same but land area
reclaimed has tripled in the next 40 years. A lot of buildings were then added to the
south of the complex like the Manila Film Centre, World Trade Centre Metro Manila,
Philippine National Bank, Union Bank of the Philippines, Government Security
Insurance System (GSIS) Complex, spas, a kart track, a crocodile park, a commercial
building plaza and Dampa (seaside) – a compound filled with seafood restaurants.
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fig. 2.4 Original site plan 1:2500
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fig. 2.5 Front Elevation 1:500
Elevation
The façade is a two-storey massive heavy rectangular travertine block, which houses the
auditorium. It sits on an offset podium that continues to flow on its raised curvilinear
ramp that extends throughout the perimeter of the octagonal pool. Deep concave
cantilevers – arched beams that continue upwards support the monumental heavy
massing block. Looking across the section, there is an illusion of sweeping concrete
vaults rotated horizontally across the entrance. They act as a primary structure of the
podium on all three sides. The block suspends 12 meters over the terrace of the lobby. It
appears to be floating above the podium that is perceived as the base of the building;
which on a distance, seem like it is rooted to the ground. The arching ramp is said to be
Manila’s answer to Niemeyer’s Brasilia. The raised element was a response to the high
sea levels on the reclaimed land but hence critically objectified by the society as an
elitist view of the art culture.
29
The front elevation of the building gives a picturesque reflection on the pool during
daytime as if it is a piece of sculpture behind the clear blue sky. By night, the view of
the façade changes with the fountain that jets out water as high as 30 meters, which
resembles a miniature Las Vegas fountain show as underwater lights illuminate the pool.
29 AD Classics: Parish Of The Holy Sacrifice / Leandro V. Locsin", Archdaily, 2016 http://www.archdaily.com/790290/ad-classics-parish-of-the-holy-sacrifice-leandro-v-locsin (accessed 25 September
2017)
!22

fig. 2.6 Front Elevation during sunset
fig. 2.7 Main entrance on the east side of the building
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fig. 2.8 Rib textured concrete cladding
fig. 2.9 Travertine cladding
Cladding
The country uses two different construction methods for reinforced concrete. Most
prefabricated work is done on smaller residential housing where they use hollowed
blocks in combination of in-situ concrete for walls with plaster treatment or paint for the
surface finish. Meanwhile, like most Brutalist buildings, in-situ concrete with untouched
finished is primarily used for larger scale projects due to its style and cost. The Theatre
of Performing Arts was a combination of off-site prefabricated elements and in-situ
structure. It uses both concrete mixed with earth and travertine cladding for different
parts of the façade but some of them were left untreated. The use of two cladding
materials creates contrast between the heavy vertical-rib textured concrete (was mixed
with crushed seashells collected from the site to create texture and give off warm tones)
sides of the podium and the smooth travertine surface of the block.
!24

fig. 2.10 Boulevard road view from the main ramp
Plan
The plan, reflected with its elevation, has a strict planning. Thus, helped create a very
structured, low traffic inside the building. Accessible to pedestrian and vehicle through
the raised ramp, the main entrance lobby of the building is located on the east side
directly opposite of the main boulevard. It also has two side pedestrian entrances on the
north and south of the ground floor plan.
The rectangular, box-type structure of the plan juxtaposes the sculptural hollowed-out
interior space of the lobby. The continuous flowing lines were incorporated on the
silhouettes of the grand staircase on the right as the curves rise out of the floor. The
escalators on the left are encased in moulded concrete, which created a soft but heavy
figure that reads out as a stair. Both of them lead up into a mezzanine overlooking the
lobby.
!25

fig. 2.11 Ground floor plan scale 1:500
!26

From top left clockwise
fig. 2.12 Theatre of Performing arts ramp connection to the main entrance
fig. 2.13 Main Entrance
fig. 2.14 North pedestrian entrance
fig. 2.15 North pedestrian entrance
!27

From top left clockwise
fig. 2.16 Main lobby chandeliers and ceiling
fig. 2.17 Main lobby (right hand side)
fig. 2.18 Main lobby (left hand side)
fig. 2.19 In-situ concrete flow of stairs
Underneath the mezzanine, there is a change in floor level that is emphasised by the
interior and architectural elements such as the red carpeting and the low benches that
ascents out from the floor. The ceiling, coffered with antique-gold paper and the floor,
finished with polished marble and interior walls made up of dark wood, fashions a
lavishly decorated effect. Both the floor and the wall outline the curvilinear facets of the
shaped concretes. Most of the interior are artificially lit, as there are few windows, most
of which are located along the sides of the lobby that holds the three chandeliers made
out of Windowpane oyster shells and cut glass that symbolises the three main group of
islands of the Philippines.
!28

From top left clockwise
fig. 2.20 corridor to upper box seats
intersecting the mezzanine
fig. 2.21 basement stair and hallway access
towards smaller theatres
fig. 2.22 concrete stairs on -1B level
accessible from the northern pedestrian
entrance
fig. 2.23 -1B level inner lobby accessible
from the northern pedestrian entrance
The way the plan was designed was evident on the philosophy of the architect and his
practice. His son said on an article interview about Leandro Locsin’s approach to
design, ‘My father—and this is also reflected by his partners—had this concept about
how space is sequenced. They had this theory that when you come into a building,
you’re presented with a space that’s compressed to some degree. You move through a
portion that either continues that compression or perhaps just eases up a little bit. And
then you end up in a main space that explodes—enter, and you’re released. We see that
in the PICC, CCP, and some of the older works of the firm. We still employ this idea to
create an order of sequence and a cadence—there’s drama, and it’s a conscious
manipulation of people’s senses as they move through the space, and it creates a
rhythmic order. So some design approaches continue, others branch out in different
directions.’.
30
30 Succeeding Success: Lindy and Andy Locsin, 2017 http://bluprint.ph/succeeding-success-lindy-and-andy-locsin/ (accessed 18 December 2017)
!29

fig. 2.24 Main Theatre
The main theatre is positioned in the middle of the plan. Although minimal in design, it
is shaped and strategised strictly according to its acoustical requirements. As it will be
used for different kinds of performances, the consultants proposed a ‘very high
rectangular box with various sound control devices to alter necessary acoustical
properties’. Therefore, suspended ceilings were used to create an intimate space and at
the same time conceal the sound reflectors and lines of thick flannel curtains – which
were used to fine-tune the auditorium depending on what kind of sound they would
need.
Above the side boxes that are independently cantilevered from the wall, the sidewall
turns sharply inward concealing additional flannel curtains. The effect in the use of
these technologies, resulted in praises by music critics as it can typically hold opera and
orchestra performances without further amplification. The feeling of seclusion given off
by the theatre contradicts its real size, a theatre that seats to a total of 2000 people in
four levels: orchestra, boxes and two balconies.
!30

From top left clockwise
fig. 2.25 Main theatre seats and side boxes
fig. 2.26 Main theatre seats and side boxes
fig. 2.27 Back stage curtain and production equipments
fig. 2.28 Sound equipment area
!31

fig. 2.29 Little theatre
In addition to the main theatre, there are three smaller theatres inside the building. As
the large areas on the upper floors are open to the ground floor lobby, the other rooms
like the Main Gallery, two smaller galleries, the CCP museum, the library and the
remaining three small theatres occupy the space created by the huge cantilever block
and the podium on the street ground level below the raised lobby.
fig. 2.30 Rear lobby
!32

From top to bottom
fig. 2.31 Studio theatre
fig. 2.32 Dream theatre
fig. 2.33 Rehearsal Studio
!33

From top clockwise
fig. 2.34 Overlooking 2nd floor hallway and gallery
fig. 2.35 Small gallery
fig. 2.36 Main gallery
fig. 2.37 Piece in CCP Museum
!34

From top clockwise
fig. 2.38 Salon/events space
fig. 2.39 North pedestrian entrance lobby
fig. 2.40 Open space in third floor block building
!35

fig. 2.41 CCP aerial view, 1970s
The Cultural Centre of the Philippines as a complex
The site where the Theatre of Performing Arts sits has other eight multipurpose
structures on its west and south of the complex, which were originally part of the
project. These included the Philippine Centre for International Trade and Exhibitions –
where an amusement park and Aliw (Entertainment) theatre now stands; Design Centre
of the Philippines, a production design centre was also built in between it and the
theatre; Philippine International Convention Centre (PICC) – where the two connected
buildings are now used as Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office and a PICC forum
was built in front of the main building which is being used for graduation ceremonies;
Philippine Plaza Hotel – which is now called Hotel Sofitel Philippine Plaza; A building
for restaurants and workshop – now solely used for restaurants; Folk Arts Theatre; and a
proposed museum – which is now used for buses and coach parking.
!36

fig. 2.42 Original site model of CCP showing now Sofitel Hotel
fig. 2.43 Original site model of CCP showing PICC
!37

fig. 2.44 Production Design Centre
fig. 2.45 PHILCITE, 1984
!38

fig. 2.46 Aliw Theatre
fig. 2.47 Star City, amusement park
!39

fig. 2.48 PICC
fig. 2.49 PICC Forum
!40

fig. 2.50 Folk Arts Theatre
fig. 2.51 Sofitel Plaza Hotel
!41

fig. 2.52 Restaurants across North pedestrian entrance of Theatre of Performing Arts
fig. 2.53 Restaurants across North pedestrian entrance of Theatre of Performing Arts
!42

fig. 3.1 East Gate Olympic Stadium Germany, 1936
The Architecture of Power
How and why politicians use architecture for political reasons
Architecture tells us about the architect and their patron and as well as the aspirations,
power struggles, and the culture of a society. It serves as a visual metaphor, declaring in
its own form about size, permanence, strength and organisational structure of the
institution it stands for. 31
Puerto Rico’s history as a nation was in similar context to the Philippines as both
countries were part of the Spanish American War in 1898. Both were under the Spanish
and American colonial rule for almost the same time. The transition from the
Neoclassical Architecture from Spain to the Modern movement of America was similar.
Nevertheless, the story differs after the USA tried to Americanise Puerto Rico as Puerto
Ricans felt threatened about the possible irreversible change in their lifestyle, beliefs
and traditions. They were already deeply rooted within the culture, which they have
adapted during the Spanish rule. As decades passed, the Spanish revival became
31 Faulks, Michael, Who the...? The Exporters of Architecture During the Cold War (2014) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
273381518_Who_the_The_Exporters_of_Architecture_During_the_Cold_War (accessed 18 July 2017)
!43

ingrained within the Puerto Rican identity. It became a representative of their ideals as
they selectively retrieve their Spanish heritage amidst the feeling of nostalgia.
32
But this did not happen in the Philippines as the country had a different response in
accumulating and taking in the American culture. One significant change was the use of
American alphabet as its own official one. The country absorbed the influence of its
conqueror as like a sponge. This is because it had no singular cultural identity.
Philippines already had an old civilisation, which were originally from the Malay and
Chinese, even before Ferdinand Magellan discovered it. This makes the Philippines
already culturally diverse even during the Spanish rule.
Fast forward to 60 years later, during the Marcos regime (1965 - 1986) in the
Philippines, the government declare New Society / New Filipino project for the country.
The idea of Palingenesis
33
(a utopian idea of rebirth or spiritual regeneration to
reconnect with the past) is to be evoked within the culture and tradition of the nation.
During the Martial Law, this regime consolidated nationalism with a mode of identity
and modern progress. There were two particular rules about the resolution to our
identity in this new society: 34
1. Identity as a derivative of primeval ancestry
2. Identity as evidence of human progress made possible through art
The continuous ambition of this scheme resulted the amalgam of national identity to
architecture and politics.
32 Vivoni-Farage, Enrique, “The Architecture Of Power", Cmu.Edu https://www.cmu.edu/ARIS_3/vivoni/frameset_vivoni.html (accessed 18 July 2017)
33 "Palingenesis", En.Wikipedia.Org https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palingenesis (accessed 25 September 2017)
34 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p 452
!44

fig. 3.2 Alibata - old Filipino alphabet
To revive the old heritage of Filipino identity, they used symbolic designs like the
Alibata (Philippine’s ancient alphabet), salakot (wide brimmed hat used by the soldiers
during the old Philippine age), mythical creatures, etc. and translated them literally into
a modern conception. They wanted these symbols to be used as visual aesthetics of
power in built form such as art, architecture, sculpture and painting. However, with this
particular concept of new society and proving the nation’s prowess through building
monumental structures, the government needed support from either an allied country’s
aid or from a private investment sector. A budget should be allocated for these projects
(one of them being the Theatre of Performing Arts) but even the taxpayer’s money is not
enough to cover a megalomaniac plan that the Marcos regime was trying to seek.
The money they used was from the cultural development fund, supported by the special
fund for education, which originated from the Philippine war claims from the USA.
!45

This is a trend during the Cold War period (1950-91); there were exportation of
architectural ideas, practices, professionals and in some cases whole buildings were a
popular way of modernising and controlling other nations. USA was primarily
concerned with exporting ideas and theories. They saw architecture as a means of
modernisation for the developing nations. It was thought that by increasing the standard
of living and introducing the American ideals of family, anti-communism, individualism
and democracy, these nations would be swayed away from joining the Soviet Union.
The U.S. government identified strategic locations for construction projects and
provided funds either directly or through agencies, however they were not directly
responsible for carrying out any of the projects. The task of running the projects was left
to a group of non-government organisations, philanthropic foundations, aid
organisations, corporations and individual professionals who designed and oversaw the
projects.
35
The Marcos regime saw this opportunity and took all the chances to gain longevity in
his presidential term through building structures. How this conjugal dictatorship sees
the new society was parallel as to how the Stalinist and Nazi Architecture were
perceived. One of the reasons why Architecture has been used as a representation of
power over the society is that a structure can last a thousand years and will become a
part of that civilisation’s history. When the Nazi lost, there were plans in keeping some
buildings that Adolf Hitler has built against the public outcry of the victims during his
regime. This is because, as much as that evokes anguish and such nostalgia, it has
already been a part of the history of that city. It has already left a mark in their history,
culture and tradition. That would always be a part of their identity. 36
35 Faulks, Michael, Who the...? The Exporters of Architecture During the Cold War (2014) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
273381518_Who_the_The_Exporters_of_Architecture_During_the_Cold_War (accessed 18 July 2017)
36 Sudjic, Deyan. The edifice complex: how the rich and powerful shape the world, London: Penguin, 2006
!46

fig. 3.3 Presidential inauguration of Ferdinand Marcos in 1965
The commissioner and the political atmosphere of the time
In 1965, the wife of the presidency candidate Ferdinand Marcos’, Imelda Romualdez
Marcos sought to build a national theatre in one of his proclamation rally. Marcos won
the election by the end of the year and during his first term, then new first lady,
expanded her sight of a single national theatre into a compound consisting of series of
buildings, which will be a central hub for Philippine Art and Culture.
Known as the Steel Butterfly of the Philippines, Imelda Marcos is a lover of beauty and
nobility. The first lady was famous for owning more than 1200 pairs of designer shoes,
jewels and 175 pieces of artwork including Claude Monet’s Le Basin Aux Nymphéas.
On an episode of a local network documentary show, a special called “Babae sa likod ng
trono” (The woman behind the throne), she said, ‘the role of first lady of the country
holds a maternal predisposition to it’.
37
She was the governess of Manila and the
chairman for human settlements. In Mrs. Marcos case, she sees herself as the mother
37 I-Witness: Babae sa likod ng trono. Directed by News and Public Affairs GMA. Performed by Sandra Aguinaldo. 2010.
!47

figure of the country. There is an idea in the Philippines about a mother’s love – It is
that a mother always brings home the best for her children; and for the former first lady,
it was the extravagance of material beauty that the country can be proud with.
At this point for her, the good, the true and the beautiful is to celebrate our arts and
cultural heritage and to be globally put on the map. Image building of the Philippines
was considered first. Despite the country being poor, they borrowed billions of dollars
from other countries to sustain the commercial infrastructure development of the
Philippines. The plan were quite unrealistic for a young country, as it was like a kid
trying to look like an adult. With that said, she created and built numerous institutions
and one of them is the Cultural Centre of the Philippines. On a BBC documentary called
‘To sing our own song, 1984’, then Archbishop Cardinal Sin branded the projects as
‘distorted priorities’. This is because the main concern was the continuous poverty of
the people and housing for the poor,
38
which did not happen until the later part of the
regime (BLISS project). 39
During the 20 year period of having Marcos as the president of the country, a lot of
infrastructure were built not just commercial and housing but as well as road networks
and the regulation for train services.
However, during the second term of Marcos’ regime in 1971, there was a series of
bombings and assassination attempt to the minister of defence. The re-rise of guerrilla
movement (which was originally formed to fight the Japanese during their occupation in
the Philippines but later became a rebellion group against the Philippine government)
resulted into Martial Law being proclaimed the following year. In the beginning it was
well received by the people but after a while, as more killings and media blockout were
imposed, the administration was soon criticised and uttered by the citizens as corrupt.
38 To Sing Our Own Song. Directed by BBC TV. Performed by Jose W. Diokno. 1983.
39 Urban BLISS project, http://imelda.mybcnet.net/?p=3243 (accessed 18 December 2017)
!48

fig. 3.4 EDSA Revolution, 1986
As the government suspended the press and journalists prosecuted, interrogated and
tortured, citizens started digging in the unexposed reality of the country being in huge
debt that was caused by the large national projects of the Marcos and as well as the First
family’s ill-gotten wealth. This resulted into their citizens turning against their
government. Democracy and freedom are much valued right of the people as they were
constantly being colonised by foreign country in the past. The militarisation control of
normal civilian actions caused students, nuns and normal citizens becoming activists
and attending series of demonstration rallies which lead to the People power revolution
of 1986
40
and the fall of Marcos’ authoritarian regime.
40 McGeown, Kate. People Power at 25: Long road to Philippine democracy, BBC News, 25 February 2011 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12567320 (accessed 18
December 2017)
!49

The Common denominator
Was there a mutual goal between the architecture of Leandro Locsin and the Marcos
Regime?
Manila as a primate city (the largest city in its country, disproportionately larger than
any others in the urban hierarchy)
41
is conditioned by the geographic, economic and
political setup all of which in turn affect the development of architecture in the
country. 42 The essence of architecture is immaterial. It concerns itself with values and
inspirations with meanings, as some want to call the non-physical side of architecture. It
is expressed by a significant architectural form.
43
On December of 1978, Imelda Marcos challenged the architects during ‘Architecture
week’ about enjoining designers and builders to develop strategies that will reflect our
culture, utilise our indigenous materials and develop an architecture which is truly
Filipino. 44
It was only in the 1980’s that architects in the Philippines began to discuss subjects such
as Filipinism in Architecture. There was no such disagreement in architectural scene and
topics pertaining to the controversy between traditional and modern architecture. It was
never became the subject of debate. 45 There was a lack of architectural critics as
compared to art critics although if we compare art to architecture, the latter affects a
great number of people more often than art in a dense city environment.
46
According to Gerard Lico in one of his articles, “In the minds of Marcos, a building was
not merely a walled structure but a metaphor for a Filipino ideology and the process of
construction was synonymous to the building of the nation”
47
41 McPhelin Michael. Manila: The Primate City Philippine Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (October 1969), pp. 781-789
42 Klassen, Winand W, “TOWARDS A FILIPINO ARCHITECTURE.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 6, no. 4, 1978
43 context on Mañosa’s look on Philippines’ architecture - Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986) p 210
44 United Architects of the Philippines. History of UAP. https://united-architects.org/about/history-of-uap (accessed September 24 2017)
45 Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986) pp. 186-187
46 Klassen, Winand W, Architecture In The Philippines (Cebu City, Philippines: University of San Carlos, 1986) p 212
47 Lico, Gerard, Arkitekturang Filipino (Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2008) p 452
!50

Imelda Marcos did her best to make her mark as the First Lady by building landmarks
that she claimed represented a national resurgence.
Leandro Locsin, may it be consciously or unconsciously in pursuit to find the Philippine
architectural identity through hybrid, cross-fertilisation on culture, design, art and
architecture became the ideal architect for the first lady’s purposes. Both benefitted the
other in social, economic and political ways. Locsin found himself useful to the
ambitious leaders who needed to build to convince themselves that they were in
command of dynamic modern state and at the same time, the guardians of national
pride.
48
The greatest difficulty in creating a convincing sense of national identity through
architectural means is that it is an essentially artificial in process that must mimic
supposedly organic characteristics. The manufacture of identity through architecture is
revealed as an entirely self-conscious process. 49 The elusive Filipino soul in
Architecture cannot be achieved by consciously striving for it.
The political objectives of building structure for a nation to mark its identity in the
world could be metaphorically compared to a person’s. A man can only truly find their
identity after they mature and age enough. Friedrich Von Schelling said, ‘Architecture is
a frozen music’.
50
In addition, according to Philip Johnson, both are sequential art that
has an element of time. The only difference is that in Music, the art object moves
through sequences of time with the listener being fixed, while in Architecture, the art
object is fixed and the observer must move through the sequence of time to experience
it. Thus could tell is that identity can be found in time.
48 Sudjic, Deyan. The edifice complex: how the rich and powerful shape the world, London: Penguin, 2006 p153
49 Sudjic, Deyan. The edifice complex: how the rich and powerful shape the world London: Penguin, 2006 pp. 154-155
50 Hellman, Louis. Architecture is frozen music... or is it frozen money? 11 MARCH, 2010 https://www.architectsjournal.co.uk/opinion/architecture-is-frozen-music-or-is-it-frozen-money/
5215228.article (accessed 18 December 2017)
!51

fig. 4.1 Theatre of Performing Arts - ramp grounds and pool
The Legacy
With the completion and inauguration of the building in 1969, the boom of the complex
subsequently initiated the growth in infrastructure of high-rise buildings opposite the
whole shore complex along Roxas Boulevard. Alongside the development of the area
comes with the increase of economy for the city. But not only the government or the
community close to the site were affected by it but as well as the architect who designed
it. He ventured into larger projects particularly the remaining buildings built within the
site and this gave him an opportunity to be the architect for the Sultan of Brunei and in
his later years became a recipient of National Artist Award for Architecture in 1990.
!52

Placing the building in a very strategic manner along the major road in the capital and
the with architect’s career being a success, paved a way for the younger generation of
architects to be aware of their own architectural identity whilst grasping the local
context. The building did influence the the way designers and architects approach their
own concept of architecture. Hence creating a new precedent for Philippine modernism
and design that work within its environment. The building now serves the public
through plays, recitals, concerts, individual and amateur cinematic competitions, which
in the past, were only often accessible to the elite of the country.
Until today, the edifice that stands along on one of the main roads towards Manila city
still acts a symbol of ambition and power. Its strong image alongside the current Manila
distorts the relationship between the CCP complex to the boulevard and the bay. The
commercial development of the area has changed the initial objective of the whole
complex – to create a complex for subtle exclusive use of the elites, artists, and the
affluent. Through the experience of commuting everyday to school through the
boulevard and the complex for a few years during the author’s teenage years and
through the recent visits back to her country, she found that today, as CCP is completely
developed, majority of the users of the complex and the roads were from poor, working
and middle class households in Philippine standard. Hence, when you see the
monumental structure in present time, there is a communal sense of belonging but the
architecture gives a little bit of social disconnection from the reality of life to its users in
present time.
The legacy of the building still withholds some of the surviving arts and culture of the
Philippines, although the ambition to nurture and develop it is slowly vanishing due to
the influence of the contemporary arts from the west and the fast change of trends that
the country is trying to catch.
The former First Lady, the client, chose to live in two worlds – first is the Philippines as
a counter part of a super power country in the east and second, the Philippines as a
young developing nation. For her, there is no division between the two as hyperreality 51
has become the way of life for her. What she did not realise was that the process of her
51 Curtis, Adam. Hyper Normalisation http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p04b183c (accessed 15 October 2017)
!53

nation building to create the Filipino identity was made within the idea of authentic
fake. It foreshadowed of what lies ahead for her countrymen as the façade that was
imagined, a beautiful and developed country now still sits in the real world where
people die in poverty and colonial mentality is still present.
Hence, the people of the country who are brave to stand whatever catastrophe and
hardship may come with a smile; and like the country that was built through the ideals,
strength, beauty and willpower of its people; the Theatre of Performing Arts currently
known as the National Theatre of the Philippines will always stand as symbol of
national identity. It will set as a reminder of the power of their nation during the last few
decades of the 20th century and hopefully encourage them to again, become a strong
nation that is recognisable and respected in the world.
!54

Primary research
!55

fig. 5.1 Original site plan 1:5000
!56

fig. 5.2 1:500 m first floor plan
!57

fig. 5.3 1:500 m second floor plan
!58

fig. 5.4 1:500 m third floor plan
!59

fig. 5.5 1:500 m -1 A front floor plan
!60

fig. 5.6 1:500 m -1 B back floor plan
!61

fig. 5.7 1:500 m -2 B back floor plan
!62

fig. 5.8 East to West Section 1:500
!63

fig. 5.9 North to South Section 1:500
!64

fig. 6.1 North elevation sketch
!65

From top to bottom
fig. 6.2 South balcony sketch
fig. 6.3 Ramp grounds sketch
!66

fig. 6.4 Interior main lobby sketch
!67

fig. 7.1 North side of the building connected to boulevard road and pedestrian access
!68

fig. 7.2 North side of the building
!69

fig. 7.3 Ramp and pool connection to the theatre entrance
!70

fig. 7.4 North side of the building connected to boulevard road and pedestrian access
!71

fig. 7.5 North side of the building pedestrian access
!72

fig. 7.6 Ramp and pool connection to the entrance grounds and boulevard
!73

fig. 7.7 North side of the building
!74

fig. 7.8 South entrance balcony
!75

fig. 7.9 Main entrance balcony
!76

Left and right
fig. 7.10 North side pedestrian access -1 level back
fig. 7.11 North side pedestrian access to ground level back
!77

From top left clockwise (Materials and textures)
fig. 7.12 Rib textured cladding and ramp
fig. 7.13 Main entrance stairs
fig. 7.14 Ramp
fig. 7.15 Ramp
!78

fig. 7.16 Main entrance stairs
List of Illustrations (*) - Illustrations/drawings/photographs by author
fig. 0.1 *
fig. 1.1 Cultural Centre of the Philippines
fig. 1.2 http://bluprint.ph/succeeding-success-lindyand-andy-locsin/
fig. 1.3 http://newhavenmodern.org/system/
dragonfly/production/
2013/12/19/8mnfpzgwgd_Temple21.jpg
fig. 1.4 https://media.architecturaldigest.com/
photos/56fc4dc4ecd154e0329c109b/master/pass/
eero-saarinen-architecture-10.jpg
fig. 1.5 https://arkitekturaph.wordpress.com/
portfolio/parish-of-the-holy-sacrifice/
fig. 1.6 “FOLK ARCHITECTURE” GCF books,
Quezon City, 1989
fig. 1.7 https://i.pinimg.com/736x/7a/
f0/39/7af0391b4756989548bfdd74fd3cab99--
regency-hotel-manila-philippines.jpg
fig. 1.8 https://www.arkitektura.ph
fig. 1.9 Rowena Santos-Delgado, Architectural
Landmarks in Davao City: Value-based approach to
the history of Architecture
fig. 1.10 *
fig. 1.11 *
fig. 2.1 Polites
fig. 2.2 *
fig. 2.3 https://manilametro.files.wordpress.com/
2011/04/blvd-2000-land-use-plan.jpg
fig. 2.4 *
fig. 2.5 *
fig. 2.5 http://www.dmcinet.com/Image/ccp.jpg
fig. 2.7 *
fig. 2.8 *
fig. 2.9 *
fig. 2.10 *
fig. 2.11 *
fig. 2.12 Polites
fig. 2.13 *
fig. 2.14 *
fig. 2.15 *
fig. 2.16 Polites
fig. 2.17 *
fig. 2.18 *
fig. 2.19 *
fig. 2.20 *
fig. 2.21 *
fig. 2.22 Polites
!79

fig. 2.23 *
fig. 2.24 *
fig. 2.25 Polites
fig. 2.26 Polites
fig. 2.27 *
fig. 2.28 *
fig. 2.29 *
fig. 2.30 Polites
fig. 2.31 Cultural Centre of the Philippines
fig. 2.32 Cultural Centre of the Philippines
fig. 2.33 *
fig. 2.34 *
fig. 2.35 Cultural Centre of the Philippines
fig. 2.36 Cultural Centre of the Philippines
fig. 2.37 http://primer.com.ph/travel/wp-content/
uploads/sites/6/2015/10/CCP_tableaux.jpg
fig. 2.38 *
fig. 2.39 *
fig. 2.40 *
fig. 2.41 http://s3-ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/
s3.wheninmanila.com/wp-content/uploads/
2011/07/image_620_1.jpg
fig. 2.42 *
fig. 2.43 *
fig. 2.44 *
fig. 2.45 https://i.pinimg.com/originals/a1/7d/cb/
a17dcb82c3b5883175cecbf7e27c7f26.jpg
fig. 2.46 Chen Del Mundo , https://
aminus3.s3.amazonaws.com/image/g0023/
u00022838/i00976018/
f118b8d68efd52ce9fc029ad27798e61_large.jpg
fig. 2.47 Star City, http://primer.com.ph/travel/wpcontent/uploads/sites/6/2016/03/star-cityfacade.jpg
fig. 2.48 Polites
fig. 2.49 David Montasco, http://
static.panoramio.com/photos/large/73555206.jpg
fig. 2.50 Polites
fig. 2.51 Sofitel Manila, https://img.youtube.com/
vi/Mn2cXjpzrmU/hqdefault.jpg
fig. 2.52 *
fig. 2.53 *
fig. 3.1 https://hautevitrine.files.wordpress.com/
2011/08/01-leslie-hossack_east-gate-1936-
olympic-stadium.jpg
fig. 3.2 http://78.media.tumblr.com/
tumblr_lutfskLZxZ1qkow7co1_r1_1280.png
fig. 3.3 http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/pictures/
000084983.jpg
fig. 3.4 http://maritimereview.ph/wp-content/
uploads/2017/08/17-4EDSA.jpg
fig. 4.1 *
fig. 5.1 *
fig. 5.2 *
fig. 5.3 *
fig. 5.4 *
fig. 5.5 *
fig. 5.6 *
fig. 5.7 *
fig. 5.8 *
fig. 5.9 *
fig. 6.1 *
fig. 6.2 *
fig. 6.3 *
fig. 6.4 *
fig. 7.1 *
fig. 7.2 *
fig. 7.3 *
fig. 7.4 *
fig. 7.5 *
fig. 7.6 *
fig. 7.7 *
fig. 7.8 *
fig. 7.9 *
fig. 7.10 *
fig. 7.11 *
fig. 7.12 *
fig. 7.13 *
fig. 7.14 *
fig. 7.15 *
fig. 7.16 *
!80

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273381518_Who_the_The_Exporters_of_Architecture_During_the_Cold_War
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(accessed 18 December 2017)
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!81

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Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 6, no. 4, 1978, pp. 218–227.
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