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CIRCLE Working Paper 44: February 2006
Sports, Youth and Character: A Critical Survey
18 Shields and Bredemeier, Character Development and Physical Activity, p. 185.
19 Shields and Bredemeier, “Moral Development and Behavior in Sport,” p. 592.
20 Shields and Bredemeier, “Sport, Militarism, and Peace,” pp. 376, 379.
21 Duquin, “Gender and Youth Sport,” pp. 35-6.
22 Gatz, Messner, and Ball-Rokeach, “Introduction,” p. 5. (describing views of “critical sports theorists”).
23 John Gerdy, “Want Value for Education Dollars? Try Music!” in Gerdy, ed., Sports in School, p. 134.
24 Olgivie and Tutko, “Sport: If You Want to Build Character, Try Something Else,” p. 61.
25 Eitzen, Fair and Foul, p. 50.
26 Elling, De Knop, and Knoppers, “The Social Integrative Meaning of Sport,” p. 419; Coakley, Sport in
Society, pp. 91-92.
27 A few pages before he attributes all the apparent influence of sport to “selection effects,” Stanley
Eitzen contends that sport participation “fosters the admirable traits of courage, determination, hard
work, fairness, respect, sacrifice, selflessness, and loyalty.” Eitzen, Fair and Foul, p. 43.
28 “[S]port . . . promotes rule-breaking, selfishness, greed, contempt for opponents, and violence on the
field as well as deviant behavior off the field.” Eitzen, Fair and Foul, p. 43.
29 See Mary E. Duquin and Kate Schroeder-Braun, “Power, Empathy, and Moral Conflict in Sport,” Peace
and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 2 (1996), p. 352.
30 See Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 2 (aggression is “a hostile, coercive act involving selfexpression
at the expense of others”); Brenda Jo Bredemeier, “Moral Reasoning and Perceived Legitimacy
of Intentionally Injurious Sports Acts,” Journal of Sport Psychology, 7 (1985), pp. 110, 111, 113-4 (intent
to injure defines a continuum that begins with nonphysical intimidation); Dawn E. Stephens and Brenda
Jo Light Bredemeier, “Moral Atmosphere and Judgments About Aggression in Girls’ Soccer: Relationships
Among Moral and Motivational Variables,” Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18 (1996), pp. 158-
9, 166 (aggression is “the initiation of an attack with the intent to injure”); Brenda Jo Bredemeier and
David Shields, “The Utility of Moral Stage Analysis in the Interpretation of Athletic Aggression,” Sociology
of Sport Journal, 1 (1984), p. 141; Brenda Jo Bredemeier and David L. Shields, “Athletic Aggression: An
Issue of Contextual Morality,” Sociology of Sport Journal, 3 (1986), p. 22 (aggression “refers to an overt
act intended to psychologically or physically injure . . .”); Roger R. VanDyke, “Aggression in Sport: Its
Implications for Character Building,” Quest, 32 (1980), p. 202 (aggression is the “intent to inflict harm
. . . on the opposition”); Michael D. Smith., “Significant Others’ Influence on the Assaultive Behavior of
Young Hockey Players,” International Review of Sport Sociology, 3-4 (1974), pp. 46, 53-4 (aggression
equated with violent assault, the latter including both legal and illegal bodychecking).
31 For a useful conceptual analyses of “aggression” and “violence” and a discussion of their moral
valence, see Jim Parry, “Violence and Aggression in Contemporary Sport,” in M. J. McNamee and S. J.
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