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CIRCLE Working Paper 44: February 2006
Sports, Youth and Character: A Critical Survey
Aggression,” p. 141.
152 Stephens and Bredemeier, “Moral Atmosphere and Judgments About Aggression in Girls’ Soccer,” p.
163.
153 Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 6.
154 Bredemeier and Shields, “The Utility of Moral Stage Analysis in the Interpretation of Athletic
Aggression,” p. 141.
155 Bredemeier and Shields, “Athletic Aggression,” p. 22.
156 Bredemeier and Shields, “Athletic Aggression,” pp. 23, 25.
157 In Brenda Jo Bredemeier and David L. Shields, “Game Reasoning and Interactional Morality,” Journal
of Genetic Psychology, 147 (June 1986), “intimidation” and “physical retribution” are called aggressive
and equated with “hurting people” (p. 262), yet neither intimidation by a player nor physical retribution
need be intended to injure (the assumed definition of ‘aggression,’ p. 263).
158 For a fuller description of the stages, see Anne Colby and Lawrence Kohlberg, The Measurement
of Moral Judgment, vol. 1: Theoretical Foundations and Research Validation (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1987), pp. 18-19.
159 The original scoring method devised by Kohlberg and his associates was extremely labor-intensive,
requiring extended interviews with subjects that were then scored according to an elaborate protocol (see
Anne Colby and Lawrence Kohlberg, The Measurement of Moral Judgment, vol. 2: Standard Issue Scoring
Manual [New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987]).
160 Bredemeier and Shields, “The Utility of Moral Stage Analysis in the Interpretation of Athletic
Aggression,” p. 142. This was the study in which the aggressiveness of subjects was measured in two
ways: by coaches’ assessment of their players and by tabulating player fouls per minute played. Given
the definition of aggression used by Bredemeier and Shields, it is not surprising that they found no
correlation between players foul-quotient and their level of moral reasoning (p. 146).
161 Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 17.
162 Shields and Bredemeier, “Moral Development and Behavior in Sport,” p. 589.
163 Bredemeier, “Moral Reasoning and Perceived Legitimacy of Intentionally Injurious Sports Acts,” p.
111.
164 Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 2
165 Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 2; Bredemeier, “Moral Reasoning and Perceived
Legitimacy of Intentionally Injurious Sports Acts,” p. 111.
166 Bredemeier, “Children’s Moral Reasoning,” p. 2.
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