english grammar

Table of
contents
Unit 1 Present
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions
The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple
The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present
...Simple
Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present
...Simple
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous
The Present Continuous
The Affirmative Imperative
The Negative Imperative
Verbs without a continuous form
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions
‘Always’ + Present Continuous
Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past
Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past
...Simple)
Regular and Irregular Verbs
The Present Perfect
Differences between Present Perfect and
...Preterit* (Past Simple)
The Present Perfect Continuous
‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
'Ever' / 'Never'
Expressions with the Present Perfect
The Preterit Continuous* (Past
...Continuous)
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
‘Used To’
Unit 3 Future
The Near Future be + -ing* (Present
...Continuous for Future)
The Future – ‘Will’
Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’
Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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Unit 4 Modals
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood
‘Can’ – perception and knowledge
‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability
‘Must’ and ‘have to’
Using ‘must’ for obligation
Strong probability using ‘must’
Absence of necessity
‘May’ and ‘Might’
‘Shall’
‘Would like’: expressing wishes
Modal Auxiliaries
Near certainty in the past:
...‘must have/ can’t have’
Unit 5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
Interrogative Words
‘How long...’
Past Interrogatives
Question Tags
‘Which’ / ‘What’
‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when'
Short Questions
Unit 6 Articles and Nouns
Definite and Indefinite Articles
The Plural
Names of Countries: Capitals
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Exclamations with ‘what a’
Construction of Compound Nouns
The use and omission of ‘the’
Definite articles with geographical names
Nouns without singular forms
Negation of the indefinite article
4

Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners
Subject Pronouns
Object Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
‘No’ / ’None’
The Possessive
More uses of the Possessive
The Indefinite Possessive
Use of Pronoun ‘one’
Demonstrative Pronouns
‘Here’/ ‘There’
‘Some’ and ‘Any’
‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
‘Either……or’
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
Different meanings of ‘all’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
Use of ‘both’
Unit 8 Relative Clauses and
Dependent Clauses
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
‘That’ and Dependent Clauses
When ‘that’ may be left out
‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs
Possessive Adjectives
‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’
Placement of ‘Enough’
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
The Adverb ‘that’
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
Compound Adjectives
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
Adjectives ending in –ing
The Past Participle as an adjective
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs and Adjectives
Uses of ‘so’
The placement of ‘even’
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’
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Unit 10 Comparatives
and Superlatives
Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’
Regular and Irregular Comparatives
Regular and Irregular Superlatives
‘The more . . . the more’
A use of the comparative
Unit 11 Prepositions
Prepositions of Time
Prepositions of Place
Final Prepositions
Verbs + prepositions
Unit 12 Conjunctions
Conjunctions
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’
Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives
Gerunds and Infinitives
Use of ‘be used to’
Use of ‘get used to’
Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
Verb + Infinitive Clause
Verbs expressing a wish to act
Expressions followed by the gerund
Verbs introducing a second action
Unit 14 Conditionals
Present Conditional* and Sequence
...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
Past Subjunctive
Wishes and Regrets
Unit 16 Passive
The Passive Voice
The Impersonal Structure
Unit 17 Reported speech
The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported
...Speech)
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs
The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal
...verbs)
Phrasal Verbs
Unit 19 Expressions
‘To get’ + Adjective
‘To look forward to’
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun
‘To be likely’
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’
‘For the sake of’
Expressions with ‘to have’
Baseball Expressions
‘To be at stake’
Expressions of Increase
Unit 20 Other
‘There is/are’
Time
‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’
‘To let’
‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb
‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’
Expressions of Preference
Words ending in ‘ever’
‘Whether’
Emphatic 'do’
Verbs expressing impressions
...and feelings
‘I am told’
*This is the title of the grammar point in the online software.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Present
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions
The verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.
Conjugation of ‘to be’ Contraction of ‘to be’ Use + examples
( as a stative verb)
I am I’m I am a student.
You are You’re I’m a student.
He /She /It is He’s / She’s / It’s
We are We’re He is my brother.
They are They’re He’s my brother.
Negative ‘to be’ Negative contraction ‘to be’ Question
I am not I’m not Am I?
You are not You’re not or You aren’t
He /She /It is not He’s / She’s / It’s not or
He / She / It isn’t
Is he/ she/ it?
We are not We’re not or We aren’t
They are not They’re not or They aren’t
Are we / you / they?
The verb ‘to have’
The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.
The verb ‘to have’ Negative ‘to have’ Question
I I don’t have Do + I + have…?
You You don’t have you
He /She / It He/ She/ It doesn’t have we
We We don’t have they
They They don’t have Does + he + have?
she
it
Examples Examples Examples
I have 2 brothers. I don’t have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?
He has 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?
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eClass English
Present Simple
We use the present simple for:
◌ things that are true in general
◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time
◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits
Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple question
I work I don’t work Do + I + work…?
You work You don’t work you
He /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work we
We work We don’t work they
They work They don’t work Does + he + work?
she
it
Examples Examples Examples
I work everyday. I don’t work everyday. Do you work everyday?
He works everyday. He doesn’t work everyday. Does he work everyday?
Third person (He / She / It)
You must always add an –s to the verb.
Spelling
Verbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch pass : passes finish : finishes
add
–es
Verbs ending in : –y study : studies try : tries
add
–ies
Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel.
play : plays
Also do : does go : goes
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Negative Form
The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non
occurrence of an action.
Structure
Examples
The verb ‘to be’
I am not
Add : not or n’t to contractions You are not
He /She /It is not
We are not
They are not
They are not my friends. (aren’t)
He is not my brother. (isn’t)
Present Simple
I
don’t work.
Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You don’t work.
or don’t He / She /It doesn’t work.
We don’t work.
does not (he, she, it) They don’t work.
or doesn’t
I don’t play football on the weekends.
He doesn’t go to university.
Tags – short answers
When we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which is
a repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary.
The verb ‘to be´
Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, you’re not. / you aren’t.
Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, I’m not.
Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, he’s not. / he isn’t.
Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, she’s not. / she isn’t.
Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, we’re not. / we aren’t.
Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.
Present Simple
Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.
Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.
Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.
Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t.
Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.
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The Present Simple and Present Continuous
The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the
present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.
The Present Simple
Use
Examples
- Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast.
- When talking in general
- Facts He often has English class.
- Often used with adverbs
of frequency – sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits.
often, always, never etc.
The Present Continuous
- The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so
. at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but
perhaps she isn’t learning exactly
at the time of speaking)
He is having English class at
- Now the moment.
- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money
(these days) to encourage
businesses to expand.
eClass English
I’m eating.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Present Continuous
Present continuous:
something is happening now / at the moment / currently
Past Now Future
I’m working.
He’s playing football.
They’re watching television.
Structure + Examples
The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing
I am (not) verb-ing I am working.
He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.
We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.
Question:
What are you doing now?
What is he doing now?
I’m eating.
We are
running.
It is raining.
Spelling
Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing
Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing
Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying
Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying
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eClass English
The Affirmative Imperative
You can use the
imperative form to
give an order, a
warning or advice.
Sit down.
Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples
you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ Be Quiet!
Walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in
infinitive without ‘to’
the dictionary.
Let + noun phrase +
infinitive without ‘to’
Let Mark sit there.
Let’s (us) go to the beach.
Let them do what they want.
The Negative Imperative
The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT
perform a specific action.
Negative Imperative Structure Examples
you (singular + plural) Do not (don’t) Don’t be quiet!
+ Infinitive without ‘to’ Don’t walk down the street
I, he, she, we, they Do not (don’t) let + object Don’t let me fall asleep.
pronoun + infinitive without ‘to
Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + Don’t let the children fall asleep.
infinitive without ‘to’
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Verbs without a continuous form
Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms.
Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.
Mental and emotional states
Use of the senses
To believe
To doubt
To feel (= have an opinion)
To imagine
To know
To (dis)like
To love
To hate
To prefer
To recognize
To remember
To see (= understand)
To suppose
To think (= have an opinion)
To understand
To want
To wish
To realize
To appear
To hear
To look (=seem)
To see
To seem
To smell
To sound
To taste
Communicating and causing reactions
To agree
To deny
To impress
To please
To satisfy
To mean
To disagree
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eClass English
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions
Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.
Verbs of perception
When they express ‘voluntary actions’
Stative verbs
Expressing notions of belief,
preference, feelings or an
To see
To hear
To feel
To smell
To taste
I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow.
I see what you mean.
NOT I’m seeing what you mean
To think (to reflect)
What are you thinking about?
intellectual activity.
. NOT to think ( have an opinion)
What are you thinking of it?
What do you think of it?
‘Always’ + Present Continuous
‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the
present continuous in these situations:
Use
To express a repeated action which
has an effect on the speaker.
Example
You’re always running late!
To talk about unexpected or
unplanned events.
Compare:
When Alice comes to see me, I always
meet her at the station.
(a regular, planned arrangement)
I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket.
(accidental, unplanned meeting)
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2GRAMMAR BOOK
Present Perfect and Past Simple
The Preterit (Past Simple)
I watched television
yesterday.
USE
To talk about completed actions or finished events that
happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)
Regular Verbs:
For regular verbs add –ed
For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied
I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch?
You watched You didn’t watch he/she/it
He/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watch
We watched We didn’t watch we
They watched They didn’t watch they
Examples
I watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?
Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore
you must memorize them.
Here are some important irregular verbs:
begin began fall fell leave left sell sold
break broke find found lose lost sit sat
bring brought fly flew make made sleep slept
build built forget forgot meet met speak spoke
buy bought get got pay paid stand stood
catch caught give gave put put take took
come came go went read read(red) tell told
do did have had ring rang think thought
drink drank hear heard say said win won
eat ate know knew see saw write wrote
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eClass English
Irregular Verbs
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed
However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.
Here are some common irregular verbs:
Verb Past Tense Past Participle
be was/were been
begin began begun
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
do did done
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
give gave given
have had had
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.
Structure
I/you/we/they have + past participle
He/she/it has + past participle
Have I/you/they/we + past participle….?
Has he/she/it + past participle…?
Past Participles
go gone
have had
take taken
eat eaten
drink drunk
sing sung
Uses
Examples
Shows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’
An action in the past has a result now.
(I can’t find it now.)
Describes an action that started in the
past and continues in the present.
-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’
(She is at the mall now.)
-I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded.
-I have always studied a lot in university.
Shows that an action has
-Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.
recently happened.
-The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident.
- (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book!
happened recently)
They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.
(=They are not at home now)
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eClass English
Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect
Uses
Past Simple
When the time period has finished
Present Perfect
When the time period has not finished
Examples
I saw three movies last week.
(the action has finished in a specific time
period in the past).
I have seen three movies this week.
(the week has not finished, so more actions in
this time period may take place).
Past Simple
To indicate “old” information
Present Perfect
When giving recent news
Martin has crashed his car last year.
Martin crashed his car again.
Past Simple
When the time of the action is clear
Present Perfect
When the time of action is not specific
I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)
I have already seen that movie.
(no specific day or date of the action)
Past Simple ‘For’
‘For’ is used in the past simple
when we want to indicate the period of time that
the action occurred but has already finished.
Present Perfect
‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to
indicate the period of time that the action has
been occurring, though the action has
not finished yet.
I lived in Victoria for five years.
I have lived in Victoria for five years.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Present Perfect Continuous
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past
and has continued up until this moment in the present.
Structure
I/you/we/they have been + verb –ing
He/she/it has been + verb –ing
Have I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….?
Has he/she/it been + verb –ing …?
Uses
Describes an action that has recently
stopped and has a connection with now.
Describes an action that has been
repeated over a certain amount of time.
Examples
-Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.
-Why are your clothes so dirty? What have
you been doing?
-I have been learning English for three years.
-She has been playing basketball since she
was 6 years old.
-They have been traveling to Europe every
summer since 1995.
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago
and it is still raining.
How long has it been raining?
It has been raining for two hours.
We often use the present perfect continuous in
this way, especially with
How long, for… and since…The activity is still
happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.
20

eClass English
‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’
For, since, ago
=
to say how long something has been happening.
Use
Examples
‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week
20 minutes 50 years
five days
a long time
six months ages
I have been studying English for 3 years.
‘Since’ = the start of a period 8 o’clock 1977
Monday
Christmas
12 May lunchtime
April
they were at school
I have been studying English since 2000.
‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago
is usually used with the past tense
six weeks ago
a long time ago
two days ago
I studied English 5 years ago.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Ever’ – ‘Never’
‘Ever’
=
at some/any time
up to now
‘Never’
=
not ever
Structure Examples
Question – ‘Ever’
Used in present simple and present perfect
Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb
Affirmative – ‘Ever’
Used with ‘if’ or superlative
Negative – Negative
‘Never’ + verb in affirmative
Do you ever play tennis?
Have you ever been to Argentina?
She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.
(superlative)
Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to
Paris. (if)
I never drink and drive.
I’ve never been to Argentina.
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eClass English
Expressions with the Present Perfect
The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when
the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.
Structure + Use
We can use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Today
All day
This week
This year
Already
Just
Yet
Lately
Recently
In the last two months
All my life
So far
Ever
Never
They refer to a period of time that is
not yet over or is recent.
We cannot use these expressions with the
present perfect:
Two months ago
One year ago
Last week
Yesterday
When I was a child
They refer to a time in the past that is over.
Examples
He’s been in a bad mood all day.
I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week.
I’ve just started the class.
I haven’t studied in the last two months.
I haven’t heard about it so far.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)
Preterit Continuous =
to say that someone was in the middle of doing
something at a certain time.
Sarah
4 O´clock
Sarah
6 O´clock
It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.
At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.
Positive Negative Question
she/it was + verb –ing I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?
We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?
It was raining. It wasn’t raining. Was it raining?
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eClass English
The Past Perfect
For actions that happened before related past events or times.
Structure
I/we/they/you + had (=I’d etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.)
He/she/it + had (= he’d etc.) + past participle
Use
Examples
1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.
before a given time in the past.
2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.
continuing until some later time in the past.
12 1
10 11 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
Bye
12 1
10 11 2
9 3
8 4
7 6 5
Half an hour later
Hello
Paul
Sarah
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they
didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11
o’clock.
So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone
home.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Past Perfect Continuous
The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions
that were unfinished when another action
took place.
Structure
I/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)
He/she/it had been + verb –ing
I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)
He/she/it had not been + verb-ing
Had I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….? (helping, playing, talking, etc.)
he/she/it been + verb –ing …?
Uses
Examples
To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15
continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.
else happened.
To show cause and effect.
Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
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eClass English
‘Used To’
Structure + Use
I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ +
used to + verb + ing+ object.
Is used for expressing habits or things
which you are comfortable with or
accustomed to.
For expressing a point in the process of
becoming accustomed to something.
For expressing actions that were habitual
in the past and implies that the action no
longer takes place. In this sense it is used
as a modal auxiliary.
Examples
I am used to reading before going to sleep.
I have gotten used to walking to work.
I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
3Future
The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place
at a specific time in the future.
Structure Use Examples
‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing
(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?
I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.
You are (not) eating arrangements
He/she/it is (not) eating
We are (not) eating
They are (not) eating
I’m playing tennis
tomorrow
The Future – ‘Will’
We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)
Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive
(without to)
Examples:
I will be at home tomorrow.
Will you be at home this evening?
I/we/you/they will (‘ll) be
He/she/it will not (won’t) eat etc.
win
Will I/we/you/they be?
He/she/it win? etc.
eat?
We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.
‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’
‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’
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eClass English
The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’
Structure Use Examples
‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and
the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will
be watching the game.
It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her
actions in the future.
to call me?
A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her
this evening, so I’ll tell her then.
The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’
Structure Use Examples
‘Will’ + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb
(infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’.
I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’
+ verb (infinitive without to)
‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive
‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.
(infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, my
intention is to do it)
He is not going to finish the project on time.
We also use ‘to be going to’
when there is evidence in
the present that something
is going to happen in the
future. It is clear now that it
is sure to happen.
Example:
There is a black cloud in the sky.
It’s going to rain.
It’s going
to rain.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’
Structure Use Examples
‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your
before another action in the future. English by the time you
come back from the USA.
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had
+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month.
the future.
The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive
Structure
‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’
This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:
Use
Examples
A planned or agreed action
Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ We’re to see them tomorrow.
Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t)
(This is a planned or agreed action that was
not done.)
An action which should be done
What’s to be done?
An imposed action / a strict order
You’re not to read that letter.
Instructions and directions for use
‘To be’ + passive infinitive
The medicine is to be taken twice a day.
30

4 Modals
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood
Structure Use Examples
Use
‘Can’ ability
- to be able to do something.
Example:
He can carry the bag.
‘Can’ likelihood / possibility
Example:
Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)
It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)
Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it cannot (can’t)
Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?
30 Kg.
eClass English
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Can’ - perception and knowledge
Use
‘Can’ ability / knowledge
- to know how to do something
Example: I can play the guitar.
‘Can’ perception
- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.
Example: I can see Sarah coming.
Structure
I / we / you / they + can + verb
he / she / it
cannot (can’t)
Question
Can + I / we / you / they + verb
he / she / it
Example: Can you swim?
I can play
the piano.
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eClass English
‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’
The modal ‘can’ has the following form
Present Can I can speak 5 languages.
Can’t He can’t sing very well.
Past Could When I was a child I could play the piano.
Couldn’t I couldn’t go to class yesterday because I was sick.
Infinitive To be able to Ask Catherine about your problem. She
might be able to help you.
Future Will be able to I will be able to meet with you later.
Will not (won’t) be able to They won’t be able to leave early because
they have to finish their homework.
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‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice
Use
To give advice
Should / ought to =
It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do.
Should not / ought not to =
It is not a good thing to do.
You shouldn´t
watch TV so much
I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to
he, she, it
Examples:
It’s a good film. You should go and see it.
Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late.
I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to
he, she, it
Examples:
Carol ought to buy some new clothes.
You ought not to eat so much.
‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle
=
to express regret or reproach
We should have gone to the mountains.
They ought to have invited her.
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability
Structure Use Example
‘Should’
subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.
infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable
‘Ought to’
subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to
infinitive without ‘to’
pass the exam.
34

‘Must’ and ‘Have to’
Must = a need or obligation to do something
Structure
Example
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without to
Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.
Must not
Structure
Example
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’
eClass English
NO SMOKING
Have to = a need or obligation to do something.
Structure
Example
I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.
Don’t have to
Doesn’t have to
= NO obligation to do something. It is optional.
Structure
Example
I, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t
without ‘to’ want to.
He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)
without ‘to
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Using ‘must’ for obligation
Must
=
a need or obligation to do something.
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.
He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’
Mustn’t
=
an obligation NOT to do something.
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass.
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’
Please keep
off the grass
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eClass English
Strong probability using ‘must’
Must
=
strong probability or near certainty.
Structure Example
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)
Negative:
Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)
Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)
You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.
You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!
The past form is:
must + have + past participle
It expresses near certainty in the past.
Example: He must have gone out.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Absence of necessity
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.
Structure
Subject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’
Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’
This expresses the opinion of the speaker.
Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’
This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.
Examples
You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.
You don’t need to bring your bike.
You don’t have to do your homework.
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eClass English
‘May’ and ‘Might’
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.
Use
Examples
May
I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.
may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.
Might
I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.
might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.
The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future.
These other structures are also possible.
may/might + be + verb –ing
I may be working at that time.
He might be having lunch.
may/might + have + past participle
She may have been asleep.
She might have left it in the shop.
to talk about present or future
to talk about uncertain
events in the past
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Shall’
In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it
is not often used.
Use ‘shall’ with I/ we
I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)
Shall we go to the museum later?
Do NOT use
‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it
Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)
‘Shall’ can express obligation.
This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’).
It is used in legal texts and official rules.
Examples:
1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount
within three years.
2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.
‘Would like’: expressing wishes
‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire.
‘Would like’ + infinitive
Example: I would like to go to the movies.
‘Would like’ + noun or noun phrase
Example: I would like a drink.
Interrogative ‘would like’
Example: Would you like a coffee?
more polite form of (do) want
40

Modal Auxiliaries
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a
modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.
eClass English
Modal Use Example
Can Ability He can play the piano.
Negative: cannot / can’t
Past: could
Future: will be able to
Permission
Can I leave the room?
Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could
(to make suggestions)
stay with Jane.
Permission
Could I open the window?
May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.
50% possible.
Permission
May I open the window?
Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.
than 50% possible.
Must Obligation You must go to the bank
Negative: mustn’t
You mustn’t go to the bank.
Deduction
Negative: can’t
You’ve been travelling all day,
you must be tired.
You’ve been sleeping all day,
you can’t be tired.
Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture
Something you could have in university.
done but did not do / did
not attempt to do.
May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may
something happened or have missed her train.
was true in the past.
Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing
something happened or was up there. You might have
true in the past.
killed yourself.
BUT did not happen.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’
When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to
indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.
Structure
subject + must have + past participle
Example:
John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.
Use
Deduction
Near certainty in the past
Structure
subject + can’t have + past participle
Example:
I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.
Use
A deduction about something that
didn’t happen in the past.
42

5 Questions
Questions without interrogative words
eClass English
The Verb ‘to be’
‘To be’ + subject
Am I?
Are you?
Is he / she / it?
Are we?
Are they?
Examples
Are you married?
Is John a policeman?
Present Simple
Do + subject + verb
Does
Does he study English?
Do they have television?
Do you / we / they?
Does he / she / it?
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Interrogative Words
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,
reason, etc. that an action occurs.
Interrogative word Use Example
Who refers to people Who is he?
Who do you know?
Which refers to people or things Which do you prefer tea or coffee?
when there is a choice
What refers to things What sport do you play?
How refers to manner or means How do you spell your name? (manner)
How do you go to work? (means)
Why asks about reason Why don’t you like her?
Where refers to location Where is the museum?
When refers to time or date When does the store open?
When do you leave?
Whose refers to possession Whose pen is this?
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eClass English
‘How long’
‘How long’
is used to ask
questions about
duration.
Structure
Example
‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation?
How long are the books?
‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to
subject + verb
eat breakfast?
How long does it take to get to work?
Beginner level should only study the two structures above.
Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.
Structure
Example
‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?
‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car?
subject + past participle
‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been
continuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English?
‘
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Past Interrogatives
The verb ‘to be’
‘Was’ / ‘were’ + subject
was I? Where was Ann yesterday?
he? Was the weather good?
she?
it?
were we? Were they expensive?
you?
they?
The Preterit (Past Simple)
‘Did’ + subject + verb
I
you What did you do yesterday?
he Where did he go on holiday?
Did she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?
it
we
they
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eClass English
Questions – Tags
Question tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.
A positive sentence
A negative sentence
Examples
A negative question tag
A positive question tag
The verb ‘to be’
You’re a doctor, aren’t you?
He is not here today, is he?
Present Simple
They work together, don’t they?
She doesn’t eat meat, does she?
Present Continuous
He is studying English, isn’t he?
You’re not meeting Jim, are you?
Preterit/ Past Simple
He went on vacation, didn’t he?
They didn’t work yesterday, did they?
Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give
you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.
The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.
If your voice -
Goes down
It’s a beautiful
day, isn’t it?
You aren’t really asking a question; you are only
inviting the listener to agree with you.
Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?
Yes, lovely.
Yes, lovely.
Goes up
You are asking a real question.
Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you?
No, I’m afraid not.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Which’ / ‘What’
Which, What
=
both are used for choices. They are often used
interchangeably.
What - a choice between or among things.
(usually objects)
Which – a choice between or among a
limited number of things/possibilities
(usually objects and people)
What books do you prefer?
What kind of services do you want?
Which do you prefer: romance novels or
science fiction?
Which of these shirts is yours?
‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’
Structure
‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject +
‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’?
Examples
Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’
A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.
We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time.
(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)
‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject +
‘been’+ verb –ing
Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’
A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.
We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time.
(8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)
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eClass English
Short Questions
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.
These are questions
formed with
incomplete sentences.
You can only use
them when the
context has been
clearly established.
They ask for feedback,
check understanding, ask
for clarification, ask for
advice / suggestions, make
requests and verify
agreement.
Here are some examples:
Short Questions
Possible complete form
Any thoughts?
Suggestions?
Ideas?
Any problems?
Objections?
Anything serious?
Louder, please?
Sorry?
Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?
Do you have any suggestions?
Can you give me some ideas?
Have you been having any problems?
Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?
Are the problems serious?
Could you speak a bit louder, please?
Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.
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6GRAMMAR BOOK
Articles and Nouns
Definite and Indefinite Articles
An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being
made by the noun.
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates
that its noun is not yet a particular one.
Language Use Example
The indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.
A
- a noun in a general context.
The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.
The
Language Use Example
The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.
A
with consonants.
The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.
An
with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
or vowels sounds
It’s an honor.
Exceptions:
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
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eClass English
The Plural
Plural rules
To make a noun plural add
Examples
– s a flower two flowers
a book two books
For nouns ending in:
–s / –sh / –ch / –x – es bus : buses dish : dishes
box : boxes church : churches
For nouns ending in:
Also: potato : potatoes
tomato: tomatoes
–y – ies baby : babies party : parties
but –ay / –ey / –oy – ys day : days monkey: monkeys
For nouns ending in:
–f / –fe – ves shelf : shelves wife: wives
Some nouns have irregular endings man men
woman women
foot feet
child children
person people
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Names of Countries: Capitals
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)
Names of
countries have
capital letters.
He’s a friend from France.
They live in Spain.
I am from the United States!
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eClass English
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
a university (pronounced yuniversity)
A noun can be
countable
or
uncountable
Countable nouns
Examples
Uncountable nouns
Examples
You can use one/two/three etc. +
countable nouns. (you can count them)
Countable nouns can be singular or plural.
You cannot say one/two/three etc.
Uncountable nouns only have one form.
You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns.
Uncountable nouns are always singular.
(a) car
(a) man
(a) house
(an) idea
I have a car.
I have two cars.
water
rice
money
salt
music
I have money.
I have some money.
Exclamations with ‘what a’
‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun
‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun
What a rude man!
What a nice dress!
What beautiful weather!
What lovely flowers!
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Construction of Compound Nouns
A compound noun
=
two nouns joined together.
One noun modifies the other.
Example:
tooth, paste: toothpaste
Compound nouns can be written in these ways:
There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must
check a dictionary for the correct form.
1. The two words are joined together.
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom
2. They are joined using a hyphen.
Example: check-in
3. They appear as two separate words.
Example: full moon
Other Examples:
ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather
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eClass English
The use and omission of ‘the’
Use
Examples
The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.
uncountable nouns when we are
(perhaps one of many chairs)
thinking of one particular thing.
Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.
(a particular chair)
No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)
people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing.
(children in general)
No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year.
countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)
islands, cities, mountains.
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with I live in the USA.
‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland.
seas, rivers and canals.
The Atlantic Ocean is very big.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Definite articles with geographical names
Use
Examples
No ‘the’ Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain
Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.
The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,
the Philippines
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic
‘Kingdom’, ‘States’.
of Ireland, The United Kingdom
The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU
No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,
and parks. ( generally)
Wesminister Abbey
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eClass English
Nouns without singular forms
Some plural nouns have no singular forms.
Nouns referring to objects composed of
Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts,
2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas
When used as a countable noun, use
‘pair of’
Some collective nouns
Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings
Negation of the indefinite article
The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:
Structure
With a singular countable noun:
‘Not………..a’
With plural countable nouns and
uncountable nouns
‘Not………………any’
Examples
I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen.
There aren’t any buses here.
It doesn’t require any equipment.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
7Pronouns and Determiners
Subject Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
I
You (singular)
He
She
It
We
You (plural)
They
Object Pronouns
Object Pronouns Examples Use
(subject (object
pronoun) pronoun)
I me Ann knows me. We use:
You you Ann knows you. a verb +
He him Ann knows him. object pronoun
She her Ann knows her.
It it Ann knows it.
We us Ann knows us.
They them Ann knows them.
It’s nice.
I Iike it.
They’re nice.
I like them.
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eClass English
Possessive Pronouns
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs
(possessive
pronoun)
I my mine
you your yours
he his his
she her hers
we our ours
they their theirs
We use my/your etc. + a noun
My hands are cold.
We use mine/yours etc. without a noun
Is this book mine or yours?
Possessive pronouns show possession and answer
the question ‘whose’.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples
I myself
You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.
He himself We use reflexive pronouns
She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results
It itself sentence are the same person of the test.
We ourselves or non-person.
You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.
They themselves
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘No’ / ‘None’
No Use Examples
‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread.
exclude all possibilities.
- There were no problems.
None Use Examples
‘None’ When no part of - Do you have any more pie?
something is left.
No, sorry, I have none.
When none exists, not even
a group of people or a small amount
of something.
- When she returned to the
office, none of us
recognized her with her new haircut.
The Possessive
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s
Examples:
It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John)
It’s my mother’s umbrella.
Chile’s economy is doing well.
friend’s and friends’
My house
Our house
My friend’s house = one friend
(=his house or her house)
(singular)
My friends’ house = 2 or more friends
(= their house)
(plural)
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eClass English
More uses of the Possessive
The possessive –’s can also
be used with dates, durations
and distances.
We add ’s to a singular noun
and an apostrophe (’) to a
plural noun, for example:
Dates
Durations
Distances
Sunday’s weather
Tomorrow’s flight
Next year’s budget
Three weeks’ vacation
A hundred miles’ drive
The Indefinite Possessive
Use Structure Examples
I met a friend of Lucy’s.
We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this new
before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your boss’s?
We can say ‘my friend’ but not
(’s)
‘a my friend’. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)
structures.
determiner + noun + of
How’s that brother of yours?
+ possessive
(mine, yours, his, hers,
Peter is a cousin of mine.
ours, theirs)
( a, that = determiners)
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Use of the pronoun ‘one’
The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace:
•a countable noun already expressed
•a noun that hasn’t been expressed
These
chocolates are nice
Would you like one?
Would you like one? =
Would you like a chocolate?
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)
Which one
do you want?
This one
One (singular)
Which one? = which hat?
Ones (plural)
Which ones? = which
flowers?
Which one
do you want?
The white
ones
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Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’
eClass English
The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation
to the speaker.
this that these those
This (singular)
These (plural)
Refers to an object or person near the speaker
Examples:
Is this John’s house?
This is a nice surprise!
That (singular)
Those (plural)
Position
Refers to an object or person further away
Examples:
Who owns that house?
That’s nothing to do with me.
Examples:
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.
b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.
c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?
d) Alone when the noun is understood. I’ll never forget this.
‘Here’ / ‘There’
‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us.
‘There’ is used for something that is far from us.
Here is the money (in my hand).
There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Some’ / ‘Any’
Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.
‘Some’: in positive sentences,
offers and requests.
I have got some money.
Would you like some water? (offer)
Can I have some bread? (request)
$
I have
some money.
‘Any’: in negative sentences
and questions
I haven’t got any money.
Do you have any information?
I don’t have
any money.
‘Any’: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time.
permission, possibility,
or restriction.
Any of these designs are fine.
‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.
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eClass English
‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’
Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in
positive sentences, negative sentences
and questions.
Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative
sentences and in questions.
Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative
sentences, positive sentences and in questions.
Ann has a lot of meetings.
I have a lot of work to do.
Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.
How much coffee did you drink?
I don’t have many classes today.
Did many people come to the party?
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘How much’ / ‘How many’
‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity
‘How much’ + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?
How much time do you have?
‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?
How many books are there?
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’
To compare two things that are the same.
‘as much as’ Use with: Examples:
singular, uncountable nouns
You have as much money as I do.
(= the same amount)
‘not as much as’
You don’t have as much money as I do.
‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.
‘not as many as’
There aren’t as many parks in Santiago
as there are in Buenos Aires.
We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.
Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.
It’s twice as much as the rent.
(=It’s twice as much money as the rent)
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eClass English
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?
‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’
When they refer to a singular noun,
the verb is singular.
When they refer to a plural noun, the
verb is plural.
Examples:
Some of the meal was really good.
None of the presentation is interesting.
Some of the books are quite funny.
None of the stories are interesting.
‘Either…or’
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.
‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’
I’m not happy.
I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’)
I’m not
happy.
I’m not
happy either.
I can’t cook.
I can’t cook either.
(not ‘I can’t …too’)
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’
Use
Example
‘Either…….or’ A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.
? or ?
Either
Either you come to class or you do the
work at home.
‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.
She’s neither nice nor helpful.
neither
(not + either)
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’
‘Everybody’ (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.
(all the people) All the people need friends.
‘Nobody’ (no one) singular Nobody is here.
(no people) No people are here.
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eClass English
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags
Everybody, somebody, nobody are followed by singular verbs.
However, if they are followed by a question tag, the tag is in the plural.
Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody needs
friends, don’t they?
(all the people)
Somebody (someone) singular Somebody has to go
shopping, don’t they?
( a person but we don’t know who)
Nobody (no one) singular Nobody really knows, do
they?
(no people)
Nobody + verb in the positive form. Example: Nobody likes Mike.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably.
They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.
John and Paul looked at each other.
(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive.
They took each other’s hands.
We often meet at one another’s places.
Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship
between two subjects whereas one another was used for a
relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,
most do not observe this distinction.
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)
The children are sitting opposite one another.
(More than two subjects)
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eClass English
Different meanings of ‘all
‘All’ = all of
something limited.
It is used with uncountable or
plural countable nouns.
‘All’ + noun
All cities have the same problem.
‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall.
this/that/these/those (demonstrative)
All these books are mine.
my/your etc. (possessive adjective)
I have spent all my money.
Personal Pronouns
personal pronoun + ‘all’
‘all of’ + personal pronoun
with Subject Pronouns
Subject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb
Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’
Have you read these books?
I’ve read them all.
I’ve read all of them.
The girls all left.
We will all have some juice.
They are all ready to go.
With a singular countable noun = ‘every’
Every student in the class passed the exam.
Every country has a national flag.
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‘A little’ / ‘A bit’
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity
Structure Use Examples
‘A little’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air.
It can also replace the noun to
‘Do you want some coffee?’
avoid repetition.
‘A little, please.’
‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.
‘A little’ Adverb of degree. We’re a little busy today.
‘A little’ + adjective This tooth aches a little.
Verb + ‘a little’
Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.
(negative connotation)
‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?
‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.
It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels
repetition.
do you have?’
‘Few’
‘A few.’
(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.
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eClass English
Use of ‘both’
‘Both’ = two elements
With nouns
With determiners
Before a noun with a determiner (the, this,
my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both
of’ are possible.
With object pronouns
(me, you, him, her, it, us, them)
Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun.
‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns.
With verbs
Both goes after auxiliaries and before
other verbs.
I want both books.
Both shirts are good.
I want both (of) those books.
Both (of) the books.
Both of them are my sisters.
She has invited both of us.
She has invited us both.
We have both gone to the beach.
We both want to go.
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8Relative Clauses and
GRAMMAR BOOK
Dependent Clauses
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
Relative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A ‘clause’ is part of a sentence. A
‘relative clause’ tells us which person or thing the speaker means.
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
relative clause
A relative clause joins two sentences:
I met a woman. She speaks two languages.
she who
I met a woman who speaks two languages.
WHO people
I know a lot of people who live in London.
THAT things or people
The man that lives next door is very friendly.
Barbara works for a company that makes computers.
WHICH things
Emma lives in a house which is 500 years old.
WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.)
A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.
WHERE a place
That is the hotel where Tom got married.
WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb
in the relative clause)
The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.
( I wanted to see her)
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eClass English
There are two types of
relative clauses.
Defining Relative Clauses
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
The relative clause tells you which person or thing
the speaker means.
We do NOT use commas.
Non- defining Relative Clauses
My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.
The relative clause does not tell you which person
or thing the speaker means. (We already know
which thing or person is meant.)
This is extra information about the person or thing.
We use commas.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘That’ and Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an
independent clause.
When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or
a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent
clause is in the present also.
Reported Speech
When ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see
reported speech)
Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)
‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it
can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.
*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining
and non-defining clauses.
Subject or Object Pronoun?
Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.
the apple that is laying on the table
Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.
the apple (that) George laid on the table
Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted.
We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.
‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.
This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages.
‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.
Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.
‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.
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eClass English
When ‘that’ may be left out
‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.
Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was
left out.
feeling better.
Examples: said, thought, suggested
However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after
certain verbs
Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed
James replied that he was
feeling better.
After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right.
‘that’ can be left out.
Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)
in some common two-word
she doesn’t hear you.
conjunctions such as:
I was having such a nice
‘so that’
time (that) I didn’t want to
‘such…that’
leave.
‘now that’
‘providing that’
‘provided that’
‘supposing that’
‘considering that’
‘assuming that’
Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the
when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in
*See ‘that + dependent clauses’
Brighton
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause
Structuree Examples
‘To hope’ + future She hopes he’ll come.
I hope you won’t have any problems getting home.
‘To hope’ + present simple He hopes the traffic is all right.
(refers to the future) I hope the water is not too cold.
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9Adjectives and Adverbs
eClass English
Possessive Adjectives
A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close
relationship.
Possessive adjectives Examples Use
(subject pronoun)
We use:
I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun
You your You like your job. to show possession
He his He likes his job
She her She likes her job.
It its It likes its food. (The dog)
We our We like our jobs.
They their They like their jobs.
my hat our hats your hat
her hat
their hats
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’
‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’
=
More than you want, more than is good.
This is a negative concept.
Structure
‘Too’ + adjective/adverb
Examples
The music is too loud.
‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns
There is too much sugar in my tea.
‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns
She has too many books.
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eClass English
Placement of Enough
‘Enough’
=
sufficient, adequate
Structure
After adjectives and adverbs
Before nouns and noun phrases
After verbs (including past participles)
He can’t reach the shelf.
He’s not tall enough.
Examples
I’m not tall enough.
You drive fast enough.
There isn’t enough time.
He doesn’t work enough.
I’ve eaten enough.
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’
Also As well Too
Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for
emphasis (with commas)
I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.
I, too, have a dog.
She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.
She, too, studies English.
She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.
She, too, is tall.
We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too.
We, too, are Chinese.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.
To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly
Examples:
Accidently
Angrily
Badly
Quickly
Safely
Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:
These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early
Good (adjective) well (adverb)
Your English is very good.
You speak English very well.
Spelling Rules
-If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily
Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily
Adverbs of Time / Frequency
Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something.
How often do you go to the mall?
I sometimes go to the mall.
never
seldom/rarely
sometimes*
often
usually
aways
-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/
Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely
-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/
Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Adverb placement Examples
Before a verb
I never go to the mall.
I always play basketball on the weekends.
She often practices English.
After verb ‘to be’
I am always tired.
She is usually late for English class.
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*Sometimes can also go before the subject.

eClass English
The Adverb ‘that’
‘that’ as an adverb
Structure Use Example
‘That’ + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid?
of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
Examples:
The train stopped suddenly.
I opened the door slowly.
Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:
Adjective
-Sue is very quiet.
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game
which is a noun)
Adverb
-Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)
-Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)
-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’
‘Yet’ = until now
Bill will be
here soon.
Where’s Bill?
He’s very late.
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.
They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use
Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.
Are you ready to go yet?
No, not yet..
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eClass English
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’
Still
=
something is the same as before
THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED
An hour ago it was raining.
It is still raining now.
Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)
Yet
=
until now
Bill will be
here soon.
Where’s Bill.
He’s very late.
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.
They are still waiting for Bill.
Bill hasn’t come yet.
Use
Examples
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?
She isn’t here yet.
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.
Are you ready to go yet?
Not yet.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is formed when two or
more adjectives work together to modify
the same noun.
The second part of the compound adjective may be:
An adjective
A present participle
A past participle
A noun + ed
Irregular
(Do not follow the
structures above)
ice-cold
heartbreaking
well-deserved
old-fashioned
second-hand
HEART BREAKING
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eClass English
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed
Ending in –ing Use Examples
Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.
adjective + –ing
in –ing, it means that the
particular person or thing
causes a particular effect.
Ending in –ed Use Examples
Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am always
adjective + –ed –ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.
particular person or thing
experiences a particular effect.
Adjectives ending in –ing
Some adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb.
Examples:
Disgust
Bore
Interest
Depress
Surprise
disgusting
boring
interesting
depressing
surprising
Adjectives ending in –ing
Tells you about the situation
Examples:
My job is boring.
The news was shocking.
It was surprising that he passed the
exam.
Adjectives ending in –ed
Tells you how somebody feels.
Examples:
I’m bored with my job.
We were shocked when we heard the news.
Everyone was surprised that he passed the
exam.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The past participle as an adjective
Some past participles can be used as adjectives.
Regular Verbs add –ed or –d
Examples: worked, finished, boiled
Irregular Verbs
No general rules
Some common irregular past participles
break broken drive driven
write written eat eaten
fall fallen forget forgotten
give given see seen
take taken know known
fly flown drink drunk
swim swum throw thrown
Examples:
That is a broken cup.
We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.
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eClass English
Adverbs of Degree
Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.
Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.
They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity
totally somewhat hardly
completely somehow scarcely
entirely fairly barely
thoroughly
rather
absolutely
kind of
definitely
positively
+++ +
almost
slightly
very
a bit
extremely
a little
really
quite
practically
Use / Structure
Place the adverb before the adjective or
adverb they are modifying
Place the adverb before the main verb
Example
The water was extremely cold.
She has almost finished.
Examples:
I’m really enjoying working on this project.
The exam was fairly easy.
He has barely worked this year.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Adverbs and Adjectives
Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we
can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:
Adverb Adjective Other uses
good well
difficult with difficulty
public publicly
deep deep (place) deeply (feeling)
direct direct directly (=soon)
hard hard hardly (=seldom)
high high (place) highly (figurative)
late late lately (=recently)
most most mostly (=usually)
near near nearly (=almost)
pretty pretty (=rather) prettily
short short shortly (=soon)
The following adjectives are daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little,
also used as adverbs long, low, monthly, much, straight,
(without modification) weekly, yearly, …
adverbs are also used to give extra information
about adjectives (or other adverbs).
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eClass English
Uses of ‘so’
Structure + Examples
‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation
You’re so kind!
Don’t be so sensitive!
‘that’ clauses
so…………that
It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)
He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.
Substitute word
‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.
The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.
We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
The placement of ‘even’
Use
We use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.
Example
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.
Use
We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)
Example
I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.
Position of even
‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb
Even my sister will be there.
Even you can come.
Auxiliary + ‘even’ + verb
I don’t even know you.
I have even invited John.
*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way
characterize that noun.
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eClass English
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’
‘Even if’ and ‘even though’ mean basically the same thing: ‘although’. They have the
following distinct meanings:
Structure Use Examples
‘Even though’ Concession. Even though you’re my
Describes a reality that
friend, I can’t trust you.
seems to contradict main clause.
Even though she tried her
best, she fell twice.
‘Even if’ Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend,
A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldn’t trust you.
All conditional forms can be used.
He won’t transfer to Africa,
even if they double his salary.
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’
Use
‘Quite’ = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’
‘Quite’ goes before a/an
Examples
It’s quite cold. You’d better put a coat on.
Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)
‘Quite a few’ = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities.
Example: I have quite a few letters for you.
Quite also means ‘completely’.
Example: ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)
With theses adjectives, ‘quite’ means ‘completely’:
sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious
unnecessary extraordinary impossible
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10
GRAMMAR BOOK
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparing equals using ‘as…as’
Structure
‘as’ + adjective / adverb + ‘as’
Use
To compare two people or things according to a common trait.
Examples
My brother is as tall as my dad.
I’m as old as you are.
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eClass English
Regular and Irregular Comparatives S
I’m 93.
I’m 92.
40
KG
50
KG
old
older
heavy
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences
with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’.
heavier
1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.
old
older
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier English is easier than Russian.
easy
easier
2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.
beautiful
more beautiful
Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)
Example:
hot hotter big bigger fat fatter
Irregular Comparatives
good
better
bad
worse
far
farther/further
much/many
more
little
less
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Regular and Irregular Superlatives
Box A is bigger than Box B.
Box A is bigger than all the other boxes.
Box A is the biggest box.
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use
‘the’, because there is only one superlative.
1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.
old
the oldest
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.
easy
the easiest
2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.
(before the adjective)
beautiful
the most beautiful
Spelling Rules
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.
Example:
hot – hottest big – biggest fat – fattest
Irregular Superlatives
good the best
bad
the worst
far
the farthest/ the furthest
much/many the most
little
the least
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eClass English
‘The more . . . the more’
Structure
‘the’ + comparative..............., ‘the’ + comparative
Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together.
Examples
The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.
The more I learn, the more I know.
The older I get, the happier I am.
A use of the comparative
Structure
‘the’ + comparative
Use
Sometimes a comparative may express an
opposition between 2 elements without actually
stating both elements (the second element is implied)
Examples
The younger generation
(as opposed to ‘the older generation’)
This class is for the more intelligent students
(as opposed to ‘the slower students’)
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11
GRAMMAR BOOK
Prepositions
Prepositions of Time
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun
and the moment/day/time/date of the action.
Preposition Use Example
At Time I start work at 9 o’clock.
I go to bed at midnight.
The shops close at 5.30.
On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays.
Specific dates My birthday is on May 25 th.
New Year’s Day etc.
I go home on Christmas Day.
In Months My birthday is in June.
MT W TFSS
Seasons
6 7
Years
I take vacation in the summer.
I was born in 1980.
3
10
16 17
May
1 2
8 9
15
22 23
29 30
24
31
4 5
11 12
18 19
25 26
13 14
20 21
27 28
By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday.
It will be ready by the summer.
Fixed expressions:
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening
But
on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.
At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American)
At night
At the moment
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eClass English
Prepositions of Place
A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a
noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.
At
•General location
•Precise point in larger
space
In
•Inside of a place
•Country, city, district
something is located in
On
•Surface
at the corner
at the bus stop
at the door
at the front desk
in the garden
in London
in France
in a car
on the wall
on the ceiling
on the door
on a page
Here are some prepositions of place.
on above over in front of
beside
behind under below
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Final Preposition
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between
the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.
Verb + preposition
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.
Examples:
Listen to
Look at
Look for (search for, try to find)
Look after (take care of)
Talk about
Talk to
Worry about
Pay for
Depend on
Complain about
Go to
Go for
Go on
Go in
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:
Interrogative questions
(when the question word is the object of the
preposition)
Relative clauses
(when the relative pronoun is the object of
the preposition)
Infinitive clauses
What are you looking at?
What kind of music do you like to listen to?
This is the house that I am talking about.
That’s what I’m worried about.
I’ve got lots of music to listen to.
She has nothing to complain about.
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12 Conjunctions
Conjunctions
eClass English
A conjunction is a word that “joins” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a
logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.
Frequently Used Conjunctions:
‘And’
Examples:
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications and
sequential to another.
waited by the phone for a response.
-To suggest that one idea is the result of
another.
Kevin heard the weather report and
packed his camping gear.
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a
another.
pleasant personality.
-To suggest an element of surprise.
-To suggest that one clause is dependent
upon another, conditionally.
-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the
first clause.
‘Yet’
-To suggest addition, more of something.
-Despite, even though
-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur.
Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers
from severe pollution.
Use your credit cards frequently, and
you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.
My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test
and that didn’t surprise anyone.
She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.
The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.
They may yet win the game.
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‘Nor’
-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences.
He is neither young nor ambitious.
-Used with other negative expressions.
‘But’
That is not what I meant, nor should you
misinterpret my statement.
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still
on the first clause.
seems able to live quite comfortably.
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,
part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the
assignment in class.
- To use with the meaning of ‘with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.
the exception of’.
‘Or’
- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or you
achieved, excluding one or the other.
can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)
- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,
of alternatives.
or we can eat hamburgers.
- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the
clause.
country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.
- To suggest a restatement or ‘correction’ There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,
of the first part of the sentence.
or so our guide tells us.
- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for
class participation.
- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep asking
the use of an imperative.
her to design the uniforms each year.
‘For’
Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’
as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for
the preceding clause.
John thought he had a good chance to
get the job, for his father was on the
company’s board of trustees.
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eClass English
‘So’
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in large
with a comma.
gatherings, so it is no surprise that he
avoids crowds when he is at the beach.
- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his
family, so are his uncle, sister, and his
aunt Sally.
- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child
kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.
does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence
with a comma.
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Use of ‘so’ to express a goal
Examples:
I’m saving money so I can travel in the summer.
She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’
Objectives are expressed using ‘so that’ followed by:
Structure
Present simple
‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’
‘Will’ / ‘would’
Example
He’ll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.
He stayed after school so that he could help me
with my homework.
I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldn’t forget.
In an informal style, ‘that’ is often dropped.
Example:
I’ve come early so I can talk to you.
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eClass English
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’
Use
We can use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to say that things are similar.
Structure
‘Like’
- is similar to a preposition
•Like + noun / pronoun
•We can use ‘like’ to give examples
‘As’
- is a conjunction
•‘As’ + clause (subject + verb)
•‘As’ comes before nouns designating
tittles and functions
Example
You look like your sister.
He ran like the wind.
She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.
They did as they promised.
He worked as a taxi driver.
‘Like’ and ‘as’ can both be used as prepositions but have different meanings.
‘Like’ = ‘similar to’
‘As’ = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’
Compare:
‘As’ – Brenda Casey is the manager of a company. As the manager, she has to make many
important decisions.
(‘As the manager’ = in her position as the manager)
‘Like’ – Mary Stone is the assistant manager. Like the manager (Brenda Casey), she also has to
make important decisions.
(‘Like the manager’ = similar to the manager)
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Gerunds and Infinitives
Gerunds and Infinitives
The infinitive (‘to’ + verb) is used:
• To say why you do something
I go to the gym to get some exercise.
• To say why something exists
Here’s an example to help you.
• After ‘too’ and ‘enough’
It’s too cold to go swimming.
The gerund (verb ending in –ing) is used:
• After prepositions (see below)
He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.
• As non-count nouns
Climbing is safer than it looks
PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since
If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.
Verbs Followed by an Infinitive
She agreed to speak before the game.
agree consent hope prepare try
aim continue hurry proceed use
appear dare intend promise wait
arrange decide leap propose want
ask deserve leave refuse wish
attempt expect long remember
be able fail mean say
beg forget neglect shoot
begin get offer stop
bother happen ought strive
care have plan swear
choose hesitate prefer threaten
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eClass English
Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive
Everyone expected her to win.
advise choose have order send
allow command hire pay teach
ask dare instruct permit tell
beg direct invite persuade urge
bring encourage lead prepare want
build expect leave promise warn
buy forbid let remind
challenge force motivate require
Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.
Verbs Followed by a Gerund
They enjoyed working on the boat.
admit delay get through practice risk
advise deny have quit spend (time)
appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggest
avoid escape mind report tolerate
can’t help excuse miss resent waste (time)
complete finish permit resist
consider forbid postpone resume
Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund
We concentrated on doing well.
admit to depend on prevent (someone) from
approve of disapprove of refrain from
argue about discourage from succeed in
believe in dream about talk about
care about feel like think about
complain about forget about worry about
concentrate on
insist on
confess to
plan on
Expressions followed by the gerund
It’s no good It’s not worth It’s no use
It’s a waste of time Can’t stand Can’t bear
Can’t help
Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund
begin love dislike prefer
continue like hate start
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‘Get used to’
We use ‘get used to’ to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the
expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.
Structure:
‘get used to’ + noun or gerund
It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking up
to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.
‘Be used to’
We use the expression ‘be used to’ to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which
was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative
sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form.
Structure:
subject + be + used to + object.
Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.
Kurt is not used to horses.
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Verbs: Reactions and Preferences
Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund
(verb ending in –ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (‘to’ + verb) or a gerund.
Followed by the gerund
To enjoy
To mind
To resent
To object to
To miss
Cannot stand
They enjoy dancing very much.
I miss going to my English class.
Followed by gerund
or infinitive
To like
To love
To dislike
To hate
To loathe
To prefer
Cannot bear
I love eating.
I love to eat.
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Verb + Infinitive Clause
Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure.
Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want
verb + object + infinitive
Examples:
He wants John to rent a car.
They don’t allow people to smoke.
Many of these verbs can also be used in
the passive structure.
Subject + passive verb + infinitive
Examples:
We were advised to come early.
We were instructed to put down our pens.
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Verbs expressing a wish to act
Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (‘to’ + verb) or gerunds (verbs
ending in –ing).
To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York.
He intends going to new York.*
*A gerund with this verb
is only used in British English.
To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing?
What did he propose to do?
To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.
(attempt to do, make
an effort to )
To try Gerund I wouldn’t try rafting; it is very
(do something as an
dangerous.
experiment or test)
To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.
To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.
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Verb + Preposition ‘at’ / ‘to’
Verb + ‘at’
Verb + ‘to’
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT.
Talk / speak TO
Laugh / smile AT
Listen TO
Aim / point AT
Write TO
Invite (somebody) TO
-Why are you looking at me?
Explain (something) TO (someone)
-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)
-Can I speak to Jane please?
-I invited 200 people to my wedding.
-I need to apologize to my friend because
I shouted at her yesterday.
Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.
Shout AT somebody – when you are angry
Shout TO somebody – so that they can hear you
Throw something AT somebody/something – in order to hit them
Throw something TO somebody – for somebody to catch
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14 Conditionals
Conditionals
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)*
* For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below.
For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.
Conditional Structure Uses
Examples
eClass English
Zero ‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is
present simple
generally or always true.
If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.
First ‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ Used to describe a situation that is likely.
+ infinitive without ‘to’
‘If’ the weather is good, I will go to the beach.
Second ‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that
(present) ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’ is not likely.
If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house.
Describes a hypothetical situation
in the present.
Third ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + Used to describe a
(perfect) ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle hypothetical situation in the past.
It describes a situation that is
If I had won the lottery, I would have
impossible.
bought a car.
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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional
‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle
If I had seen you, I would have said hello.
Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible
and never happened.
Example:
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a
few days ago. Liz said:
‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’
What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’
Structure
‘Should’ + ‘have’ + past participle
Use
Regret or reproach (to blame someone)
Example
I should have studied harder. (regret)
You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)
(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption
regarding the past
You should have received my e-mail.
I sent it half an hour ago.
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15 Subjunctive and Wishes
Present Subjunctive
eClass English
FORM
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The
simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms
and tenses.
USE
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain
expressions (see below).
Examples:
• I suggest that he study.
• Is it essential that we be there?
• Don recommended that you join the committee.
NOTICE:
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the
Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/sheform
of the verb.
Examples:
YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’:
•You try to study often.
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME:
•It is important that you try to study often.
HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’:
•He tries to study often.
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE:
•It is important that he try to study often.
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Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive
The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:
to advise (that)
to ask (that)
to command (that)
to demand (that)
to desire (that)
to insist (that)
to propose (that)
to recommend (that)
to request (that)
to suggest (that)
to urge (that)
Examples
•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
•Donna requested Frank come to the party.
•The teacher insists that her students be on time.
Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive
The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:
It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)
Examples
•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.
•It is important she attend the meeting.
•It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the
Grand Canyon.
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eClass English
Negative Forms of Subjunctive
The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.
Examples:
•The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.
•The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours.
•I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.
The Past Subjunctive
Past Forms of the Subjunctive
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.
Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion.
Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.
However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings.
(‘was’ is often used informally in speech)
Examples
He wishes he were a better student.
If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.*
*This is also a second conditional. See below.
The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’.
Examples
If only I had more money.
I wish I were thinner.
Suppose she were married.
It’s not as if I were ugly.
Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive
and part 2 a conditional.
If only I had more money, I would buy a new car.
1 2
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Wishes and Regrets
Wish
=
To show you want a
situation to be different
Regret
=
To feel sorrow or
remorse for something
you did/did not do.
Wishes in the present
To make wishes about the present, use the past tense.
For the verb ‘to be’, use ‘were’.
Situation: My sister is untidy.
Wish: “I wish she were tidier.”
Wishes in the past (regret)
To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.
Situation: I didn’t go on a vacation this year.
Wish: “I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.”
Wishes about ability
To make wishes about ability use ‘could’.
Situation: I can’t play a musical instrument.
Wish: “I wish I could play a musical instrument.”
Wishes about habit and free will
To make wishes about habit and free will use ‘would’.
Situation: He sings in the office.
Wish: “I wish he wouldn’t sing in the office.”
(In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)
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16 Passives
The Passive Voice
eClass English
Passive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle
The passive exists in every tense.
We use an active verb to say what the subject does.
We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.
When we use the passive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’
Tense Active Passive
Present Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him.
Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.
Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.
Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned by him.
Future simple ‘will’ He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.
‘To be going to’ future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.
Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.
Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.
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The Impersonal Structure
An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different
ways to form an impersonal structure.
Passive form without the agent
The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’
We are expected at 7pm.
(Somebody expects us)
We drive on the left side of the road.
(the speaker is included in the group of people
in question)
You drink a lot of tea in Britain.
(the listener is included)
They are very friendly in Ireland.
(neither the speaker nor listener is included)
People (plural meaning)
Somebody/someone (singular meaning)
People in Ireland are very friendly.
Someone is on the phone for you.
Other Impersonal Structures:
gerund + object + ‘to be’ conjugated +
(adverb of frequency) + adjective
It + ‘to be’ conjugated +
(adverb of frequency) + adjective
+ infinitive
Reading English newspapers is often difficult.
Playing tennis is excellent exercise.
It is sometimes exciting to walk in the
pouring rain.
It was strange to say that Russian is
easier than English.
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17 Reported Speech
The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the
exact words.
eClass English
I’m feeling ill.
You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:
1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech)
Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’
2. You can use reported speech.
Tom said that he was feeling ill.
Reported speech:
-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)
-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)
-‘That’ is optional.
Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:
Direct speech
Reported speech
She said “I watch TV every day.” She said (that) she watched TV every day.
She said “I am watching.”
She said she was watching TV.
She said “I watched TV.”
She said she had watched TV.
She said “I have watched TV.” She said she had watched TV.
She said “I will watch TV.”
She said she would watch TV.
She said “I am going to watch TV.” She said she was going to watch TV.
She said “I can watch TV.” She said she could watch TV.
She said “I may watch TV.” She said she might watch TV.
She said “I must watch TV.” She said she had to watch TV.
She said “I should watch TV.” She said she should watch TV.
She said “I ought to watch TV.” She said she ought to watch TV.
She said “Watch TV.” She told someone to watch TV. *
*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’.
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General Guidelines for Reported Speech
1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.
2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something
immediately after it was said.
Immediate Reporting:
Later Reporting:
What did the teacher just say?
He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.
I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any
assignments?
He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.
3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.
She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.
4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.
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18 Phrasal Verbs
The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the
meaning.
eClass English
Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.
Preposition Use Example
Away Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away.
Disappearance: to sweep away
Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher.
Return to point of departure: to bring back
Reply: to answer back
Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.
Writing: to write down
Decrease: to turn down
In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.
Visit: to drop in
Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment.
Departure: to go off / to take off
because I have a class.
On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please?
Continuation: to go on
Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays.
Outside: to eat out
Distribution: to give out
Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.
Action done with care: to think over
Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I can’t hear you.
Increased volume: to speak up
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Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the
original verb.
Example:
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be
followed by an object.
Example:
He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.
Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an
object.
Example:
I made up the story. ‘Story’ is the object of ‘made up’.
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between
the verb and the preposition.
Example:
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the
preposition.
Example:
I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE
Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book.
I looked up the number in the phone book.
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eClass English
WARNING!
Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both
places, you must put the object between the verb and the
preposition if the object is a pronoun.
Example:
I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Expressions
‘To get’ + Adjective
The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective : Some adjectives used with ‘get’
meanings such as:
to become, show a change of state
To obtain
get hungry
To receive Examples: get thirsty
To buy It gets dark early in winter. get tired
To reach I’m getting tired of working get ready
To arrive (at a place) such long hours. get serious
To become It is getting warmer. get wet
get better
get prepared
get dressed
get bigger
‘To look forward to’
‘To look forward to’ = To think of a future event with anticipation
Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun
Example:
I am looking forward to the vacation.
Structure
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund
Examples:
I look forward to hearing from you.
He is looking forward to seeing you.
Get dressed
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eClass English
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun
‘kind of (a/an)’ + noun
When you ask for a more precise definition
or description of something.
What kind of (a) problem are you having?*
What kind of experience do you have?
* It is more informal to include ‘a’
To describe something in an approximate way,
not precise.
‘Kind of like (/a/an)’ + noun
To compare one thing to another in an
approximate or partial way.
She’s kind of rude.
It’s a kind of telephone but plays music as well.
It looks kind of like an earring, but is much
bigger.
‘Kind of’ = sort of / type of What sort/type of computer is that? =
What kind of computer is that?
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘To be likely’
‘To be likely’
=
high probability of something happening.
Present
‘To be likely’ + infinitive
Past
‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive
He is likely to pass the exam.
The meeting is likely to be very long.
The meeting was likely to be very long.
Negative
‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive
Related expression
‘It is likely that’
He is unlikely to come.
It’s likely that it will rain.
It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.
‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.
= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.
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eClass English
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’
‘To be left’ /‘to have left’ = remaining, not used, still there
Structure
‘to be left’
Subject + ‘be left’
to have left
This is a passive structure.
This is an active structure.
Example
The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.
Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’
Do you have any rooms left?
Yes, we have some rooms left.
‘For the sake of’
‘For the sake of’ = in the interests of
Structure
‘For’ + noun / noun phrase +’ -’s sake’
‘For’ + possessive adjective + ‘sake’
‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund
Examples
For John’s sake
For the children’s sake
For his sake
For their sake
For the sake of the children
For the sake of saving
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Expressions with ‘to have’
Use Examples
Here are some fixed expressions with the
verb ‘to have’
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?
To have lunch We will have lunch later.
To have a rest I’d like to have a rest before going out.
To have a look Have a look at this!
‘To have reason to’ + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.
( to analyze causes and consequences)
‘To have to do with something’ The report has to do with our financial
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.
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eClass English
Baseball Expressions
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it
has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and business
contexts.
Expression
Touch base
Playing field
On the ball
Ballpark figure
In the ballpark
Big league
To cover one’s bases
Home run
Play hard ball
Right off the bat
Example
It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.
Now that more companies have made offers,
we’re dealing with a bigger playing field.
Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.
I can only give you a ballpark figure.
The offer isn’t in the ballpark yet.
We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.
This is a complicated transaction; make
sure to cover your bases.
Jenny hit a home run with that deal.
We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to
get this deal.
Dan started criticizing right off the bat.
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‘To be at stake’
Structure Use Example
‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. If we don’t respond to this
This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial
to someone or something’s well-being stability will be at stake.
or reputation.
The firm’s reputation is at
stake following the recall of
its latest product.
These expressions are similar in meaning ‘to be at stake’:
‘to be in jeopardy’, ‘to be on the line’, ‘to be at risk’
Expressions of Increase
There are several different words and expressions to describe increase.
Use Expression Example
To describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.
general way.
To climb
Next year, productivity
should climb sharply.
To talk about slow or To creep up Stocks crept up last quarter.
gradual increase.
To edge up
To inch up
Prices are inching up due to inflation.
To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,
sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off.
To shoot up
To soar
Stocks are skyrocketing following
To go through the roof economic recovery.
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20 Other
‘There is’ / ‘There are’
eClass English
Affirmative Negative Question
Singular: There is There is not Is there…….?
There isn’t
There’s not
Plural: There are There are not Are there…..?
There aren’t
Examples:
STATION
There’s a man on the roof.
There’s a train in the station.
MT W TFSS
3
10
16 17
May
1 2
8 9
15
22 23
29 30
24
31
4 5
11 12
18 19
25 26
6 7
13 14
20 21
27 28
There are seven days in a week.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
Dates
First 1 st , Second 2 nd , Third 3 rd
Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4 th , Fifth 5 th , Sixth 6 th , Seventh 7 th , Eighth 8 th ,
Ninth 9 th , Tenth 10 th …
20 th , 21 st , 22 nd , 23 rd ….
30 th , 31 st , 32 nd , 33 rd ….
Days
Weekly Calendar
Week of_______________
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Years
Up until the year 2000,
years are pronounced
in two parts:
1925 = 19 part1
25 part2
=
‘Nineteen 1
twenty-five 2
’
Date (written form)
1998 = nineteen ninety-eight
2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)
1: American format = July 2, 2010
month / day / year = 07/02/2010
2: British format = 2 July 2010
day / month / year = 02/07/2010
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eClass English
Time
What time………?
What time is it?
What time do you get up?
= what time of day?
O’clock
The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour.
It’s six o’clock.
British English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.
12
11
1
12
10
2
11
1
10
2
9
3
9
3
8
4
4
7 5
8
6
7 5
6
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
It’s twenty past four. It’s quarter past three It’s half past twelve.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
It’s ten to two.
It’s quarter to five.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
American English
To express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
It’s twenty after four. It’s quarter after three. It’s twelve thirty.
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
12
11
1
10
2
9
3
8
4
7 5
6
It’s ten to two.
It’s quarter to five.
In both British and American English
You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes.
6:05 It’s six o five.
6:10 It’s six ten.
6:15 It’s six fifteen.
6:20 It’s six twenty.
6:30 It’s six thirty.
6:45 It’s six forty-five.
6:55 It’s six fifty-five.
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‘Have or ‘Make’ without ‘to’
eClass English
Use Structure Example
To cause someone to to ‘have’ or ‘make’ + I had him service my car.
do something direct object + infinitive without ‘to’ He made me laugh so much.
To cause something ‘to have’ + direct object + He had his car repaired.
to be done past participle She had her hair cut.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘To Let’
‘Let’ means the same as ‘to allow’ or ‘to permit’
but is more informal.
‘Let’ + object + infinitive without ‘to’
Example:
Please allow me to buy you a drink.
Please let me buy you a drink.
Example:
My parents don’t allow me to go out at night.
My parents don’t let me go out at night.
Remember, in the third person present we use ‘lets’ but in
the past simple we use ‘let’.
Conjugation of ‘to let’
The present
The past simple
I let I let
You let You let
He/She/It lets He/She/It let
We let We let
They let They let
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eClass English
‘When’ / ‘While’ + present
With conjunctions of time, like ‘when’ and ‘while’, we use the present tense.
Structure
‘Will’ + verb, conjunction of time + present simple
Examples:
They will eat when they arrive.
While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.
Conjunctions of time
after once
as soon as until
as long as when
as much as whenever
before wherever
while
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb
Structure Use Examples
‘How’ + adjective or Forms an open question. How tall are you?
adverb (you can’t answer yes or no) I am very tall. / I’m 1.60m
How high is Mt Everest?
It is extremely high. /
It’s 8848m
How often do you go to the cinema?
I hardly ever go.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’
Structure Use Examples
‘Had better’
Subject + ‘had better’ + infinitive -A firm suggestion You had better tell her the
without ‘to’
bad news.
Subject + ‘had better’ + not -An order You had better not finish the cake!
+ infinitive without ‘to’
‘Would rather’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.
infinitive without ‘to’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + not
+ infinitive without ‘to’
‘Would’ + subject + ‘rather’
+ infinitive without ‘to’
I would rather not go for a swim.
Would you rather go for a swim?
Expression of Preference
These expressions are used to talk about preference.
Structure
‘Would prefer’
Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’
(‘d)
‘Would rather’
Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’
(‘d)
Examples
I’d prefer to talk to someone else.
Would you prefer to stay at home?
He’d rather be on the beach.
Would you rather stay here or go away?
Used mainly in speech.
140

eClass English
Words ending in ‘ever’
The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it
doesn’t matter who/ what / which etc.
(‘any person who’, ‘any thing that’ etc. or ‘the unknown person who’, ‘the unknown
thing that’)
Word ending in
ever Examples
Whoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.
Whatever
Whichever
However
Whenever
Wherever
Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.
Choose whichever book you like.
However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.
Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky.
Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca- Cola.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘Whether’
‘Whether’
=
to talk about choices or
alternatives. Like ‘if’ it
expresses uncertainty.
The differences between ‘whether’ and ‘if’:
If
For situations with only one condition.
You can have dessert if you eat your
vegetables.
(the son having dessert depends on
consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)
Whether
To discuss two or more alternatives.
I don’t know whether we should invest right now or not.
Answer yes or no questions with ‘whether’ or ‘if’.
Sally asks: ‘Can you go shopping with me tonight?’
I’m not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. OR
I’m not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight.
Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.
Use ‘whether’ with infinitives that come after ‘to’.
Jenny doesn’t know whether to study for her test or
go to a movie with friends.
It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this
might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.
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eClass English
Emphatic ‘do’
For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.
Use
Insistence on speaker’s point of view.
Confirmation of what precedes.
Contradiction
Persuasion using the imperative
Examples
She does look pretty.
He said it would rain and it did rain.
He didn’t come to the party yesterday.
He did come, but he didn’t stay long.
‘I can’t do it! It’s too difficult!’
‘Do try again!’
Verbs expressing impressions and feelings
Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste,
to feel etc.
They may be followed by:
Structure
the preposition ‘like’
Examples
He looks like his father.
It sounds like you’re angry.
‘as if’ / ‘as though’
an adjective
You look as if you don’t understand me.
It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.
He looks happy.
This ice cream tastes good.
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GRAMMAR BOOK
‘I am told’
The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:
Structure
Examples
‘I am told’ (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of the
Instead of ‘I’ve been told’
sales department.
‘I forget’ (= I can’t remember) What time is the match tonight?
Instead of ‘I’ve forgotten’
I forget.
‘I hear’
Instead of ‘I’ve heard’
I hear you have been promoted.
144