english grammar
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Table of<br />
contents<br />
Unit 1 Present<br />
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions<br />
The verb ‘to have’ Present Simple<br />
The negative form – verb ‘to be’, Present<br />
...Simple<br />
Tags- short answers – verb ‘to be’, Present<br />
...Simple<br />
The Present Simple vs. Present Continuous<br />
The Present Continuous<br />
The Affirmative Imperative<br />
The Negative Imperative<br />
Verbs without a continuous form<br />
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions<br />
‘Always’ + Present Continuous<br />
Unit 2 Present Perfect and Past<br />
Construction and use of the Preterit* (Past<br />
...Simple)<br />
Regular and Irregular Verbs<br />
The Present Perfect<br />
Differences between Present Perfect and<br />
...Preterit* (Past Simple)<br />
The Present Perfect Continuous<br />
‘For’ /‘Since’ / ‘Ago’<br />
'Ever' / 'Never'<br />
Expressions with the Present Perfect<br />
The Preterit Continuous* (Past<br />
...Continuous)<br />
Past Perfect<br />
Past Perfect Continuous<br />
‘Used To’<br />
Unit 3 Future<br />
The Near Future be + -ing* (Present<br />
...Continuous for Future)<br />
The Future – ‘Will’<br />
Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’<br />
The Future – ‘Will’ + ‘To be going to’<br />
Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’<br />
The Future with ‘be’ + Infinitive<br />
*This is the title of the <strong>grammar</strong> point in the online software.<br />
3
Unit 4 Modals<br />
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood<br />
‘Can’ – perception and knowledge<br />
‘Can’, ‘could’, ‘to be able to’<br />
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice<br />
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability<br />
‘Must’ and ‘have to’<br />
Using ‘must’ for obligation<br />
Strong probability using ‘must’<br />
Absence of necessity<br />
‘May’ and ‘Might’<br />
‘Shall’<br />
‘Would like’: expressing wishes<br />
Modal Auxiliaries<br />
Near certainty in the past:<br />
...‘must have/ can’t have’<br />
Unit 5 Questions<br />
Questions without interrogative words<br />
Interrogative Words<br />
‘How long...’<br />
Past Interrogatives<br />
Question Tags<br />
‘Which’ / ‘What’<br />
‘How long…..(for)’/ ‘Since when'<br />
Short Questions<br />
Unit 6 Articles and Nouns<br />
Definite and Indefinite Articles<br />
The Plural<br />
Names of Countries: Capitals<br />
Countable and Uncountable Nouns<br />
Exclamations with ‘what a’<br />
Construction of Compound Nouns<br />
The use and omission of ‘the’<br />
Definite articles with geographical names<br />
Nouns without singular forms<br />
Negation of the indefinite article<br />
4
Unit 7 Pronouns and Determiners<br />
Subject Pronouns<br />
Object Pronouns<br />
Possessive Pronouns<br />
Reflexive Pronouns<br />
‘No’ / ’None’<br />
The Possessive<br />
More uses of the Possessive<br />
The Indefinite Possessive<br />
Use of Pronoun ‘one’<br />
Demonstrative Pronouns<br />
‘Here’/ ‘There’<br />
‘Some’ and ‘Any’<br />
‘How much’ / ‘How many’<br />
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’<br />
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?<br />
‘Either……or’<br />
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’<br />
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’<br />
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’<br />
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’<br />
Different meanings of ‘all’<br />
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’<br />
Use of ‘both’<br />
Unit 8 Relative Clauses and<br />
Dependent Clauses<br />
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs<br />
‘That’ and Dependent Clauses<br />
When ‘that’ may be left out<br />
‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause<br />
Unit 9 Adjectives and Adverbs<br />
Possessive Adjectives<br />
‘Too’ / ‘Too Much’<br />
Placement of ‘Enough’<br />
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’<br />
Adverbs of Time / Frequency<br />
The Adverb ‘that’<br />
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’<br />
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’<br />
Compound Adjectives<br />
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed<br />
Adjectives ending in –ing<br />
The Past Participle as an adjective<br />
Adverbs of Degree<br />
Adverbs and Adjectives<br />
Uses of ‘so’<br />
The placement of ‘even’<br />
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’<br />
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’<br />
5
Unit 10 Comparatives<br />
and Superlatives<br />
Comparing equals using ‘as…..as’<br />
Regular and Irregular Comparatives<br />
Regular and Irregular Superlatives<br />
‘The more . . . the more’<br />
A use of the comparative<br />
Unit 11 Prepositions<br />
Prepositions of Time<br />
Prepositions of Place<br />
Final Prepositions<br />
Verbs + prepositions<br />
Unit 12 Conjunctions<br />
Conjunctions<br />
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal<br />
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’<br />
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’<br />
Unit 13 Gerunds and Infinitives<br />
Gerunds and Infinitives<br />
Use of ‘be used to’<br />
Use of ‘get used to’<br />
Verbs: Reactions and Preferences<br />
Verb + Infinitive Clause<br />
Verbs expressing a wish to act<br />
Expressions followed by the gerund<br />
Verbs introducing a second action<br />
Unit 14 Conditionals<br />
Present Conditional* and Sequence<br />
...of Tenses with ‘if’* (Zero, First, Second)<br />
The Perfect Conditional* (Third Conditional)<br />
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’<br />
Unit 15 Subjunctive and Wishes<br />
Present Subjunctive<br />
Past Subjunctive<br />
Wishes and Regrets<br />
Unit 16 Passive<br />
The Passive Voice<br />
The Impersonal Structure<br />
Unit 17 Reported speech<br />
The Sequence of Tenses* (Reported<br />
...Speech)<br />
*This is the title of the <strong>grammar</strong> point in the online software.<br />
6
Unit 18 Phrasal Verbs<br />
The Main Postpositions* (Common phrasal<br />
...verbs)<br />
Phrasal Verbs<br />
Unit 19 Expressions<br />
‘To get’ + Adjective<br />
‘To look forward to’<br />
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun<br />
‘To be likely’<br />
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’<br />
‘For the sake of’<br />
Expressions with ‘to have’<br />
Baseball Expressions<br />
‘To be at stake’<br />
Expressions of Increase<br />
Unit 20 Other<br />
‘There is/are’<br />
Time<br />
‘Have’ or ‘make’ without ‘to’<br />
‘To let’<br />
‘When’ / ‘while’ + Present<br />
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb<br />
‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’<br />
Expressions of Preference<br />
Words ending in ‘ever’<br />
‘Whether’<br />
Emphatic 'do’<br />
Verbs expressing impressions<br />
...and feelings<br />
‘I am told’<br />
*This is the title of the <strong>grammar</strong> point in the online software.<br />
7
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Present<br />
The verb ‘to be’ and contractions<br />
The verb ‘to be’ expresses existence, action, or occurrence.<br />
Conjugation of ‘to be’ Contraction of ‘to be’ Use + examples<br />
( as a stative verb)<br />
I am I’m I am a student.<br />
You are You’re I’m a student.<br />
He /She /It is He’s / She’s / It’s<br />
We are We’re He is my brother.<br />
They are They’re He’s my brother.<br />
Negative ‘to be’ Negative contraction ‘to be’ Question<br />
I am not I’m not Am I?<br />
You are not You’re not or You aren’t<br />
He /She /It is not He’s / She’s / It’s not or<br />
He / She / It isn’t<br />
Is he/ she/ it?<br />
We are not We’re not or We aren’t<br />
They are not They’re not or They aren’t<br />
Are we / you / they?<br />
The verb ‘to have’<br />
The verb ‘to have’ is used to express possession, ownership, qualities or characteristics.<br />
The verb ‘to have’ Negative ‘to have’ Question<br />
I I don’t have Do + I + have…?<br />
You You don’t have you<br />
He /She / It He/ She/ It doesn’t have we<br />
We We don’t have they<br />
They They don’t have Does + he + have?<br />
she<br />
it<br />
Examples Examples Examples<br />
I have 2 brothers. I don’t have 2 brothers. Do you have 2 brothers?<br />
He has 2 brothers. He doesn’t have 2 brothers. Does he have 2 brothers?<br />
8
eClass English<br />
Present Simple<br />
We use the present simple for:<br />
◌ things that are true in general<br />
◌ things that happen sometimes or all the time<br />
◌ to describe regular actions, events or habits<br />
Present simple affirmative Present simple negative Present simple question<br />
I work I don’t work Do + I + work…?<br />
You work You don’t work you<br />
He /She / It works He / She /It doesn’t work we<br />
We work We don’t work they<br />
They work They don’t work Does + he + work?<br />
she<br />
it<br />
Examples Examples Examples<br />
I work everyday. I don’t work everyday. Do you work everyday?<br />
He works everyday. He doesn’t work everyday. Does he work everyday?<br />
Third person (He / She / It)<br />
You must always add an –s to the verb.<br />
Spelling<br />
Verbs ending in: –s / –sh / –ch pass : passes finish : finishes<br />
add<br />
–es<br />
Verbs ending in : –y study : studies try : tries<br />
add<br />
–ies<br />
Except when the verb is preceded by a vowel.<br />
play : plays<br />
Also do : does go : goes<br />
9
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Negative Form<br />
The negative form of the verb to be expresses the nonexistence, nonaction, or non<br />
occurrence of an action.<br />
Structure<br />
Examples<br />
The verb ‘to be’<br />
I am not<br />
Add : not or n’t to contractions You are not<br />
He /She /It is not<br />
We are not<br />
They are not<br />
They are not my friends. (aren’t)<br />
He is not my brother. (isn’t)<br />
Present Simple<br />
I<br />
don’t work.<br />
Add : do not (I, you, we, they) You don’t work.<br />
or don’t He / She /It doesn’t work.<br />
We don’t work.<br />
does not (he, she, it) They don’t work.<br />
or doesn’t<br />
I don’t play football on the weekends.<br />
He doesn’t go to university.<br />
Tags – short answers<br />
When we answer a question with ‘yes’ or ‘no’, it is usually followed by a tag which is<br />
a repetition of the verb ‘to be’ or an auxiliary.<br />
The verb ‘to be´<br />
Am I a teacher? Yes, you are. No, you’re not. / you aren’t.<br />
Are you a teacher? Yes, I am. No, I’m not.<br />
Is he a teacher? Yes, he is. No, he’s not. / he isn’t.<br />
Is she a teacher? Yes, she is. No, she’s not. / she isn’t.<br />
Are we teachers? Yes, we are. No, we’re not. / we aren’t.<br />
Are they teachers? Yes, they are. No, they’re not. / they aren’t.<br />
Present Simple<br />
Do I like football? Yes, you do. No, you don’t.<br />
Do you like football? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.<br />
Does he like football? Yes, he does. No, he doesn’t.<br />
Does she like football? Yes, she does. No, she doesn’t.<br />
Do we like football? Yes, we do. No, we don’t.<br />
Do they like football? Yes, they do. No, they don’t.<br />
10
The Present Simple and Present Continuous<br />
The present simple describes a present condition, regular or general action; the<br />
present continuous describes the action that is currently taking place.<br />
The Present Simple<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
- Regular actions or events I always eat eggs for breakfast.<br />
- When talking in general<br />
- Facts He often has English class.<br />
- Often used with adverbs<br />
of frequency – sometimes, Banks lend money to make profits.<br />
often, always, never etc.<br />
The Present Continuous<br />
- The action is not happening Catherine wants to work in Italy, so<br />
. at the time of speaking. she is learning Italian. (but<br />
perhaps she isn’t learning exactly<br />
at the time of speaking)<br />
He is having English class at<br />
- Now the moment.<br />
- For temporary situations Banks are lending more money<br />
(these days) to encourage<br />
businesses to expand.<br />
eClass English<br />
I’m eating.<br />
11
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Present Continuous<br />
Present continuous:<br />
something is happening now / at the moment / currently<br />
Past Now Future<br />
I’m working.<br />
He’s playing football.<br />
They’re watching television.<br />
Structure + Examples<br />
The verb ‘to be’ + verb –ing<br />
I am (not) verb-ing I am working.<br />
He/she/it is (not) verb-ing Chris is writing a letter.<br />
We/you/they are (not) verb-ing We’re having dinner.<br />
Question:<br />
What are you doing now?<br />
What is he doing now?<br />
I’m eating.<br />
We are<br />
running.<br />
It is raining.<br />
Spelling<br />
Verbs that end in –e drop the ‘e’ , add –ing<br />
Make – making, write – writing, come – coming, dance – dancing<br />
Verbs that end in –ie change to –ying<br />
Lie – lying, die – dying, tie – tying<br />
12
eClass English<br />
The Affirmative Imperative<br />
You can use the<br />
imperative form to<br />
give an order, a<br />
warning or advice.<br />
Sit down.<br />
Affirmative Imperative Structure Examples<br />
you (singular + plural) Infinitive without ‘to’ Be Quiet!<br />
Walk down the street<br />
I, he, she, we, they Let + object pronoun + Let me check in<br />
infinitive without ‘to’<br />
the dictionary.<br />
Let + noun phrase +<br />
infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Let Mark sit there.<br />
Let’s (us) go to the beach.<br />
Let them do what they want.<br />
The Negative Imperative<br />
The negative imperative form is used to give an order, warning or the advice to NOT<br />
perform a specific action.<br />
Negative Imperative Structure Examples<br />
you (singular + plural) Do not (don’t) Don’t be quiet!<br />
+ Infinitive without ‘to’ Don’t walk down the street<br />
I, he, she, we, they Do not (don’t) let + object Don’t let me fall asleep.<br />
pronoun + infinitive without ‘to<br />
Do not (don’t) let + noun phrase + Don’t let the children fall asleep.<br />
infinitive without ‘to’<br />
13
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Verbs without a continuous form<br />
Some verbs are never or hardly ever used in continuous forms.<br />
Many of these non-continuous verbs refer to states rather than actions.<br />
Mental and emotional states<br />
Use of the senses<br />
To believe<br />
To doubt<br />
To feel (= have an opinion)<br />
To imagine<br />
To know<br />
To (dis)like<br />
To love<br />
To hate<br />
To prefer<br />
To recognize<br />
To remember<br />
To see (= understand)<br />
To suppose<br />
To think (= have an opinion)<br />
To understand<br />
To want<br />
To wish<br />
To realize<br />
To appear<br />
To hear<br />
To look (=seem)<br />
To see<br />
To seem<br />
To smell<br />
To sound<br />
To taste<br />
Communicating and causing reactions<br />
To agree<br />
To deny<br />
To impress<br />
To please<br />
To satisfy<br />
To mean<br />
To disagree<br />
14
eClass English<br />
Verbs without a continuous form: exceptions<br />
Certain verbs which do not normally take the continuous form may take it in some cases.<br />
Verbs of perception<br />
When they express ‘voluntary actions’<br />
Stative verbs<br />
Expressing notions of belief,<br />
preference, feelings or an<br />
To see<br />
To hear<br />
To feel<br />
To smell<br />
To taste<br />
I’m seeing Lynn tomorrow.<br />
I see what you mean.<br />
NOT I’m seeing what you mean<br />
To think (to reflect)<br />
What are you thinking about?<br />
intellectual activity.<br />
. NOT to think ( have an opinion)<br />
What are you thinking of it?<br />
What do you think of it?<br />
‘Always’ + Present Continuous<br />
‘Always’ is normally used with the simple present. However, sometimes it is used with the<br />
present continuous in these situations:<br />
Use<br />
To express a repeated action which<br />
has an effect on the speaker.<br />
Example<br />
You’re always running late!<br />
To talk about unexpected or<br />
unplanned events.<br />
Compare:<br />
When Alice comes to see me, I always<br />
meet her at the station.<br />
(a regular, planned arrangement)<br />
I’m always meeting Mrs. Jones at the supermarket.<br />
(accidental, unplanned meeting)<br />
15
2GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Present Perfect and Past Simple<br />
The Preterit (Past Simple)<br />
I watched television<br />
yesterday.<br />
USE<br />
To talk about completed actions or finished events that<br />
happened at a specific time (yesterday, last year, etc.)<br />
Regular Verbs:<br />
For regular verbs add –ed<br />
For regular verbs ending in –y , drop the –y , add –ied<br />
I watched I didn’t watch Did you watch?<br />
You watched You didn’t watch he/she/it<br />
He/she/it watched He/she/it didn’t watch<br />
We watched We didn’t watch we<br />
They watched They didn’t watch they<br />
Examples<br />
I watched television last night. I didn’t watch television last night. Did you watch television last night?<br />
Irregular Verbs: There is no rule for the construction of irregular verbs in the past, therefore<br />
you must memorize them.<br />
Here are some important irregular verbs:<br />
begin began fall fell leave left sell sold<br />
break broke find found lose lost sit sat<br />
bring brought fly flew make made sleep slept<br />
build built forget forgot meet met speak spoke<br />
buy bought get got pay paid stand stood<br />
catch caught give gave put put take took<br />
come came go went read read(red) tell told<br />
do did have had ring rang think thought<br />
drink drank hear heard say said win won<br />
eat ate know knew see saw write wrote<br />
16
eClass English<br />
Irregular Verbs<br />
For the preterit (past simple) and past participle of regular verbs add -ed<br />
However, for irregular verbs there are no rules. You must memorize them.<br />
Here are some common irregular verbs:<br />
Verb Past Tense Past Participle<br />
be was/were been<br />
begin began begun<br />
catch caught caught<br />
choose chose chosen<br />
do did done<br />
drink drank drunk<br />
eat ate eaten<br />
fall fell fallen<br />
fly flew flown<br />
give gave given<br />
have had had<br />
17
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Present Perfect<br />
The Present Perfect is used to indicate actions that happened in a unfinished period of time.<br />
Structure<br />
I/you/we/they have + past participle<br />
He/she/it has + past participle<br />
Have I/you/they/we + past participle….?<br />
Has he/she/it + past participle…?<br />
Past Participles<br />
go gone<br />
have had<br />
take taken<br />
eat eaten<br />
drink drunk<br />
sing sung<br />
Uses<br />
Examples<br />
Shows there is a connection with now. -‘Where is your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I have lost it.’<br />
An action in the past has a result now.<br />
(I can’t find it now.)<br />
Describes an action that started in the<br />
past and continues in the present.<br />
-‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she has gone to the mall.’<br />
(She is at the mall now.)<br />
-I have tried to learn French, but haven’t succeeded.<br />
-I have always studied a lot in university.<br />
Shows that an action has<br />
-Ouch! I have (just) cut my finger.<br />
recently happened.<br />
-The road is closed. There has (just) been an accident.<br />
- (Just is used to show that something -I have (just) finished a great book!<br />
happened recently)<br />
They are at home. They are going out. They have gone out.<br />
(=They are not at home now)<br />
18
eClass English<br />
Differences between the Past Simple and the Present Perfect<br />
Uses<br />
Past Simple<br />
When the time period has finished<br />
Present Perfect<br />
When the time period has not finished<br />
Examples<br />
I saw three movies last week.<br />
(the action has finished in a specific time<br />
period in the past).<br />
I have seen three movies this week.<br />
(the week has not finished, so more actions in<br />
this time period may take place).<br />
Past Simple<br />
To indicate “old” information<br />
Present Perfect<br />
When giving recent news<br />
Martin has crashed his car last year.<br />
Martin crashed his car again.<br />
Past Simple<br />
When the time of the action is clear<br />
Present Perfect<br />
When the time of action is not specific<br />
I saw that movie on Thursday. (specific day)<br />
I have already seen that movie.<br />
(no specific day or date of the action)<br />
Past Simple ‘For’<br />
‘For’ is used in the past simple<br />
when we want to indicate the period of time that<br />
the action occurred but has already finished.<br />
Present Perfect<br />
‘For’ and ‘since’ are used when we want to<br />
indicate the period of time that the action has<br />
been occurring, though the action has<br />
not finished yet.<br />
I lived in Victoria for five years.<br />
I have lived in Victoria for five years.<br />
19
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Present Perfect Continuous<br />
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past<br />
and has continued up until this moment in the present.<br />
Structure<br />
I/you/we/they have been + verb –ing<br />
He/she/it has been + verb –ing<br />
Have I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….?<br />
Has he/she/it been + verb –ing …?<br />
Uses<br />
Describes an action that has recently<br />
stopped and has a connection with now.<br />
Describes an action that has been<br />
repeated over a certain amount of time.<br />
Examples<br />
-Paul is very tired. He has been working hard.<br />
-Why are your clothes so dirty? What have<br />
you been doing?<br />
-I have been learning English for three years.<br />
-She has been playing basketball since she<br />
was 6 years old.<br />
-They have been traveling to Europe every<br />
summer since 1995.<br />
It is raining now. It began raining two hours ago<br />
and it is still raining.<br />
How long has it been raining?<br />
It has been raining for two hours.<br />
We often use the present perfect continuous in<br />
this way, especially with<br />
How long, for… and since…The activity is still<br />
happening (as in the example) or has just stopped.<br />
20
eClass English<br />
‘For’ / ‘Since’ / ‘Ago’<br />
For, since, ago<br />
=<br />
to say how long something has been happening.<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
‘For’ = a period of time two hours a week<br />
20 minutes 50 years<br />
five days<br />
a long time<br />
six months ages<br />
I have been studying English for 3 years.<br />
‘Since’ = the start of a period 8 o’clock 1977<br />
Monday<br />
Christmas<br />
12 May lunchtime<br />
April<br />
they were at school<br />
I have been studying English since 2000.<br />
‘Ago’ = expression of time + ago<br />
is usually used with the past tense<br />
six weeks ago<br />
a long time ago<br />
two days ago<br />
I studied English 5 years ago.<br />
21
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Ever’ – ‘Never’<br />
‘Ever’<br />
=<br />
at some/any time<br />
up to now<br />
‘Never’<br />
=<br />
not ever<br />
Structure Examples<br />
Question – ‘Ever’<br />
Used in present simple and present perfect<br />
Auxiliary + subject + ‘ever’ + main verb<br />
Affirmative – ‘Ever’<br />
Used with ‘if’ or superlative<br />
Negative – Negative<br />
‘Never’ + verb in affirmative<br />
Do you ever play tennis?<br />
Have you ever been to Argentina?<br />
She’s the nicest person I’ve ever met.<br />
(superlative)<br />
Visit the Eiffel Tower if you ever go to<br />
Paris. (if)<br />
I never drink and drive.<br />
I’ve never been to Argentina.<br />
22
eClass English<br />
Expressions with the Present Perfect<br />
The Present Perfect is used to indicate unfinished past actions, past actions when<br />
the time is not specified, and when a past action is relevant now.<br />
Structure + Use<br />
We can use these expressions with the<br />
present perfect:<br />
Today<br />
All day<br />
This week<br />
This year<br />
Already<br />
Just<br />
Yet<br />
Lately<br />
Recently<br />
In the last two months<br />
All my life<br />
So far<br />
Ever<br />
Never<br />
They refer to a period of time that is<br />
not yet over or is recent.<br />
We cannot use these expressions with the<br />
present perfect:<br />
Two months ago<br />
One year ago<br />
Last week<br />
Yesterday<br />
When I was a child<br />
They refer to a time in the past that is over.<br />
Examples<br />
He’s been in a bad mood all day.<br />
I’ve visited my grandmother 2 times this week.<br />
I’ve just started the class.<br />
I haven’t studied in the last two months.<br />
I haven’t heard about it so far.<br />
23
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Preterit Continuous (Past Continuous)<br />
Preterit Continuous =<br />
to say that someone was in the middle of doing<br />
something at a certain time.<br />
Sarah<br />
4 O´clock<br />
Sarah<br />
6 O´clock<br />
It’s 6 o’clock now. Sarah is at home. She is watching television.<br />
At 4 o’clock she wasn’t at home. She was playing tennis.<br />
Positive Negative Question<br />
she/it was + verb –ing I/he/she/it was not (wasn’t) + verb –ing Was I/he/she/it + verb –ing?<br />
We/you/they were + verb -ing We/you/they were not (weren’t) + verb -ing Were we/you/they + verb-ing?<br />
It was raining. It wasn’t raining. Was it raining?<br />
24
eClass English<br />
The Past Perfect<br />
For actions that happened before related past events or times.<br />
Structure<br />
I/we/they/you + had (=I’d etc.) + past participle (gone, seen, finished etc.)<br />
He/she/it + had (= he’d etc.) + past participle<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
1. To express an action completed I had never seen a movie before then.<br />
before a given time in the past.<br />
2. A state or action beginning in the past They had been friends for ten years when he left.<br />
continuing until some later time in the past.<br />
12 1<br />
10 11 2<br />
9 3<br />
8 4<br />
7 6 5<br />
Bye<br />
12 1<br />
10 11 2<br />
9 3<br />
8 4<br />
7 6 5<br />
Half an hour later<br />
Hello<br />
Paul<br />
Sarah<br />
Sarah went to a party last week. Paul went to the party too, but they<br />
didn’t see each other. Paul went home at 10:30 and Sarah arrived at 11<br />
o’clock.<br />
So: When Sarah arrived at the party, Paul wasn’t there. He had gone<br />
home.<br />
25
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Past Perfect Continuous<br />
The Past Perfect Continuous is used for actions<br />
that were unfinished when another action<br />
took place.<br />
Structure<br />
I/you/we/they had been + verb –ing (studying, working, listening, etc.)<br />
He/she/it had been + verb –ing<br />
I/you/we/they had not been + verb-ing (sleeping, reading, eating, etc.)<br />
He/she/it had not been + verb-ing<br />
Had I/you/they/we been + verb –ing ….? (helping, playing, talking, etc.)<br />
he/she/it been + verb –ing …?<br />
Uses<br />
Examples<br />
To show that something started in the past and Mary had been talking with John for 15<br />
continued up until the moment that something minutes until Lindsey arrived.<br />
else happened.<br />
To show cause and effect.<br />
Jason was tired because he had been jogging.<br />
26
eClass English<br />
‘Used To’<br />
Structure + Use<br />
I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they + ‘to be’ +<br />
used to + verb + ing+ object.<br />
Is used for expressing habits or things<br />
which you are comfortable with or<br />
accustomed to.<br />
For expressing a point in the process of<br />
becoming accustomed to something.<br />
For expressing actions that were habitual<br />
in the past and implies that the action no<br />
longer takes place. In this sense it is used<br />
as a modal auxiliary.<br />
Examples<br />
I am used to reading before going to sleep.<br />
I have gotten used to walking to work.<br />
I used to eat seafood, but now I prefer meat.<br />
27
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
3Future<br />
The Near Future ‘be’ + –ing / Present Continuous for Future<br />
The present continuous for future indicates that a specific action will be taking place<br />
at a specific time in the future.<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘To be’ + verb-ing for the future What are you doing<br />
(tomorrow / next week) tomorrow evening?<br />
I am (not) eating for fixed future I am staying at home.<br />
You are (not) eating arrangements<br />
He/she/it is (not) eating<br />
We are (not) eating<br />
They are (not) eating<br />
I’m playing tennis<br />
tomorrow<br />
The Future – ‘Will’<br />
We use ‘will’ for the future (tomorrow / next week etc.)<br />
Subject + ‘will’ + infinitive<br />
(without to)<br />
Examples:<br />
I will be at home tomorrow.<br />
Will you be at home this evening?<br />
I/we/you/they will (‘ll) be<br />
He/she/it will not (won’t) eat etc.<br />
win<br />
Will I/we/you/they be?<br />
He/she/it win? etc.<br />
eat?<br />
We use ‘will’ when we make a decision in the moment of speaking.<br />
‘It’s cold in here.’ ‘I’ll close the window’<br />
‘What would you like to order?’ ‘I’ll have the beef please.’<br />
28
eClass English<br />
The Future Continuous – ‘Will be doing’<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘will’ + ‘be’ + gerund This is used to say you will be in The football games at 7:30 and<br />
the middle of doing something. ends at 9:15. At 8:15, Kevin will<br />
be watching the game.<br />
It is used to talk about complete Q: If you see Sally, can you ask her<br />
actions in the future.<br />
to call me?<br />
A: Sure, I’ll be seeing her<br />
this evening, so I’ll tell her then.<br />
The Future – ‘Will’ vs. ‘To be going to’<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘Will’ + infinitive Indefinite future predictions Next year I think I will go to New York.<br />
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + verb<br />
(infinitive without to) When we make a decision in the ‘It’s cold in here’.<br />
I, you etc.+ ‘will not’ (won’t) moment of speaking. ‘I’ll close the window’<br />
+ verb (infinitive without to)<br />
‘To be’ + ‘going to’ + infinitive<br />
‘I am (not) going to’ + verb Future plans and intention I am going to meet Jill for lunch today.<br />
(infinitive without to) (I’ve decided to do something, my<br />
intention is to do it)<br />
He is not going to finish the project on time.<br />
We also use ‘to be going to’<br />
when there is evidence in<br />
the present that something<br />
is going to happen in the<br />
future. It is clear now that it<br />
is sure to happen.<br />
Example:<br />
There is a black cloud in the sky.<br />
It’s going to rain.<br />
It’s going<br />
to rain.<br />
29
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Future Perfect – ‘Will have done’<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘Will have’ + past participle To indicate that something will occur You will have perfected your<br />
before another action in the future. English by the time you<br />
come back from the USA.<br />
I, you etc.+ ‘will’ + ‘have’ To show that something will By Monday, Susan will have had<br />
+ past participle continue up until another action in my book for a month.<br />
the future.<br />
The Future with ‘be’ + infinitive<br />
Structure<br />
‘To be’ + infinitive with ‘to’<br />
This is used to express the idea of the future in the following situations:<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
A planned or agreed action<br />
Present: ‘To be’ (present) + infinitive with ‘to’ We’re to see them tomorrow.<br />
Past: ‘To be’ (past) + infinitive with ‘to’ I was to become a priest. (but I didn’t)<br />
(This is a planned or agreed action that was<br />
not done.)<br />
An action which should be done<br />
What’s to be done?<br />
An imposed action / a strict order<br />
You’re not to read that letter.<br />
Instructions and directions for use<br />
‘To be’ + passive infinitive<br />
The medicine is to be taken twice a day.<br />
30
4 Modals<br />
‘Can’ – ability and likelihood<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
Use<br />
‘Can’ ability<br />
- to be able to do something.<br />
Example:<br />
He can carry the bag.<br />
‘Can’ likelihood / possibility<br />
Example:<br />
Sometimes when the weather is bad it can rain. ( It is possible that this happens.)<br />
It can’t be true. (I certainly is not true, there is no possibility that it is true.)<br />
Structure<br />
I / we / you / they + can + verb<br />
he / she / it cannot (can’t)<br />
Question<br />
Can + I / we / you / they + verb<br />
he / she / it<br />
Example: Can you swim?<br />
30 Kg.<br />
eClass English<br />
31
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Can’ - perception and knowledge<br />
Use<br />
‘Can’ ability / knowledge<br />
- to know how to do something<br />
Example: I can play the guitar.<br />
‘Can’ perception<br />
- with verbs of perception such as to hear, to see, to feel.<br />
Example: I can see Sarah coming.<br />
Structure<br />
I / we / you / they + can + verb<br />
he / she / it<br />
cannot (can’t)<br />
Question<br />
Can + I / we / you / they + verb<br />
he / she / it<br />
Example: Can you swim?<br />
I can play<br />
the piano.<br />
32
eClass English<br />
‘Can’, ‘Could’, ‘To be able to’<br />
The modal ‘can’ has the following form<br />
Present Can I can speak 5 languages.<br />
Can’t He can’t sing very well.<br />
Past Could When I was a child I could play the piano.<br />
Couldn’t I couldn’t go to class yesterday because I was sick.<br />
Infinitive To be able to Ask Catherine about your problem. She<br />
might be able to help you.<br />
Future Will be able to I will be able to meet with you later.<br />
Will not (won’t) be able to They won’t be able to leave early because<br />
they have to finish their homework.<br />
33
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: advice<br />
Use<br />
To give advice<br />
Should / ought to =<br />
It is a good thing to do; it is the right thing to do.<br />
Should not / ought not to =<br />
It is not a good thing to do.<br />
You shouldn´t<br />
watch TV so much<br />
I, you, we, they + should (not) + infinitive without to<br />
he, she, it<br />
Examples:<br />
It’s a good film. You should go and see it.<br />
Tom shouldn’t go to bed so late.<br />
I, you, we, they + ought (not) to + infinitive without to<br />
he, she, it<br />
Examples:<br />
Carol ought to buy some new clothes.<br />
You ought not to eat so much.<br />
‘should’ or ‘ought to’ + ‘have’ + past participle<br />
=<br />
to express regret or reproach<br />
We should have gone to the mountains.<br />
They ought to have invited her.<br />
‘Should’ and ‘Ought to’: probability<br />
Structure Use Example<br />
‘Should’<br />
subject + ‘should’ + To show something that is The train should arrive soon.<br />
infinitive without ‘to’ desirable or probable<br />
‘Ought to’<br />
subject + ‘ought to’ + Implies an expectation or assumption He is intelligent. He ought to<br />
infinitive without ‘to’<br />
pass the exam.<br />
34
‘Must’ and ‘Have to’<br />
Must = a need or obligation to do something<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without to You must wash your hands before eating.<br />
He, she, it + must + infinitive without to<br />
Mustn’t = an obligation to NOT do something. You must not do it.<br />
Must not<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t smoke in the elevator.<br />
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’’<br />
eClass English<br />
NO SMOKING<br />
Have to = a need or obligation to do something.<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
I, you, we, they + have to + infinitive without to You have to finish the assignment by tomorrow.<br />
Don’t have to<br />
Doesn’t have to<br />
= NO obligation to do something. It is optional.<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
I, you, we, they + don’t have to + infinitive You don’t have to do the homework if you don’t<br />
without ‘to’ want to.<br />
He, she, it + doesn’t have to + infinitive ( You can either do it or not; it is optional)<br />
without ‘to<br />
35
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Using ‘must’ for obligation<br />
Must<br />
=<br />
a need or obligation to do something.<br />
I, you, we, they + must + infinitive without ‘to’ You must wash your hands before eating.<br />
He, she, it + must + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Mustn’t<br />
=<br />
an obligation NOT to do something.<br />
I, you, we, they + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’ You mustn’t walk on the grass.<br />
He, she, it + mustn’t + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Please keep<br />
off the grass<br />
36
eClass English<br />
Strong probability using ‘must’<br />
Must<br />
=<br />
strong probability or near certainty.<br />
Structure Example<br />
Subject + must + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)<br />
Negative:<br />
Subject + cannot + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)<br />
Subject + can’t + verb (infinitive without ‘to’)<br />
You must be Mr. Brown. My sister has told me all about you.<br />
You can’t be Maggie’s mother; you’re not old enough!<br />
The past form is:<br />
must + have + past participle<br />
It expresses near certainty in the past.<br />
Example: He must have gone out.<br />
37
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Absence of necessity<br />
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t<br />
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.<br />
Structure<br />
Subject + needn’t + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Subject + don’t / doesn’t need to + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
This expresses the opinion of the speaker.<br />
Subject + ‘don’t’ / ‘doesn’t have to’ + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
This can imply the speaker’s opinion or not.<br />
Examples<br />
You needn’t bring your bike; it’s not that far.<br />
You don’t need to bring your bike.<br />
You don’t have to do your homework.<br />
38
eClass English<br />
‘May’ and ‘Might’<br />
To say it is not necessary to do something or it is optional you can use ‘needn’t’ and ‘don’t<br />
have to’. It shows an absence of necessity.<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
May<br />
I, you, etc. + may + verb (infinitive To say that something I may go to the cinema later.<br />
may not without ‘to’) is about 50% possible. He may call her.<br />
Might<br />
I, you, etc. + might + verb (infinitive To say that something He might have a meeting.<br />
might not without to) is less than 50% possible. He might know.<br />
The uses of ‘may’ and ‘might’ above are to talk about the present or future.<br />
These other structures are also possible.<br />
may/might + be + verb –ing<br />
I may be working at that time.<br />
He might be having lunch.<br />
may/might + have + past participle<br />
She may have been asleep.<br />
She might have left it in the shop.<br />
to talk about present or future<br />
to talk about uncertain<br />
events in the past<br />
39
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Shall’<br />
In British English, ‘shall’ can be used for ‘will’ to express the future. In American English, it<br />
is not often used.<br />
Use ‘shall’ with I/ we<br />
I shall be late tomorrow. ( I will be late)<br />
Shall we go to the museum later?<br />
Do NOT use<br />
‘shall’ with you/they/he/she/it<br />
Tom will be late. (not ‘Tom shall be’)<br />
‘Shall’ can express obligation.<br />
This is stronger and more formal than other modals of obligation (‘must’, ‘have to’).<br />
It is used in legal texts and official rules.<br />
Examples:<br />
1. The insurance holder shall pay back the full amount<br />
within three years.<br />
2. Students shall not play loud music after 10PM.<br />
‘Would like’: expressing wishes<br />
‘Would like’ expresses a wish or desire.<br />
‘Would like’ + infinitive<br />
Example: I would like to go to the movies.<br />
‘Would like’ + noun or noun phrase<br />
Example: I would like a drink.<br />
Interrogative ‘would like’<br />
Example: Would you like a coffee?<br />
more polite form of (do) want<br />
40
Modal Auxiliaries<br />
A modal auxiliary is a verb used with other verbs to express mood or tense. When a<br />
modal is used, the following verb is in the infinitive minus ‘to’ form.<br />
eClass English<br />
Modal Use Example<br />
Can Ability He can play the piano.<br />
Negative: cannot / can’t<br />
Past: could<br />
Future: will be able to<br />
Permission<br />
Can I leave the room?<br />
Could Possible actions now or in the future. When you go to New York you could<br />
(to make suggestions)<br />
stay with Jane.<br />
Permission<br />
Could I open the window?<br />
May To say that something is about I may go to the cinema later.<br />
50% possible.<br />
Permission<br />
May I open the window?<br />
Might To say that something is less He might have a meeting.<br />
than 50% possible.<br />
Must Obligation You must go to the bank<br />
Negative: mustn’t<br />
You mustn’t go to the bank.<br />
Deduction<br />
Negative: can’t<br />
You’ve been travelling all day,<br />
you must be tired.<br />
You’ve been sleeping all day,<br />
you can’t be tired.<br />
Could + have + past participle Possibility in the past. I could have studied Architecture<br />
Something you could have in university.<br />
done but did not do / did<br />
not attempt to do.<br />
May + have + past participle To say that it is possible that Polly’s very late. She may<br />
something happened or have missed her train.<br />
was true in the past.<br />
Might + have + past participle To say that it is possible that You were stupid to try climbing<br />
something happened or was up there. You might have<br />
true in the past.<br />
killed yourself.<br />
BUT did not happen.<br />
41
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Near certainty in the past: ‘must have’ / ‘can’t have’<br />
When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use these expressions to<br />
indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.<br />
Structure<br />
subject + must have + past participle<br />
Example:<br />
John wasn’t in class yesterday. He must have been sick.<br />
Use<br />
Deduction<br />
Near certainty in the past<br />
Structure<br />
subject + can’t have + past participle<br />
Example:<br />
I saw John in the pub. He can’t have been sick.<br />
Use<br />
A deduction about something that<br />
didn’t happen in the past.<br />
42
5 Questions<br />
Questions without interrogative words<br />
eClass English<br />
The Verb ‘to be’<br />
‘To be’ + subject<br />
Am I?<br />
Are you?<br />
Is he / she / it?<br />
Are we?<br />
Are they?<br />
Examples<br />
Are you married?<br />
Is John a policeman?<br />
Present Simple<br />
Do + subject + verb<br />
Does<br />
Does he study English?<br />
Do they have television?<br />
Do you / we / they?<br />
Does he / she / it?<br />
43
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Interrogative Words<br />
Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questions related to the person, place,<br />
reason, etc. that an action occurs.<br />
Interrogative word Use Example<br />
Who refers to people Who is he?<br />
Who do you know?<br />
Which refers to people or things Which do you prefer tea or coffee?<br />
when there is a choice<br />
What refers to things What sport do you play?<br />
How refers to manner or means How do you spell your name? (manner)<br />
How do you go to work? (means)<br />
Why asks about reason Why don’t you like her?<br />
Where refers to location Where is the museum?<br />
When refers to time or date When does the store open?<br />
When do you leave?<br />
Whose refers to possession Whose pen is this?<br />
44
eClass English<br />
‘How long’<br />
‘How long’<br />
is used to ask<br />
questions about<br />
duration.<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
‘How long’ + ‘to be’ ‘How long’ + ‘is’/’are’ + noun How long is your vacation?<br />
How long are the books?<br />
‘How long’ + present simple ‘How long’ + ‘do’/’does’ + How long do you take to<br />
subject + verb<br />
eat breakfast?<br />
How long does it take to get to work?<br />
Beginner level should only study the two structures above.<br />
Below are some examples of ‘how long’ with other tenses.<br />
Structure<br />
Example<br />
‘How long’ + preterit (past simple) ‘How long + ‘did’ + subject + verb How long did you spend in Italy?<br />
‘How long’ + present perfect ‘How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you had that car?<br />
subject + past participle<br />
‘How long’ + present perfect How long’ + ‘have’ / ‘has’ + How long have you been<br />
continuous subject + ‘been’+ gerund studying English?<br />
‘<br />
45
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Past Interrogatives<br />
The verb ‘to be’<br />
‘Was’ / ‘were’ + subject<br />
was I? Where was Ann yesterday?<br />
he? Was the weather good?<br />
she?<br />
it?<br />
were we? Were they expensive?<br />
you?<br />
they?<br />
The Preterit (Past Simple)<br />
‘Did’ + subject + verb<br />
I<br />
you What did you do yesterday?<br />
he Where did he go on holiday?<br />
Did she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?<br />
it<br />
we<br />
they<br />
46
eClass English<br />
Questions – Tags<br />
Question tags are ‘mini-questions’ placed at the end of a sentence.<br />
A positive sentence<br />
A negative sentence<br />
Examples<br />
A negative question tag<br />
A positive question tag<br />
The verb ‘to be’<br />
You’re a doctor, aren’t you?<br />
He is not here today, is he?<br />
Present Simple<br />
They work together, don’t they?<br />
She doesn’t eat meat, does she?<br />
Present Continuous<br />
He is studying English, isn’t he?<br />
You’re not meeting Jim, are you?<br />
Preterit/ Past Simple<br />
He went on vacation, didn’t he?<br />
They didn’t work yesterday, did they?<br />
Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your teacher will give<br />
you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.<br />
The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.<br />
If your voice -<br />
Goes down<br />
It’s a beautiful<br />
day, isn’t it?<br />
You aren’t really asking a question; you are only<br />
inviting the listener to agree with you.<br />
Example: It’s a beautiful day, isn’t it?<br />
Yes, lovely.<br />
Yes, lovely.<br />
Goes up<br />
You are asking a real question.<br />
Example: You didn’t see Mary, did you?<br />
No, I’m afraid not.<br />
47
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Which’ / ‘What’<br />
Which, What<br />
=<br />
both are used for choices. They are often used<br />
interchangeably.<br />
What - a choice between or among things.<br />
(usually objects)<br />
Which – a choice between or among a<br />
limited number of things/possibilities<br />
(usually objects and people)<br />
What books do you prefer?<br />
What kind of services do you want?<br />
Which do you prefer: romance novels or<br />
science fiction?<br />
Which of these shirts is yours?<br />
‘How long…..(for)’ / ‘Since when’<br />
Structure<br />
‘How long’ + ‘have’/’has’ + subject +<br />
‘been’ + verb -ing + ‘for’?<br />
Examples<br />
Q: ‘How long have you been waiting for?’<br />
A: ‘I have been waiting for over an hour’.<br />
We use ‘for’ when we say a period of time.<br />
(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)<br />
‘Since when’ + ‘have’/‘has’ + subject +<br />
‘been’+ verb –ing<br />
Q: ‘Since when has it been snowing?’<br />
A: ‘It has been snowing since yesterday’.<br />
We use ‘since when’ we say the start of a period of time.<br />
(8 o’clock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)<br />
48
eClass English<br />
Short Questions<br />
In informal everyday and professional situations, you may use short questions.<br />
These are questions<br />
formed with<br />
incomplete sentences.<br />
You can only use<br />
them when the<br />
context has been<br />
clearly established.<br />
They ask for feedback,<br />
check understanding, ask<br />
for clarification, ask for<br />
advice / suggestions, make<br />
requests and verify<br />
agreement.<br />
Here are some examples:<br />
Short Questions<br />
Possible complete form<br />
Any thoughts?<br />
Suggestions?<br />
Ideas?<br />
Any problems?<br />
Objections?<br />
Anything serious?<br />
Louder, please?<br />
Sorry?<br />
Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?<br />
Do you have any suggestions?<br />
Can you give me some ideas?<br />
Have you been having any problems?<br />
Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?<br />
Are the problems serious?<br />
Could you speak a bit louder, please?<br />
Sorry? I didn’t hear what you said.<br />
49
6GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Articles and Nouns<br />
Definite and Indefinite Articles<br />
An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate the type of reference being<br />
made by the noun.<br />
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. An indefinite article indicates<br />
that its noun is not yet a particular one.<br />
Language Use Example<br />
The indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.<br />
A<br />
- a noun in a general context.<br />
The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.<br />
The<br />
Language Use Example<br />
The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.<br />
A<br />
with consonants.<br />
The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.<br />
An<br />
with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)<br />
or vowels sounds<br />
It’s an honor.<br />
Exceptions:<br />
an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)<br />
a university (pronounced yuniversity)<br />
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)<br />
50
eClass English<br />
The Plural<br />
Plural rules<br />
To make a noun plural add<br />
Examples<br />
– s a flower two flowers<br />
a book two books<br />
For nouns ending in:<br />
–s / –sh / –ch / –x – es bus : buses dish : dishes<br />
box : boxes church : churches<br />
For nouns ending in:<br />
Also: potato : potatoes<br />
tomato: tomatoes<br />
–y – ies baby : babies party : parties<br />
but –ay / –ey / –oy – ys day : days monkey: monkeys<br />
For nouns ending in:<br />
–f / –fe – ves shelf : shelves wife: wives<br />
Some nouns have irregular endings man men<br />
woman women<br />
foot feet<br />
child children<br />
person people<br />
51
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Names of Countries: Capitals<br />
a university (pronounced yuniversity)<br />
a European country (pronounced yeuropean)<br />
Names of<br />
countries have<br />
capital letters.<br />
He’s a friend from France.<br />
They live in Spain.<br />
I am from the United States!<br />
52
eClass English<br />
Countable and Uncountable Nouns<br />
a university (pronounced yuniversity)<br />
A noun can be<br />
countable<br />
or<br />
uncountable<br />
Countable nouns<br />
Examples<br />
Uncountable nouns<br />
Examples<br />
You can use one/two/three etc. +<br />
countable nouns. (you can count them)<br />
Countable nouns can be singular or plural.<br />
You cannot say one/two/three etc.<br />
Uncountable nouns only have one form.<br />
You cannot use ‘a’/ ‘an’ + uncountable nouns.<br />
Uncountable nouns are always singular.<br />
(a) car<br />
(a) man<br />
(a) house<br />
(an) idea<br />
I have a car.<br />
I have two cars.<br />
water<br />
rice<br />
money<br />
salt<br />
music<br />
I have money.<br />
I have some money.<br />
Exclamations with ‘what a’<br />
‘What a /an’ (+adjective) + singular countable noun<br />
‘What’ (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun<br />
What a rude man!<br />
What a nice dress!<br />
What beautiful weather!<br />
What lovely flowers!<br />
53
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Construction of Compound Nouns<br />
A compound noun<br />
=<br />
two nouns joined together.<br />
One noun modifies the other.<br />
Example:<br />
tooth, paste: toothpaste<br />
Compound nouns can be written in these ways:<br />
There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must<br />
check a dictionary for the correct form.<br />
1. The two words are joined together.<br />
Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom<br />
2. They are joined using a hyphen.<br />
Example: check-in<br />
3. They appear as two separate words.<br />
Example: full moon<br />
Other Examples:<br />
ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather<br />
54
eClass English<br />
The use and omission of ‘the’<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
The We use ‘the’ before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.<br />
uncountable nouns when we are<br />
(perhaps one of many chairs)<br />
thinking of one particular thing.<br />
Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.<br />
(a particular chair)<br />
No ‘the’ When we are talking about things or I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs)<br />
people in general, we do not use ‘the’. Children learn a lot from playing.<br />
(children in general)<br />
No ‘the’ We do not use ‘the’ with names of people, I visited Europe last year.<br />
countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)<br />
islands, cities, mountains.<br />
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with I live in the USA.<br />
‘Republic’, ‘Kingdom’, ‘States’, oceans, She is from the Republic of Ireland.<br />
seas, rivers and canals.<br />
The Atlantic Ocean is very big.<br />
55
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Definite articles with geographical names<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
No ‘the’ Singular name of a country, continent or region. France, Great Britain, Spain<br />
Exceptions: the Sahara, the Congo, the South Pole.<br />
The Plural name of a country. The British Isles, the West Indies,<br />
the Philippines<br />
The But we do use ‘the’ in names with ‘Republic’, The United States, The Republic<br />
‘Kingdom’, ‘States’.<br />
of Ireland, The United Kingdom<br />
The Abbreviations of countries, continents and regions. The UK, the USA, the EU<br />
No ‘the’ The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, Hyde Park,<br />
and parks. ( generally)<br />
Wesminister Abbey<br />
56
eClass English<br />
Nouns without singular forms<br />
Some plural nouns have no singular forms.<br />
Nouns referring to objects composed of<br />
Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts,<br />
2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas<br />
When used as a countable noun, use<br />
‘pair of’<br />
Some collective nouns<br />
Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings<br />
Negation of the indefinite article<br />
The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:<br />
Structure<br />
With a singular countable noun:<br />
‘Not………..a’<br />
With plural countable nouns and<br />
uncountable nouns<br />
‘Not………………any’<br />
Examples<br />
I haven’t got a pen./ I don’t have a pen.<br />
There aren’t any buses here.<br />
It doesn’t require any equipment.<br />
57
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
7Pronouns and Determiners<br />
Subject Pronouns<br />
Subject Pronouns<br />
I<br />
You (singular)<br />
He<br />
She<br />
It<br />
We<br />
You (plural)<br />
They<br />
Object Pronouns<br />
Object Pronouns Examples Use<br />
(subject (object<br />
pronoun) pronoun)<br />
I me Ann knows me. We use:<br />
You you Ann knows you. a verb +<br />
He him Ann knows him. object pronoun<br />
She her Ann knows her.<br />
It it Ann knows it.<br />
We us Ann knows us.<br />
They them Ann knows them.<br />
It’s nice.<br />
I Iike it.<br />
They’re nice.<br />
I like them.<br />
58
eClass English<br />
Possessive Pronouns<br />
Mine Ours Yours His Hers Theirs<br />
(possessive<br />
pronoun)<br />
I my mine<br />
you your yours<br />
he his his<br />
she her hers<br />
we our ours<br />
they their theirs<br />
We use my/your etc. + a noun<br />
My hands are cold.<br />
We use mine/yours etc. without a noun<br />
Is this book mine or yours?<br />
Possessive pronouns show possession and answer<br />
the question ‘whose’.<br />
Reflexive Pronouns<br />
Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples<br />
I myself<br />
You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.<br />
He himself We use reflexive pronouns<br />
She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for the results<br />
It itself sentence are the same person of the test.<br />
We ourselves or non-person.<br />
You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.<br />
They themselves<br />
59
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘No’ / ‘None’<br />
No Use Examples<br />
‘No’ + noun When we want to - We have no bread.<br />
exclude all possibilities.<br />
- There were no problems.<br />
None Use Examples<br />
‘None’ When no part of - Do you have any more pie?<br />
something is left.<br />
No, sorry, I have none.<br />
When none exists, not even<br />
a group of people or a small amount<br />
of something.<br />
- When she returned to the<br />
office, none of us<br />
recognized her with her new haircut.<br />
The Possessive<br />
To show possession for people, countries, groups and institutions we use –’s<br />
Examples:<br />
It is John’s birthday. (not the birthday of John)<br />
It’s my mother’s umbrella.<br />
Chile’s economy is doing well.<br />
friend’s and friends’<br />
My house<br />
Our house<br />
My friend’s house = one friend<br />
(=his house or her house)<br />
(singular)<br />
My friends’ house = 2 or more friends<br />
(= their house)<br />
(plural)<br />
60
eClass English<br />
More uses of the Possessive<br />
The possessive –’s can also<br />
be used with dates, durations<br />
and distances.<br />
We add ’s to a singular noun<br />
and an apostrophe (’) to a<br />
plural noun, for example:<br />
Dates<br />
Durations<br />
Distances<br />
Sunday’s weather<br />
Tomorrow’s flight<br />
Next year’s budget<br />
Three weeks’ vacation<br />
A hundred miles’ drive<br />
The Indefinite Possessive<br />
Use Structure Examples<br />
I met a friend of Lucy’s.<br />
We can’t usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heard this new<br />
before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your boss’s?<br />
We can say ‘my friend’ but not<br />
(’s)<br />
‘a my friend’. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)<br />
structures.<br />
determiner + noun + of<br />
How’s that brother of yours?<br />
+ possessive<br />
(mine, yours, his, hers,<br />
Peter is a cousin of mine.<br />
ours, theirs)<br />
( a, that = determiners)<br />
61
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Use of the pronoun ‘one’<br />
The pronoun ‘one’ or ‘ones ‘ is used after an adjective to replace:<br />
•a countable noun already expressed<br />
•a noun that hasn’t been expressed<br />
These<br />
chocolates are nice<br />
Would you like one?<br />
Would you like one? =<br />
Would you like a chocolate?<br />
One = a /an (a chocolate / an apple etc.)<br />
Which one<br />
do you want?<br />
This one<br />
One (singular)<br />
Which one? = which hat?<br />
Ones (plural)<br />
Which ones? = which<br />
flowers?<br />
Which one<br />
do you want?<br />
The white<br />
ones<br />
62
Demonstrative Pronouns: ‘This’, ‘That’, ‘These’, ‘Those’<br />
eClass English<br />
The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an object or person is in relation<br />
to the speaker.<br />
this that these those<br />
This (singular)<br />
These (plural)<br />
Refers to an object or person near the speaker<br />
Examples:<br />
Is this John’s house?<br />
This is a nice surprise!<br />
That (singular)<br />
Those (plural)<br />
Position<br />
Refers to an object or person further away<br />
Examples:<br />
Who owns that house?<br />
That’s nothing to do with me.<br />
Examples:<br />
a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.<br />
b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.<br />
c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?<br />
d) Alone when the noun is understood. I’ll never forget this.<br />
‘Here’ / ‘There’<br />
‘Here’ is used for something that is near to us.<br />
‘There’ is used for something that is far from us.<br />
Here is the money (in my hand).<br />
There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.<br />
63
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Some’ / ‘Any’<br />
Use ‘some’ / ‘any’ to describe an undetermined quantity.<br />
Use with both countable and uncountable nouns.<br />
‘Some’: in positive sentences,<br />
offers and requests.<br />
I have got some money.<br />
Would you like some water? (offer)<br />
Can I have some bread? (request)<br />
$<br />
I have<br />
some money.<br />
‘Any’: in negative sentences<br />
and questions<br />
I haven’t got any money.<br />
Do you have any information?<br />
I don’t have<br />
any money.<br />
‘Any’: to express total Feel free to ask questions at any time.<br />
permission, possibility,<br />
or restriction.<br />
Any of these designs are fine.<br />
‘Any’: to express possibility or indifference.<br />
64
eClass English<br />
‘A lot of’, ‘Much’ / ‘Many’<br />
Use ‘a lot of’ with mass and count nouns in<br />
positive sentences, negative sentences<br />
and questions.<br />
Use ‘much’ with mass nouns in negative<br />
sentences and in questions.<br />
Use ‘many’ with count nouns in negative<br />
sentences, positive sentences and in questions.<br />
Ann has a lot of meetings.<br />
I have a lot of work to do.<br />
Ann doesn’t have much time to see New York.<br />
How much coffee did you drink?<br />
I don’t have many classes today.<br />
Did many people come to the party?<br />
65
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘How much’ / ‘How many’<br />
‘How much/many’ = to ask questions about quantity<br />
‘How much’ + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?<br />
How much time do you have?<br />
‘How many’ + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?<br />
How many books are there?<br />
‘As much as’ / ‘As many as’<br />
To compare two things that are the same.<br />
‘as much as’ Use with: Examples:<br />
singular, uncountable nouns<br />
You have as much money as I do.<br />
(= the same amount)<br />
‘not as much as’<br />
You don’t have as much money as I do.<br />
‘as many as’ plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago<br />
as there are in Buenos Aires.<br />
‘not as many as’<br />
There aren’t as many parks in Santiago<br />
as there are in Buenos Aires.<br />
We can use ‘as much as’ + ‘as many as’ without a noun also.<br />
Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.<br />
It’s twice as much as the rent.<br />
(=It’s twice as much money as the rent)<br />
66
eClass English<br />
‘Some’ / ‘Any’: singular or plural?<br />
‘Some’, ‘any’, ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘most’<br />
When they refer to a singular noun,<br />
the verb is singular.<br />
When they refer to a plural noun, the<br />
verb is plural.<br />
Examples:<br />
Some of the meal was really good.<br />
None of the presentation is interesting.<br />
Some of the books are quite funny.<br />
None of the stories are interesting.<br />
‘Either…or’<br />
A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we use ‘either’ after a negative verb.<br />
‘Either’ is always placed at the end of a clause. It means ‘too’ / ‘as well’<br />
I’m not happy.<br />
I’m not happy either. (not ‘I’m not …too’)<br />
I’m not<br />
happy.<br />
I’m not<br />
happy either.<br />
I can’t cook.<br />
I can’t cook either.<br />
(not ‘I can’t …too’)<br />
67
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Either……. or’ / ‘Neither …….nor’<br />
Use<br />
Example<br />
‘Either…….or’ A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.<br />
? or ?<br />
Either<br />
Either you come to class or you do the<br />
work at home.<br />
‘Neither……..nor’ To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.<br />
She’s neither nice nor helpful.<br />
neither<br />
(not + either)<br />
‘Everybody’ / ‘Nobody’<br />
‘Everybody’ (everyone) singular Everybody needs friends.<br />
(all the people) All the people need friends.<br />
‘Nobody’ (no one) singular Nobody is here.<br />
(no people) No people are here.<br />
68
eClass English<br />
‘Everybody’ / ‘Somebody’ / ‘Nobody’ with question tags<br />
Everybody, somebody, nobody are followed by singular verbs.<br />
However, if they are followed by a question tag, the tag is in the plural.<br />
Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody needs<br />
friends, don’t they?<br />
(all the people)<br />
Somebody (someone) singular Somebody has to go<br />
shopping, don’t they?<br />
( a person but we don’t know who)<br />
Nobody (no one) singular Nobody really knows, do<br />
they?<br />
(no people)<br />
Nobody + verb in the positive form. Example: Nobody likes Mike.<br />
69
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Each other’ / ‘One another’<br />
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used interchangeably.<br />
They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in the sentence.<br />
John and Paul looked at each other.<br />
(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)<br />
‘Each other’ and ‘one another’ can be used in the possessive.<br />
They took each other’s hands.<br />
We often meet at one another’s places.<br />
Formerly, it was said that ‘each other’ was used for a relationship<br />
between two subjects whereas one another was used for a<br />
relationship between more than two subjects. Today, however,<br />
most do not observe this distinction.<br />
Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)<br />
The children are sitting opposite one another.<br />
(More than two subjects)<br />
70
eClass English<br />
Different meanings of ‘all<br />
‘All’ = all of<br />
something limited.<br />
It is used with uncountable or<br />
plural countable nouns.<br />
‘All’ + noun<br />
All cities have the same problem.<br />
‘All (of)’ + the All the children at this school are tall.<br />
this/that/these/those (demonstrative)<br />
All these books are mine.<br />
my/your etc. (possessive adjective)<br />
I have spent all my money.<br />
Personal Pronouns<br />
personal pronoun + ‘all’<br />
‘all of’ + personal pronoun<br />
with Subject Pronouns<br />
Subject (pronoun) + ‘all’ + simple verb<br />
Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / ‘to be’ + ‘all’<br />
Have you read these books?<br />
I’ve read them all.<br />
I’ve read all of them.<br />
The girls all left.<br />
We will all have some juice.<br />
They are all ready to go.<br />
With a singular countable noun = ‘every’<br />
Every student in the class passed the exam.<br />
Every country has a national flag.<br />
71
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’<br />
‘A little’ / ‘A bit’ = a small quantity<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘A little’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a little fresh air.<br />
It can also replace the noun to<br />
‘Do you want some coffee?’<br />
avoid repetition.<br />
‘A little, please.’<br />
‘A bit of’ Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.<br />
‘A little’ Adverb of degree. We’re a little busy today.<br />
‘A little’ + adjective This tooth aches a little.<br />
Verb + ‘a little’<br />
Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.<br />
(negative connotation)<br />
‘A bit’ Often replaces ‘ a little’ as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?<br />
‘A few’ Use with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.<br />
It can also replace the noun to avoid ‘How many science fiction novels<br />
repetition.<br />
do you have?’<br />
‘Few’<br />
‘A few.’<br />
(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have few friends.<br />
72
eClass English<br />
Use of ‘both’<br />
‘Both’ = two elements<br />
With nouns<br />
With determiners<br />
Before a noun with a determiner (the, this,<br />
my, your, those etc.) ‘both’ and ‘both<br />
of’ are possible.<br />
With object pronouns<br />
(me, you, him, her, it, us, them)<br />
Use ‘both of’ before the pronoun.<br />
‘Both’ can be put after object pronouns.<br />
With verbs<br />
Both goes after auxiliaries and before<br />
other verbs.<br />
I want both books.<br />
Both shirts are good.<br />
I want both (of) those books.<br />
Both (of) the books.<br />
Both of them are my sisters.<br />
She has invited both of us.<br />
She has invited us both.<br />
We have both gone to the beach.<br />
We both want to go.<br />
73
8Relative Clauses and<br />
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Dependent Clauses<br />
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs<br />
Relative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A ‘clause’ is part of a sentence. A<br />
‘relative clause’ tells us which person or thing the speaker means.<br />
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.<br />
relative clause<br />
A relative clause joins two sentences:<br />
I met a woman. She speaks two languages.<br />
she who<br />
I met a woman who speaks two languages.<br />
WHO people<br />
I know a lot of people who live in London.<br />
THAT things or people<br />
The man that lives next door is very friendly.<br />
Barbara works for a company that makes computers.<br />
WHICH things<br />
Emma lives in a house which is 500 years old.<br />
WHOSE possession (instead of his/her/their etc.)<br />
A widow is a woman whose husband is dead.<br />
WHERE a place<br />
That is the hotel where Tom got married.<br />
WHOM people (but when it is the object of the verb<br />
in the relative clause)<br />
The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.<br />
( I wanted to see her)<br />
74
eClass English<br />
There are two types of<br />
relative clauses.<br />
Defining Relative Clauses<br />
The woman who lives next door is a doctor.<br />
The relative clause tells you which person or thing<br />
the speaker means.<br />
We do NOT use commas.<br />
Non- defining Relative Clauses<br />
My brother Jim, who lives in London, is a doctor.<br />
The relative clause does not tell you which person<br />
or thing the speaker means. (We already know<br />
which thing or person is meant.)<br />
This is extra information about the person or thing.<br />
We use commas.<br />
75
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘That’ and Dependent Clauses<br />
A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is usually attached to an<br />
independent clause.<br />
When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause (introduced by ‘that’ or<br />
a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present, then the dependent<br />
clause is in the present also.<br />
Reported Speech<br />
When ‘that’ is used in reported speech, the dependent clause should follow the rule of agreement. (see<br />
reported speech)<br />
Relative Clauses – (Omission of ‘that’)<br />
‘That’ is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it<br />
can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.<br />
*see ‘relative pronouns and adverbs’ for an explanation on the difference between a defining<br />
and non-defining clauses.<br />
Subject or Object Pronoun?<br />
Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.<br />
the apple that is laying on the table<br />
Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.<br />
the apple (that) George laid on the table<br />
Examples of when ‘that’ can/ cannot be omitted.<br />
We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.<br />
‘that’ + noun (Ann) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.<br />
This morning I met somebody (that) I hadn’t met for ages.<br />
‘that’ + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.<br />
Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.<br />
‘that’ + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.<br />
76
eClass English<br />
When ‘that’ may be left out<br />
‘That’ may be left out in the following situations:.<br />
Reported speech After many reporting verbs ‘that’ can be James said (that) he was<br />
left out.<br />
feeling better.<br />
Examples: said, thought, suggested<br />
However, ‘that’ cannot be dropped after<br />
certain verbs<br />
Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed<br />
James replied that he was<br />
feeling better.<br />
After adjectives In ‘that’ clauses after some adjectives, I’m glad (that) you’re all right.<br />
‘that’ can be left out.<br />
Conjunctions ‘That’ can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so (that)<br />
in some common two-word<br />
she doesn’t hear you.<br />
conjunctions such as:<br />
I was having such a nice<br />
‘so that’<br />
time (that) I didn’t want to<br />
‘such…that’<br />
leave.<br />
‘now that’<br />
‘providing that’<br />
‘provided that’<br />
‘supposing that’<br />
‘considering that’<br />
‘assuming that’<br />
Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun ‘that’ Look! There are the<br />
when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in<br />
*See ‘that + dependent clauses’<br />
Brighton<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘To hope’ + Dependent Clause<br />
Structuree Examples<br />
‘To hope’ + future She hopes he’ll come.<br />
I hope you won’t have any problems getting home.<br />
‘To hope’ + present simple He hopes the traffic is all right.<br />
(refers to the future) I hope the water is not too cold.<br />
78
9Adjectives and Adverbs<br />
eClass English<br />
Possessive Adjectives<br />
A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close<br />
relationship.<br />
Possessive adjectives Examples Use<br />
(subject pronoun)<br />
We use:<br />
I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun<br />
You your You like your job. to show possession<br />
He his He likes his job<br />
She her She likes her job.<br />
It its It likes its food. (The dog)<br />
We our We like our jobs.<br />
They their They like their jobs.<br />
my hat our hats your hat<br />
her hat<br />
their hats<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Too’ / ‘Too much’/ ‘Too many’<br />
‘Too’ / ‘too much’ / ‘too many’<br />
=<br />
More than you want, more than is good.<br />
This is a negative concept.<br />
Structure<br />
‘Too’ + adjective/adverb<br />
Examples<br />
The music is too loud.<br />
‘Too much’ + uncountable nouns<br />
There is too much sugar in my tea.<br />
‘Too many’ + plural countable nouns<br />
She has too many books.<br />
80
eClass English<br />
Placement of Enough<br />
‘Enough’<br />
=<br />
sufficient, adequate<br />
Structure<br />
After adjectives and adverbs<br />
Before nouns and noun phrases<br />
After verbs (including past participles)<br />
He can’t reach the shelf.<br />
He’s not tall enough.<br />
Examples<br />
I’m not tall enough.<br />
You drive fast enough.<br />
There isn’t enough time.<br />
He doesn’t work enough.<br />
I’ve eaten enough.<br />
‘Also’ / ‘As well’ / ‘Too’<br />
Also As well Too<br />
Before a verb and after ‘to be’ At the end of a sentence At the end of a clause or for<br />
emphasis (with commas)<br />
I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.<br />
I, too, have a dog.<br />
She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studies English too.<br />
She, too, studies English.<br />
She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.<br />
She, too, is tall.<br />
We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinese too.<br />
We, too, are Chinese.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Adverbs<br />
An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell ‘how’, ‘when’ or ‘where’ the action took place.<br />
To make an adverb: Adjective + –ly<br />
Examples:<br />
Accidently<br />
Angrily<br />
Badly<br />
Quickly<br />
Safely<br />
Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:<br />
These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early<br />
Good (adjective) well (adverb)<br />
Your English is very good.<br />
You speak English very well.<br />
Spelling Rules<br />
-If the adjective ends in /y/ add –ily<br />
Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily<br />
Adverbs of Time / Frequency<br />
Adverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us ‘how often’ we do something.<br />
How often do you go to the mall?<br />
I sometimes go to the mall.<br />
never<br />
seldom/rarely<br />
sometimes*<br />
often<br />
usually<br />
aways<br />
-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/<br />
Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely<br />
-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/<br />
Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly<br />
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%<br />
Adverb placement Examples<br />
Before a verb<br />
I never go to the mall.<br />
I always play basketball on the weekends.<br />
She often practices English.<br />
After verb ‘to be’<br />
I am always tired.<br />
She is usually late for English class.<br />
82<br />
*Sometimes can also go before the subject.
eClass English<br />
The Adverb ‘that’<br />
‘that’ as an adverb<br />
Structure Use Example<br />
‘That’ + adjective/ adverb To intensify the meaning Are you that afraid?<br />
of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.<br />
Adverbs of Manner<br />
Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or how somebody does something.<br />
They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.<br />
Examples:<br />
The train stopped suddenly.<br />
I opened the door slowly.<br />
Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:<br />
Adjective<br />
-Sue is very quiet.<br />
-It was a bad game. (Describes the game<br />
which is a noun)<br />
Adverb<br />
-Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)<br />
-Our team played badly. (Describes how the team played)<br />
-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Yet’ / ‘Not yet’<br />
‘Yet’ = until now<br />
Bill will be<br />
here soon.<br />
Where’s Bill?<br />
He’s very late.<br />
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.<br />
They are still waiting for Bill.<br />
Bill hasn’t come yet.<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?<br />
She isn’t here yet.<br />
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.<br />
Are you ready to go yet?<br />
No, not yet..<br />
84
eClass English<br />
‘Still’ / ‘Yet’<br />
Still<br />
=<br />
something is the same as before<br />
THE RAIN HASN´T STOPPED<br />
An hour ago it was raining.<br />
It is still raining now.<br />
Example: I had a lot to eat but I’m still hungry. (= I was hungry before and I’m hungry now)<br />
Yet<br />
=<br />
until now<br />
Bill will be<br />
here soon.<br />
Where’s Bill.<br />
He’s very late.<br />
Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.<br />
They are still waiting for Bill.<br />
Bill hasn’t come yet.<br />
Use<br />
Examples<br />
Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?<br />
She isn’t here yet.<br />
‘Yet’ is usually at the end of a sentence.<br />
Are you ready to go yet?<br />
Not yet.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Compound Adjectives<br />
A compound adjective is formed when two or<br />
more adjectives work together to modify<br />
the same noun.<br />
The second part of the compound adjective may be:<br />
An adjective<br />
A present participle<br />
A past participle<br />
A noun + ed<br />
Irregular<br />
(Do not follow the<br />
structures above)<br />
ice-cold<br />
heartbreaking<br />
well-deserved<br />
old-fashioned<br />
second-hand<br />
HEART BREAKING<br />
86
eClass English<br />
Adjectives ending in –ing and –ed<br />
Ending in –ing Use Examples<br />
Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. They’re terrifying.<br />
adjective + –ing<br />
in –ing, it means that the<br />
particular person or thing<br />
causes a particular effect.<br />
Ending in –ed Use Examples<br />
Subject + verb ‘to be’ + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am always<br />
adjective + –ed –ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.<br />
particular person or thing<br />
experiences a particular effect.<br />
Adjectives ending in –ing<br />
Some adjectives are made by adding –ing to the verb.<br />
Examples:<br />
Disgust<br />
Bore<br />
Interest<br />
Depress<br />
Surprise<br />
disgusting<br />
boring<br />
interesting<br />
depressing<br />
surprising<br />
Adjectives ending in –ing<br />
Tells you about the situation<br />
Examples:<br />
My job is boring.<br />
The news was shocking.<br />
It was surprising that he passed the<br />
exam.<br />
Adjectives ending in –ed<br />
Tells you how somebody feels.<br />
Examples:<br />
I’m bored with my job.<br />
We were shocked when we heard the news.<br />
Everyone was surprised that he passed the<br />
exam.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The past participle as an adjective<br />
Some past participles can be used as adjectives.<br />
Regular Verbs add –ed or –d<br />
Examples: worked, finished, boiled<br />
Irregular Verbs<br />
No general rules<br />
Some common irregular past participles<br />
break broken drive driven<br />
write written eat eaten<br />
fall fallen forget forgotten<br />
give given see seen<br />
take taken know known<br />
fly flown drink drunk<br />
swim swum throw thrown<br />
Examples:<br />
That is a broken cup.<br />
We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.<br />
88
eClass English<br />
Adverbs of Degree<br />
Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.<br />
Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.<br />
They answer these questions: ‘How much ..?’ or ‘How little...?’<br />
Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity<br />
totally somewhat hardly<br />
completely somehow scarcely<br />
entirely fairly barely<br />
thoroughly<br />
rather<br />
absolutely<br />
kind of<br />
definitely<br />
positively<br />
+++ +<br />
almost<br />
slightly<br />
very<br />
a bit<br />
extremely<br />
a little<br />
really<br />
quite<br />
practically<br />
Use / Structure<br />
Place the adverb before the adjective or<br />
adverb they are modifying<br />
Place the adverb before the main verb<br />
Example<br />
The water was extremely cold.<br />
She has almost finished.<br />
Examples:<br />
I’m really enjoying working on this project.<br />
The exam was fairly easy.<br />
He has barely worked this year.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Adverbs and Adjectives<br />
Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. This way we<br />
can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below for examples:<br />
Adverb Adjective Other uses<br />
good well<br />
difficult with difficulty<br />
public publicly<br />
deep deep (place) deeply (feeling)<br />
direct direct directly (=soon)<br />
hard hard hardly (=seldom)<br />
high high (place) highly (figurative)<br />
late late lately (=recently)<br />
most most mostly (=usually)<br />
near near nearly (=almost)<br />
pretty pretty (=rather) prettily<br />
short short shortly (=soon)<br />
The following adjectives are daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little,<br />
also used as adverbs long, low, monthly, much, straight,<br />
(without modification) weekly, yearly, …<br />
adverbs are also used to give extra information<br />
about adjectives (or other adverbs).<br />
90
eClass English<br />
Uses of ‘so’<br />
Structure + Examples<br />
‘So’ + adjective or adverb = an exclamation<br />
You’re so kind!<br />
Don’t be so sensitive!<br />
‘that’ clauses<br />
so…………that<br />
It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that we stopped playing)<br />
He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.<br />
Substitute word<br />
‘So’ can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.<br />
The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.<br />
We thank you for flying with us and hope you’ll do so again.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The placement of ‘even’<br />
Use<br />
We use ‘even’ to say that something is surprising or unusual.<br />
Example<br />
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house, even the bathroom.<br />
Use<br />
We can use ‘even’ + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)<br />
Example<br />
I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.<br />
Position of even<br />
‘Even’ + nominal group* / pronoun + verb<br />
Even my sister will be there.<br />
Even you can come.<br />
Auxiliary + ‘even’ + verb<br />
I don’t even know you.<br />
I have even invited John.<br />
*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words that all in some way<br />
characterize that noun.<br />
92
eClass English<br />
‘Even though’ / ‘Even if’<br />
‘Even if’ and ‘even though’ mean basically the same thing: ‘although’. They have the<br />
following distinct meanings:<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘Even though’ Concession. Even though you’re my<br />
Describes a reality that<br />
friend, I can’t trust you.<br />
seems to contradict main clause.<br />
Even though she tried her<br />
best, she fell twice.<br />
‘Even if’ Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend,<br />
A contradiction of some hypotheses. I wouldn’t trust you.<br />
All conditional forms can be used.<br />
He won’t transfer to Africa,<br />
even if they double his salary.<br />
‘Quite’ / ‘Quite a few’<br />
Use<br />
‘Quite’ = less than ‘very’ but more than ‘a little’<br />
‘Quite’ goes before a/an<br />
Examples<br />
It’s quite cold. You’d better put a coat on.<br />
Quite a nice day. (not a quite nice day)<br />
‘Quite a few’ = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities.<br />
Example: I have quite a few letters for you.<br />
Quite also means ‘completely’.<br />
Example: ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)<br />
With theses adjectives, ‘quite’ means ‘completely’:<br />
sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrong safe obvious<br />
unnecessary extraordinary impossible<br />
93
10<br />
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Comparatives and Superlatives<br />
Comparing equals using ‘as…as’<br />
Structure<br />
‘as’ + adjective / adverb + ‘as’<br />
Use<br />
To compare two people or things according to a common trait.<br />
Examples<br />
My brother is as tall as my dad.<br />
I’m as old as you are.<br />
94
eClass English<br />
Regular and Irregular Comparatives S<br />
I’m 93.<br />
I’m 92.<br />
40<br />
KG<br />
50<br />
KG<br />
old<br />
older<br />
heavy<br />
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences<br />
with ‘than’, or you can use a conjunction like ‘but’.<br />
heavier<br />
1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.<br />
old<br />
older<br />
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add -ier English is easier than Russian.<br />
easy<br />
easier<br />
2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautiful than Jane.<br />
beautiful<br />
more beautiful<br />
Spelling Rules<br />
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end. (Double the consonant.)<br />
Example:<br />
hot hotter big bigger fat fatter<br />
Irregular Comparatives<br />
good<br />
better<br />
bad<br />
worse<br />
far<br />
farther/further<br />
much/many<br />
more<br />
little<br />
less<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Regular and Irregular Superlatives<br />
Box A is bigger than Box B.<br />
Box A is bigger than all the other boxes.<br />
Box A is the biggest box.<br />
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use<br />
‘the’, because there is only one superlative.<br />
1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.<br />
old<br />
the oldest<br />
2 syllable adjectives ending in ‘y’ add the -iest English is the easiest language to learn.<br />
easy<br />
the easiest<br />
2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.<br />
(before the adjective)<br />
beautiful<br />
the most beautiful<br />
Spelling Rules<br />
Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end double the consonant.<br />
Example:<br />
hot – hottest big – biggest fat – fattest<br />
Irregular Superlatives<br />
good the best<br />
bad<br />
the worst<br />
far<br />
the farthest/ the furthest<br />
much/many the most<br />
little<br />
the least<br />
96
eClass English<br />
‘The more . . . the more’<br />
Structure<br />
‘the’ + comparative..............., ‘the’ + comparative<br />
Parallel progression: we use comparatives with ‘the....the....’ to say things change or vary together.<br />
Examples<br />
The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.<br />
The more I learn, the more I know.<br />
The older I get, the happier I am.<br />
A use of the comparative<br />
Structure<br />
‘the’ + comparative<br />
Use<br />
Sometimes a comparative may express an<br />
opposition between 2 elements without actually<br />
stating both elements (the second element is implied)<br />
Examples<br />
The younger generation<br />
(as opposed to ‘the older generation’)<br />
This class is for the more intelligent students<br />
(as opposed to ‘the slower students’)<br />
97
11<br />
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Prepositions<br />
Prepositions of Time<br />
A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a noun<br />
and the moment/day/time/date of the action.<br />
Preposition Use Example<br />
At Time I start work at 9 o’clock.<br />
I go to bed at midnight.<br />
The shops close at 5.30.<br />
On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays.<br />
Specific dates My birthday is on May 25 th.<br />
New Year’s Day etc.<br />
I go home on Christmas Day.<br />
In Months My birthday is in June.<br />
MT W TFSS<br />
Seasons<br />
6 7<br />
Years<br />
I take vacation in the summer.<br />
I was born in 1980.<br />
3<br />
10<br />
16 17<br />
May<br />
1 2<br />
8 9<br />
15<br />
22 23<br />
29 30<br />
24<br />
31<br />
4 5<br />
11 12<br />
18 19<br />
25 26<br />
13 14<br />
20 21<br />
27 28<br />
By To show ending date or period. I need to finish the report by Friday.<br />
It will be ready by the summer.<br />
Fixed expressions:<br />
in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening<br />
But<br />
on Monday morning, on Tuesday afternoon etc.<br />
At the weekend (British) / On the weekend (American)<br />
At night<br />
At the moment<br />
98
eClass English<br />
Prepositions of Place<br />
A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing the relationship of a<br />
noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.<br />
At<br />
•General location<br />
•Precise point in larger<br />
space<br />
In<br />
•Inside of a place<br />
•Country, city, district<br />
something is located in<br />
On<br />
•Surface<br />
at the corner<br />
at the bus stop<br />
at the door<br />
at the front desk<br />
in the garden<br />
in London<br />
in France<br />
in a car<br />
on the wall<br />
on the ceiling<br />
on the door<br />
on a page<br />
Here are some prepositions of place.<br />
on above over in front of<br />
beside<br />
behind under below<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Final Preposition<br />
A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb and requests the results between<br />
the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.<br />
Verb + preposition<br />
Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate a common action.<br />
Examples:<br />
Listen to<br />
Look at<br />
Look for (search for, try to find)<br />
Look after (take care of)<br />
Talk about<br />
Talk to<br />
Worry about<br />
Pay for<br />
Depend on<br />
Complain about<br />
Go to<br />
Go for<br />
Go on<br />
Go in<br />
In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:<br />
Interrogative questions<br />
(when the question word is the object of the<br />
preposition)<br />
Relative clauses<br />
(when the relative pronoun is the object of<br />
the preposition)<br />
Infinitive clauses<br />
What are you looking at?<br />
What kind of music do you like to listen to?<br />
This is the house that I am talking about.<br />
That’s what I’m worried about.<br />
I’ve got lots of music to listen to.<br />
She has nothing to complain about.<br />
100
12 Conjunctions<br />
Conjunctions<br />
eClass English<br />
A conjunction is a word that “joins” the words in a sentence to each other in order to send a<br />
logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.<br />
Frequently Used Conjunctions:<br />
‘And’<br />
Examples:<br />
- To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applications and<br />
sequential to another.<br />
waited by the phone for a response.<br />
-To suggest that one idea is the result of<br />
another.<br />
Kevin heard the weather report and<br />
packed his camping gear.<br />
- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a<br />
another.<br />
pleasant personality.<br />
-To suggest an element of surprise.<br />
-To suggest that one clause is dependent<br />
upon another, conditionally.<br />
-To suggest a kind of ‘comment’ on the<br />
first clause.<br />
‘Yet’<br />
-To suggest addition, more of something.<br />
-Despite, even though<br />
-To indicate that something can ‘eventually’ occur.<br />
Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers<br />
from severe pollution.<br />
Use your credit cards frequently, and<br />
you’ll soon find yourself deep in debt.<br />
My lazy friend Charlie failed the math test<br />
and that didn’t surprise anyone.<br />
She is a simple, yet very intelligent woman.<br />
The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly it’s all true.<br />
They may yet win the game.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Nor’<br />
-Used with ‘neither’ for negative sentences.<br />
He is neither young nor ambitious.<br />
-Used with other negative expressions.<br />
‘But’<br />
That is not what I meant, nor should you<br />
misinterpret my statement.<br />
- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still<br />
on the first clause.<br />
seems able to live quite comfortably.<br />
- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studied for the test,<br />
part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to work on the<br />
assignment in class.<br />
- To use with the meaning of ‘with Everybody but Mark is trying out for the team.<br />
the exception of’.<br />
‘Or’<br />
- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for this exam or you<br />
achieved, excluding one or the other.<br />
can fail. (= only one of these things can happen)<br />
- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grill tonight,<br />
of alternatives.<br />
or we can eat hamburgers.<br />
- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best language center in the<br />
clause.<br />
country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.<br />
- To suggest a restatement or ‘correction’ There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon,<br />
of the first part of the sentence.<br />
or so our guide tells us.<br />
- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0 grade for<br />
class participation.<br />
- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they wouldn’t keep asking<br />
the use of an imperative.<br />
her to design the uniforms each year.<br />
‘For’<br />
Though used as a preposition, we can use ‘for’<br />
as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for<br />
the preceding clause.<br />
John thought he had a good chance to<br />
get the job, for his father was on the<br />
company’s board of trustees.<br />
102
eClass English<br />
‘So’<br />
- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always been nervous in large<br />
with a comma.<br />
gatherings, so it is no surprise that he<br />
avoids crowds when he is at the beach.<br />
- To indicate ‘as well’ or ‘in addition’. John is not the only Olympic athlete in his<br />
family, so are his uncle, sister, and his<br />
aunt Sally.<br />
- At the beginning of a sentence, ‘so’ will act as a So, the sheriff promptly removed the child<br />
kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody of his parents.<br />
does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence<br />
with a comma.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Use of ‘so’ to express a goal<br />
Examples:<br />
I’m saving money so I can travel in the summer.<br />
She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.<br />
‘So that’ + ‘may’ or ‘can’<br />
Objectives are expressed using ‘so that’ followed by:<br />
Structure<br />
Present simple<br />
‘May’ / ‘might’ ‘can’ / ‘could’<br />
‘Will’ / ‘would’<br />
Example<br />
He’ll take a taxi so that he arrives on time.<br />
He stayed after school so that he could help me<br />
with my homework.<br />
I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldn’t forget.<br />
In an informal style, ‘that’ is often dropped.<br />
Example:<br />
I’ve come early so I can talk to you.<br />
104
eClass English<br />
Similarity: ‘like’ and ‘as’<br />
Use<br />
We can use ‘like’ or ‘as’ to say that things are similar.<br />
Structure<br />
‘Like’<br />
- is similar to a preposition<br />
•Like + noun / pronoun<br />
•We can use ‘like’ to give examples<br />
‘As’<br />
- is a conjunction<br />
•‘As’ + clause (subject + verb)<br />
•‘As’ comes before nouns designating<br />
tittles and functions<br />
Example<br />
You look like your sister.<br />
He ran like the wind.<br />
She’s good at scientific subjects, like chemistry.<br />
They did as they promised.<br />
He worked as a taxi driver.<br />
‘Like’ and ‘as’ can both be used as prepositions but have different meanings.<br />
‘Like’ = ‘similar to’<br />
‘As’ = ‘in the position of’, ‘in the form of’<br />
Compare:<br />
‘As’ – Brenda Casey is the manager of a company. As the manager, she has to make many<br />
important decisions.<br />
(‘As the manager’ = in her position as the manager)<br />
‘Like’ – Mary Stone is the assistant manager. Like the manager (Brenda Casey), she also has to<br />
make important decisions.<br />
(‘Like the manager’ = similar to the manager)<br />
105
13<br />
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Gerunds and Infinitives<br />
Gerunds and Infinitives<br />
The infinitive (‘to’ + verb) is used:<br />
• To say why you do something<br />
I go to the gym to get some exercise.<br />
• To say why something exists<br />
Here’s an example to help you.<br />
• After ‘too’ and ‘enough’<br />
It’s too cold to go swimming.<br />
The gerund (verb ending in –ing) is used:<br />
• After prepositions (see below)<br />
He’s made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.<br />
• As non-count nouns<br />
Climbing is safer than it looks<br />
PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite without since<br />
If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive or the gerund form.<br />
Verbs Followed by an Infinitive<br />
She agreed to speak before the game.<br />
agree consent hope prepare try<br />
aim continue hurry proceed use<br />
appear dare intend promise wait<br />
arrange decide leap propose want<br />
ask deserve leave refuse wish<br />
attempt expect long remember<br />
be able fail mean say<br />
beg forget neglect shoot<br />
begin get offer stop<br />
bother happen ought strive<br />
care have plan swear<br />
choose hesitate prefer threaten<br />
106
eClass English<br />
Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive<br />
Everyone expected her to win.<br />
advise choose have order send<br />
allow command hire pay teach<br />
ask dare instruct permit tell<br />
beg direct invite persuade urge<br />
bring encourage lead prepare want<br />
build expect leave promise warn<br />
buy forbid let remind<br />
challenge force motivate require<br />
Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be used without an object.<br />
Verbs Followed by a Gerund<br />
They enjoyed working on the boat.<br />
admit delay get through practice risk<br />
advise deny have quit spend (time)<br />
appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggest<br />
avoid escape mind report tolerate<br />
can’t help excuse miss resent waste (time)<br />
complete finish permit resist<br />
consider forbid postpone resume<br />
Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund<br />
We concentrated on doing well.<br />
admit to depend on prevent (someone) from<br />
approve of disapprove of refrain from<br />
argue about discourage from succeed in<br />
believe in dream about talk about<br />
care about feel like think about<br />
complain about forget about worry about<br />
concentrate on<br />
insist on<br />
confess to<br />
plan on<br />
Expressions followed by the gerund<br />
It’s no good It’s not worth It’s no use<br />
It’s a waste of time Can’t stand Can’t bear<br />
Can’t help<br />
Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund<br />
begin love dislike prefer<br />
continue like hate start<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Get used to’<br />
We use ‘get used to’ to say that an action or situation becomes less strange or new. We can use the<br />
expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.<br />
Structure:<br />
‘get used to’ + noun or gerund<br />
It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She is getting used to waking up<br />
to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.<br />
‘Be used to’<br />
We use the expression ‘be used to’ to say that we have already become familiar with something/someone which<br />
was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the present simple, negative and affirmative<br />
sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the gerund form.<br />
Structure:<br />
subject + be + used to + object.<br />
Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.<br />
Kurt is not used to horses.<br />
108
eClass English<br />
Verbs: Reactions and Preferences<br />
Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund<br />
(verb ending in –ing). Some are followed by a verb in the infinitive (‘to’ + verb) or a gerund.<br />
Followed by the gerund<br />
To enjoy<br />
To mind<br />
To resent<br />
To object to<br />
To miss<br />
Cannot stand<br />
They enjoy dancing very much.<br />
I miss going to my English class.<br />
Followed by gerund<br />
or infinitive<br />
To like<br />
To love<br />
To dislike<br />
To hate<br />
To loathe<br />
To prefer<br />
Cannot bear<br />
I love eating.<br />
I love to eat.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Verb + Infinitive Clause<br />
Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibition follow this structure.<br />
Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need, oblige, recommend, want<br />
verb + object + infinitive<br />
Examples:<br />
He wants John to rent a car.<br />
They don’t allow people to smoke.<br />
Many of these verbs can also be used in<br />
the passive structure.<br />
Subject + passive verb + infinitive<br />
Examples:<br />
We were advised to come early.<br />
We were instructed to put down our pens.<br />
110
eClass English<br />
Verbs expressing a wish to act<br />
Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives (‘to’ + verb) or gerunds (verbs<br />
ending in –ing).<br />
To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York.<br />
He intends going to new York.*<br />
*A gerund with this verb<br />
is only used in British English.<br />
To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing?<br />
What did he propose to do?<br />
To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.<br />
(attempt to do, make<br />
an effort to )<br />
To try Gerund I wouldn’t try rafting; it is very<br />
(do something as an<br />
dangerous.<br />
experiment or test)<br />
To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.<br />
To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Verb + Preposition ‘at’ / ‘to’<br />
Verb + ‘at’<br />
Verb + ‘to’<br />
Look / have a look / stare / glance AT.<br />
Talk / speak TO<br />
Laugh / smile AT<br />
Listen TO<br />
Aim / point AT<br />
Write TO<br />
Invite (somebody) TO<br />
-Why are you looking at me?<br />
Explain (something) TO (someone)<br />
-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)<br />
-Can I speak to Jane please?<br />
-I invited 200 people to my wedding.<br />
-I need to apologize to my friend because<br />
I shouted at her yesterday.<br />
Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a difference in meaning.<br />
Shout AT somebody – when you are angry<br />
Shout TO somebody – so that they can hear you<br />
Throw something AT somebody/something – in order to hit them<br />
Throw something TO somebody – for somebody to catch<br />
112
14 Conditionals<br />
Conditionals<br />
Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses with ‘if’)*<br />
* For ‘construction of the present conditional’, see ‘second’ in table below.<br />
For ‘sequence of tenses with if’ see ‘zero, first, second and third’ below.<br />
Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.<br />
Conditional Structure Uses<br />
Examples<br />
eClass English<br />
Zero ‘If’ + subject + present simple , subject + Used to describe something that is<br />
present simple<br />
generally or always true.<br />
If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.<br />
First ‘If’ + subject+ present simple, subject + ‘will’ Used to describe a situation that is likely.<br />
+ infinitive without ‘to’<br />
‘If’ the weather is good, I will go to the beach.<br />
Second ‘If’ + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that<br />
(present) ‘would’ + infinitive without ‘to’ is not likely.<br />
If’ I won a million pounds, I would buy a house.<br />
Describes a hypothetical situation<br />
in the present.<br />
Third ‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + Used to describe a<br />
(perfect) ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle hypothetical situation in the past.<br />
It describes a situation that is<br />
If I had won the lottery, I would have<br />
impossible.<br />
bought a car.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional<br />
‘If’ + subject + past perfect, subject + ‘would’ + ‘have’ + past participle<br />
If I had seen you, I would have said hello.<br />
Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the past and therefore they are impossible<br />
and never happened.<br />
Example:<br />
Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didn’t know this, so she didn’t go to visit him. They met a<br />
few days ago. Liz said:<br />
‘If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.’<br />
What Liz said is hypothetical because the real situation is that she didn’t know he was in hospital.<br />
The Perfect Conditional using ‘should’<br />
Structure<br />
‘Should’ + ‘have’ + past participle<br />
Use<br />
Regret or reproach (to blame someone)<br />
Example<br />
I should have studied harder. (regret)<br />
You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)<br />
(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption<br />
regarding the past<br />
You should have received my e-mail.<br />
I sent it half an hour ago.<br />
114
15 Subjunctive and Wishes<br />
Present Subjunctive<br />
eClass English<br />
FORM<br />
Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’. The<br />
simple form of the verb ‘to go’ is ‘go’. The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms<br />
and tenses.<br />
USE<br />
The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain<br />
expressions (see below).<br />
Examples:<br />
• I suggest that he study.<br />
• Is it essential that we be there?<br />
• Don recommended that you join the committee.<br />
NOTICE:<br />
The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. In the examples below, the<br />
Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but it is noticeable in the he/sheform<br />
of the verb.<br />
Examples:<br />
YOU-FORM OF ‘TRY’:<br />
•You try to study often.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ LOOKS THE SAME:<br />
•It is important that you try to study often.<br />
HE-FORM OF ‘TRY’:<br />
•He tries to study often.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF ‘TRY’ IS NOTICEABLE:<br />
•It is important that he try to study often.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive<br />
The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:<br />
to advise (that)<br />
to ask (that)<br />
to command (that)<br />
to demand (that)<br />
to desire (that)<br />
to insist (that)<br />
to propose (that)<br />
to recommend (that)<br />
to request (that)<br />
to suggest (that)<br />
to urge (that)<br />
Examples<br />
•Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.<br />
•Donna requested Frank come to the party.<br />
•The teacher insists that her students be on time.<br />
Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive<br />
The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:<br />
It is best (that)<br />
It is crucial (that)<br />
It is desirable (that)<br />
It is essential (that)<br />
It is imperative (that)<br />
It is important (that)<br />
It is recommended (that)<br />
It is urgent (that)<br />
It is vital (that)<br />
It is a good idea (that)<br />
It is a bad idea (that)<br />
Examples<br />
•It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.<br />
•It is important she attend the meeting.<br />
•It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the<br />
Grand Canyon.<br />
116
eClass English<br />
Negative Forms of Subjunctive<br />
The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.<br />
Examples:<br />
•The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.<br />
•The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during business hours.<br />
•I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.<br />
The Past Subjunctive<br />
Past Forms of the Subjunctive<br />
The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.<br />
Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion.<br />
Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.<br />
However, we usually use the subjunctive ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ after ‘if’ and other words with similar meanings.<br />
(‘was’ is often used informally in speech)<br />
Examples<br />
He wishes he were a better student.<br />
If I were seven feet tall, I’d be a great basketball player.*<br />
*This is also a second conditional. See below.<br />
The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions ‘if only’, ‘I wish’, ‘suppose’, ‘as if’.<br />
Examples<br />
If only I had more money.<br />
I wish I were thinner.<br />
Suppose she were married.<br />
It’s not as if I were ugly.<br />
Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In this example, part 1 is a subjunctive<br />
and part 2 a conditional.<br />
If only I had more money, I would buy a new car.<br />
1 2<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Wishes and Regrets<br />
Wish<br />
=<br />
To show you want a<br />
situation to be different<br />
Regret<br />
=<br />
To feel sorrow or<br />
remorse for something<br />
you did/did not do.<br />
Wishes in the present<br />
To make wishes about the present, use the past tense.<br />
For the verb ‘to be’, use ‘were’.<br />
Situation: My sister is untidy.<br />
Wish: “I wish she were tidier.”<br />
Wishes in the past (regret)<br />
To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.<br />
Situation: I didn’t go on a vacation this year.<br />
Wish: “I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.”<br />
Wishes about ability<br />
To make wishes about ability use ‘could’.<br />
Situation: I can’t play a musical instrument.<br />
Wish: “I wish I could play a musical instrument.”<br />
Wishes about habit and free will<br />
To make wishes about habit and free will use ‘would’.<br />
Situation: He sings in the office.<br />
Wish: “I wish he wouldn’t sing in the office.”<br />
(In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habit of it.)<br />
118
16 Passives<br />
The Passive Voice<br />
eClass English<br />
Passive Voice = ‘To be’ + past participle<br />
The passive exists in every tense.<br />
We use an active verb to say what the subject does.<br />
We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.<br />
When we use the passive, ‘who’ or ‘what’ causes the action is often unknown or unimportant.<br />
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use ‘by…’<br />
Tense Active Passive<br />
Present Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him.<br />
Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.<br />
Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.<br />
Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned by him.<br />
Future simple ‘will’ He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.<br />
‘To be going to’ future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.<br />
Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.<br />
Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
The Impersonal Structure<br />
An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general. Here are some different<br />
ways to form an impersonal structure.<br />
Passive form without the agent<br />
The personal pronouns ‘we, you, they’<br />
We are expected at 7pm.<br />
(Somebody expects us)<br />
We drive on the left side of the road.<br />
(the speaker is included in the group of people<br />
in question)<br />
You drink a lot of tea in Britain.<br />
(the listener is included)<br />
They are very friendly in Ireland.<br />
(neither the speaker nor listener is included)<br />
People (plural meaning)<br />
Somebody/someone (singular meaning)<br />
People in Ireland are very friendly.<br />
Someone is on the phone for you.<br />
Other Impersonal Structures:<br />
gerund + object + ‘to be’ conjugated +<br />
(adverb of frequency) + adjective<br />
It + ‘to be’ conjugated +<br />
(adverb of frequency) + adjective<br />
+ infinitive<br />
Reading English newspapers is often difficult.<br />
Playing tennis is excellent exercise.<br />
It is sometimes exciting to walk in the<br />
pouring rain.<br />
It was strange to say that Russian is<br />
easier than English.<br />
120
17 Reported Speech<br />
The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech<br />
Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone else said, but without using the<br />
exact words.<br />
eClass English<br />
I’m feeling ill.<br />
You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doing this:<br />
1. You can repeat Tom’s words (direct speech)<br />
Tom said, ‘I’m feeling ill’<br />
2. You can use reported speech.<br />
Tom said that he was feeling ill.<br />
Reported speech:<br />
-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)<br />
-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goes a step back in time)<br />
-‘That’ is optional.<br />
Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:<br />
Direct speech<br />
Reported speech<br />
She said “I watch TV every day.” She said (that) she watched TV every day.<br />
She said “I am watching.”<br />
She said she was watching TV.<br />
She said “I watched TV.”<br />
She said she had watched TV.<br />
She said “I have watched TV.” She said she had watched TV.<br />
She said “I will watch TV.”<br />
She said she would watch TV.<br />
She said “I am going to watch TV.” She said she was going to watch TV.<br />
She said “I can watch TV.” She said she could watch TV.<br />
She said “I may watch TV.” She said she might watch TV.<br />
She said “I must watch TV.” She said she had to watch TV.<br />
She said “I should watch TV.” She said she should watch TV.<br />
She said “I ought to watch TV.” She said she ought to watch TV.<br />
She said “Watch TV.” She told someone to watch TV. *<br />
*The imperative changes to the infinitive. ‘Tell’ is usually used instead of ‘say’.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
General Guidelines for Reported Speech<br />
1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.<br />
2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker is reporting something<br />
immediately after it was said.<br />
Immediate Reporting:<br />
Later Reporting:<br />
What did the teacher just say?<br />
He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.<br />
I didn’t go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any<br />
assignments?<br />
He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.<br />
3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.<br />
She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.<br />
4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change it to the past perfect.<br />
122
18 Phrasal Verbs<br />
The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs<br />
A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverb that modifies or changes the<br />
meaning.<br />
eClass English<br />
Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.<br />
Preposition Use Example<br />
Away Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away.<br />
Disappearance: to sweep away<br />
Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to the teacher.<br />
Return to point of departure: to bring back<br />
Reply: to answer back<br />
Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it is very loud.<br />
Writing: to write down<br />
Decrease: to turn down<br />
In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.<br />
Visit: to drop in<br />
Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment.<br />
Departure: to go off / to take off<br />
because I have a class.<br />
On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please?<br />
Continuation: to go on<br />
Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays.<br />
Outside: to eat out<br />
Distribution: to give out<br />
Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.<br />
Action done with care: to think over<br />
Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I can’t hear you.<br />
Increased volume: to speak up<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Phrasal Verbs<br />
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the<br />
original verb.<br />
Example:<br />
I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET<br />
He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME<br />
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be<br />
followed by an object.<br />
Example:<br />
He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.<br />
Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can be followed by an<br />
object.<br />
Example:<br />
I made up the story. ‘Story’ is the object of ‘made up’.<br />
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between<br />
the verb and the preposition.<br />
Example:<br />
I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO = PERSUADE<br />
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the<br />
preposition.<br />
Example:<br />
I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BY CHANCE<br />
Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.<br />
Example:<br />
I looked the number up in the phone book.<br />
I looked up the number in the phone book.<br />
124
eClass English<br />
WARNING!<br />
Although many phrasal verbs can take an object in both<br />
places, you must put the object between the verb and the<br />
preposition if the object is a pronoun.<br />
Example:<br />
I looked the number up in the phone book. CORRECT<br />
I looked up the number in the phone book. CORRECT<br />
I looked it up in the phone book. CORRECT<br />
I looked up it in the phone book. INCORRECT<br />
125
19<br />
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Expressions<br />
‘To get’ + Adjective<br />
The verb ‘to get’ has many different ‘To get’ + adjective : Some adjectives used with ‘get’<br />
meanings such as:<br />
to become, show a change of state<br />
To obtain<br />
get hungry<br />
To receive Examples: get thirsty<br />
To buy It gets dark early in winter. get tired<br />
To reach I’m getting tired of working get ready<br />
To arrive (at a place) such long hours. get serious<br />
To become It is getting warmer. get wet<br />
get better<br />
get prepared<br />
get dressed<br />
get bigger<br />
‘To look forward to’<br />
‘To look forward to’ = To think of a future event with anticipation<br />
Structure<br />
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + noun<br />
Example:<br />
I am looking forward to the vacation.<br />
Structure<br />
Verb ‘to be’ + ‘look forward to’ + gerund<br />
Examples:<br />
I look forward to hearing from you.<br />
He is looking forward to seeing you.<br />
Get dressed<br />
126
eClass English<br />
‘Kind of’ followed by a noun<br />
‘kind of (a/an)’ + noun<br />
When you ask for a more precise definition<br />
or description of something.<br />
What kind of (a) problem are you having?*<br />
What kind of experience do you have?<br />
* It is more informal to include ‘a’<br />
To describe something in an approximate way,<br />
not precise.<br />
‘Kind of like (/a/an)’ + noun<br />
To compare one thing to another in an<br />
approximate or partial way.<br />
She’s kind of rude.<br />
It’s a kind of telephone but plays music as well.<br />
It looks kind of like an earring, but is much<br />
bigger.<br />
‘Kind of’ = sort of / type of What sort/type of computer is that? =<br />
What kind of computer is that?<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘To be likely’<br />
‘To be likely’<br />
=<br />
high probability of something happening.<br />
Present<br />
‘To be likely’ + infinitive<br />
Past<br />
‘To be (was/were) likely’ + infinitive<br />
He is likely to pass the exam.<br />
The meeting is likely to be very long.<br />
The meeting was likely to be very long.<br />
Negative<br />
‘To be unlikely’ + infinitive<br />
Related expression<br />
‘It is likely that’<br />
He is unlikely to come.<br />
It’s likely that it will rain.<br />
It’s unlikely that it is very cold there.<br />
‘To be likely’ + ‘to have’ + past participle He is likely to have forgotten about the appointment.<br />
= an opinion about a past event. They are likely to have finished early.<br />
128
eClass English<br />
‘To be left’ / ‘To have left’<br />
‘To be left’ /‘to have left’ = remaining, not used, still there<br />
Structure<br />
‘to be left’<br />
Subject + ‘be left’<br />
to have left<br />
This is a passive structure.<br />
This is an active structure.<br />
Example<br />
The weather was bad. Few people were left on the streets.<br />
Subject + ‘have’ + direct object + ‘left’<br />
Do you have any rooms left?<br />
Yes, we have some rooms left.<br />
‘For the sake of’<br />
‘For the sake of’ = in the interests of<br />
Structure<br />
‘For’ + noun / noun phrase +’ -’s sake’<br />
‘For’ + possessive adjective + ‘sake’<br />
‘For the sake of’ + noun / noun phrase / gerund<br />
Examples<br />
For John’s sake<br />
For the children’s sake<br />
For his sake<br />
For their sake<br />
For the sake of the children<br />
For the sake of saving<br />
129
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Expressions with ‘to have’<br />
Use Examples<br />
Here are some fixed expressions with the<br />
verb ‘to have’<br />
To have a bath Did you have a bath yesterday?<br />
To have lunch We will have lunch later.<br />
To have a rest I’d like to have a rest before going out.<br />
To have a look Have a look at this!<br />
‘To have reason to’ + infinitive We have reason to hope for continued success.<br />
( to analyze causes and consequences)<br />
‘To have to do with something’ The report has to do with our financial<br />
( to say what the topic is) results for the last quarter.<br />
130
eClass English<br />
Baseball Expressions<br />
Baseball is an important part of American culture. Its influence is so strong that it<br />
has become the source of many expressions that are used in informal and business<br />
contexts.<br />
Expression<br />
Touch base<br />
Playing field<br />
On the ball<br />
Ballpark figure<br />
In the ballpark<br />
Big league<br />
To cover one’s bases<br />
Home run<br />
Play hard ball<br />
Right off the bat<br />
Example<br />
It’s good to touch base with clients regularly.<br />
Now that more companies have made offers,<br />
we’re dealing with a bigger playing field.<br />
Our new attorney seems to be on the ball.<br />
I can only give you a ballpark figure.<br />
The offer isn’t in the ballpark yet.<br />
We’ll move into the big league if we secure this deal.<br />
This is a complicated transaction; make<br />
sure to cover your bases.<br />
Jenny hit a home run with that deal.<br />
We’re going to have to play hard ball if we want to<br />
get this deal.<br />
Dan started criticizing right off the bat.<br />
131
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘To be at stake’<br />
Structure Use Example<br />
‘To be’ + ‘at stake’ To be threatened or endangered. If we don’t respond to this<br />
This may be used to talk about threats crisis now, our financial<br />
to someone or something’s well-being stability will be at stake.<br />
or reputation.<br />
The firm’s reputation is at<br />
stake following the recall of<br />
its latest product.<br />
These expressions are similar in meaning ‘to be at stake’:<br />
‘to be in jeopardy’, ‘to be on the line’, ‘to be at risk’<br />
Expressions of Increase<br />
There are several different words and expressions to describe increase.<br />
Use Expression Example<br />
To describe increase in a To rise Share values rose steadily last quarter.<br />
general way.<br />
To climb<br />
Next year, productivity<br />
should climb sharply.<br />
To talk about slow or To creep up Stocks crept up last quarter.<br />
gradual increase.<br />
To edge up<br />
To inch up<br />
Prices are inching up due to inflation.<br />
To describe sharp and To take off The company is only two years old,<br />
sudden increase. To skyrocket but it has really taken off.<br />
To shoot up<br />
To soar<br />
Stocks are skyrocketing following<br />
To go through the roof economic recovery.<br />
132
20 Other<br />
‘There is’ / ‘There are’<br />
eClass English<br />
Affirmative Negative Question<br />
Singular: There is There is not Is there…….?<br />
There isn’t<br />
There’s not<br />
Plural: There are There are not Are there…..?<br />
There aren’t<br />
Examples:<br />
STATION<br />
There’s a man on the roof.<br />
There’s a train in the station.<br />
MT W TFSS<br />
3<br />
10<br />
16 17<br />
May<br />
1 2<br />
8 9<br />
15<br />
22 23<br />
29 30<br />
24<br />
31<br />
4 5<br />
11 12<br />
18 19<br />
25 26<br />
6 7<br />
13 14<br />
20 21<br />
27 28<br />
There are seven days in a week.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
Dates<br />
First 1 st , Second 2 nd , Third 3 rd<br />
Ordinal Numbers Fourth 4 th , Fifth 5 th , Sixth 6 th , Seventh 7 th , Eighth 8 th ,<br />
Ninth 9 th , Tenth 10 th …<br />
20 th , 21 st , 22 nd , 23 rd ….<br />
30 th , 31 st , 32 nd , 33 rd ….<br />
Days<br />
Weekly Calendar<br />
Week of_______________<br />
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday<br />
Years<br />
Up until the year 2000,<br />
years are pronounced<br />
in two parts:<br />
1925 = 19 part1<br />
25 part2<br />
=<br />
‘Nineteen 1<br />
twenty-five 2<br />
’<br />
Date (written form)<br />
1998 = nineteen ninety-eight<br />
2010 = two thousand (and) ten (‘twenty ten’ is also becoming popular)<br />
1: American format = July 2, 2010<br />
month / day / year = 07/02/2010<br />
2: British format = 2 July 2010<br />
day / month / year = 02/07/2010<br />
134
eClass English<br />
Time<br />
What time………?<br />
What time is it?<br />
What time do you get up?<br />
= what time of day?<br />
O’clock<br />
The time + o’clock = indicates an exact hour.<br />
It’s six o’clock.<br />
British English<br />
To express a time after the hour we use ‘past’.<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
12<br />
10<br />
2<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
8<br />
6<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
It’s twenty past four. It’s quarter past three It’s half past twelve.<br />
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
It’s ten to two.<br />
It’s quarter to five.<br />
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GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
American English<br />
To express a time after the hour we use ‘after’. (except for the half hour)<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
It’s twenty after four. It’s quarter after three. It’s twelve thirty.<br />
To express a time after the half hour and before the hour we use ‘to’.<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
12<br />
11<br />
1<br />
10<br />
2<br />
9<br />
3<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7 5<br />
6<br />
It’s ten to two.<br />
It’s quarter to five.<br />
In both British and American English<br />
You can also tell the time by reading the hour and then the minutes.<br />
6:05 It’s six o five.<br />
6:10 It’s six ten.<br />
6:15 It’s six fifteen.<br />
6:20 It’s six twenty.<br />
6:30 It’s six thirty.<br />
6:45 It’s six forty-five.<br />
6:55 It’s six fifty-five.<br />
136
‘Have or ‘Make’ without ‘to’<br />
eClass English<br />
Use Structure Example<br />
To cause someone to to ‘have’ or ‘make’ + I had him service my car.<br />
do something direct object + infinitive without ‘to’ He made me laugh so much.<br />
To cause something ‘to have’ + direct object + He had his car repaired.<br />
to be done past participle She had her hair cut.<br />
137
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘To Let’<br />
‘Let’ means the same as ‘to allow’ or ‘to permit’<br />
but is more informal.<br />
‘Let’ + object + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Example:<br />
Please allow me to buy you a drink.<br />
Please let me buy you a drink.<br />
Example:<br />
My parents don’t allow me to go out at night.<br />
My parents don’t let me go out at night.<br />
Remember, in the third person present we use ‘lets’ but in<br />
the past simple we use ‘let’.<br />
Conjugation of ‘to let’<br />
The present<br />
The past simple<br />
I let I let<br />
You let You let<br />
He/She/It lets He/She/It let<br />
We let We let<br />
They let They let<br />
138
eClass English<br />
‘When’ / ‘While’ + present<br />
With conjunctions of time, like ‘when’ and ‘while’, we use the present tense.<br />
Structure<br />
‘Will’ + verb, conjunction of time + present simple<br />
Examples:<br />
They will eat when they arrive.<br />
While I am in Santiago, I’ll call you.<br />
Conjunctions of time<br />
after once<br />
as soon as until<br />
as long as when<br />
as much as whenever<br />
before wherever<br />
while<br />
‘How’ + Adjective or Adverb<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘How’ + adjective or Forms an open question. How tall are you?<br />
adverb (you can’t answer yes or no) I am very tall. / I’m 1.60m<br />
How high is Mt Everest?<br />
It is extremely high. /<br />
It’s 8848m<br />
How often do you go to the cinema?<br />
I hardly ever go.<br />
139
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Had better’ / ‘Would rather’<br />
Structure Use Examples<br />
‘Had better’<br />
Subject + ‘had better’ + infinitive -A firm suggestion You had better tell her the<br />
without ‘to’<br />
bad news.<br />
Subject + ‘had better’ + not -An order You had better not finish the cake!<br />
+ infinitive without ‘to’<br />
‘Would rather’<br />
Subject + ‘would rather’ + -To show preference I would rather go for a swim.<br />
infinitive without ‘to’<br />
Subject + ‘would rather’ + not<br />
+ infinitive without ‘to’<br />
‘Would’ + subject + ‘rather’<br />
+ infinitive without ‘to’<br />
I would rather not go for a swim.<br />
Would you rather go for a swim?<br />
Expression of Preference<br />
These expressions are used to talk about preference.<br />
Structure<br />
‘Would prefer’<br />
Subject + ‘would prefer’ + infinitive with ‘to’<br />
(‘d)<br />
‘Would rather’<br />
Subject + ‘would rather’ + infinitive without ‘to’<br />
(‘d)<br />
Examples<br />
I’d prefer to talk to someone else.<br />
Would you prefer to stay at home?<br />
He’d rather be on the beach.<br />
Would you rather stay here or go away?<br />
Used mainly in speech.<br />
140
eClass English<br />
Words ending in ‘ever’<br />
The words whoever, whatever, whichever, however, whenever, wherever mean it<br />
doesn’t matter who/ what / which etc.<br />
(‘any person who’, ‘any thing that’ etc. or ‘the unknown person who’, ‘the unknown<br />
thing that’)<br />
Word ending in<br />
ever Examples<br />
Whoever Whoever comes to the door, tell them I’m out.<br />
Whatever<br />
Whichever<br />
However<br />
Whenever<br />
Wherever<br />
Whatever you do, I’ll always love you.<br />
Choose whichever book you like.<br />
However you travel, it will take you at least 3 days.<br />
Whenever I go to London, I try to see Vicky.<br />
Wherever you go, you’ll find Coca- Cola.<br />
141
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘Whether’<br />
‘Whether’<br />
=<br />
to talk about choices or<br />
alternatives. Like ‘if’ it<br />
expresses uncertainty.<br />
The differences between ‘whether’ and ‘if’:<br />
If<br />
For situations with only one condition.<br />
You can have dessert if you eat your<br />
vegetables.<br />
(the son having dessert depends on<br />
consumption of dessert, so this is conditional)<br />
Whether<br />
To discuss two or more alternatives.<br />
I don’t know whether we should invest right now or not.<br />
Answer yes or no questions with ‘whether’ or ‘if’.<br />
Sally asks: ‘Can you go shopping with me tonight?’<br />
I’m not sure if I can go shopping with you tonight. OR<br />
I’m not sure whether I can go shopping with you tonight.<br />
Use ‘whether’ after prepositions.<br />
I am uncertain whether we should go to the dinner party.<br />
Use ‘whether’ with infinitives that come after ‘to’.<br />
Jenny doesn’t know whether to study for her test or<br />
go to a movie with friends.<br />
It’s becoming increasingly popular to use ‘whether’ and ‘if’ interchangeably in certain situations. Although this<br />
might be acceptable in casual conversation, it is not considered grammatically correct to interchange them.<br />
142
eClass English<br />
Emphatic ‘do’<br />
For emphasis we can put do in an affirmative clause.<br />
Use<br />
Insistence on speaker’s point of view.<br />
Confirmation of what precedes.<br />
Contradiction<br />
Persuasion using the imperative<br />
Examples<br />
She does look pretty.<br />
He said it would rain and it did rain.<br />
He didn’t come to the party yesterday.<br />
He did come, but he didn’t stay long.<br />
‘I can’t do it! It’s too difficult!’<br />
‘Do try again!’<br />
Verbs expressing impressions and feelings<br />
Verbs that express impressions and feelings are: to look, to sound, to smell, to taste,<br />
to feel etc.<br />
They may be followed by:<br />
Structure<br />
the preposition ‘like’<br />
Examples<br />
He looks like his father.<br />
It sounds like you’re angry.<br />
‘as if’ / ‘as though’<br />
an adjective<br />
You look as if you don’t understand me.<br />
It sounds as though you aren’t listening to me.<br />
He looks happy.<br />
This ice cream tastes good.<br />
143
GRAMMAR BOOK<br />
‘I am told’<br />
The present sometimes stands in for the present perfect, as in:<br />
Structure<br />
Examples<br />
‘I am told’ (= I understand ) I am told that you are in charge of the<br />
Instead of ‘I’ve been told’<br />
sales department.<br />
‘I forget’ (= I can’t remember) What time is the match tonight?<br />
Instead of ‘I’ve forgotten’<br />
I forget.<br />
‘I hear’<br />
Instead of ‘I’ve heard’<br />
I hear you have been promoted.<br />
144