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European Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009<br />
Europen Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009<br />
© 2009 <strong>Ozean</strong> Publication<br />
A PSYCHOLOGICAL POSTULATION FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF<br />
CLASSROOM EMOTIONAL ABUSE<br />
Okoza Jolly, *Oyaziwo Aluede And A.I Ojugo<br />
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria<br />
*E-mail address <strong>for</strong> correspondence : oyaziwoaluede@yahoo.com<br />
______________________________________________________________________________________<br />
Abstract : Emotional abuse of secondary school students by teachers is an active label <strong>for</strong> describing <strong>the</strong><br />
violations of students’ rights. It is a strong school violence that can impede students’ development and<br />
productivity. This work portrays how emotional abuse can destroy self –concept of students in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>classroom</strong> in concordance with Rogerians’ <strong>the</strong>ory. In line with Rogers’ <strong>the</strong>ory, emotional abuse is undue<br />
pressure from teachers. Such pressure can stifle students’ development. This work recommends that since<br />
emotional abuse destroys growth promoting climate in <strong>the</strong> <strong>classroom</strong>, teachers should internalize <strong>the</strong><br />
principles of unconditional positive regard as enunciated by Rogers that is characterized by genuineness,<br />
sympathy and empathy. These are ingredients that can facilitate students learning and development.<br />
______________________________________________________________________________________<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Emotional abuse, which is a subtype of abuse and neglect, is a problem affecting all races, religions, and<br />
socioeconomic groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around <strong>the</strong> world, 40 million<br />
children suffer from abuse or neglect and need health and social intervention (WHO, 1999). Emotional<br />
abuse is a concerted attack by an adult on a child’s development of self and social competence, a pattern of<br />
psychically destructive behaviour (Garbarino, Guttman & Seeley, 1986).<br />
Today, school violence is one of <strong>the</strong> most important problems facing children and <strong>the</strong>ir families, since<br />
growing number of students perceive <strong>the</strong>ir school context as an unsafe environment (Aluede, 2004). In<br />
some family settings, inappropriate and abusive parent will denigrate and insult <strong>the</strong> child, express<br />
conditional love and ambivalent feelings towards <strong>the</strong> child, and will emotionally or physically reject <strong>the</strong><br />
child’s attention (Alfandary, 1993). Children who found <strong>the</strong>mselves in such situation ei<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong>ir school<br />
or family circle are likely to suffer damage to <strong>the</strong>ir self-esteem and <strong>the</strong>ir internalization of positive role<br />
models and adaptive interactional patterns. This state of <strong>psychological</strong> maltreatment experienced by<br />
students is perceived as a socio-economic malaise by all and sundry in our society. Such experience will<br />
impact negatively on <strong>the</strong> mental abilities of a child such as intelligence, memory, recognition and attention,<br />
feelings and capacity to develop relationships (O’ Hagan, 1993).<br />
Psychological abuse or mental injury and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms of abuse may have in<strong>for</strong>med <strong>the</strong> Federal Republic of<br />
Nigeria (1999) to insert in her constitution, section 34 which states <strong>the</strong> Rights to dignity of human persons.<br />
In addition, subsection (1) of section 34 states fur<strong>the</strong>r that every individual is entitled to respect <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
dignity of his human person and accordingly: (a) no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or<br />
degrading treatment. The foundations <strong>for</strong> good mental health are laid in <strong>the</strong> emotional development that<br />
occurs in infancy and later childhood and appears to be dependant upon <strong>the</strong> quality of and frequency of<br />
response to an infant or child from a parent or primary caregiver (O’ Hagan, 1993). If a parent<br />
inadvertently or deliberately engages in a pattern of inappropriately emotional responses, <strong>the</strong> child can be<br />
said to have experienced emotional abuse.<br />
The term abuse conjures up images of violence and cruelty. It infers a deliberate action, an intention to<br />
harm and to damage. It is an active label <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> violations of one person’s rights by ano<strong>the</strong>r. But in order to<br />
be able to talk about emotional abuse, we need to recognize that <strong>the</strong> term also describes what is not being<br />
done, what is being omitted, neglected and denied and most importantly, how it is done unintentionally,<br />
out of ignorance, indifference or distress (Alfandary, 1993)<br />
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European Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009<br />
Emotional abuse is as difficult to detect as it is damaging. It is an invisible wound. It is often ignored as its<br />
recognition may leave us feeling enraged, impotent and devastated. We may try to protect ourselves from it<br />
as adults by denying its emotional impact, projecting our feelings and down-playing its significance. But in<br />
later years, we become morally indignant when confronted with <strong>the</strong> extreme examples of its consequences<br />
such as juvenile delinquency (Alfandary, 1993). This denial, (Polansky, 1981) is putting democratic society<br />
in great danger. Students in secondary school may experience some <strong>for</strong>ms of emotional abuse such as<br />
rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, controlling, etc, that may have effects on <strong>the</strong>ir passage through <strong>the</strong><br />
three major developmental stages of infancy, childhood and adolescence (Garbarino, et al, 1986).<br />
Like o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>for</strong>ms of violence, emotional abuse is based on power and control. Emotional abuse of children<br />
can result in serious and /or behavioural problems, including depression, lack of attachment or emotional<br />
bond to a parent or guardian, low cognitive ability and educational underachievement, and poor social skills<br />
(McEachern, Aluede & Kenny, 2008). Children who experience rejection are more likely than accepted<br />
children to exhibit hostility, aggressive or passive- aggressive behaviour, to be extremely dependent, to<br />
have negative opinions of <strong>the</strong>mselves and <strong>the</strong>ir abilities, to be emotionally unstable or unresponsive, and to<br />
have negative perception of <strong>the</strong> world around <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Most extant literature has focused more on physical abuse and sexual abuse, than <strong>the</strong> prevalence of<br />
emotional abuse in Nigeria’s school system. There is rarity of empirical studies on emotional abuse by <strong>the</strong><br />
teacher on students in Nigeria. Even though teachers serve not only as educators, but also, as important<br />
socializing agents who fulfill basic socio-emotional needs, such as belongings and self- esteem. This fact is<br />
supported by research evidence that teacher - child relationship exerts a major influence on <strong>the</strong> children’s<br />
social, behavioural, emotional and academic adjustment (Pianta, 1999). Put simply, teachers act in “loco<br />
parentis” in <strong>the</strong> school to nurture children. But, teachers who consistently communicate a negative sense of<br />
identity to <strong>the</strong> child and refuse to accept and respond to <strong>the</strong> child’s needs <strong>for</strong> human contact and attachment<br />
cannot be said to be promoting <strong>the</strong> developmental needs of <strong>the</strong> child. This action by <strong>the</strong> teacher amount to<br />
rejection, a <strong>for</strong>m of emotional abuse.<br />
Some teachers are unaware of <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong>ir behaviour upon children. It is possible that teachers are<br />
also unaware that emotional abuse is a <strong>for</strong>m of child abuse that has serious damaging consequences on <strong>the</strong><br />
development of children. They may perceive emotional abuse as a means of molding and shaping<br />
children’s behaviour. Teachers may also lack alternatives in dealing with children who misbehave in<br />
schools.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> <strong>classroom</strong>, <strong>the</strong> importance of children’s mental health should not be underestimated. Emotional<br />
abuse can affect it. Children must survive as <strong>psychological</strong>ly intact individuals. It is apparent that a chronic<br />
pattern of <strong>psychological</strong> maltreatment destroys a child’s sense of self and personal safety. This leads to<br />
adverse effects on intrapersonal thoughts, emotional health, social skills, learning impairments, and<br />
physical health (Nesbit & Philpot, 2002). A child may recover from physical pain and injuries, but may<br />
never recover from <strong>the</strong> terror, degradation, humiliation or breach of trust involved in emotional abuse<br />
(Briggs, 1995; Briggs & Hawkins, 1997).<br />
Although individual acts can be abusive, emotional abuse usually describes an ongoing interaction. It is a<br />
repeated pattern of damaging interactions between teachers or parents and <strong>the</strong> child that becomes typical of<br />
<strong>the</strong> relationship (Glaser, & Prior, 1997). The severity of emotional abuse should not be underestimated, and<br />
hence Geffner (2007) points out that emotional abuse can be thought of as <strong>the</strong> non-physical abuse of <strong>the</strong><br />
self and spirit, which degrades worth and interferes with human development and productivity. The thrust<br />
of this paper is to evolve a <strong>the</strong>ory that capture emotional abuse of students by <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>classroom</strong> teachers.<br />
This, Rogerian’s self- concept <strong>the</strong>ory is particularly indicated to be relevant.<br />
Rogers’ Theory<br />
The central concept in Rogers’s <strong>the</strong>ory is <strong>the</strong> self, an organized, consistent set of perceptions of and beliefs<br />
about oneself (Rogers, 1959). Once <strong>for</strong>med, plays a powerful role in guiding our perceptions and directing<br />
our behaviour. Rogers believed that our behaviour is not a reaction to unconscious conflicts, but a response<br />
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European Journal of Educational Studies 1(3), 2009<br />
to our immediate conscious experience of self and environment (Rogers, 1951). Rogers (1951) believed<br />
that, without undue pressure from o<strong>the</strong>rs, individuals naturally move toward personal growth, selfacceptance,<br />
and self-actualization, which is <strong>the</strong> fulfillment of <strong>the</strong>ir potential <strong>for</strong> love, creativity, and<br />
meaning. Emotional abuse is an undue pressure that can stifle such fulfillment in <strong>the</strong> life of children.<br />
Rogers (1902-1987) began his inquiry about human nature with people who were troubled. Rogers (1961)<br />
examined <strong>the</strong> conditioned, controlling world that kept <strong>the</strong>m from having positive self-concept and reaching<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir full potential as human beings. Under <strong>the</strong> stress of pressure from society and family, however, people<br />
can develop rigid and distorted perspectives of self and can lose touch with <strong>the</strong>ir own values and needs.<br />
This can lead to emotional distress, unhealthy behaviour, and even loss of touch with reality. Emotional<br />
abuse will remove genuineness, acceptance and empathy that are <strong>the</strong> water, sun and nutrients that enable<br />
people to grow like vigorous oak tree. For “as persons are accepted and prized, <strong>the</strong>y tend to develop a more<br />
caring attitude towards <strong>the</strong>mselves” (Rogers, 1980, p. 116).<br />
Rogers <strong>the</strong>orized that at <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong>ir lives, children cannot distinguish between <strong>the</strong>mselves and<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir environment. As <strong>the</strong>y interact with <strong>the</strong>ir world, children begin to distinguish between <strong>the</strong> “me” and<br />
“not me.” The self-concept continues to develop in response to our life experiences, though many aspects<br />
of it remain quite stable over time (Passer & Smith, 2001). Once <strong>the</strong> self – concept is established, <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
tendency to maintain it, <strong>for</strong> it helps us to understand ourselves in relation to <strong>the</strong> world. We <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e have<br />
needs <strong>for</strong> self-consistency (an absence of conflict among self –perceptions) and congruence (consistency<br />
between self – perceptions and experience). The self is a whole, consisting of one’s self – perceptions (how<br />
attractive I am, how well I get along with o<strong>the</strong>rs, how good a scholar I am) and <strong>the</strong> value we attach to <strong>the</strong>se<br />
perceptions (good / bad, worthy/ unworthy <strong>for</strong> example). Self –concept refers to individuals’ overall<br />
perception of <strong>the</strong>ir abilities, behaviour, and personality. In Rogers’s view, a person who has an inaccurate<br />
self-concept is likely to be maladjusted. It is believed that emotional abuse can cause such maladjustment in<br />
children. A child who is abused emotionally will suffer severe anxiety, depression, withdrawal, selfharming<br />
behaviour or aggressive behaviour towards o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> degree of congruence between self-concept and experience helps define one’s level of<br />
adjustment. The more rigid and inflexible people’s self – concepts are, <strong>the</strong> less open <strong>the</strong>y will be to <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
experiences and <strong>the</strong> more maladjusted <strong>the</strong>y will become. If <strong>the</strong>re is significant degree of incongruence<br />
between self and experience, and <strong>the</strong> experience are <strong>for</strong>ceful enough, <strong>the</strong> defenses used to deny and distort<br />
reality may collapse, resulting in extreme anxiety and a temporary disorganization of <strong>the</strong> self – concept.<br />
Rogers distinguished between <strong>the</strong> real self – that is, <strong>the</strong> self as it really is as a result of our experiences –<br />
and <strong>the</strong> ideal self, which is <strong>the</strong> self we would like to be. The greater <strong>the</strong> discrepancy between <strong>the</strong> real self<br />
and ideal self said Rogers, <strong>the</strong> more maladjusted we will be. To improve our adjustment, we can develop<br />
more positive perceptions of our real self, not worry so much about what o<strong>the</strong>rs want, and increase our<br />
positive experiences in <strong>the</strong> world (Santrock, 2000).<br />
Rogers <strong>the</strong>orized on <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> positive regard. He believed that we are born with an innate need <strong>for</strong><br />
positive regard – that is, <strong>for</strong> acceptance, sympathy, and love from o<strong>the</strong>rs. Rogers viewed positive regard as<br />
essential <strong>for</strong> healthy development. Ideally, positive regard received from parents is unconditional – that is<br />
independent of how <strong>the</strong> child behaves. Unconditional positive regard communicates that <strong>the</strong> child is<br />
inherently worthy of love. Rogers stressed that we can help a person develop a more positive self-concept<br />
through unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuineness. He said that we need to be accepted by<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs, regardless of what we do. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, unconditional positive regard is Rogers’s term <strong>for</strong><br />
accepting, valuing, and being positive toward ano<strong>the</strong>r person regardless of <strong>the</strong> person’s behaviour. Rogers<br />
recognized that when a person’s behaviour is below acceptable standards, inappropriate, or even<br />
obnoxious, <strong>the</strong> person still needs <strong>the</strong> respect, com<strong>for</strong>t, and love of o<strong>the</strong>rs. Rogers strongly believed that<br />
unconditional positive regards elevate <strong>the</strong> person’s self-worth (Passer & Smith, 2001; Santrock, 2000).<br />
Rogers also said we can help o<strong>the</strong>r people develop a more positive self-concept if we are empathic and<br />
genuine. Being empathic means being a sensitive listener and sense what it is like to be <strong>the</strong> client at any<br />
moment and <strong>understanding</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r’s true feelings. Being genuine means being open with our feelings and<br />
dropping our pretenses and not hiding behind a facade. For Rogers, unconditional positive regard, empathy<br />
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and genuineness are three key ingredients of human relations. We can use <strong>the</strong>se techniques to get o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
people to feel good about <strong>the</strong>mselves and <strong>the</strong> techniques also help us to get along better with o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r aspect of Rogers’ Theory is Conditional Positive regard. Conditional positive regard is Rogers’<br />
term <strong>for</strong> love and praise being withheld unless <strong>the</strong> individual con<strong>for</strong>ms to parents or social standards. The<br />
result is lower self – esteem. People need positive regard not only from o<strong>the</strong>rs, but also from <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
We all want to feel good about ourselves. Thus a need <strong>for</strong> positive self –regard from parents and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
significant people in <strong>the</strong> past teaches that <strong>the</strong>y are worthy of approval and love only when <strong>the</strong>y meet certain<br />
standards. This fosters <strong>the</strong> development of conditions of worth that dictate when we approve or disapprove<br />
of ourselves. Rogers believed that conditions of worth can tyrannize people and cause major incongruence:<br />
between self and experience, toge<strong>the</strong>r with a need to deny or distort aspects of experience.<br />
Rogers (1980) <strong>the</strong>orized on <strong>the</strong> fully functioning person and stressed <strong>the</strong> importance of becoming a fully<br />
functioning person – someone who is open to experience, is not very defensive, is aware of and sensitive to<br />
<strong>the</strong> self and external world, and <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> most part has a harmonious relationship with o<strong>the</strong>rs (Nolen-<br />
Hoeksema, 2004). They feel a sense of inner freedom, self-determination, and choice in <strong>the</strong> direction of<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir growth. They have no fear of behaving spontaneously, freely, and creatively. Because <strong>the</strong>y are fairly<br />
free of conditions of worth, <strong>the</strong>y can accept inner and outer experiences as <strong>the</strong>y are without modifying <strong>the</strong>m<br />
defensively to suit a rigid self-concept or expectations of o<strong>the</strong>rs (Nolen – Hoeksema, 2004). Rogers (1980)<br />
believed that a person’s basic tendencies are to actualize, maintain, and enhance life. He thought that <strong>the</strong><br />
tendency <strong>for</strong> fulfillment – toward actualizing one’s essential nature and attaining potential – is inborn in<br />
every person.<br />
By giving <strong>the</strong> self a central place in his <strong>the</strong>ory, Rogers helped stimulate a great deal of research on <strong>the</strong> self<br />
– esteem and its effects on behaviour. Self – esteem (how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves)<br />
is a very important aspect of personal well – being, happiness, and adjustment. Self–esteem is related to<br />
many positive behaviours and life outcomes. People with high self –esteem are less susceptible to social<br />
pressure, have fewer interpersonal problems, are happier with <strong>the</strong>ir lives, achieve at a higher and more<br />
persistent level, and are more capable of <strong>for</strong>ming satisfying love relationships.<br />
In contrast, people with a poor self – image are more prone to <strong>psychological</strong> problems like anxiety and<br />
depression, to physical illness, and to poor social relationships and underachievement. Children develop<br />
higher self –esteem when <strong>the</strong>ir parents communicate unconditional acceptance and love, establish clear<br />
guidelines <strong>for</strong> behaviour, and rein<strong>for</strong>ce compliance while giving <strong>the</strong> child freedom to make decision and<br />
express opinions within those guidelines.<br />
THE RELEVANCE OF CARL ROGERS THEORY TO EMOTIONAL ABUSE<br />
Carl Rogers’s humanistic <strong>the</strong>ory is relevant to research work on emotional abuse of students by teachers<br />
based on <strong>the</strong>se reasons:<br />
Firstly, we are born with an innate need <strong>for</strong> positive regard – that is, <strong>for</strong> acceptance, sympathy and love<br />
from o<strong>the</strong>rs, says Rogers. Emotional abuse of students will negate such fulfillments in students’ lives. A<br />
teacher who spurn, reject, ignore, hurts, and isolate children will stifle <strong>the</strong> fulfillment of Rogers’s species –<br />
specifics characteristics. Consequently, development and productivity of children may be hampered. It is<br />
<strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e apparent that when we are abreast with Rogers innate tendencies of human needs, we may be able<br />
to conduct good <strong>classroom</strong> management that will foster positive interaction in teacher – children<br />
relationship and learning.<br />
Secondly, self – concept is a central <strong>the</strong>me in Rogers’ and o<strong>the</strong>r humanists views. Self – concept is<br />
individuals’ total perceptions of <strong>the</strong>ir abilities, behaviour, and personality. Emotional abuse of students may<br />
adversely affect development of positive self-concept. Students who are verbally assaulted, denigrated,<br />
belittled will not thrive in developing positive self – concept. Self – concept is still being developed in<br />
childhood and adolescence, much more than in adulthood (Nolen – Hoekmsema, 2004). A period of<br />
significant experience of emotional abuse of students by teachers in <strong>the</strong> <strong>classroom</strong> while one’s self –<br />
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concept is undergoing substantial change may have long – lasting effects on <strong>the</strong> content or structure of self<br />
– concept.<br />
It is obvious that any experience we may come across that will be at variance with our self – concept may<br />
predispose us to threat and anxiety. Emotional abuse is a key toxic ingredient in <strong>the</strong> development of such<br />
neuropsychiatric problems. Rogers’s <strong>the</strong>ory serves as an awareness process in <strong>the</strong> avoidance of<br />
circumstances that will lead to emotional block in <strong>the</strong> lives of growing children.<br />
Thirdly, Rogers Unconditional Positive Regard, empathy and genuineness should serve as guiding<br />
principles in <strong>classroom</strong> management. Rogers recognized that when person’s behaviour is below acceptable<br />
standards, inappropriate or even obnoxious, <strong>the</strong> person still needs respects, com<strong>for</strong>t and love of o<strong>the</strong>rs. A<br />
<strong>classroom</strong> where <strong>the</strong>re is incidence and prevalence of emotional abuse of students, <strong>the</strong>se humanistic<br />
characteristics are conspicuously absent. To develop good <strong>classroom</strong> ambience, we need to cultivate <strong>the</strong><br />
spirit of empathy, genuineness and good listening ability. When unconditional positive regard is given little<br />
attention and conditional positive regard is highly emphasized, it leads to lower self-esteem.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
Rogers’ <strong>the</strong>ory is relevant to emotional abuse in that through his <strong>the</strong>ory we know that <strong>for</strong> children to<br />
develop higher self – esteem, parents, teachers, and significant o<strong>the</strong>rs should communicate acceptance and<br />
love, establish clear guidelines <strong>for</strong> behaviour, and rein<strong>for</strong>ce compliance while giving <strong>the</strong> child freedom to<br />
make decisions and expression of opinions. Emotional abuse is based on power and control and carried out<br />
with words, gestures and policies. It can result in serious and / or behavioural problems, including<br />
depression, lack of attachment, low cognitive ability and poor social skills. To facilitate good human<br />
development and productivity, our <strong>classroom</strong> management should be guided by Rogers’ <strong>the</strong>ory and<br />
deliberate and conscious ef<strong>for</strong>ts should be taken to avoid emotionally abusive learning environment.<br />
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