What are the advantages and disadvantages of a musical education ...

What are the advantages and disadvantages of
a musical education in regard to children?
Written by Emily McGregor (163930)
Dissertation submission for CM6002 the Research Module of BA (Hons) in
Commercial Music.
Music Education in Regard to Children Emily McGregor 163930

Contents
Introduction 3
Advantages 3
The benefits music can have on parent and child relationships 6
How music can benefit children with learning disabilities 7
Music in the Curriculum 9
History of music education 13
Jingle Jangle Club Journal 17
Disadvantages 18
Summery and Conclusion 23
Bibliography 24
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of a musical education in
regard to children?
Introduction
Throughout the ages subjects that are considered to be important areas of study have
progressed and developed. There are continuously new topics that cause controversy, debate,
and interest. One topic that has always seemed to connect people from different cultures,
religions, and classes is a common interest and mutual love of music. From the beginning of
time music has been a universal language used all over the world. Women would sing to their
children long before the days that they could read and write. Whether it is at a funeral,
wedding, or birth, music is the one thing that brings the human race together. What is it about
music that is so powerful when it comes to communicating with one another? Surely
something so universally respected can only have positive effects on the younger generation?
Can introducing music at a young age really benefit young children? Or can it have an
adverse affect by introducing the ways of the world and even brainwashing children at too
early an age? This text will consist of a much deeper study into the subject area to fully
understand how music can affect children in today’s society.
Advantages
‘Creating a better world begins with music at birth’ (Raimond Lap, 2002)
When a baby is first born their eyesight isn’t perfect, but they are able to hear sounds clearly.
Sounds are one of the first things that babies can recognise perfectly. As soon as a child is
born their brains are like sponges; they are constantly absorbing everything around them.
This is why it is important to introduce stimulating activities to babies at as young an age as
possible. It is down to parents to create a musically stimulating environment for their
children. ‘Babies are born with great potential for learning and it is the environment in which
they are brought up that provides the stimulation for what they learn’ (Arnold, 1999, P28).
Babies have no control over what music they listen to, this is why it is important for parents
to choose music and activities that will stimulate and inspire. In this day and age it is so easy
for parents to become reliant on television and computer games rather than introducing their
children to more creative activities. “I’m not a creative person” is a saying that is commonly
used. In some cases these people may not be very creative, but perhaps some of those people
have never been encouraged to be creative or haven’t come from a creative background,
therefore never allowing them to develop their own creativity.
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Many people believe that if you are going to be a creative person that you will be born with
those underlying talents, but perhaps creativity could be planted in all children if introduced
at an early age. ‘Perhaps more families could be musical, artistic, scientifically and
humanistically creative, given more help in knowing how to encourage it’ (Bruce, 2004, P.2).
Music is based around structure and pattern and although babies may not understand the
words you are saying, they can recognise the emotion in the tone and sounds of the words.
Music is an activity that stimulates both sides of a baby’s brain. It stimulates the creative side
of the brain while at the same time stimulating the logical side of the brain.
‘Music stimulates areas of a child’s brain that other mental and physical activity will not,
and it will make a lasting impression’ (Metzger, 2009).
It is more effective to sing to a baby than it is to talk. Rocking a baby while singing to them
is very important; it helps to develop the inner ear and balance. Rocking is also a very
relaxing and comfortable motion for a baby. ‘The earlier a child studies music, the more
rhythmic integration, movement, and learning about proportions in time space perception,
strengthens the young brain’ (Campbell, 2000). Introducing music to a baby helps them to
become aware and develop their senses. It can also help development in areas such as
movement, language, co-ordination, and listening skills. Music plays a huge part in the
relationship between parent and child, can help to develop social interaction and can have a
huge role in building a strong bond between parent and baby. Raimond Lap, the creator of
‘Lovely Baby’, a music program for babies and families, talks about how introducing music
at a young age helps to give children a good start in life:
‘Music can transfer a musical language containing all kinds of emotional and educational
messages, which can be understood unconsciously by all babies. By presenting your baby the
right mix of styles, melody, harmony and rhythm, the brain is stimulated into creating more
connections, providing your baby a head start in life in various ways’ (2002).
A child would not be able to sing without first learning to listen; this is why it is important to
introduce stimulating music at an early age. It is between the ages of 18 months to 3 years
that a child can start learning to sing, although it is important to remember that all children
are different and will therefore develop in different ways. It is vital to introduce good music
to young children as this gives them more opportunities to explore their own voice and
musical abilities. Raimond Lap describes what qualifies as good music for babies:
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‘Good baby music is created with the right knowledge of how a baby interprets musical
information and how it responds. It must have the right tempo, soft and tender orchestrations,
and feature carefully composed melodies with the right use of rhythm’ (2002).
Repetition plays a huge part in teaching young children. Repetition creates familiarity and
familiarity helps children to feel comfortable. This is why it has been said that it is so
important to play music to babies while in the womb as they will be able to remember that
music after they are born.
Every loving parent wants to give his or her child the best possible start in life. They have
dreams and aspirations of what their child will grow up to achieve. This desire to give your
child the best possible introduction into the world doesn’t just start from birth. Some parents
choose to start to nurture and try to teach their unborn babies while still in the womb. One of
the most affective ways of doing this is believed to be through music. ‘The auditory system
starts to function at around the 24 th week in some fetuses and after the 30 th week in all of
them’ (Tafuri, 2008, P. 10). New research now also suggests that they will remember the
music that was played to them whilst in the womb. Dr Lamont writes:"It used to be assumed
that it was really noisy in the womb but actually it's quite quiet" (2005). This evidence
suggests that babies can pick up the sound of music coming from a stereo at a reasonable
volume and it isn’t necessary to apply headphones directly to the baby bump. An experiment
performed by Dr Alexandra Lamont, from Leicester University’s music research group, has
found new evidence on how music in the womb can influence early child development. ‘Now
we have discovered that babies can remember and prefer music that they heard before they
were born over 12 months later’ (Lamont, 2001). This evidence shows just how important
and influential the music played to a child while in the womb can be to a young child’s life
and early development. During the experiment Dr Alexandra Lamont found one woman who
talked about her experience of playing music to her baby while in the womb and how it then
helped after the birth:
"I used to have a daily bath and listen to Ella Fitzgerald at 6pm. It was my peace time. When
she was born she was very fractious with colic. We used to play Ella Fitzgerald at 3am to try
to settle her, and it really worked" (Unknown, Cited in Lamont, 2001).
The early months of a baby’s life can be a challenging and stressful time for both the child
and the parents. This woman’s experience proves that music can be used as a powerful tool to
help young babies get through these vital stages in their early months of life.
Interview (conducted by the writer) with Kathy Doolan Creator of Rhythm Time (UK
Music Franchise for parents and babies):
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‘Rhythm Time was designed to help children develop confidence, creativity, and
coordination. It is also lots of fun and helps children to discover a love and understanding of
music at an early age. There has been research that shows that taking part in pre-school music
classes at a young age can help strengthen the neural pathways that develop language and
memory. Music is an activity that helps to develop both the logical and creative sides of a
baby’s brain. It is often the case that babies are able to sing before they can speak’ (2011).
The benefits music can have on parent and child relationships:
It has been argued that there is nothing more intense and powerful than that very first time a
parent holds their newborn baby in their arms. What could be more beautiful than that first
moment parent and child meet? At that very moment in time nothing is more precious than
this unique bond that only they share. The early months of a baby’s life are crucial to the
relationship between parent and child. Dr Tafuri, an expert in Infant Musicality, has said:
‘The relationship that the mother (and also the father) establishes with the newborn through
song is more intense and elicits a more emotional response than speech’ (2008, P. 15).
It has been a natural instinct for mothers to sing to their babies since the beginning of time
and this newfound evidence that singing to your child is more effective than speech proves
just how powerful a mother’s instincts truly are. Dr Tafuri also talks about how to recognize
if a new-born is responding well to a certain piece of music: ‘The new-born are sensitive to
sounds and musical stimuli; they demonstrate this with various gestures (for example, they
bat their eyelids, open their eyes wide and stare, turn their head towards the source of the
sound and stop crying)’ (2008, P. 10). Communicating through music doesn’t just play an
important role in building a relationship between parent and child; it can also have huge
benefits later in the child’s life. ‘We have seen how interactive communication between
mother and infant benefits linguistic capacity as well as the sharing of emotions and social
behaviour’ (Tafuri, 2008, P. 13). When a child starts school for the very first time, it is
important that they do well academically, but almost more importantly, that they are able to
communicate well with others, make friends, and are able to integrate well into their new
surroundings. ‘Musical sounds enhance neuroplasticity—the ability of the brain to adapt and
change to new experiences’ (McDermott, 2010). Music can have a positive effect on a child’s
confidence and ability to work and play with others. It can also help to teach them valuable
skills such as listening, responding, group work and communication. All of these are
necessary skills when building relationships and adapting to new people and surroundings.
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How music can benefit children with learning disabilities
Music therapy is an important tool used to help children with learning disabilities. Music can
have a huge impact on areas such as reading, reasoning ability, language development,
feelings and response, communication, and motor control. Music therapy can help to capture
the attention of children with learning disabilities in a way that many other mental and
physical activities cannot. It can stimulate different parts of the brain and help children to
become more in touch with their emotions. When working with children with special needs,
the techniques that are used to teach children in mainstream schools may not be as effective.
This doesn’t mean that children with special needs aren’t intelligent or cannot learn the same
skills; it just means that the way in which they learn information is often different. Often
children with learning disabilities take longer to become comfortable in new surroundings,
and struggle to communicate their emotions, which can be very frustrating for them if they
are not taught in the correct way and in the right environment. Many special needs children
find it easier to communicate through music than they do through speech. Music therapy can
be used as an effective way to teach children with learning disabilities in a way that is easy
and clear for them to understand. There are various musical activities that can be used to help
these children. Singing can be used to help language development and playing a variety of
instruments or getting children to move to different kinds of music can help those with
physical difficulties. In an article written on music therapy for children with learning
disabilities, the writer, who is left unnamed, talks about the positive effects that singing can
have on children with speech problems: ‘Singing may help in the improvement and
maintenance of the pulmonary functioning and oral-motor skills. It also helps in improving
rate of speech, breath-control, pronunciation and articulation skills. It also enhances feelings
of self-worth, self- esteem and self-independence’ (admin, 2010). It is often the case that
children who suffer from stammers and speech impediments are able to sing fluently
although they have great difficulty when speaking. Many children and adults who stammer
find it easier to talk if they use a sing-song style of talking. The rhythm and pace of using a
sing-song technique makes it easier for speech to flow.
Music therapy can be extremely effective when working with autistic children, as they can be
extremely sensitive to music. Some autistic children are able to sing, despite not being able
to speak. In these cases, music therapy uses simple songs with repetitive phrases to help to
develop a child’s language and speech. Some autistic children have a remarkable talent for
music, for example, some have perfect pitch while others have an outstanding ability to play
a musical instrument. Vocal exercises can also help with listening skills, breath control and
articulation. ‘Music is a unique path to communication and learning for children with autism’
(King, 2004, P.5).
In her book ‘Music Therapy Group work with Special Needs Children’, the author Karen D.
Goodman talks about how different styles and genres of music can be used to help children
with particular disabilities:
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‘A rock music backdrop, was successfully used with ADHD children to help them focus.
Classical as well as popular folk music was selected for its rhythmic and dynamic regularity
as a background for a child with borderline personality and phobias who was involved in
play therapy and art. In this latter study, the music not only reduced anxiety but also led into
an active music-making experience’ (2007, P.184).
Victoria Wood, author of ‘Music Therapy in Children’s Hospices’, observed that when music
therapy was first introduced in children’s hospices, an immediate effect was noted on patients
and staff.
‘ It had already proved its value to the children who used its facilities for both respite and
palliative care. Staff had been impressed by the way music therapy provided a vital means of
communication and self-expression for children with life-limiting conditions for whom verbal
communication was difficult or impossible’ (2005, P.147).
At challenging times in a child’s life communication can be very difficult. Coming to terms
with, and controlling one’s emotions, is something many people find hard at the best of times.
If music can be used to help children communicate their emotions at these most distressing
times, then that is proof of the positive effects music can have.
It is important for young children to interact with one another, as it helps to develop social
skills and teamwork. Children with learning disabilities may have had less interaction with
other children due to their own difficulties. Music therapy can offer an effective way of
children interacting with one another in a way that feels comfortable. ‘All children benefit
from pre-school group experiences, but children with special needs may take longer to adapt
to social situations and therefore particularly need and benefit from frequently repeated
experiences such as those provided in music therapy group work’ (Oldfield, 2008, P.55). If
music therapy can give children an opportunity to communicate with each other and help
them to develop the skills that they need to handle themselves in social situations, then
introducing it at a younger age will build a strong foundation that could lead to further
progression in later life.
As well as helping children mentally, music therapy can also be used to help children
physically. Music therapy can play a huge part in maintaining and restoring physical
condition. In Victoria Wood’s book ‘Music Therapy in Children’s Hospices’, she talks about
the study of one little girl Jessie, who has a severe and complex medical condition that can
change rapidly and therefore needs constant medical care. In this next quote Victoria Wood
reveals how music therapy helped with Jessie’s treatment and the progress that she made:
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‘Music is used to develop the use of her physically weaker left side, by encouraging Jessie to
reach out and play the guitar and keyboard in particular. I also play short sharp sounds, for
example on a wood block, to encourage Jessie to turn where the sound is coming from to
develop her awareness of her surroundings’ (2005, P.156). Music therapy has helped to
change the lives of many children living with special needs. It has had an extremely
beneficial effect and contributed to their having a better quality of life.
Music in the Curriculum
Artist Jackie Spivey said that: ‘Music education is an important aspect of student growth
and is not a luxury, but a necessity to all children’ (2009).
Music has always been a subject that has caused debate within government on whether or not
it should be a compulsory subject within the National Curriculum. Many people, such as
Spivey, have strong beliefs that music should be a compulsory subject in schools, while
others believe that it detracts from what they believe to be more beneficial subjects such as
English and Mathematics. Music is currently statutory at Key Stages 1-3. The National
Curriculum has two main aims. The first aim is to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn
and achieve. The second is to promote pupil’s moral, social and cultural development to
prepare pupils for the experiences, responsibilities and opportunities that they will face in
life. The four main purposes of the National Curriculum are to establish an entitlement, to
establish standards, to promote continuity and coherence, and to promote public
understanding. ‘The National Curriculum secures for all pupils, irrespective of social
background, culture, race, gender, differences in ability and disabilities, an entitlement to a
number of areas of learning and to develop knowledge, understanding, skills and attitudes
necessary for their self-fulfillment and development as active and responsible citizens’
(National Curriculum online, 2011).
There are now talks within government about a change being made in the National
Curriculum with some subjects such as music being dropped. Subjects such as English and
Mathematics will, of course, always be compulsory subjects within the National Curriculum,
but there still hasn’t been a definite decision made on whether music will be a statutory
subject in the future. Possible alternatives being considered include giving local education
authorities responsibility for music provision, perhaps on a fee-paying basis. This risks
denying low-income families access to this valuable aspect of their education.
If music becomes non-statutory, it may well follow the same path as foreign languages,
which became optional in the curriculum some years ago. After a few years everyone became
shocked at how poorly the UK was performing in this area compared to our European
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neighbours. Languages were duly reinstated and primary schools are now legally obliged to
provide a minimum of one hour a week of foreign language tuition. It will take a lot more
than that to turn the British population into a country of linguists. However, music education
is not intended to produce a nation of musicians, but to provide an outlet for creativity and
expression, especially for those children who may be musically-starved at home. The fate of
music will not be announced until the spring of 2013. The talks of abandoning music from
the National Curriculum have caused much upset and there are now campaigns starting to
ensure that music remains a compulsory subject in schools. ‘It is absolutely vital that we
campaign hard between now and the end of April to ensure that Music remains a compulsory
National Curriculum subject’ (Savage, 2011).
An article by E. C. Wragg on primary teachers and the National Curriculum discusses some
of the worries primary teachers are having with teaching to the standards expected by the
curriculum. ‘In general teachers were not opposed to the national curriculum, but there were
numerous references to the short timescale, their fears about shortage of resources, the
personal strain that many felt, especially heads, and anxiety about assessment’ (1989). This
lack of confidence shown by primary school teachers could possibly be drawn from the fact
that primary schools aren’t using music effectively in the class room situation. Perhaps the
debate shouldn’t be whether or not to have music as part of the National Curriculum, but how
music can be used more effectively to benefit pupils in primary schools. ‘The commercial
music world offers, at the touch of a switch, a dazzling array of polished performers and
recordings by professional composers, song-writers and musicians. Amateur music, in
orchestras, bands and choirs, also demands a high level of performance’ (Glover, 2004, P.1).
With this perception of music it is easy to understand how teachers may find it hard to see
how music could really have an effective impact in a primary school classroom situation.
However Joanna Glover writes:
‘Music should take its place in the picture alongside the more formal aspects of musical
composition and performance. The curriculum must allow for the breadth of the role that
music plays within ‘ordinary’ life for everyone’ (Glover, 2004, P.1).
Becoming aware that music is a part of everyone’s everyday life (and not just for talented
musicians) could help to build confidence in teaching music to children. It could also inspire
new and less formal ways of teaching that are no less effective than the more old fashioned
and traditional ways that have been used in the past. It is important to remember that at
primary school age all children develop at different stages. Some children may learn to write
their names faster than others and some may be able to draw well, while others may struggle
with those same skills. If a group of primary school children were asked to draw a picture of
an object, the drawings would all look very different. They would be different shapes, sizes,
and colours. Some would be neat and others messy- just because they were different it
wouldn’t make one child right and another wrong. The same principle applies with music; all
children will interpret music in different ways and it is important to allow young children to
express themselves and learn through experimentation. ‘All music has its roots in the
activities of ordinary daily human living’ (Glover, 2004, P.2). Music can be used in other
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subjects taught in primary schools. Singing can be an effective way of learning times tables
and it can also be used as part of a story or relaxation time. During creative subjects such as
art, music could be played to help contribute to a creative environment. ‘Within the school
setting music has an almost unique capacity for integrating aspects of different disciplines,
since by its nature it has things in common with every other subject area’ (Glover, 2004, P.9).
Music can play a part in almost every other subject in the curriculum as it can contribute to
elements in subjects such as Mathematics, Science, Language and Literacy, and Physical
Education. Some children find it easy to understand subjects such as Mathematics and
Literacy while others find it difficult and challenging to take in information in a standard
classroom situation. Perhaps if music could be integrated into subjects such as Mathematics
those children who do struggle in a formal classroom situation might find it easier to learn
and take in new information. Music is for everyone and just because a person isn’t
accomplished at playing an instrument or singing it doesn’t mean that he or she isn’t a
musical person. ‘Some people just don’t feel musical at all, or would hesitate in describing
themselves as such, perhaps because they have no expertise on an instrument or because they
have been told they can’t sing. Yet being musical is quite simply one aspect of being human.’
(Glover, 2004, P.1)
At primary school it is the normal custom for one teacher to teach all the required subjects to
their class. It is that teacher’s responsibility to cover all of the subjects in the National
Curriculum. Some primary school teachers have made it known that they have worries and
are less confident when teaching subjects such a music when they feel they are not musically
talented themselves.
‘Too often music teaching has assumed that music belongs to ‘musicians’ that only some are
musical’ (Glover, 2004, P.2). Some teachers have expressed views that music should be
taught by a specialist teacher who comes into the school to take the lessons. However there
are problems with this solution. Music should be accessible to all pupils and by bringing in a
specialist to take the class it gives the impression that perhaps music isn’t for everyone and is
only for a talented and select few. People often forget that one of the most important parts of
being musical is to listen. From the day a person is born they are surrounded by music. Music
is played in hospitals, we listen to music when we eat, it is used in films and theatre, played
on airplanes, buses, and radio. In everyday human life people are constantly learning to listen.
In his book ‘How Musical is Man?’ John Blacking discusses how society has become caught
up in believing that only some are musical, when in fact the very art of music wouldn’t exist
without the ability to listen:
“My” society claims that only a limited number of people are musical, and yet it behaves as if
all people possessed the basic capacity without which no musical tradition can exist-the
capacity to listen and distinguish patterns of sound’ (1973, P.8).
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Music performers would not be able to survive without the listeners and consumers. Just the
very fact that the listener can understand and appreciate the music, in itself shows that
everyone is in fact musical in some form or another. Joanna Glover backs up this argument in
her book ‘Teaching Music in the Primary School’:
‘The very existence of a professional performer, depends on listeners who in one important
respect must be no less musically proficient than he is. They must be able to distinguish and
interrelate different patterns of sound’ (2004, P.3).
Without even realizing it people label themselves as not musical, when in fact music is a part
of their everyday life. When a person watches a film it is the music in the background that
helps to convey emotion and tension. If a person were to close their eyes during a film it is
probable that they would still be able to determine what type of scene is taking place, whether
it be a love scene or a horror scene. This very fact shows that they have an understanding of
the music they are listening too. Just because someone isn’t an accomplished musician
doesn’t mean they aren’t musical; just the fact that people buy, appreciate, and understand
music makes them musical. Due to the fact that music subconsciously plays a large part in
everybody’s day-to-day life, means that by the time a child stats school, he or she will already
have had a considerable amount of exposure to it and will therefore be able to make music
and respond to it. Joanna Glover explains that just by being competent adults, primary school
teachers will already have the fundamental skills needed to teach music to their pupils and
that it is more a lack of confidence in knowing where to start that causes the problem: ‘All
teachers, by virtue simply of being competent adults, have the musical capacity to provide a
basis for a music curriculum for their own class, though they may lack the training in music
education to feel confident about where to start’ (2004, P.3). The idea that teachers lack the
musical training, therefore contributing to a lack of confidence on how to structure their
teaching, implies the need of a school music coordinator. The job of the coordinator wouldn’t
be to teach to the class, but to offer support to the teachers to give them a greater knowledge
on how they can use their skills to teach music to their pupils.
Primary school age children shouldn’t be expected to become great musicians but they should
be able to benefit from having an understanding of music and being able to listen and react to
it. ‘An important first step with a new class of any age will be to create some musical ‘play’
situations which will help to uncover the children’s musical liveliness’ (Glover, 2004, P.7). In
the early stages of musical learning it is important that children have the opportunity to
discover their own individual musical abilities. This can only really be achieved through
allowing a period of time during the class where children are encouraged to experiment with
different instruments and listen to different types of music to see how they respond. This time
also gives the teacher a good opportunity to observe the children and their musical abilities. If
teachers are able to watch and observe the children in a play situation it could give them a
better idea and understanding of how to structure the rest of the lesson, and what techniques
work best with certain children. If the government put more thought into the different ways
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that music can be used effectively in primary schools, then perhaps the question of whether or
not music is a necessary subject to include as part of the National Curriculum would have a
much clearer and more definite answer.
History of Music Education
Just like language, music is something that distinguishes us as humans. At the present time
music is considered to be a fundamental part of education and plays a large part in the
curriculum. To gain a full understanding of music education it is important to have some
form of knowledge and understanding of its history. It is important to pay credit to those
individuals who moulded and shaped musical education into what it is today. Individuals
such as Dalcroze, Orff, Kodaly and Suzuki all developed philosophies on how music should
be taught. Their teachings and methods haven’t always been well received and have caused
much controversy and debate, but despite this they have been influential, and without such
individuals, music education may not have developed into what it is today. Many of the
methods and practices of these influential music scholars are still commonly used in music
education today. This section is going to cover four of the most influential music scholars
from the past: Dalcroze, Orff, Kodaly, and Suzuki.
Emile Jacques Dalcroze was born in Vienna on the sixth of July in 1865 and became one of
the finest and most influential educators of the 20 th century. His theory was based around the
idea of bringing the body, mind and spirit together to learn the art of music. The Dalcroze
method connects music, movement, mind, and body and binds them together as one.
‘Eurhythmics serves to enhance the skills of coordination, balance, special orientation, and
quick reactions so that the body may attune to every nuance of musical expression. In effect,
the body becomes a living musical instrument’ (Stevenson, 2011). In 1892 he became a
professor of harmony at the Geneva Conservatory. Whilst teaching in Geneva Dalcroze was
able to develop his theory and method of teaching music and rhythm through the art of
movement. This method is knows as eurhythmics. The word eurhythmics is the Greek term
for good rhythm. The definition of eurhythmics is:
‘Musical expression through movement; developing musical skills through kinetic exercises.
Students learn rhythm and structure by listening to music and expressing what they hear
through spontaneous bodily movement. For example, note values and rhythms are
represented by stepping and clapping’ (Estrella, 2005).
The two other facets of the Dalcroze method are Solfege and Improvisation. The use of
Solfege helps to develop ear training and sight-reading skills, and helps to develop an
understanding of pitch, intervals, and harmony, all of which are fundamental skills required
of a musician. They are also useful skills to have when improvising. Improvisation is an
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important part of the Dalcroze method and is practised using instruments, movement and the
voice.
Dalcroze believed that students should be able to listen to the rhythm of a piece of music and
then develop the skills to be able to express what they heard and how the music made them
feel through movement. The main aims of the Dalcroze method are to improve creative
expression, coordination, concentration, inner ear and music appreciation. All of these skills
contribute to being a good performer. Whilst teaching in Geneva Dalcroze felt that his
students lacked feeing in the music they were performing; he felt that they didn’t put all they
had into their music and lacked the ability to hear the harmonies they were playing. ‘Their
playing showed little sense of rhythmic vitality. In Solfège, he began to devise ear-training
games to develop more acute inner hearing. These games sharpened the students’
perceptions and resulted in more sensitive responses to the musical aspects of performance:
timing, articulation, tone quality, and phrase shape’ (Farber, 2009). Dalcroze believed that
the body should be conscious of every movement in the music. He was able to incorporate
natural and instinctive gestures into his teaching to help students engage with different
rhythms. Gestures such as swinging the arms whilst walking around to a piece of music or
bouncing a ball on the first beat of a bar are used to help students to develop a natural sense
of rhythm. When teaching the Dalcroze method to young children an exercise that
incorporates natural movements is used: ‘Notes are given names such as walk for crochets,
jogging for quavers, skipping for a dotted quaver/semiquaver and stride for minims, etc. This
is not, as one Ofsted inspector seemed to think, liable to confuse the pupil. The names take
advantage of the very natural movements children make when young’ (Vann, 2003). The
Dalcroze method is still commonly used today and is especially popular in schools in the
United States. The Dalcroze Society that is now well established all over the world continues
to teach its students using the teachings and methods of Dalcroze.
Carl Orff was born in Germany in 1895 and became one of the most forward thinking and
influential composers of the 20 th century. He developed one of the most influential methods
of teaching music education to children; his ideas and methods still have a huge influence on
children’s music today. "Since the beginning of time, children have not liked to study. They
would much rather play, and if you have their interests at heart, you will let them learn while
they play; they will find that what they have mastered is child's play (Orff Cited in Estrella,
2005).
The ideas of Carl Orff are referred to as the Orff Method or the Orff Approach or sometimes
it is just referred to as ‘Music for Children’. The main idea behind his method is to introduce
and teach music to children in a way that they will understand and relate to. ‘Musical
concepts are learned through singing, chanting, dance, movement, drama and the playing of
percussion instruments. Improvisation, composition and a child's natural sense of play are
encouraged.’ (Estrella, 2005)
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The main aims of the Orff Approach are to develop rhythm, harmony, melody and texture.
Play is believed to be a fundamental part of a child’s learning; it gives them time to discover
themselves and their own abilities. Carl Orff thought that it was important for children to first
experience music by improvising with different percussion instruments, dancing, and singing,
before the intellectual side was introduced. His ideas were structured around rhythm and
movement. Orff believed that it was important for children to learn at their own level of
understanding. ‘In the Orff approach, children make music with activities that are natural
and enjoyable for them: singing, rhyming, dancing, and playing instruments’ (Kleiner, 2001,
P.3). Carl Orff strongly believed that this approach was a much more effective way of
teaching children and that once they had learnt to appreciate music by taking part in rhythmic
activities and games, they would have a greater understanding and be better prepared to learn
how to read and write music notation. When teaching the Orff Approach the most commonly
used music is folk music or the music that the children have composed themselves. The
children are encouraged to experiment and practise playing lots of different instruments. It is
the role of the teacher to act as a conductor to make sure that the whole class is involved in
some way, whether they are playing instruments or acting out different moves to the music.
In some cases music is used during a story time and children are asked to make the sound
effects using various percussion instruments and acting out the story. Most commonly used
instruments are bells, maracas, triangles, drums and tambourines. There are now Orff
organizations based all over the world in various countries such as the United States,
Australia, Japan, South Africa and China. The effect that Orff has had on music for children
has been widespread and is evident in most children’s toy, book and music stores, where
there are a huge range of fun and simple appliances and accessories to help introduce children
to music.
Zoltan Kodaly was born in 1882 and was a Hungarian composer and music educator who
developed a method of teaching music to very young children. He believed that music
education should be introduced at a very young age. ‘To be most effective, music education
must begin with the very young children. It is in his or her early years that a child acquires
discrimination in pitch as well as language’ (Kodaly cited in Anderson; Lawrence, 2007,
p.99). Kodaly believed that it was important to introduce the building blocks of music
education at as young an age as possible but that it should be taught in a fun and interesting
way that would stay with the child for the rest of their lives. Kodaly himself said:
"Teach music and singing at school in such a way that it is not a torture but a joy for the
pupil; instill a thirst for finer music in him, a thirst which will last for a lifetime" (Kodaly
cited in Estrella, 2005).
Kodaly believed that before teaching a child to play an instrument they first need to have an
understanding of music through listening to nursery rhymes, story songs and playing
rhythmic games. The aim of this is to create a musical foundation very early on that
contributes to children’s ability to be able to pick up and learn new instruments later in life.
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"To teach a child an instrument without first giving him preparatory training and without
developing singing, reading and dictating to the highest level along with the playing is to
build upon sand” (Kodaly cited in Estrella, 2005).
The voice is the most commonly used instrument in the ‘Kodaly Approach’. He believed that
singing was the best foundation for any musician and that singing was just as natural an
activity as speaking. Kodaly believed in the importance of folk music and thought that it was
important to have an understanding of music from around the world. Many folk songs are
pentatonic; they only use five notes in the scale therefore making them easy to sing. Kodaly
had a strong belief that if children were educated in music and had sufficient training that it
would help them in other subjects included in the curriculum. Kodaly’s theory is backed up
by the fact that there is still new evidence coming out and experiments taking place today to
prove that music can have a positive contribution to other areas of the curriculum. ‘Music
training is far superior to computer instruction in dramatically enhancing children's abstract
reasoning skills, the skills necessary for learning math and science’ (Borgese, 2010).
Dr. Shinichi Suzuki was born in Japan in 1898. He developed an approach to music education
called the ‘Suzuki’ method but it is also commonly known as the ‘mother-tongue’ approach.
Suzuki started to develop this approach while on a trip to Germany. He observed that the
children in Germany had no difficulty in learning the German language just as children
brought up in Japan had no difficulty in learning Japanese. The reason that the children found
it easy to learn the language was because it was their mother tongue. Suzuki then came to the
conclusion that if all children can learn their mother tongue due to the fact that it is
introduced to them from birth then all children could develop a musical ability if brought up
in the correct environment.
"Musical ability is not an inborn talent but an ability which can be developed. Any child who
is properly trained can develop musical ability just as all children develop the ability to
speak their mother tongue. The potential of every child is unlimited" (Suzuki cited in Estrella,
2005).
The fact that human beings can learn to speak their mother tongue is never thought of as a
particularly remarkable achievement, this is due to the fact that the ability comes naturally.
This implies that if something is introduced from birth children will have the ability to pick it
up without difficulty. ‘We have lived without giving special thought to being able to speak
one language as though it were a matter of fact. However it is a wonderful fact. Consider
learning another language. What hardship it involves! Therefore, being able to fluently speak
the mother tongue is a wonderful ability’ (Kataoka, 1997, p.7).
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The Suzuki method is an idea that is based around the importance of parental influence and
involvement. ‘Adults play a critical part in whether or not children become creative people.
Unless they work sensitively with children and their families, the emergent possibilities for
creativity that are in every child do not develop or can be quickly extinguished’ (Bruce, 2004,
P.24).
The Suzuki method teaches that children should be exposed to music from birth and that
parents and teachers need to work together to help develop musical ability in children at a
young age. Suzuki believed that parents played a vital role in teaching music to their children
and that their input was just as important and beneficial as music classes held in schools. The
Suzuki method was originally developed to help children learn to play the violin but it has
now been adapted to include other instruments such as piano, guitar and flute. Typically
children start instrumental lessons at two or three years of age and background music should
be played to children while at school to help them develop good listening skills. The main
aims of the Suzuki method are to develop discipline, confidence, technical mastery and
musicianship.
All four of these musical scholars have made a huge contribution to musical education and in
their own individual ways they have helped to mould the music curriculum into what it is
today. Their different approaches to music are still being practised all over the world.
Jingle Jangle Club Journal
During the process of writing this dissertation a personal experiment took place to see how
young children react and respond to music. Six musical storybooks were written about
various percussion instrument characters. The instrument characters were: Tommy the
Triangle, Antoinette the Castanet, Izzy Bell, Molly the Maraca, Dean the Tambourine and
Wilbur the Whistle. Each musical storybook came with a song, a dance, and a short story that
taught the children about the instrument and when to play it. An interactive children’s
event/play called the ‘Jingle Jangle Club’ was then put together with the main aim of getting
young children involved in making and responding to music. The play consisted of various
musical activities that were all based around the six musical storybooks.
During the event the children were able to get involved making their own musical
instruments, which they were then taught to play. All the instruments made were percussion
instruments; this gave the children an opportunity to play around with different rhythms and
sounds. The children then took part in an interactive performance in which they were able to
sing, dance and play the instruments that they had made. The response from the children was
quite remarkable. It was amazing to see how an introverted and shy child at the start of the
event then transformed into a smiley, chatty, and confident child by the end of the day. The
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musical activities in which the children took part helped to build confidence, creativity, and
concentration. The ages of the children ranged from three to six but even the youngest of
children were able to pick up the songs and join in with the rhythm exercises.
Throughout the event there were often occasions where the children had to share the
instruments with one another and as the day went on it was evident that the children became
more willing to share and help one another. At the start of the event there were fears that the
children would lack focus and become easily distracted, but this wasn’t the case. The children
seemed enchanted and excited to get involved with the activities. Even the children that
seemed unwilling to join in at the start soon felt comfortable and were then able to get
involved. Once the children had been introduced to all the different and fun aspects of music
they became inquisitive and eager to learn more.
The experiment was extremely informative and eye opening. The musical activities helped
the children to become more confident, they were able to work well with others, and listen
and respond to the music while at the same time having fun. At the end of the event parents
were able to buy the different musical storybooks and CDs so that their children could
continue learning and having fun with music at home. The response was overwhelming with
every single parent purchasing the merchandise. This proved that if music can be made fun
and accessible for all families then parents would be willing to introduce their children to
music. Music events such as these can have a positive effect not only on the children but also
on the parents as it gives them an opportunity to see how well their young children respond
and learn through music.
Disadvantages
A frequently asked question surrounding music for babies is - what type of music should I
play to my baby? There are many different opinions surrounding this subject. People agree
that it is important to choose stimulating and positive music for children to listen to, but what
people regard as the right music is then what causes a conflict of ideas. Many people believe
that music written by well renowned classical composers such as Mozart is best, but Raimond
Lap, creator of ‘Lovely Baby’, believes that this isn’t always the case. ‘Contrary to what most
people believe, you should not play classical music for babies, as it was originally intended
for grownups. Most recordings are too fast and too intense to be absorbed by a baby in a
good way. However, by changing the orchestration and tempo, classical music can be
successfully adapted for babies, offering wonderful benefits’ (Lap, 2002). In an article written
by S. Jhoanna Robledo she interviews Rosalie Pratt, a professor of music medicine at
Brigham Young University, who argues that you should let young children listen to whatever
they like and that you should experiment with several different styles of music.
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‘Let your child listen to whatever he likes. Anything with a good melody will do, although
slow songs may work best for bedtime and fast ones for play. In the morning, play classical
music (choose something pleasant and happy) so he'll wake up in a light and upbeat mood’
(1997).
In the book ‘Good Music, Brighter Children’, Habermeyer talks about the results of studies
carried out by university students. ‘Recent scientific studies at some of the most respected
universities in the world indicate that children introduced to classical music at a young age
read earlier and perform better on achievement tests’ (1999, P.344). One of the most famous
approaches to music is the ‘Mozart Effect’. It is an idea based around a set of results that
indicate early exposure to classical music can help contribute to a child’s mental
development. ‘The “Mozart effect” refers to claims that people perform better on tests of
spatial abilities after listening to music composed by Mozart’ (Thompson, 2001). It is already
clear to see that with such conflicting ideas this subject causes much confusion. There has
still not been any clear conclusion made on what music is definitely best for babies and at the
present time it is still being left to people’s personal (albeit conflicting) opinions.
Children’s minds are so vulnerable. From the day they are born they are learning and
absorbing all that is around them. A baby is born with no concept of right or wrong and it is
up to the people around them as they grow to help feed them with the information that will
help determine the sort of person they will become. If from the day a child is born their
parents constantly teach them that it is acceptable to steal, cheat, hate, or adversely to love
and respect, that child will most likely grow up believing it is the truth. Young children are so
easily guided by those around them. It is for this very reason that children start school so
young, start to learn the piano, or take up a sport. The young mind absorbs information better
than at any other time in a person’s life. The older we get the harder it is to take in new
information and learn new skills. We become set in our ways and new practices seem alien to
us and therefore a lot harder to integrate into our day-to-day lives. The vulnerability and
willingness to learn that young children have is so wonderfully powerful. Their minds are so
precious and delicate but if placed into the wrong hands or surroundings the effects can be
devastating and sometimes fatal.
Music plays such a huge part in today’s society. It is everywhere we turn: from the films we
watch to the boy racers who drive past with explicit lyrical content and hard-core drum and
bass booming from their car speakers at an intrusively loud volume. It is almost impossible to
last 24 hours without hearing some form of music. It is clear to see how introducing music to
children at a young age can benefit them in many ways, but not all types of music have the
same effects. ‘Listening to sexually explicit or violent music lyrics can affect children's
schoolwork, social interactions, mood and behaviour’ (Elizabeth, 2009). Explicit and
provocative lyrics have become a huge part of today’s music culture. People seem to have
become almost immune to the brutally violent and strong sex references that have taken over
the music charts. Perhaps some people would be shocked to turn on the television at 3
o’clock in the afternoon when most children finish school to find a distasteful and graphic sex
scene on the BBC. This is why there have been boundaries put on what can be shown on
mainstream television before 9 o’clock. Yet at anytime during the day you are able to turn on
the radio to hear popular artists singing about how they go around the streets killing people
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with guns and take part in extremely raunchy sexual acts. You only have to look at the lyrics
from some of today’s chart toppers to see how apparent it is. A perfect example of this is
current and popular artist Rihanna and her single S&M. The lyrics during the chorus are:
‘Cause I may be bad but I’m perfectly good at it. Sex in the air I don’t care I love the smell of
it. Sticks and stones May break my bones but chains and whips excite me’ (Rihanna, 2010).
Are these really the sort of messages that should be heard by young children? There has
certainly been no ban on playing this song before 9 o’clock, in fact quite the opposite- it is
regularly played on radio throughout the day and it was also the song she performed at this
year’s Brit awards after receiving an award for best single. Maybe today’s music artists have
a lot to answer for in portraying a false image of relationships, sex and violence to a younger
generation that are so easily led.
It is important for educators to realize that children are not just learning in the school
environment. It is crucial to remember that at a young age children are getting two types of
education, the information they learn while at school and the knowledge they are continually
obtaining from everything else surrounding them in their day-to-day lives. Sometimes the
two forms of education conflict and contradict one another. Educators need to be aware of the
outside form of learning and need to have an understanding of it. Children are absorbing just
as much from the outside world as they do from their parents and teachers. This outside
education can come from anywhere: children at school, television programs, the Internet, and
a lot of the time through music and the media.
Recently there has been a huge amount of negative press regarding chat rooms and how
dangerous they can be for young people. If a parent heard that their young daughter had taken
a photo of herself on her videophone and sent it to a boy from school or a stranger she met on
a chat room, their reaction would most likely be one of upset and even fear for their child’s
safety. Unfortunately with songs such as Beyonce Knowles ‘Video Phone’ that has lyrics
such as:
‘you’re saying that you want me, so press record I’ll let you film me on your video phone
make a cameo, tape me on your video phone. I can handle you watch me on your videophone.
If you want me you can watch me on your videophone’ (Beyonce, 2009)
it could most definitely be argued that the wrong messages are being sent out to young girls.
It has been said that the artist Beyonce is a great role model but when there are so many
young girls listening and singing along to these songs without fully understanding the
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meaning, it implies that today’s society may be confused by what the true meaning of a good
role model really is. It is quite a worrying thought to think that if a time arises in these young
girls’ lives when someone wants to take provocative photos of them on a videophone they
will think it acceptable due to the subliminal messages that are everywhere in today’s music.
The messages portrayed in some of these songs totally contradict the messages that are taught
by a lot of parents regarding safety, sex, and self-respect. Messages can be so easily
reinforced and embedded into the human mind through the use of music. If Beyonce gave a
public speech on how she likes to send provocative and sexually explicit images of herself on
her videophone or if Rihanna talked openly on television about how she took part in S&M,
there would be worldwide outrage. It is that exact message they are sending out in their
songs, yet when masked with a catchy melody and strong beat these lyrics are believed to be
totally acceptable for young children to listen to. In many cases it is quite probable that
parents are unaware of the lyrics to these songs and are just as sucked in and blinded by the
catchy melodies and well-produced backing tracks.
Music is commonly used as a form of mood management. If a person is stressed and has had
a long day at work they will be more likely to put on some music that is relaxing and
soothing, but if there are a group of girls getting ready to go on a night out then perhaps their
choice of music would be more upbeat. Music can be used to create or maintain a person’s
mood pattern and this same principle applies to children. Listening to angry and aggressive
music can have a negative effect on young children. It can have an impact on their
concentration, schoolwork and ability to communicate with others.
It is clear to see that a musical education at a young age can be very beneficial in many ways.
There are huge amounts of positive press surrounding music and how it can help with early
child development. As mentioned previously there is now new evidence that an early
education in music can help with concentration, coordination and now even maths and
science. ‘Researchers also have found a significant relationship between music instruction
and positive performances in such areas as: reading comprehension, spelling, mathematics,
listening skills, primary mental abilities and motor skills’ (Borgese, 2010).
This evidence is a huge breakthrough in terms of education but has also caused controversial
debate on whether all children have the same opportunities when it comes to music. It has
been argued that introducing music into the curriculum too early can cause social divides.
Doctor Hargreaves from the Cambridge University Press has said: ‘The effects of
socioeconomic status on musical development is fraught with potential problems, especially
when viewed in the context of comparable research abilities in general’ (1986, P.102). The
idea that music can cause social divides implies that richer, more well off families have more
opportunities and are more likely to encourage their children musically.
There have been studies carried out to find out whether children whose families can afford to
put them through private education perform better musically than those children whose
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families can’t afford to send them to private schools. ‘Valentine’s (1962) study, which was
discussed earlier, showed that ‘preparatory school’ children showed greater evidence of
musical acculturation than their ‘elementary school’ counterparts; this result is almost
certainly mediated by social class’ (Hargreaves, 1986, P.103). These results imply that the
reason the preparatory children showed a greater level of musical acculturation was down to
their social class.
Music can often be an expensive hobby, especially for families who have more than one
child. Musical instruments sometimes costing hundreds of pounds and lessons that now rarely
cost less than fifteen pounds for half an hour may not be affordable or accessible to all
families. This leads to the conclusion that the accusation of music causing social divides may
not be too far from the truth. Just like many other subjects within the creative arts it is now
extremely difficult to progress without some form of training, which in today’s society rarely
comes cheap. There are now bursaries and scholarships that can be awarded to talented
students who can’t afford to pay for the education required for them to progress in their art.
However these bursaries and scholarships cannot be awarded to every student; therefore, the
idea of social divides still has prominence. Due to lack of funding and resources many state
schools are not able to provide the same musical facilities as are available in private schools.
‘Children who listened to Mozart before taking a test performed better. The catch? The
effects only lasted about 20 minutes. Other research may have been skewed by socioeconomic
differences between kids who attend schools with music programs and kids whose
schools can’t afford them’ (Boyd, 2008). This quote suggests that children who listen to
Mozart before taking tests performed better but it also implies that there were recognizable
differences in children that attended schools with music programs and those that attended
schools that can’t afford them.
This point leads society to ask the question, do all children have the same opportunities when
it comes to music? What children do outside of school is really down to the parents and
society cannot really argue with that. However when it comes to music education in schools
is it fair that not all children have the same opportunities? ‘In these days, it is doubtful that
any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an
education. Such an opportunity, is a right which must be made available to all on equal
terms’ (Weintraub. Abeson, 1972). This quote from a law review written by Frederic J.
Weintraub and Alan R. Abeson outlines the fact that education is a right of all children and
should be given out equally. If all children are entitled to an equal education then perhaps
there should be greater consideration and action taken to ensure that all schools are giving
their pupils a fair and equal education in music and offering them the same musical
opportunities. In the United States it was made law that no child should have greater priority
in terms of education than any other child. ‘The Supreme Court of the United States ruled
illegal the provision of education services to any child on a basis unequal to that provided
any other child’ (Weintraub. Abeson, 1972). This quote isn’t just implying that all children
have the right to be educated but also that the services provided within education should be
equal to all children.
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Summary and Conclusion
It is evident to see that music plays a huge part in everyone’s day-to-day lives. It has now
become impossible to live in today’s society without being exposed to some form of music.
So can music have a positive effect on young children? The answer is yes it can. It can have a
positive effect on building a child’s confidence and it is a fun and educational activity that
helps to stimulate both sides of a child’s brain, the logical and the creative. Music can
contribute to a baby’s brain development and help comfort them in challenging times
throughout their early childhood. Children with disabilities can benefit greatly from music
therapy, which can be used to help them both mentally and physically. Introducing music at
an early age can contribute to parent and child relationships and can be a fun and stimulating
activity that children and parents can participate in together.
Although the research in this document concludes that music can have a positive effect on
young children, it is still important to consider the argument: can music have a negative effect
on young children? The answer is also yes. Although it is clear to see the huge number of
advantages that can come through an early introduction to music, it is important to remember
that not all kinds of music have the same effect. Some types of music can be extremely
damaging to young children. Explicit and aggressive music can have a negative impact on
children both socially and academically. The lyrics in some of today’s chart music portray a
false image of sex, relationships, and violence. Children’s minds are so vulnerable and when
these sorts of messages are being portrayed by some of societies iconic figures it can be very
misleading for young children.
Not all children are getting the same opportunities when it comes to music and this has a lot
to do with limited funding in schools and conflicting ideas on what subjects should be
prioritized. Perhaps the Government needs to give greater consideration to taking action to
ensure that music is being used effectively within the National Curriculum. There also needs
to be more support given to primary school teachers who are expected to teach every subject
within the curriculum. Overall, it seems evident that there are more benefits than negatives
that come from an early introduction to music; however this is only if music is used in a
positive way. There needs to be greater consideration to the remarkable effect that music can
have on children’s lives, to ensure that all children are getting the best possible introduction
to music that society can offer.
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