English Grammar _ A University Course

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

This new edition of Downing and Locke’s award-winning text-book has been thoroughly 

revised and rewritten by Angela Downing to offer an integrated account of structure, 

meaning and function in relation to context. Also used as a reference book, it provides 

the linguistic basis for courses and projects on translation, contrastive linguistics, 

stylistics, reading and discourse studies. It is accessible and reader-friendly throughout. 

Key features include: 

• Chapters divided into modules of class-length materials 

• Each new concept clearly explained and highlighted 

• Authentic texts from a wide range of sources, both spoken and written, to illustrate 

grammatical usage 

• Clear chapter and module summaries enabling efficient class preparation and 

student revision 

www.IELTS4U.blogfa.com 

• Exercises and topics for individual study 

• Answer key for analytical exercises 

• Comprehensive index 

• Select bibliography 

• Suggestions for further reading 

This up-to-date, descriptive grammar is a complete course for first degree and postgraduate 

students of English, and is particularly suitable for those whose native language 

is not English. 

Angela Downing is Professor Emeritus in the Department of English Language and 

Linguistics (English Philology I) at the Universidad Complutense, Madrid. 

The late Philip Locke taught at the Institute of Modern Languages and Translation at 

the Universidad Complutense, Madrid.


ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A University Course 

Second edition 

Angela Downing and Philip Locke 


First published 1992 

by Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd 

Routledge edition published 2002 by Routledge 

This second edition published 2006 

by Routledge 

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada 

by Routledge 

270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group 


© 2006 Angela Downing and Philip Locke 

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. 

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s 

collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” 

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced 

or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other 

means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and 

recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without 

permission in writing from the publishers. 

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data 

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

A catalog record for this book has been requested 

ISBN10: 0–415–28787–1 

ISBN10: 0–415–28786–3 

ISBN13: 9–78–0–415–28787–6 (pbk) 

ISBN13: 9–78–0–415–28786–9 (hbk)

This book is for: 

Enrique 

and to the memory of Philip Locke 



CONTENTS 

Foreword 

Preface to the second edition 

Acknowledgements 

Introduction 

Table of notational symbols 

xi 

xiii 

xv 

xvii 

xxi 

1 Basic concepts 1 

Module 1 Language and meaning 3 

Module 2 Linguistic forms and syntactic functions 9 

Module 3 Negation and expansion 21 

Exercises 28 

2 The skeleton of the message: Introduction to clause 


structure 32 

Module 4 Syntactic functions and structures of the clause 34 

Module 5 Subject and Predicator 42 

Module 6 Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects 50 

Module 7 Subject and Object Complements 64 

Module 8 Adjuncts 69 

Further reading 76 

Exercises 76 

3 The development of the message: Complementation 

of the verb 81 

Introduction: Major complementation patterns and valency 83 

Module 9 Intransitive and copular patterns 85 

Module10 Transitive patterns 90 

Module 11 Complementation by finite clauses 100 

Module 12 Complementation by non-finite clauses 108 

Summary of complementation patterns 114 


Exercises 116

4 Conceptualising patterns of experience: Processes, 

participants, circumstances 120 

Module 13 Conceptualising experiences expressed as situation types 122 

Module 14 Material processes of doing and happening 128 

Module 15 Causative processes 132 

Module 16 Processes of transfer 137 

Module 17 Conceptualising what we think, perceive and feel 139 

Module 18 Relational processes of being and becoming 144 

Module 19 Processes of saying, behaving and existing 151 

Module 20 Expressing attendant circumstances 155 

Module 21 

Conceptualising experiences from a different angle: 

Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor 160 


Exercises 167 

5 Interaction between speaker and hearer: Linking speech 

acts and grammar 174 

Module 22 Speech acts and clause types 176 

Module 23 The declarative and interrogative clause types 180 

Module 24 The exclamative and imperative clause types 190 

Module 25 Indirect speech acts, clause types and discourse functions 197 

Module 26 Questions, clause types and discourse functions 201 

Module 27 Directives: getting people to carry out actions 205 


Exercises 213 


6 Organising the message: Thematic and information 

structures of the clause 220 

Module 28 Theme: the point of departure of the message 222 

Module 29 The distribution and focus of information 238 

Module 30 The interplay of Theme–Rheme and Given–New 246 


Exercises 263 

7 Expanding the message: Clause combinations 270 

Module 31 Clause combining 272 

Module 32 Types of relationship between clauses 277 

Module 33 Elaborating the message 281 

Module 34 Extending the message 285 

Module 35 Enhancing the message 290 

Module 36 Reporting speech and thought 299 


Exercises 309 

viii 

CONTENTS

8 Talking about events: The Verbal Group 315 

Module 37 Expressing our experience of events 317 

Module 38 Basic structures of the Verbal Group 323 

Module 39 Organising our experience of events 331 

Module 40 The semantics of phrasal verbs 336 


Exercises 343 

9 Viewpoints on events: Tense, aspect and modality 350 

Module 41 Expressing location in time through the verb: tense 352 

Module 42 Past events and present time connected: Present Perfect 

and Past Perfect 361 

Module 43 Situation types and the Progressive aspect 369 

Module 44 Expressing attitudes towards the event: modality 379 


Exercises 394 

10 Talking about people and things: The Nominal Group 399 

Module 45 Expressing our experience of people and things 401 

Module 46 Referring to people and things as definite, indefinite, 

generic 417 

Module 47 Selecting and particularising the referent: the determiner 423 

Module 48 Describing and classifying the referent: the pre-modifier 435 

Module 49 Identifying and elaborating the referent: the post-modifier 446 


Module 50 Noun complement clauses 457 


Exercises 462 

11 Describing persons, things and circumstances: Adjectival 

and Adverbial groups 473 

Module 51 Adjectives and the adjectival group 475 

Module 52 Degrees of comparison and intensification 484 

Module 53 Complementation of the adjective 494 

Module 54 Adverbs and the adverbial group 502 

Module 55 Syntactic functions of adverbs and adverbial groups 508 

Module 56 Modification and complementation in the adverbial group 515 


Exercises 521 

12 Spatial, temporal and other relationships: The Prepositional 

Phrase 529 

Module 57 Prepositions and the Prepositional Phrase 531 

Module 58 Syntactic functions of the Prepositional Phrase 540 

Module 59 Semantic features of the Prepositional Phrase 546 

CONTENTS 

ix

Module 60 Stranded prepositions; discontinuous prepositional phrases 556 


Exercises 559 

Answer Key 564 

Select Bibliography 591 

Index 596 


x 

CONTENTS

FOREWORD 

It is now 13 years since the publication of Angela Downing and Philip Locke’s A University 

Course in English Grammar, which broke new ground by offering to advanced students 

of English a comprehensive course, based on Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar. 

It went beyond the merely structural, to present an integrated account of structure and 

function, which gives students the information they need in order to link the grammar 

of English to the overall structure of discourse and to the contexts in which it is produced. 

Ever since its publication, the book has been used in many countries in South America, 

the Middle East and Europe, including of course Spain, to whose tertiary education 

systems both authors devoted the majority of their working lives. Downing and Locke’s 

grammar, while clearly rooted in Hallidayan linguistics, also responds to a number of 

other influences, including the grammars of Quirk and his colleagues. However, it also 

made its own important contribution to our knowledge and understanding of many 

points of English grammar, and has been widely cited by scholars working within 

functional linguistics. 


Sadly, Philip Locke died in 2003, but he would, I am sure, have been very proud of 

this new edition of the work, which still bears his name and has been retitled as English 

Grammar: A University Course. The new version of the grammar embodies three themes 

evident in Angela Downing’s research work over the last decade or so, themes which 

reflect the directions in which functional linguistics has moved in the late twentieth 

century and the beginning of the twenty-first. 

First, the linking of grammar to the structure and functioning of discourse, already 

evident in the first edition, has been taken still further, giving students an even better 

grasp of aspects of text production in which even advanced foreign learners of English 

are often rather weak. 

Second, the account of English grammar offers benefits from the recognition 

that discourse is not a static product, but a constantly changing, negotiated process: 

as interaction proceeds, interlocutors build up and modify mental representations of 

their addresses, the context and the discourse itself. This perspective on language leads 

to the integration, within this new version of the grammar, of ideas from cognitive 

linguistics. 

Finally, although the first edition of the grammar drew on a wide range of sources to 

show language in use, the new edition makes considerable use of examples from the 

large corpora now available for searching by computer (notably the 100-million-word 

British National Corpus), as well as other textual materials collected by Angela Downing.

The result is that the grammar is attractively illustrated by authentic text samples from 

many registers of English, ranging from very informal conversation through to more 

formal productions. 

This new version of the Downing and Locke grammar will serve not only as a course 

book for new generations of advanced students of English, but also as a reference 

source for students, teachers and researchers looking for a detailed treatment of English 

grammar which integrates structural, functional and cognitive perspectives into a 

coherent and satisfying whole. 

Christopher Butler 

Honorary Professor 

University of Wales Swansea 


xii 

FOREWORD

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 

The structure of this book remains essentially the same as that of the first edition. The 

most obvious difference is the collapsing of chapters 11 and 12 into one (adjectival and 

adverbial groups), leaving 12 (prepositions and the prepositional phrase) as the final 

chapter. Following the welcome feedback from reviewers and consultants, there has 

also been some rearrangement of the material: in particular, the section on negation 

has been brought forward to Chapter 1, and the syntax of prepositional and phrasal verbs 

is made more explicit in Chapter 2. Chapter 5 has also been rearranged, in order to clarify 

the correspondences between clause types and their speech act functions. 

Some of the modules have been considerably rewritten, in order to accomodate the 

description of certain elements that had not been dealt with. Still others were partly 

rewritten in order to incorporate certain insights and research findings published since 

1990 or, if earlier, not included in the first edition. The motion event analysis in Chapter 

8 is one of these, and the semantics of prepositions in Chapter 12 is another. A few 

analytical changes have been made, notably the re-analysis of those features that were 

grouped together under the function labelled ‘predicator complement’. This re-analysis 


has been made possible by a clearer specification of the criteria adopted for the 

classification of clause constituents. 

A considerable number of new textual illustrations have been incorporated, replacing 

some of the previous ones. Also introduced are sections on further reading and a select 

bibliography. 

Our debts to our predecessors in writing this second revised edition are clearly 

now more numerous and greater than before. In addition to the wealth of information 

and accurate detail of the various grammars by Randolph Quirk, Sydney Greenbaum, 

Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, we now have the new dimensions provided by the 

Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey 

Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finegan) and the Cambridge Grammar of the English 

Language (Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, together with their collaborators). 

Their inspiration will be evident in many of the chapters in this book. The insights of 

Michael Halliday were influential in the first edition and they are still present, but 

once again with certain modifications that Halliday may not agree with, modifications 

made in order to suit the rather different learning objectives of many of our readers. 

Unfortunately, the third edition of An Introduction to Functional Grammar became available 

only after the relevant chapters of this book had been completed. 

Reference to individual publications cannot be made in this paragraph, but all works 

consulted are reflected in the select bibliography and many in the sections on further 

reading.

Among the many consultants, friends and colleagues who have made helpful comments 

on the previous edition, I would especially like to thank Andrei Stoevsky (University of 

Sofia), who made detailed comments on every chapter, and Chris Butler (University 

of Wales Swansea) who has given invaluable assistance and advice through two 

editions of this book. Also much appreciated were the many useful comments made by 

Mike Hannay and Lachlan Mackenzie (Free University, Amsterdam), Ana Hansen 

(Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza), Mohsen Ghadessy (University of Brunei), 

Martin Wynne (University of Oxford), Belinda Maia (University of Oporto), Marta 

Carretero and Elena Martínez Caro (Universidad Complutense, Madrid), Amaya 

Mendikoetxea, Rachel Whittaker and Laura Hidalgo (Universidad Autónoma, Madrid) 

and Carmina Gregori (University of Valencia). I remember with gratitude Emilio Lorenzo 

Criado, of the Real Academia Española, who encouraged us to start in the first place. 

I am indebted to Bruce Fraser (University of Boston) for some excellent suggestions on 

the presentation of the materials, and to Geoff Thompson (University of Liverpool) for 

the best real-life spontaneous utterance of multiple left-detachment. The responsibility 

for any failings in the text lies with the authors, but any improvement and credit there 

may be I gratefully share with them. 

I am grateful to Lou Burnard for permission to use examples from the British National 

Corpus and to Antonio Moreno Ortiz for the use of the BNC Indexer; also to Miguel 

Treviño and Enrique Hidalgo for preparing the diagrams. I also want to thank my students 

and the many tutors and students who have contacted me by e-mail from Saudi Arabia, 

Iraq, China and other places to request information, to ask questions or make comments 

on particular points of grammar. Thanks also to Jean Smears for allowing a personal 

letter of hers to be published as an illustrative text, and to John Hollyman for spontaneous 

conversations recorded with some of his students at the University of Bristol. 

I especially wish to thank Louisa Semlyen of Routledge for her unfailing patience, 


support and confidence in me throughout this revision. I am grateful to our publisher, 

Routledge, for technical and expert assistance. My thanks go to Katherine Davey, 

Production Editor at Routledge, Maggie Lindsey-Jones of Keystroke and Ruth Jeavons 

for taking care of the book’s progress up to publication; also to Ben Hulme-Cross of 

Routledge for his work on the design of the text. Thanks are due to Isobel Fletcher de 

Téllez for reading through the whole of the manuscript of the second edition and making 

some useful suggestions. To Gerard M-F Hill I want to express my thanks for his patience 

and my appreciation of his energy, thoroughness and good judgement as copy-editor 

and indexer in preparing the script for publication. 

Finally, I wish to thank my daughters Laura, Alicia and Raquel, my twin sons Enrique 

and Eduardo, and my grandchildren Natalia, Daniel, Jorge, Martina and Pablo, for the 

joy and fun they bring to everything. Without their presence the writing of this second 

edition would have taken place in a very different setting. 

I am writing now in my own name for, sadly, Philip Locke was not able to accompany 

me on the venture of this second edition. To him I dedicate this edition and to my 

husband Enrique Hidalgo, without whose support, resilience and belief in mountains as 

therapy this second edition would not have been completed. 

Angela Downing 

Madrid, July 2005 

xiv 

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

All the material in this book appears with the permission of those who hold the copyright. 

The authors and publishers thank the following for their permission to reproduce extracts 

of the copyright material: 

Smart Publications (www.smart-publications.com) for ‘Health and Wellness Update’; 

Dennis Publishing Ltd for the following publications from The Week: ‘In Rushdie’s 

Shadow’, 9 July 2003; ‘How to Survive a Columbian Kidnapping’ and ‘What the Scientists 

are Saying … Fire Threat to Apes’, both 8 March 2003; ‘The Week’ by Jeremy O’Grady, 

8 November 2003; ‘A Robot for Granny’, 27 December 2003; ‘The Archers: What 

Happened Last Week’, 22 March 2003; ‘A Purple Polar Bear …’, 26 July 2003; ‘The 

“Lost” Van Gogh’, 22 November, 2003; ‘The Main Stories … It Wasn’t All Bad’, 

31 January 2004; The Telegraph Group Ltd for ‘Breaking and Entering: How British 

Burglars Pick Their Victims’, appearing in The Telegraph, 2003; BBC Enterprises for The 

Complete Yes Prime Minister, edited by Jonathan Lynn and Antony Jay; Blackwell Ltd 


for ‘Oxford Today’, volume 1, number 3, pp. 37 and 58 appearing in Oxford Today and 

reprinted with permission of the Chancellor and Scholars of Oxford University; The 

Bodley Head for Don’t Fall Off The Mountain, Shirley Maclaine and Zen and the Art of 

Motorcycle Maintenance, Robert Pirsig; Cambridge University Press for The Universe 

Around Us, James Jeans; Casarotto Company Ltd for extracts from J. G. Ballard; Chatto 

and Windus for Just Between Ourselves, Alan Ayckbourn; Curtis Brown London Ltd for 

permission to reproduce Doctor on the Boil, Copyright Richard Gordon 1973; David 

Higham Associates for Akenfield, Ronald Blythe, and The Spy Who Came In From The 

Cold, John le Carré; Hamish Hamilton Ltd for The New Confessions, William Boyd; Hamish 

Hamilton Ltd and Houghton Mifflin Company for The Long Goodbye, Raymond Chandler; 

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Ltd for North to the Orient, Copyright 1935 and renewed 1963 

by Anne Morrow Lindbergh; Harper Collins Publishers for Beat Jet Lag, Kathleen Mayes; 

Harrap Publishing Group Ltd for The Boundaries of Science, Magnus Pike; Hogarth Press 

and Random Century Group for Mrs Dalloway, Virginia Woolf; Laurence Pollinger Ltd 

and the Estate of Frieda Lawrence Ravagli for The Lost Girl, D. H. Lawrence; Longman 

Group UK for Advanced Conversational English, Crystal and Davy, and Metals and Alloys, 

H. Moore; The MacDonald Group for Futura Publications’ Lightning in May, Gordon 

Parker; Martin Secker & Warburg Ltd and Octopus Publishing Group Library for The 

British Museum is Falling Down and How Far Can You Go, David Lodge, and The Wedding 

Jug from Twenty Stories, Philip Smith; Methuen and Octopus Publishing Group Library

for Find Me in Plays by Women: Volume 2, Olwyn Wymark; Oxford University Press for 

Varieties of Spoken English, Dickinson and Mackin; Peters Fraser & Dunlop for Brideshead 

Revisited, Evelyn Waugh; Penguin Books for Artists Talking: Five artists talk to Anthony 

Schooling, in the Success with English: Outlook series ed. G. Broughton. Billy Phelan’s 

Greatest Game, Copyright 1975 by William Kennedy, used by permission of Viking 

Penguin, a division of Penguin Books USA Inc.; Penguin Books and The British Museum 

Press for The Innocent Anthropologist, Nigel Barley; The Society of Authors on behalf of 

the Bernard Shaw Estate for A Sunday on the Surrey Hills, G. B. Shaw; Thames & Hudson 

Ltd for Recollections and Reflections, Bruno Bettelheim; Copyright 1990 The Time Inc. 

Magazine Company, reprinted by permission ‘Education: doing bad and feeling good’, 

Charles Krauthammer, 5 February 1990; Copyright 1986 Time Warner Inc., reprinted 

by permission, ‘Turning brown, red and green’, 15 December 1986; Victor Gollancz Ltd 

for The Citadel, A. J. Cronin; Virago Press for Nothing Sacred, Angela Carter; William 

Heinemann Ltd and David Higham Associates for The Heart of the Matter, Copyright 1948 

Verdant SA, Graham Greene; William Heinemann Ltd and The Octopus Publishing 

Group Library for The Godfather, Mario Puzo; William Heinemann Ltd for Making a New 

Science, James Gleick. 

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright. The 

publishers will be glad to make suitable arrangements with any copyright holders whom 

it has not been possible to contact. 


xvi 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INTRODUCTION 

AIMS OF THE COURSE 

This book has been written primarily for undergraduate and graduate students of English 

as a foreign or second language. It is also addressed to tutors and others interested 

in applying a broadly functional approach to language teaching in higher education. It 

assumes an intermediate standard of knowledge and practical handling of the language 

and, from this point of departure, seeks to fulfil the following aims: 

1 to further students’ knowledge of English through exploration and analysis; 

2 to help students acquire a global vision of English, rather than concentrate on 

unrelated areas; 

3 to see a grammar as providing a means of understanding the relation of form 

to meaning, and meaning to function, in context; 

4 to provide a basic terminology which, within this framework, will enable students 

to make these relationships explicit. 


While not pretending to be exhaustive, which would be impossible, its wide coverage 

and functional approach have been found appropriate not only in first-degree courses 

but also in postgraduate courses and as a background resource for courses, publications 

and work on translation, stylistics, reading projects and discourse studies. 

A FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO GRAMMAR 

We distinguish several ways in which grammar is functional. In the first place, adopting 

a broadly systemic-functional view, we base our approach on the assumption that 

all languages fulfil two higher-level or meta-functions in our lives. One is to express our 

interpretation of the world as we experience it (sometimes called the ‘ideational’ or the 

‘representational’ function); the other is to interact with others in order to bring about 

changes in the environment (the ‘interpersonal’ function). The organisation of the message 

in such a way as to enable representation and interaction to cohere represents a third 

(the ‘textual’ meta-function), and this, too, is given its place in a functional grammar. 

In the second place, the regular patterns of different kinds that can be distinguished 

reflect the uses which a language serves. For instance, the structural patterns known as

‘declarative’, ‘interrogative’ and ‘imperative’ serve the purposes of expressing a multitude 

of types of social behaviour. In this area we draw on the pragmatic concepts of speech 

act, politeness, relevance and inference to explain how speakers use and interpret 

linguistic forms and sequences in English within cultural settings. 

When we come to describe the more detailed mechanisms of English, we also make 

use of the notion of ‘function’ to describe syntactic categories such as Subjects and 

Objects, semantic roles such as Agent and informational categories such as Theme 

and Rheme, Given and New. These different types of function constitute autonomous 

dimensions of analysis, so that there is no one-to-one relationship between them. Rather, 

we shall find that they can conflate together in different ways, the choice of one or other 

being largely determined by such factors as context, both situational and linguistic, 

particularly what has gone before in the message, by the speaker–hearer relationship 

and by speakers’ communicative purposes. 

Third, this type of grammar is functional in that each linguistic element is seen not 

in isolation but in relation to others, since it has potential to realise different functions. 

Structural patterns are seen as configurations of functions, whether of participants 

and processes, of modifiers and head of, for instance, a noun, or of Subject, verb and 

Complements, among others. These in turn are realised in a variety of ways according 

to the communicative effect desired. Speakers and writers are free, within the resources 

a particular language displays, to choose those patterns which best carry out their 

communicative purposes at every stage of their interaction with other speakers and 

readers. 

With these considerations in mind, the present book has been designed to place 

meaning firmly within the grammar and, by stressing the meaningful functions of grammatical 

forms and structures, to offer a description of the grammatical phenomena of 

English in use, both in speech and writing. This book, we hope, may serve as a foundation 

for further study in specific areas or as a resource for the designing of other materials 

for specific purposes. 


PRESENTATION OF CONTENT 

The grammatical content of the course is presented in three blocks: 

• a first chapter giving a bird’s-eye view of the whole course and defining the basic 

concepts and terms used in it; 

• seven chapters describing clausal and sentence patterns, together with their 

corresponding elements of structure, from syntactic, semantic, textual and 

communicative-pragmatic points of view; and 

• five chapters dealing similarly with nominal, verbal, adjectival, adverbial and 

prepositional groups and phrases. 

In each case the aim is that of describing each pattern or structural element in use, 

rather than that of entering in depth into any particular theory. Chapter titles attempt 

to reflect, as far as possible, the communicative viewpoints from which the description 

is made. 

xviii 

INTRODUCTION

The chapters are divided into ‘modules’ (sixty in all), each one being conceived as a 

teaching and learning unit with appropriate exercises and activities grouped at the end 

of each chapter. 

Each module begins with a summary, which presents the main matters of interest. 

It is designed to assist both tutor and students in class preparation and to offer a review 

for study purposes. 

Exemplification 

Many of the one-line examples which illustrate each grammatical point have been drawn 

or derived from actual utterances observed by the authors. Some of these have been 

shortened or simplified in order to illustrate a grammatical point with maximum clarity. 

A further selection of examples is taken from the British National Corpus and other 

acknowledged sources. These have not been modified. 

In addition we have made regular use of short excerpts of connected speech and 

writing from a wide variety of authentic sources. Our intention here is to illustrate the 

natural use of the features being described. 

Exercises and activities 

Each of the sixty modules which make up the course is accompanied by a varying number 

of practice exercises and activities. Some involve the observation and identification 

of syntactic elements and their semantic functions, or of the relations between them; 

others call for the manipulation or completion of sentences in various meaningful ways; 

grammatical topics are sometimes proposed for discussion between pairs or groups of 

students; mini-projects are suggested for individual research by students based on their 

own reading, experiences and materials gathered outside the class; topics are proposed 

for the writing of original letters, short articles, narratives, descriptions and dialogues 

for social purposes. 

Some exercises involve the interpretation of meanings and intentions which are to 

be inferred from the use of particular forms and structures within certain contexts. The 

different areas of grammar lend themselves to a wide variety of practical linguistic 

activities limited only by the time factor. Those proposed here can be selected, adapted, 

amplified or omitted, according to need. 

Answers are provided at the end of the book for those analytical exercises which 

have a single solution. There are many activities, however, that have no solution of this 

kind, such as discussions and explanations of grammatical topics. Activities involving 

the interpretation of meanings or those whose solution is variable are either not keyed 

at all or are accompanied by a suggested solution, since it is felt that they are more 

appropriately left to classroom discussion. 

It is the opinion of the authors that university study should not attend solely to the 

attainment of certain practical end-results. Its value lies to a great extent in the thinking 

that goes on in the process of ensuring the results, not only in the results themselves. 

It is rather in the performance of a task that the learning takes place. The premature 

reference to a key negates the whole purpose of the tasks and should be resisted at 

all costs. 


INTRODUCTION 

xix

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE BOOK 

First of all, it must be pointed out that the chapters which comprise this book can be 

used selectively, either singly or in blocks. In starting with the clause, our aim has been 

to provide a global frame, both syntactic and semantic, into which the lower-ranking 

units of nominal, verbal and other groups naturally fit, as can be seen in Chapter 2. It is 

perfectly possible, however, to reverse this order, starting with the verbal or nominal 

groups and using the subsequent chapters as a course on grammar ‘below the clause’, 

if this is found more convenient. Morphological information is provided in each of these 

chapters. 

Similarly, chapters 2 and 3 together provide an introduction to functional syntax, 

while chapters 5 and 7 address basic semantic roles, and tense, aspect and modality, 

respectively. Other chapters, such as 10, 11 and 12, contain extensive sections on the 

semantics of the unit under discussion. Chapter 4 deals with the clause as a vehicle for 

interaction through language, and 6 with the grammatical resources used in information 

packaging. Related areas and topics are ‘signposted’ by cross-references. 

When this book is used as a basis for classroom teaching of English language at 

universities, it may be treated as a resource book by approaching it in the following 

way: 

• First, either: by presenting the ‘Summary’ outlined at the beginning of each module 

and amplifying it according to the time allotted, with reference to appropriate parts 

of the module; or: by taking an illustrative text as a starting-point, and drawing out 

the meanings, forms and functions dealt with in the module. 

• Then, the complete module can be read by the students out of class and any 

suggested exercises prepared. Some may be assigned to different students and 


discussed collectively. Others may more usefully be prepared by all members of 

the class. Alternatively, for assessment purposes, students may be allowed to build 

up a dossier of exercises of their own choice. Certain exercises can be done 

collectively and orally in class, without previous preparation. Students should be 

encouraged to bring in selections of their own texts, whether self-authored or 

collected from specific genres, for presentation and discussion within a group. 

• A further session may be devoted to clarification of points raised as a result of 

students’ reading and of carrying out the exercises. 

Whether the book is studied with or without guidance, access to the grammatical terms 

and topics treated in it is facilitated in four ways: 

1 by the initial list of chapter and module headings; 

2 by the section and subsection headings listed at the beginning of each chapter; 

3 by the alphabetical list of items, terms and topics given in the general Index at the 

end of the book. 

4 by the abundant cross-references which facilitate the linking of one area to another. 

Reference is made to the number and section of the module in which an item is 

explained. 

xx INTRODUCTION

TABLE OF NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS 

CLASSES OF UNITS 

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS AND 

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE 

cl clause 

S 

fin.cl finite clause 

P 

non-fin.cl non-finite clause 

O 

-ing cl -ing participial clause 

Od 

-en cl past participial clause 

Oi 

inf. cl infinitive clause 

Op 

to-inf. cl to-infinitive clause 

Ob 

wh-cl wh-clause 

C 

NG nominal group 

Cs 

AdjG adjectival group 

Co 

AdvG adverbial group 

C loc 

PP prepositional phrase 

A 

VG verbal group 

F 

n noun 

h 

pron pronoun 

m 

adj adjective 

adv adverb 

d 

conj conjunction 

e 

prep preposition 

clas. 

v verb (as word class) 

c 

v-ing present participle 

v to-inf to-infinitive 

o 

v-en past participle 

x 

v 

SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS 

subject 

predicator 

object 

direct object 

indirect object 

prepositional object 

oblique object 

Complement 

Complement of the subject 

Complement of the object 

Locative/ Goal Complement 

adjunct 

finite 

head 

modifier (pre- and 

post-modifier) 

determiner 

epithet 

classifier 

complement (of noun, adjective, 

adverb and preposition) 

operator 

auxiliary verb 

lexical verb, main verb 


Ag 

Aff 

Rec 

Ben 

Agent 

Affected 

Recipient 

Beneficiary

UNIT BOUNDARIES 

||| complex sentence 

|| clause 

| group 

Tonicity 

// end of tone unit 

/ rising tone 

 

falling tone 

^ rising-falling tone 

v falling-rising tone 

CAPITAL letters are used to indicate 

the peak of information focus 

in the tone unit 

OTHER SYMBOLS 

*unacceptable or ungrammatical form 

(?) doubtfully acceptable 

( ) optional element 

 

alternative form 

coordination, addition 

dependency 

[ ] embedded unit 

† keyed exercise 

1, 2, etc. superscript marking item in extract 

BNC British National Corpus 

BrE British English 

AmE American English 

vs versus 

Pauses from brief to long 

. – – – ––– 

British National Corpus 

Examples from the British National Corpus cite their source by a 3-letter code and 

sentence number. Most of the source texts are copyright and may not be cited or redisseminated 

except as part of the Corpus. Full details of every source and the BNC 

project itself can be found on its website (http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/), which is 

searchable. 


xxii NOTATIONAL SYMBOLS

BASIC CONCEPTS CHAPTER 1 

Module 1: Language and meaning 3 

1.1 Communicative acts 3 

1.2 The content of communication 4 

1.3 Three ways of interpreting clause structure 5 

1.3.1 The clause as representation: transitivity structures 5 

1.3.2 The clause as exchange: mood structures 6 

1.3.3 The clause as message: thematic structures 6 

1.3.4 Combining the three types of structure 7 

Module 2: Linguistic forms and syntactic functions 9 

2.1 Syntactic categories and relationships 9 


2.2 Testing for constituents 9 

2.4 Classes of units 12 

2.4.1 Classes of clauses 12 

2.4.2 Classes of groups 16 

2.4.3 Classes of words 16 

2.4.4 Classes of morphemes 16 

2.5 The concept of unit structure 17 

2.5.1 Syntactic elements of clauses 17 

2.5.2 Syntactic elements of groups 18 

2.5.3 Componence, realisation and function 19 

Module 3: Negation and expansion 21 

3.1 Negative and interrogative clause structures 21 

3.1.1 The finite operator 21 

3.2 Clausal negation 22 

3.2.1 Interrogative clauses 22 

3.3 No-negation vs not-negation + any 23 

3.4 Any and other non-assertive words 23

3.5 The scope of negation 25 

3.6 Local negation 25 

3.7 Expanding linguistic units 26 

3.7.1 Coordination 26 

3.7.2 Subordination 27 

3.7.3 Embedding 28 

Exercises 28 


LANGUAGE AND MEANING MODULE 1 

A functional grammar aims to match forms to function and meaning in context. This 

module introduces the three strands of meaning that form the basis of a functional 

interpretation of grammar: the representational, the interpersonal and the textual. 

Each of these strands is encoded in the clause (or simple sentence) as a type of 

structure. The three structures are mapped onto one another, illustrating how the three 

types of meaning combine in one linguistic expression. 

1.1 COMMUNICATIVE ACTS 

Let us start from the basic concept that language is for communication. Here is part 

of a recorded conversation taken from a sociological project of the University of Bristol. 

The speakers are Janice, a girl who runs a youth club and disco in an English town, 

and Chris, one of the boys in the club, who is 19 and works in a shop. In the dialogue, 


we can distinguish various types of communicative act, or speech act, by which people 

communicate with each other: making statements, asking questions, giving directives 

with the aim of getting the hearer to carry out some action, making an offer or promise, 

thanking or expressing an exclamation. 

Offer J: If you like, I’ll come into your shop tomorrow and get some 

more model aeroplane kits. 

Reminder C: O.K. Don’t forget to bring the bill with you this time. 

Promise J: I won’t. 

Question 

Do you enjoy working there? 

Statements C: It’s all right, I suppose. Gets a bit boring. It’ll do for a while. 

Statement J: I would have thought you were good at selling things. 

Statement C: I don’t know what to do really. I’ve had other jobs. My Dad 

keeps on at me to go into his business. He keeps offering me 

better wages, 

Exclamation but the last thing to do is to work for him! 

Question J: Why? 

Echo question C: Why? You don’t know my old man! I 

Exclamations wouldn’t work for him! He always 

Statement wanted me to, but we don’t get on. ...

Question 

D’you think it’s possible to get me on a part-time Youth 

Leadership Course? 

Offer/Promise J: I’ll ring up tomorrow, Chris, and find out for you. 

Thanking C: Thanks a lot. 

In a communicative exchange such as this, between two speakers, the kind of meaning 

encoded as questions, statements, offers, reminders and thanks is interpersonal meaning. 

Asking and stating are basic communicative acts. The thing asked for or stated may 

be something linguistic – such as information or an opinion (Do you enjoy working there? 

It’s all right, I suppose) – or it may be something non-linguistic, some type of goods and 

services, such as handing over the aeroplane kits. 

This non-linguistic exchange may be verbalised – by, for instance, Here you are – but 

it need not be. Typically, however, when goods and services are exchanged, verbal 

interaction takes place too; for instance, asking a favour (Do you think it’s possible to get 

me on a part-time Youth Leadership Course?) or giving a promise (I’ll ring up tomorrow, 

Chris, and find out for you) are carried out verbally. 

The grammatical forms that encode two basic types of interpersonal communication 

are illustrated in section 1.3.2. The whole area is dealt with more fully in Chapter 5. 

1.2 THE CONTENT OF COMMUNICATION 

Every speech act, whether spoken or written, takes place in a social context. A telephone 

conversation, writing a letter, buying a newspaper, giving or attending a lecture, are all 

contexts within which the different speech acts are carried out. Such contexts have 

to do with our own or someone else’s experience of life and the world at large, that is, 


the doings and happenings in which we are involved or which affect us. 

Any happening or state in real life, or in an imaginary world of the mind, can be 

expressed through language as a situation or state of affairs. Used in this way, the 

terms ‘situation’ or ‘state of affairs ‘ do not refer directly to an extra-linguistic reality 

that exists in the real world, but rather to the speaker’s conceptualisation of it. The components 

of this conceptualisation of reality are semantic roles or functions and may 

be described in very general terms as follows: 

1 processes: that is, actions, events, states, types of behaviour; 

2 participants: that is, entities of all kinds, not only human, but inanimate, concrete 

and abstract, that are involved in the processes; 

3 attributes: that is, qualities and characteristics of the participants; 

4 circumstances: that is, any kind of contingent fact or subsidiary situation which 

is associated with the process or the main situation. 

4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The following example from the text shows one possible configuration of certain 

semantic roles: 

I ’ll come into your shop tomorrow 

participant process circumstance circumstance 

The kind of meaning expressed by these elements of semantic structure is representational 

meaning, or meaning that has to do with the content of the message. The 

various types of process, participants, attributes and circumstances are outlined in 

the following sections and described more fully in Chapter 4. 

1.3 THREE WAYS OF INTERPRETING CLAUSE STRUCTURE 

The clause or simple sentence is the basic unit that embodies our construal of representational 

meaning and interpersonal meaning. The clause is also the unit whose 

elements can be reordered in certain ways to facilitate the creation of textual meaning. 

The textual resources of the clause, such as the active–passive alternative, enable the 

representational strand and the interpersonal strand of meaning to cohere as a message, 

not simply as a sentence in isolation, but in relation to what precedes it in the discourse. 

Each type of meaning is encoded by its own structures; the three types of structure 

combine to produce one single realisation in words. 

To summarise, the three kinds of meaning derive from the consideration of a clause 

as: (a) the linguistic representation of our experience of the world; (b) a communicative 

exchange between persons; (c) an organised message or text. We now turn to the three 

types of structure that implement these meanings. 


1.3.1 The clause as representation: transitivity structures 

The representational meaning of the clause is encoded through the transitivity 

structures, whose elements of structure or functions include: Agent, Recipient, Affected, 

Process, Attribute and Circumstance, as described in Chapter 4. Some of these make 

up the semantic structure of the following example: 

Janice will give Chris the bill tomorrow 

Agent Process Recipient Affected Circumstance 

(action) 

(time) 

With a process of ‘doing’ such as the action of giving, the Agent is that participant which 

carries out the action referred to by the verb; the Recipient is that participant 

who receives the ‘goods’ or ‘information’ encoded as the Affected. Circumstances 

attending the process are classified as locative, temporal, conditional, concessive, causal, 

resultant, etc. 

BASIC CONCEPTS 5

1.3.2 The clause as exchange: mood structures 

When a speaker interacts with others to exchange information, or to influence their 

behaviour and get things done, she adopts for herself a certain role, such as ‘questioner’ 

and, in doing so, assigns a complementary role, such as ‘informant’, to her addressee. 

Unless the conversation is very one-sided, the roles of ‘questioner’ and ‘informant’ tend 

to alternate between the interlocutors engaged in a conversation, as can be seen in the 

exchange of speech roles between Chris and Janice in the text on page 3. 

The clause is the major grammatical unit used by speakers to ask questions, make 

statements and issue directives. The exchange of information is typically carried out 

by the indicative mood or clause type, as opposed to directives, which are typically 

expressed by the imperative mood. Within the indicative, making a statement is 

associated characteristically with the declarative, and asking a question with the 

interrogative. More exactly, it is one part of these structures – consisting of the Subject 

and the Finite element – that in English carries the syntactic burden of the exchange. 

The rest of the clause remains unchanged. 

In a declarative clause, the Subject precedes the Finite. 

Declarative 


Subject Finite Predicator Indirect Direct Adjunct 

operator Object Object 


Interrogative 

Will Janice give Chris the bill tomorrow? 

Finite Subject Predicator Indirect Direct Adjunct 

operator Object Object 

In the interrogative structure, the positions of Finite operator and Subject are 

reversed, the Predicator and the rest of the clause remaining the same. The Finite is that 

element which relates the content of the clause to the speech event. It does this by 

specifying a time reference, through tense, or by expressing an attitude of the speaker, 

through modality. Also associated with finiteness, although less explicitly in many cases 

in English, are person and number. The Finite element is realised in the examples above 

by the modal auxiliary will (see 3.1.1 and 23.3 for the interrogative). Clause types and 

the meanings they convey are treated in Chapter 5. 

1.3.3 The clause as message: thematic structures 

Here, the speaker organises the informational content of the clause so as to establish 

whatever point of departure is desired for the message. This is called the Theme, which 

6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

in English coincides with the initial element or elements of the clause. The rest of the 

clause is the Rheme: 


Theme 

Rheme 

The Theme may coincide with one of the participants, as in this example, or it 

may ‘set the scene’ by coinciding with an initial expression of time, place, etc. These 

possibilities are illustrated in 1.3.4. and treated more fully in Chapter 6. 

1.3.4 Combining the three types of structure 

The three types of structure we have briefly introduced are examined more closely 

in Chapters 4, 5 and 6. Here, they are mapped simultaneously on to the example 

clause, in order to show the tripartate nature and analysis of English clauses from a functional 

point of view. Predicator, Indirect and Direct Objects, and Adjunct are included 

as syntactic functions, which correspond to the semantic roles. We examine the 

syntactic functions more closely in Chapter 2. 


Experiential Agent Process Recipient Affected Circumstance 

Interpersonal Subject Finite + Indirect Direct Adjunct 


Predicator Object Object 

Textual Theme Rheme 

In a typical active declarative clause such as this, Agent, Subject and Theme coincide 

and are realised in one wording, in this case Janice. But in natural language use, a 

situation can be expressed in different ways, in which the order of clause elements can 

vary, since different elements of structure can be moved to initial position. Our present 

example admits at least the following possible variants: 

1 Chris will be given the bill (by Janice) tomorrow. 

2 The bill will be given to Chris tomorrow (by Janice). 

3 Tomorrow, Chris will be given the bill (by Janice). 

It can be seen that the three types of structural elements do not coincide (vertically) 

in the same way as they do in the typical active declarative clause. For example: 

Theme now coincides with Recipient in 1, with Affected in 2, and with Circumstance in 

3; Agent no longer coincides with Theme or with Subject in any of the variants. The 

configurations for 1 are illustrated below. 

BASIC CONCEPTS 7

Chris will be given the bill by Janice tomorrow 

Recipient Process Affected Agent Circumstance 

Subject Finite + Predicator Direct Object Adjunct Adjunct 

Theme Rheme 

The motivation for this and the other variants is not to be sought in the clause in 

isolation, but in its relationship to that part of the discourse at which it is located. The 

speaker organises the content of the clause in order to achieve the best effect for their 

communicative purpose. This involves establishing the point of departure of the clausal 

message – that is, the Theme – in relation to what has gone before. This choice 

conditions to a large extent the way the clausal message will develop and how the 

speaker or writer will lead the hearer or reader to identify that constituent which is 

presented as New information, usually at the end of the clause. 

By choosing variant 1, for example, Chris becomes the point of departure, while 

tomorrow is still in final position, with the Agent, Janice, nearing final position. By using 

the passive, instead of the active voice, the Agent can be omitted altogether, leaving 

the Affected, the bill, nearer final position. Finally, if we bring the circumstantial element 

of time, tomorrow, to initial position as Theme, as in 3, this element will serve as a frame 

for the whole event. By means of such reorganisations of the clausal message, the 

content of the clause can be made to relate to the rest of the discourse and to the communicative 

context in which it is produced. It is for this reason that the active–passive 

choice, which determines the constituent of the clause that will be Subject, is related to 

choice of Theme and the ‘packaging’ or distribution of information. 

The textual motivations outlined in the previous paragraph, and the syntactic 


strategies that serve to produce different kinds of clausal message, are discussed in 

Chapter 6. 

We will now look at the full range of grammatical units in a hierarchy where the clause 

is central. We will then look briefly at the unit above the clause, the ‘complex sentence’, 

and the units immediately below the clause, the ‘groups’. 

8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

LINGUISTIC FORMS AND MODULE 2 

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS 

2.1 SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

In this module we shall outline the basic syntactic concepts on which our structural 

analysis is based. These include the structural units which can be arranged by rank, 

the classes into which these units can be divided, and the elements of which they are 

composed. We shall also consider the ways units of one rank are related to those above 

or below them. This is explained on pages 19 and 20, and in chapters 2 and 3. 

2.2 TESTING FOR CONSTITUENTS 

Before attempting to see how a stretch of language can be broken down into units, it is 

useful to be able to reinforce our intuitions as to where boundaries lie. This can be done 

by applying certain tests in order to identify whether a particular sequence of words is 


functioning as a constituent of a higher unit or not. 

For instance, the following sequence, which constitutes a grammatical clause or 

simple sentence, is ambiguous: 

Muriel saw the man in the service station 

Two interpretations are possible, according to how the units that make up the clause 

are grouped into constituents, expressed graphically as follows: 

1 || Muriel | saw | the man in the service station || 

2 || Muriel | saw | the man || in the service station || 

In version 1, the prepositional phrase in the service station forms part of the constituent 

whose head-word is man (the man in the service station) and tells us something about the 

man; whereas in version 2 the same prepositional phrase functions separately as a 

constituent of the clause and tells us where Muriel saw the man. 

Evidence for this analysis can be sought by such operations as (a) coordination, 

(b) wh-questions, (c) clefting, (d) passivisation and (e) fronting. Tests (b) to (e) involve 

moving the stretch of language around and observing its syntactic behaviour. Testing 

BASIC CONCEPTS 9

y coordination involves adding a conjoin that realises the same function; only stretches 

of language that realise the same function can be conjoined: 

(a) It can be seen that different types of conjoin are required according to the function 

of in the service station: 

(i) Muriel saw the man in the service station and the woman in the shop. 

(ii) Muriel saw the man in the service station and in the shop. 

(b) The wh-question form and the appropriate response will be different for the two 

versions: 

(i) Who did Muriel see? – The man in the service station. 

(ii) Where did Muriel see the man? – In the service station. 

(c) Clefting by means of it + that-clause highlights a clause constituent (see 30.2) and 

thus yields two different results: 

(i) It was the man in the service station that Muriel saw. 

(ii) It was in the service station that Muriel saw the man. 

Wh-clefting (see 30.2) gives the same result: 

(i) The one Muriel saw was the man in the service station. 

(ii) Where Muriel saw the man was in the service station. 

The form the one (that . . . ) is used in this construction since English does not admit 

who in this context (*Who Muriel saw was the man in the service station). 

(d) Passivisation (see 4.2.3 and 30.3) likewise keeps together those units or bits of 

language that form a constituent. The passive counterpart of an active clause usually 

contains a form of be and a past participle: 


(i) 

(ii) 

The man in the service station was seen by Muriel. 

The man was seen by Muriel in the service station. 

(e) A constituent can sometimes be fronted, that is, brought to initial position: 

(i) 

(ii) 

The man in the service station Muriel saw. 

In the service station Muriel saw the man. 

It is not always the case that a sequence responds equally well to all five types of test. 

Certain types of unit may resist one or more of these operations: for instance, frequency 

adverbs such as often and usually, and modal adverbs like probably, resist clefting (*It’s 

often/usually/probably that Muriel saw the man in the service station), resulting in a sentence 

that is ungrammatical. Unlike some languages, in English the finite verbal element of a 

clause normally resists fronting (*Saw Muriel the man in the service station). Nevertheless, 

if two or more of the operations can be carried out satisfactorily, we can be reasonably 

sure that the sequence in question is a constituent of a larger unit. 

We now turn to the description of units, their classes and the relationship holding 

between them. 

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2.3 UNITS AND RANK OF UNITS 

The moving-around of bits of language, as carried out in 2.2, suggests that language is 

not a series of words strung together like beads on a string. Language is patterned, that 

is, certain regularities can be distinguished throughout every linguistic manifestation in 

discourse. A unit will be defined as any sequence that constitutes a semantic whole and 

which has a recognised pattern that is repeated regularly in speech and writing. For 

instance, the previous sentence is a unit containing other units such as a recognised 

pattern and in speech and writing. Sequences such as defined as any and repeated regularly 

in, which also occur in the same sentence, do not constitute units since they have no 

semantic whole and no syntactic pattern. The following sequence, which comments on 

the effects of a nuclear accident, constitutes one syntactic unit which is composed of 

further units: 

The effects of the accident are very serious. 

In English, it is useful to recognise four structural units which can be arranged in a 

relationship of componence on what is called a rank-scale: 

Unit Boundary Example 

marker 

Clause: || || the effects of the accident are very serious || 

Group: | | the effects of the accident | are | very serious | 


Word: a space the effects of the accident are very serious 

Morpheme: + {EFFECT} + {PLURAL}, realised by the morphs effect and -s 

For the initial stages of analysis it may be helpful to mark off the boundaries of 

each unit by a symbol, such as those adopted in the example. The symbol for ‘clause 

boundary’ is a double vertical line ||, that for ‘group boundary’ is a single vertical line|, 

and that for ‘word boundary’ is simply a space, as is conventionally used in the written 

language. The independent clause is the equivalent of the traditional ‘simple sentence’. 

Combinations of clauses, the boundaries symbolised by |||, are illustrated in 2.4.1 and 

treated more fully in Chapter 7. 

The relationship between the units is, in principle, as follows. Looking downwards, 

each unit consists of one or more units of the rank below it. Thus, a clause consists of 

one or more groups, a group consists of one or more words and a word consists of one 

or more morphemes. For instance, Wait! consists of one clause, which consists of 

one group, which consists of one word, which consists of one morpheme. More exactly, 

we shall say that the elements of structure of each unit are realised by units of the rank 

below. 

Looking upwards, each unit fulfils a function in the unit above it. However, as we 

shall see in 3.6.3 and in later chapters, units may be ‘embedded’ within other units, such 

BASIC CONCEPTS 11

as the clause who live in the north within the nominal group people who live in the north. 

Similarly, the prepositional phrase of the accident is embedded in the nominal group the 

effects of the accident. 

We shall be concerned in this book mainly with two units: clause and group. The 

structure and constituents of these units will be described in later sections, together with 

their functions and meanings. 

2.4 CLASSES OF UNITS 

At each rank of linguistic unit mentioned in 2.3, there are various classes of unit. 

2.4.1 Classes of clauses 

A. Finite and non-finite clauses 

At the rank of ‘clause’, a first distinction to be made is that between finite and nonfinite 

clauses. As clauses have as their central element the verbal group, their status as 

finite or non-finite depends on the form of the verb chosen. Finite verbs, and therefore 

also finite clauses, are marked for either tense or modality, but not both. Their function 

is to relate the verb to the speech event. Tensed forms distinguish the present tense 

(lock, locks) from the past tense (locked) in regular verbs and many irregular verbs also, 

as in eat, ate; go, went. This distinction is not made on all irregular verbs, for example 

shut, which has the same form for the present and past tenses. Person and number are 

marked only on the third person singular of the present tense (locks, shuts) – except for 

the verb be, which has further forms (see 3.1.1). 

Tense is carried not only by lexical verbs but also by the finite operators. Modality 

is marked by the modal verbs, which also function as operators (see 3.1.1). If the speaker 

wishes to express tense or modality, together with person and number, a ‘finite’ form 

of the verb is chosen, therefore, such as is, eats, locked, went, will stay and the clause is 

then called a finite clause (fin.cl). For example, in the following paragraph all the verbs 

– and therefore all the clauses (marked 1 , 2 etc.) – are finite: 


||I had a farm in Africa, at the foot of the Ngong hills.|| 1 |||The Equator runs across 

these highlands a hundred miles to the north,|| 2 and the farm lay at an altitude 

of over six thousand feet. 3 ||| In the daytime you felt that you had got high up, near 

to the sun, 4 || but the early mornings and evenings were limpid and restful, 5 || and 

the nights were cold. 6 ||| 

(Karen Blixen, Out of Africa) 

If the verb-form does not signal either tense or modality, the verb and the clause are 

classified as non-finite (V-non-fin; non-fin.cl). The non-finite verb forms are: 

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• the infinitive (inf.) (be, eat, lock, go) sometimes called the ‘bare’ infinitive; 

• the to-infinitive (to-inf); 

• the participial -ing form (-ing) (being, eating, locking, going); and 

• the past participial form, symbolised in this book as -en (been, eaten, locked, 

gone). 

These forms are said to be non-tensed. Non-finite clauses are illustrated by the 

following examples: 

1 They want to hire a caravan. to-infinitive clause 

2 Tim helped her carry her bags upstairs. bare infinitive clause 

3 We found Ann sitting in the garden. -ing participial clause 

4 The invitations were sent written by hand. -en participial clause 

Most of these non-finite verb forms occur in the following passage from A. J. Cronin’s 

The Citadel. (Note that the same form serves for both the finite and non-finite status of 

many English verbs; locked and shut, for instance, each function both as a tensed (past) 

form and as a non-finite -en participle.) 

Three men, cramped 1 together on their bellies in a dead end, were doing their best 

to revive 2 another man who lay in a huddled attitude, his body slewed 3 sideways, 

one shoulder pointing 4 backwards, lost, 5 seemingly, in the mass of rock behind 

him. 


1 

non-finite, -en; 2 non-finite, to-infinitive; 3 non-finite, -en; 4 non-finite, -ing; 

5 

non-finite, -en. 

B Independent and dependent clauses 

A further necessary distinction to be made is that between independent and 

dependent clauses. An independent clause (indep.cl) is complete in itself, that is, it 

does not form part of a larger structure, whereas a dependent clause (dep.cl) is typically 

related to an independent clause. This is illustrated in the following sentence: 

They locked up the house (indep.cl), before they went on holiday (dep.cl). 

All grammatically independent clauses are finite. Dependent clauses may be finite or 

non-finite. In the previous example, the finite dependent clause before they went on 

holiday can be replaced by a non-finite clause before going on holiday. The dependent 

status of non-finite clauses is signalled by the form itself. 

Only independent clauses have the variations in clause structure that make for the 

different clause types: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative (see 

Module 23): 

BASIC CONCEPTS 13

Jack’s flat is in Hammersmith. 

Is his address 20 Finchley Road? 

Give me Jack’s telephone number. 

What a large apartment he has! 

(declarative) 

(interrogative) 

(imperative) 

(exclamative) 

Dependent clauses, even when finite, do not have these possibilities. 

C. Finite dependent clauses 

Seven kinds of finite dependent clause are illustrated in this section, along with three 

important sub-types of the nominal clause. 

The subordinate status of a finite dependent clause is normally signalled by means 

of subordinating conjunctions (‘subordinators’) such as when, if, before, as soon as in 

circumstantial clauses, as in 1 below (see also 35.2), or by ‘relativisers’ such as which, 

that in relative clauses as in 2 (see 49.3): 

1 As soon as she got home, Ann switched on the television. 

2 Paul took one of the red apples that his wife had bought that morning. 

Nominal clauses fulfil the functions of Subject, Object and Complement in clause 

structure. In a sentence such as He saw that the bottles were empty, the clause [that the 

bottles were empty] is embedded as a constituent (in this case as Object) of the 

superordinate clause he saw x. The part without the embedded clause is sometimes 

called the matrix clause. 

The main types of nominal clause are the that-clause 3, the wh-nominal relative 

clause 4 and the dependent wh-interrogative clause 4 and 5. The dependent 

exclamative 6 is a further type of wh-clause: 


3 He saw that the bottles were empty. (that-clause) 

4 What I don’t understand is why you have come here. (nominal relative clause + 

dependent wh-interrogative) 

5 I’ll ask where the nearest Underground station is. (dependent wh-interrogative) 

6 She said how comfortable it was. (dependent exclamative clause) 

Embedded clauses are discussed and illustrated in chapters 2 and 3. 

Comparative clauses occur following the comparative forms of adjectives and 

adverbs. The comparative clause, introduced by than, provides the basis of comparison: 

7 The results are much better than we expected. 

Supplementive units are not integrated into the main clause, as embedded units are, 

but add supplementary information. They are subordinate but not embedded. They are 

set off from the main clause by commas, or by a dash, and have their own intonation 

contour. Here is an example of a supplementive non-finite -en clause: 

Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house exhibits many of the significant contributions 

that Wright made to contemporary architecture. 

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In spoken discourse, and in written texts that imitate spoken language, such as fictional 

dialogue, we can often come across supplementives that are freestanding, despite 

their subordinate form, as in the following italicised example (see also chapters 5, 7 

and 10): 

The large size doesn’t seem to be available. Which is a pity. 

Not only clauses, but other units can have the status of ‘supplementives’ (see 49.2). 

A subsidiary type of clause is the verbless clause. This is a clause which lacks a verb 

and often a subject also. The omitted verb is typically a form of be and is recoverable 

from the situational or linguistic context, as in: 

Book your tickets well in advance, whenever possible. ( = whenever it is possible) 

(See also Chapter 5.) The following extract from Elaine Morgan’s, The Descent of Woman 

illustrates this type very well: 

Man, apes and monkeys can all be observed to cry out when in pain, flush when 

enraged, yawn when tired, glare when defiant, grin when tickled, tremble when 

afraid, embrace when affectionate, bare their teeth when hostile, raise their eyebrows 

when surprised, and turn their heads away when offended. 

We shall also classify as verbless clauses many irregular constructions such as the 


following: 

Wh-questions without a finite verb: 

Adjuncts with the force of a command, 

sometimes with a vocative: 

Ellipted interrogative and exclamative 

clauses: 

Proverbs of the type: 

Why not sell your car and get a new one? 

Hands off! Into the shelter, everybody! 

Sure? (Are you sure?) Fantastic! (That/It is 

fantastic) 

Out of sight, out of mind. 

Finally, we shall call abbreviated clauses those such as can you? I won’t, has she? which 

consist of the Subject + Finite operator alone, with the rest of the clause ellipted because 

it is known. These clauses typically occur as responses in conversational exchanges and 

as tags (see 22.4), but can also express such speech acts as reprimand (Must you?), given 

an appropriate social context. 

BASIC CONCEPTS 15

2.4.2 Classes of groups 

Groups are classified according to the class of the word operating as the main or ‘head’ 

element. Headed by a noun, an adjective, an adverb and a verb respectively, we can 

identify the following classes: 

Nominal Groups (NG) films, wonderful films by Fellini 

Verbal Groups (VG) return, will return 

Adjectival Groups (AdjG) good, quite good at languages 

Adverbial Groups (AdvG) fluently, very fluently indeed 

Units such as these centre round one main element, which prototypically cannot be 

omitted. Furthermore, the main element can replace the whole structure: films, return, 

good and fluently can have the same syntactic functions as the whole group of which 

each is head, or, in the case of return, as lexical verb. By contrast, the unit formed by a 

preposition and its complement, such as on the floor, is rather different. The preposition 

can’t function alone as a unit. Both elements are obligatory. This unit will therefore be 

called the ‘Prepositional Phrase’ (PP). 

2.4.3 Classes of words 

Words are classified grammatically according to the traditional terminology, which 

includes noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, article and conjunction. 

These ‘parts of speech’ are divided into two main classes, the open and the 

closed. The open classes are those that freely admit new members into the vocabulary. 

They comprise noun, verb, adjective and adverb. The closed classes (preposition, 

pronoun and article) do not easily admit new members. Prepositions have gradually 

expanded their membership somewhat by admitting participles such as including, 

concerning, but the remaining classes are very resistant to the introduction of new items. 

This has been noticeable in recent years when attempts have been made to find genderneutral 

pronouns. 


2.4.4 Classes of morphemes 

Words are made up of morphemes. We shall consider the morpheme to be an abstract 

category that has either a lexical or a grammatical meaning. We have already indicated 

in 2.3 that a word such as effects can be considered as formed from the lexical morpheme 

{EFFECT} + the {PLURAL} morpheme. These abstract categories are realised by 

morphs such as effect and -s or /ifekt/ and /s/, the actual segments of written and 

spoken language, respectively. 

Since the study of words and morphemes takes us out of syntax, and into morphology 

and phonology, the scope of this book does not allow for further treatment of these 

units. 

16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2.5 THE CONCEPT OF UNIT STRUCTURE 

The term ‘structure’ refers to the relationships that exist between the small units that 

make up a larger unit. For example, the basic components of a table are a flat board 

and four long thin pieces of wood or metal, but these elements do not constitute a 

structure until they are related to each other as a horizontal top supported at the corners 

by four vertical legs. In this way, each ‘element’ is given its position and its ‘function’, 

which together we may call the ‘grammar’ of all those members of the general class of 

objects called ‘table’. 

Everything in our lives has structure. A house may be built of bricks, but its structure 

consists of rooms having different formal, functional and distributional characteristics. 

Tables, chairs, cars, all objects are composed of functionally related ‘formal items’; 

and the same applies to activities such as speeches, plays, concerts and football matches. 

It is natural that languages, which are the spoken and written representation of our 

experience of all these things, are also manifested in structured forms. Linguistic structures 

are described in terms of the semantic functions of their various elements and the 

syntactic forms and relationships which express them. 

We have seen in 1.3.1 a brief preview of the main semantic elements of the clause, 

together with some of the possible configurations produced by the combinations of 

these elements. Groups, whose function it is to express the things, processes, qualities 

and circumstances of our experience, also have semantic elements and structures. These 

are different for each type of group and are treated in the relevant chapter on each of 

these classes of unit. Here we shall briefly present the syntactic elements of all ranks 

of unit. 


2.5.1 Syntactic elements of clauses 

Clauses have the greatest number of syntactic elements or functions of all classes 

of unit. The criteria for their identification, the syntactic features and the realisations of 

each are discussed in Chapter 2. Here we simply list and exemplify the clause elements 

within common clause structures. The type of structure used in order to express a 

‘situation’ or ‘state of affairs’ depends to a great extent on the verb chosen. Verb 

complementation types are treated in Chapter 3. 

Subject (S) Jupiter is the largest planet. SPCs 

Predicator (P) The election campaign has ended. SP 

Direct Object (Od) Ted has bought a new motorbike. SPOd 

Indirect Object (Oi) They sent their friends postcards. SPOiOd 

Prepositional Object (Op) You must allow for price increases. SPOp 

Subject Complement (Cs) He is powerless to make any changes. SPCs 

Object Complement (Co) We consider the situation alarming. SPOdCo 

Locative/Goal Complement (C loc 

) We flew to Moscow. SPC loc 

Circumstantial Adjunct (A) The news reached us on Tuesday. SPOdA 

Stance Adjunct (A) 

Unfortunately, we could not reach 

York in time. 

ASPOdA 

Connective Adjunct (A) However, other friends were present. ASPCs 

BASIC CONCEPTS 17

It will be seen that for interrogative and negative clauses we use an additional function, 

the Finite (see 3.1 and 23.3). 

2.5.2 Syntactic elements of groups 

Nominal groups, adjectival groups and adverbial groups are composed of three primary 

elements or functions: a head (h) preceded by a pre-modifier (m) and followed by a 

post-modifier (m). This last element is sometimes called a ‘qualifier’. In the chapters 

devoted to these groups we also distinguish ‘complement’ (c) as a special type of posthead 

element. Complements of nouns and adjectives are introduced by a preposition 

or by a that-clause which is controlled by the head-word of the group. For example, 

the adjective good controls a complement introduced by at: good at chess. The noun 

belief controls a that-clause: the belief that he is always right. In the case of nominal 

groups, we also distinguish between ‘modifiers’, which describe or classify the head, 

and ‘determiners’ (d), which specify it in terms of definiteness, quantity, possessiveness, 

etc. Thus, we give the determiner and the pre- and post-modifiers equal syntactic status 

as primary elements of nominal groups (see 45.2). The following are examples of these 

group structures: 

NG: dmhm: those | beautiful | paintings | by Goya 

AdjG: mhc: extremely | difficult | to translate 

AdvG: mhm: very | carefully | indeed 

In Verbal Groups, the lexical verb is regarded as the main element (v), which either 

functions alone, whether in finite or non-finite form, as in the example Walking along 

the street, I met a friend of mine, or is preceded by auxiliaries (x), as in will go or has been 


reading. The first auxiliary (or the auxiliary, if there is only one) is called the ‘finite 

operator’ (o). It is the element that contributes information about tense, modality, 

number and person, and so helps to make the VG finite and fully ‘operative’. It is also 

the element that operates in the syntactic structure to make the clause interrogative 

and/ or negative (see 3.1), and to make ellipted responses: 

Have you been driving for many years? – Yes, I have. 

Do you enjoy driving? – Yes, I do. 

In the more complex verbal groups, each element is telescoped into the following one 

(see 38.7): 

v: plays 

ov: has | played [have + -en] 

oxv: will | be | playing [will + [be + -ing]] 

oxxv: must | have | been | played [must + [have + -en] [be + -en]] 

The lexical verb is sometimes followed by an adverbial particle (symbolised by ‘p’) as 

in ring up, break out, take over. Many such combinations form integrated semantic units 

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

which are idiomatic. Although the particle frequently forms an integral part of the 

meaning of the lexical verb, and in fact can often be replaced by a simple verb form (ring 

up = telephone; break out = escape, erupt), transitive combinations can be discontinuous 

as in I’ll ring you up, They’ve taken it over. 

However, most particles are not otherwise moveable (see the constituency tests in 

2.2); we can’t say *Up I’ll ring you or *Out broke an epidemic. The only exception is in 

‘free combinations’where the particle has a directional meaning, and in such cases we 

classify them as directional complements with special uses: Down came the rain and up 

went the umbrellas. However, grammars differ in this respect. The syntax of phrasal verbs 

and other multi-word combinations is discussed in 6.4 and the semantics (in terms of 

Source, Path and Goal) in 40.2. 

In Prepositional Phrases (PP) there are two obligatory elements: the prepositional 

head (h) and the complement (c). There is also an optional modifier (m), which 

is typically realised by an adverb of degree (e.g. right, quite). The structure of PPs is 

illustrated as follows: 

mhc: 

right | across | the road 

quite | out of | practice 

Prepositional phrases appear as realisations of many functions throughout this book. 

The structure and grammatical functions of the prepositional phrase are treated in 

Chapter 12, together with prepositional meanings, which are described in terms of 

locative, metaphorical and abstract uses. 


2.5.3 Componence, realisation and function 

Any structure can be considered to be composed of elements which form a configuration 

of ‘functions’, whether semantic functions such as Agent-Process-Affected or syntactic 

functions such as the clause configuration Subject-Predicator-Direct Object or the 

modifier-head-modifier structure of the nominal group. 

Each of these functions is in turn realised by a unit which is itself, at least potentially, 

a configuration of functions, and these in turn are realised by others until the final 

stage is reached and abstract categories such as subject, head, modifier, etc., are finally 

realised by the segments of the spoken or written language. The ‘structural tree’ on page 

20 diagrams this model of analysis at the three unit ranks of clause, group and word, 

to illustrate the clause The bus strike will affect many people tomorrow: 

An important property of language is the fact that there is no one-to-one correspondence 

between the class of unit and its function. While it is true that certain classes 

of unit typically realise certain functions, Nominal Groups at Subject and Object functions, 

for instance, it is nevertheless also true that many classes of unit can fulfil many different 

functions, and different functions are realised by many different classes of unit. For 

instance, the NG next time can fulfil the following clause functions, among others: 

Subject: 

Adjunct: 

Direct Object: 

Next time will be better. 

I’ll know better next time. 

We’ll enjoy next time. 

BASIC CONCEPTS 19

Clf 

S P Od A Components 

NG VG NG AdvG 

Realisations 

d m h o v d h h 

Components 

det 

noun 

noun 

aux 

v 

det 

noun 

adv 

Realisations 

the 

bus 

strike 

will 

affect 

many people tomorrow 

Realisation 

by lexical 

items 

The nearest to a one-to-one relationship in the grammar is that between the process 

and the verbal group that realises it. 

This many-to-many relationship is fundamental for understanding the relationship 

of the grammar of English to discourse. By this it is not implied that discourse (or even 

a text) is a kind of super-sentence, a grammatical unit that is simply ‘larger’ than a 

sentence and with the same kind of relationship holding between its parts as that which 

holds between grammatical units. A piece of discourse is quite different in kind from a 

grammatical unit. Rather than grammatical, it is a pragmatic-semantic unit of whatever 

length, spoken or written, and which forms a unified whole, with respect both to its 


internal properties and to the social context in which it is produced. 

To take a minimal instance, a pragmatic act such as ‘leavetaking’ may be realised by 

a modalised declarative clause (I’ll be seeing you) or by the formulaic expression Goodbye, 

among others. Typically, a discourse is made up of various types of pragmatic acts, 

which in turn are realised semantically and syntactically. In this book, although we start 

from the grammar rather than from the text, the relationship between the two is of 

primary interest. 

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

NEGATION AND EXPANSION MODULE 3 

3.1 NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE STRUCTURES 

Negating and questioning are basic human needs, which are encoded grammatically by 

negation and by the interrogative, respectively. English is unlike many other languages 

in using a finite operator to form negative and interrogative clause structures. 

The verb’s corresponding negative forms normally have n’t added to the positive 

forms. The following are irregular: can’t (from cannot), shan’t (from shall not), won’t (from 

will not). May not is not usually abbreviated to mayn’t. When n’t follows a consonant 

– as in didn’t, wouldn’t – it is pronounced as a separate syllable. The inflectional n’t forms 

are used in spoken English and in informal written styles that imitate speech, such 

as fictional dialogue. The full form not is used in formal written styles and for emphasis 

– as in The play was not a success, rather than The play wasn’t a success. 


3.1.1 The finite operator 

The operator is a verb, of one of the following types: primary, modal or do, as explained 

below. 

primary: 

modal: 

the ‘do’ operator: 

positive: am, is, are, was, were, have, has, had 

negative: am not (aren’t in negative-interrogative), isn’t, aren’t, 

wasn’t, weren’t, haven’t, hasn’t, hadn’t 

positive: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, ought 

negative: can’t, couldn’t, won’t, wouldn’t, shan’t, shouldn’t, may not, 

mightn’t, oughtn’t 

positive: does, do, did negative; doesn’t, don’t, didn’t 

We also mention here the lexical-auxiliaries based on the primary verbs be (be about 

to, be sure to, be going to, etc.) and have (have to, have got to), which are discussed in 37.3. 

The primary verb functions as a normal operator in these combinations. 

Less commonly in use are the semi-modals dare and need, which as modals are 

used in negative and interrogative clauses, and admit the abbreviated forms daren’t and 

needn’t, respectively. (Dare you go? I daren’t go. How dare you speak to me like that? 

Need I go? You needn’t go). 

BASIC CONCEPTS 21

Dare can be used with will, should and would, a possibility that is not open to modals 

in general: Nobody will dare vote against the proposal; I wouldn’t dare take a space-trip 

even if I were offered one. 

Dare and need also behave like full lexical verbs requiring the do-operator: I didn’t 

dare go. I didn’t need to go. Didn’t you dare go? Didn’t you need to go? Didn’t dare is more 

common now than dared not (He dared not say a word, He didn’t dare say a word). 

3.2 CLAUSAL NEGATION 

In clauses, negation is usually made with the particle not, by negating the finite operator 

(is not, cannot/isn’t, can’t, etc.), or a non-finite verb in a dependent clause (not wishing to 

disturb them). *Amn’t is not used in Standard English for the first person singular; instead 

I’m not (declarative) and Aren’t I (interrogative) are used. If no other auxiliary is present, 

a form of do (do, does, did) is brought in as operator. Compare the following positive and 

negative declarative clauses: 

That man is the Secretary. 

He took the car. 

Ed always does the dishes. 

That man is not/isn’t the Secretary. 

He didn’t take the car. 

Ed doesn’t always do the dishes. 

The last example here illustrates the use of does both as a lexical verb and as operator. 

Don’t is the regular negative form used in second person imperatives: Don’t be late! 


Some operators admit an alternative type of abbreviation with the subject in negative 

clauses. This occurs usually only with a pronoun. Both types are used in spoken English: 

They aren’t ready. 

She isn’t coming with us. 

He hasn’t finished. 

We haven’t got enough. 

They’re not ready. 

She’s not coming with us. 

He’s not finished. 

We’ve not got enough. 

3.2.1 Interrogative clauses 

These invert the operator with the subject of the clause: 

Positive-interrogative 

Is that man the Secretary? 

Did he take the car? 

Does Ed always do the dishes? 

Negative-interrogative 

Isn’t that man the Secretary? 

Didn’t he take the car? 

Doesn’t Ed always do the dishes? 

There are two types of interrogative clause. One is the yes/no type, illustrated here, 

which simply asks for an answer in terms of yes or no. The other is the wh-type, which 

asks for the information represented by the wh-word what? who? where? and so on. The 

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

inversion of subject–operator is the same as for the yes/no type, except when who 

functions as subject: 

Who came to see you? 

What does Ed do? 

When can you come to see us? 

When did you see him last? 

3.3 NO-NEGATION VS NOT-NEGATION + ANY 

Another way of negating a clause is by using a non-verbal ‘nuclear’ negative word 

such as nobody, nothing, no or never. When we need a negative element as subject, a 

nuclear form is necessary: Nobody came after all, Nothing was said, No money was found 

(see below, and also Chapter 10). Nuclear negative words are also common in existential 

clauses: There’s nothing to worry about. 

In many cases a similar idea can be expressed by using either no-negation or notnegation 

+ any: 

Have you any money? 

Do you know anyone called Stern? 

I haven’t any money. 

I have no money. 

I don’t know anyone called Stern. 

I know no-one called Stern. 

In questions, either alternative is possible even when the negative item is subject, as 


opposed to the single possible structure in negative declarative clauses. Compare: 

Declarative negative: Nobody has called this afternoon. 

Interrogative negative: Has nobody called this afternoon? 

Hasn’t anybody called this afternoon? 

When both are possible, the no-form tends to be more emphatic or more suited to writing 

or formal spoken English. A very emphatic negative meaning is conveyed in spoken 

English also by, for example, She’s no friend of mine. He’s no actor. 

3.4 ANY AND OTHER NON-ASSERTIVE WORDS 

Unlike many languages, Standard English does not favour cumulative negation, that is 

a ‘not’ negative together with one or more nuclear negatives in one clause, such as 

*We’re not going nowhere, although this is a feature of some dialects. Instead the first 

negative item is followed throughout the rest of the clause by one or more non-assertive 

items such as any, as in: 

We’re not going anywhere with any of our friends. 

I didn’t say anything about it to anyone. 

BASIC CONCEPTS 23

It is important to remember that the ‘any’ words in English (any, anyone, anybody, 

anything, anywhere) are not in themselves negative. In order to be used in a negative 

clause they must be preceded by not or a negative word; they must be within the ‘scope 

of negation’ (see 3.5). So instead of Nobody came, it is not acceptable to say *Anybody 

came or *Anybody didn’t come. These are ungrammatical and meaningless, hence the 

deliberate oddity of e.e. cummings’ poem ‘Anyone lived in a little how town’. 

The any words (together with ever and yet, among others) are what we call ‘nonassertive’ 

items, as opposed to some and its compounds, which are ‘assertive’. Assertive 

forms have factual meanings and typically occur in positive declarative clauses. 

Non-assertive words such as any are associated with non-factual meanings in the 

sense of non-fulfilment or potentiality, which is a feature of negative, interrogative, 

conditional and comparative clauses, and semi-negative words such as without and 

hardly, among others. It is, in fact, the general non-factual meaning, rather than any 

particular structure which provides the context for non-assertive items to be used: 

We have some very good coffee. (declarative, factual) 

This coffee is better than any I have ever tasted. (comparative, non-factual) 

If you want any more coffee, you must make it yourself. (conditional, non-factual) 

Did you say anything? (interrogative, non-factual) 

Didn’t you go anywhere interesting? (interrogative-negative, non-factual) 

Without any delay. 

Hardly anyone knew his name. 

Stressed any is used in positive declarative clauses, and has a non-factual meaning 

(= it doesn’t matter which/who); see also 47.1. 


Choose any of the questions in section one. 

Anybody with a bit of sense would have refused to go. 

Any house is better than no house. 

Here is a summary of assertive and non-assertive items: 

Assertive 

Non-assertive 

Determiners/pronouns some any 

someone anyone 

somebody anybody 

something anything 

Adverbs somewhere anywhere 

sometimes ever 

already yet 

still any more/any longer 

a lot much 

Biased yes/no questions with some and any words are explained in 26.4. 

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

3.5 THE SCOPE OF NEGATION 

By the scope of negation we mean the semantic influence that a negative word has on 

the rest of the clause that follows it. Typically, all that follows the negative form to the 

end of the clause will be non-assertive and within the scope of negation. Thus, in Some 

people don’t have any sense of humour, some is outside the scope of negation, whereas any 

is inside it. 

As the non-assertive forms are not in themselves negative, they cannot initiate the 

scope of negation by standing in initial position in the place of a nuclear negative form. 

Assertive forms such as some and its compounds can occur after a negative word, but 

they must necessarily stand outside the scope of negation. Compare the difference in 

meaning between the two following clauses: 

1 He didn’t reply to any of my letters. 

2 He didn’t reply to some of my letters. 

The non-assertive form any in clause 1 expresses the scope of negation as extending 

to the end of the clause. None of the letters received a reply. Example 2, on the other hand, 

implies that some letters received a reply, while others didn’t. Some must be interpreted 

as outside the scope of negation. 

The scope of negation is closely related to the function of Adjuncts in the clause. 

Compare the difference in meaning between examples 3 and 4 below, in which the 

manner Adjunct clearly is within the scope of negation in 3, whereas the attitudinal 

sentence Adjunct clearly in 4 is outside it: 

3 She didn’t explain the problem clearly. 


4 She clearly didn’t explain the problem. 

The scope of negation can also explain the occasional occurrence of two negative words 

in the same clause as in You can’t NOT go. Here each negative item has its own scope. 

3.6 LOCAL NEGATION 

Our discussion so far has centred on clausal negation. Groups, words and non-finite 

clauses can be negated by not, without the entire finite clause being negated: 

She was admitted into hospital not long ago. 

Not realising the danger, she walked in the dark towards the edge of the cliff. 

Try not to get too tired playing tennis. 

She would prefer not to go on a Mediterranean cruise for a holiday. 

Negative declaratives typically express a negative statement, but they can also be used 

to ask tactful questions, as in the following extract from a detective story. The person 

questioned replies mostly with straight negative statements, adding in 2 the expression 

of polite regret I’m afraid, but in 8 she avoids total commitment: 

BASIC CONCEPTS 25

‘You don’t know the actual name of the firm or association that employed her?’ 1 

‘No, I don’t, 2 I’m afraid.’ 

‘Did she ever mention relatives?’ 

‘No. I gather she was a widow and had lost her husband many years ago. A bit of 

an invalid he’d been, but she never talked much about him.’ 3 

‘She didn’t mention where she came from 4 – what part of the country?’ 

‘I don’t think she was a Londoner. 5 Came from somewhere up north, I should say.’ 

‘You didn’t feel there was anything – well, mysterious about her? 6 

Lejeune felt a doubt as he spoke. If she was a suggestible woman – but Mrs. Coppins 

did not take advantage of the opportunity offered to her. 7 

‘Well I can’t really say 8 that I did. Certainly not from anything she ever said. 9 The 

only thing that perhaps might have made me wonder was her suitcase. Good quality 

it was, but not new.’ 

(Agatha Christie, The Pale Horse) 

1 

question; 2 negative statement; 3 negative statement; 4 question; 5 transferred 

negation; 6 question; 7 negative statement; 8 hedge; 9 negative statement. 

Transferred negation consists in displacing the negative element from its logical place 

in the reported clause to negate the verb in the main clause. So in 5, instead of I think 

she wasn’t a Londoner, we have I don’t think she was a Londoner. 

3.7 EXPANDING LINGUISTIC UNITS 


Each of the linguistic units outlined in section 2 has been illustrated by single 

occurrences of that unit, for instance, one Nominal Group functioning at Subject or 

Direct Object, one modifier of an adjective or an adverb. Quite frequently our everyday 

communication requires no more. But units can be expanded to enable the speaker or 

writer to add further information which is, nevertheless, contained within the chosen 

structure at any point in the discourse. Here we simply exemplify coordination, 

subordination and embedding of various classes of elements, with the reminder that 

most elements of structure can be realised more than once, recursively. 

3.7.1 Coordination 

The following are examples of coordination of various classes of elements: 

morphemes in a word: 

heads of nominal groups: 

modifier in a NG: 

modifier in an AdjG: 

adjuncts in a clause: 

pro- and anti- abortionists 

books, papers and magazines 

a beautiful and astonishing sight 

He says he is really and truly sorry for what happened. 

You can put in the application now or in a month’s time 

or else next year. 

26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

independent clauses: 

dependent clauses: 

She got dressed quickly, had breakfast and went out to work 

I will take a holiday when the course is over and if I pass 

the exam and also provided I can afford it. 

The following short extract illustrates coordinated units: 

Over the next decade, automation and the mechanisation of production 1 will improve 

and transform 2 farming, industrial plants and service industries 3 and also make our 

leisure time more productive, creative and interesting. 4 

1 

coordinated groups (NG + NG); 2 coordinated main verbs); 3 coordinated groups 

(NG + NG + NG); 4 coordinated adjectives (adj. + adj. + adj.). 

If the various conjoined clauses share the same subject or the same operator, these 

elements are regularly ellipted because they are recoverable (see 29.3), and are implicit 

in subsequent conjoined clauses. This occurs in the above example where the sequence 

automation and the mechanisation of production is ellipted, as is will, before the predicator 

make. 

Ellipsis similarly occurs in group structures, as in the above example, where in one 

interpretation of 4 , the modifier more is ellipted before creative and interesting. 

3.7.2 Subordination 


Similarly, the following are examples of subordination of various classes of elements: 

modifier in a NG: 

Cs in a clause: 

adjuncts in a clause: 

dependent clauses: 

A very lovable, (if rather dirty), small boy. 

He is quite brilliant (though totally unreliable). 

We arrived (late (though not too late)) for the wedding. 

I’ll let you borrow the CDs (as soon as I’ve finished) [provided 

you bring them back [when I need them]]. 

In this complex sentence, the fourth clause when I need them is dependent on the third 

clause provided you bring them back; these together form a block which is dependent on 

the block formed by the first (independent) clause I’ll let you borrow the CDs and its 

dependent clause as soon as I’ve finished. 

‘Sentence’ is the term traditionally used to denote the highest grammatical unit on a 

scale of rank. While not rejecting this term, we shall prefer, however, to use the term 

‘clause’ to refer to one independent unit. This applies also to a superordinate clause 

with embedded clauses in one or more functions, as illustrated in the next section. We 

keep the traditional term ‘compound sentence’ for units of two or more coordinated 

clauses, while the equally traditional term ‘complex sentence’ applies to units containing 

dependent clauses or dependent and conjoined clauses, as we have seen in some of the 

examples above. We shall say that in a complex sentence any number of clauses can 

BASIC CONCEPTS 27

e involved. These questions are further illustrated in Chapter 7 under the heading 

‘Clause combining’. 

3.7.3 Embedding 

A third way of expanding the content and the structure of a linguistic unit is by 

embedding, a kind of subordination by which a clause functions as a constituent of 

another clause or of a group. This is a pervasive phenomenon in both spoken and written 

English and is found in elements such as the following, where the embedded clause is 

enclosed in square brackets: 

clause at S: 

clause at Od: 

clause at c in a PP: 

clause at m in NG 

clause at A: 

group in group 

[That he left so abruptly] doesn’t surprise me. 

I don’t know [why he left so abruptly]. 

I’m pleased about [Jane winning a prize]. 

Thanks for the card [you sent me]. 

[After they had signed the contract] they went off to celebrate. 

[[[Tom’s] sister’s] husband’s] mother 

the box [on top of the cupboard [in my bedroom]] 

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER 1 

Basic concepts 


Module 1 

1 †For each of the following clauses say whether a participant or a circumstance has been 

chosen as Theme (the first constituent in the clause): 

(1) Main Street is usually crowded on late shopping nights. 

(2) The girls armed with hockey-sticks chased the burglar. 

(3) Quite by accident I came across a very rare postage-stamp. 

(4) Away in the distance you can see Mount Kilimanjaro. 

(5) What I am going to tell you must not be repeated. 

2 †In each of the following clauses say whether the Subject, the Direct Object or the Adjunct 

has been chosen as Theme: 

(1) About fifty or sixty thousand years ago, there lived on earth a creature similar to 

man. 

(2) Skulls and bones of this extinct species of man were found at Neanderthal. 

(3) Where the first true men originated we do not know. 

(4) These newcomers eventually drove the Neanderthalers out of existence. 

(5) In Asia or Africa there may be still undiscovered deposits of earlier and richer 

human remains. 

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 2 

3 †Look at the clauses below and apply the tests outlined in Module 2.2 to answer the 

questions following them: 

(1) The little boy in the red jersey is making a sand castle on the beach. 

(a) Is the little boy a constituent of the clause? 

(b) Is on the beach a constituent? 

(c) Is in the red jersey a constituent? 

(d) Is castle a constituent? 

(2) Tom happened to take the road to the factory by mistake. 

(a) Is the road a constituent? 

(b) Is to the factory a constituent? 

(c) Is by mistake a constituent? 

(d) Is happened a constituent? 

4 †Identify each of the uncontextualised clauses listed below as (a) independent; (b) 

dependent finite; (c) dependent non-finite; (d) abbreviated; (e) verbless. Punctuation and 

capitals have been omitted. 

(1) the complacency of the present government amazes me 

(2) although presumed dead 

(3) not being a tele-viewer myself 

(4) as I am the principal at a large boarding-school for girls 

(5) her future husband she met on a course for playleaders 

(6) I certainly will 

(7) while on vacation in Bali 

(8) because he is over-qualified for this job 

(9) just when he was starting to get himself organised 

(10) we’ll probably get only a fraction of the factory’s worth 


5 †Say to which class of group each of the following belongs: 

(1) the anti-terrorist laws 

(2) not quite hot enough 

(3) within three quarters of an hour 

(4) pretty soon 

(5) aren’t playing 

(6) wide awake 

(7) his departure from Moscow 

(8) in spite of the bad weather 

BASIC CONCEPTS 29

Module 3 

6 †Read the text below from Time, and then answer the questions which follow: 

‘DOES SHE 1 or doesn’t she?’ 2 The fashionable answer nowadays is always a 

louder and louder yes. 3 From Manhattan to Los Angeles a sunburst of bold, 

exotic, and decidedly unnatural colors, is streaking, squiggling and dotting 

across the hairstyles of the nation’s trendy younger set, 4 and even making 

inroads among more mature professionals. 5 The startling palette of reds and 

blues, golds and silvers, greens and purples comes from inexpensive temporary 

hair-coloring products 6 that are easily applied at home 7 and almost as easily 

showered away. 8 Confrontational coloration, once a shocking British and 

American punk emblem, 9 is now celebrated as the sleek plumage of the up-andcoming 

yuppie generation. 10 

(1) Say which of the numbered clauses are (a) finite independent; (b) finite embedded; 

(c) abbreviated; (d) verbless. 

(2) Which of the numbered clauses are in a coordinating relationship? 

(3) Which of these clauses have ellipted elements? 

(4) Identify as many recursive elements as you can in the text. Do you consider the 

choice of recursive elements to have any special importance in this article? 

7 †Make the following sentences (a) negative and (b) interrogative-negative: 


(1) It will be difficult to find a nice present for Henry. 

(2) Sheila has something to tell you. 

(3) Someone has left a bag on a seat in the park. 

(4) He knows someone who lives in Glasgow. 

(5) It is worth going to see some of those pictures. 

8 †Fill in the blanks with an appropriate non-assertive item. Say why such an item is needed 

in this context: 

(1) That’s a pretty kitten you have there. Have you got ....more like it? 

(2) She hardly ....complains about ....he does. 

(3) I honestly don’t think I could recommend ....within ten miles of the coast. 

(4) I don’t remember seeing ....talking to Milly. 

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

9 †Account for the acceptability of the forms without an asterisk and the unacceptability of 

the forms marked by an asterisk (*) in each of the following sets: 

(1) (a) He has never spoken to anyone here. 

(b) He hasn’t ever spoken to anyone here. 

(c) *He has ever spoken to anyone here. 

(2) (a) Nobody was able to work out the puzzle. 

(b) There wasn’t anybody able to work out the puzzle. 

(c) *Anybody was able to work out the puzzle. 


BASIC CONCEPTS 31

THE SKELETON OF THE MESSAGE CHAPTER 2 

Introduction to clause structure 

Module 4: Syntactic elements and structures of the clause 34 

4.1 Subject, Predicator, Object, Complement, Adjunct 35 

4.1.1 Subject and Predicator 35 

4.1.2 Object and Complement 35 

4.1.3 The Adjunct 36 

4.2 Criteria for the classification of clause elements 37 

4.2.1 Determination by the verb 37 

4.2.2 Position 38 

4.2.3 Ability to become the subject 38 

4.2.4 Realisations of these functions 39 

4.3 Basic syntactic structures of the clause 39 


4.4 Realisations of the elements 40 

Module 5: Subject and Predicator 42 

5.1 The Subject(s) 42 

5.1.1 Semantic, cognitive and syntactic features 42 

5.1.2 Realisations of the Subject 44 

5.2 The Predicator 48 

Module 6: Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Objects 50 

6.1 The Direct Object 50 

6.1.1 Syntactic and semantic features 50 

6.1.2 Realisations of the Direct Object 52 

6.2 The Indirect Object 55 


6.2.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object 56 

6.3 Prepositional verbs and the Prepositional Object 56 

6.3.1 Types of verb + preposition combinations 57 

6.3.2 Syntactic behaviour of prepositional verbs 58

6.3.3 Stranding the preposition 59 

6.3.4 The prepositional passive 59 

6.3.5 Realisations of the Prepositional Object 59 

6.4 Phrasal verbs 60 

6.4.1 Syntactic features 60 

6.4.2 Differences between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs 61 

6.4.3 Phrasal-prepositional verbs 62 

Module 7: Subject and Object Complements 64 

7.1 The Complement of the Subject 64 


7.1.2 Realisations of the Subject Complement 66 

7.2 The Complement of the Object 67 


7.2.2 Realisations of the Object Complement 68 

Module 8: Adjuncts 69 

8.1 Syntactic and semantic features 69 

8.2 Main classes of Adjuncts 70 

8.2.1 Circumstantial Adjuncts 70 

8.2.2 Realisations of the Circumstantial Adjunct: summary 71 

8.2.3 Circumstantials as central clause elements 71 

8.2.4 Circumstantials and their ordering in discourse 72 

8.2.5 Stance Adjuncts 73 

8.2.6 Realisations of the Stance Adjunct: summary 74 

8.2.7 Connective Adjuncts 74 

8.2.8 Realisations of the Connective Adjunct: summary 75 



Exercises 76

SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS AND MODULE 4 

STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE 

SUMMARY 

1 The independent clause (or simple sentence) has two basic constituents: subject 

and predicate. The Subject (S) encodes the primary participant in the clause. 

2 The predicate may consist simply of the Predicator (P), realised by a verb, or 

of a Predicator followed by one or more central constituents. These central 

elements, the Object (O) and the Complement (C) are, together with the Subject 

and the Predicator, the major functional categories of the clause. 

3 More specifically, we distinguish two main types of Object: Direct (Od) and 

Indirect (Oi ) and two main types of Complement (Subject Complement (Cs) 

and Object Complement (Co). A subsidiary type of Object is the Prepositional 

Object (Op). A further type of Complement is the circumstantial Complement, 

the most frequent being the Locative/Goal type (C loc 

). 


4 In addition, the clause may contain a number of Adjuncts (A). These are usually 

syntactically able to be omitted. Those of the largest class, the circumstantial 

Adjuncts, are the most integrated in the clause. Somewhat separated from clause 

structure by a pause or a comma, stance Adjuncts express a speaker’s or writer’s 

attitude, while connective Adjuncts link clauses or parts of clauses, and 

paragraphs. 

5 Objects and Complements are determined by verb type and are limited in 

number in any one clause. Adjuncts are not limited in number. 

6 On the simplest level, the central functional categories of the independent clause 

are: S, P, O and C, with A usually optional. 

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4.1 SUBJECT, PREDICATOR, OBJECT, COMPLEMENT, ADJUNCT 

4.1.1 Subject and Predicator 

Traditionally, the single independent clause (or simple sentence) is divided into two 

main parts, subject and predicate. Semantically and communicatively, the Subject 

encodes the main participant (the plane/Tom) in the situation represented by the clause 

and has the highest claim to the status of topic. The predicate can consist entirely 

of the Predicator, realised by a verbal group, as in 1 below, or the Predicator together 

with one or more other elements, as in 2: 

Subject Predicator 

1 The plane landed 

2 Tom disappeared suddenly after the concert 

It is the predicator that determines the number and type of these other elements. 

Syntactically, the Subject (S) and the Predicator (P) are the two main functional 

categories. For the purpose of analysing and creating discourse it is helpful to see how 

the predicate is made up, since this tends to be the most informative part of the clause. 

A first distinction can be made between elements that are essential and elements that 

are usually optional. This can be seen by comparing 1 and 2. 

The two clause elements in 1, the Subject (the plane) and the Predicator realised by 

the verb landed are essential constituents. In 2 on the other hand, the predicate contains, 


as well as the predicator (disappeared), two elements, suddenly and after the concert, 

which are not essential for the completion of the clause. Although they are to a certain 

extent integrated in the clause, they can be omitted without affecting the acceptability 

of the clause. Such elements will be called Adjuncts (A). 

4.1.2 Object and Complement 

In other cases the predicate consists of the Predicator followed by one or more central 

constituents that complete the meaning. The two main functional categories which 

occur in post-verbal position are the Object (O) as in 3 and the Complement (C) as 

in 4: 

S P O 

3 The students carried backpacks 

4 Jo is a student 

S P C 

SKELETON: CLAUSE STRUCTURE 35

Without these, each of the above clauses would be incomplete both semantically 

and syntactically: [*The students carried] and [*Jo is], respectively. There are two main 

types of Object, the Direct Object (Od) as in 5, and the Indirect Object (Oi) as in 6, 

the indirect object preceding the direct object. 

S P Oi Od 

5 All the men wore dark suits 

6 Tom sent me an email 

Semantically, the objects encode the key participants in the event other than 

the subject: dark suits, an email (Od) and me (Oi) in these examples. Note that participants 

include not only human referents, but inanimate things and abstractions (see 

Chapter 4). 

Complements encode constituents that, semantically, are not participants but are 

nevertheless normally required both syntactically and semantically. 

There are two main types of Complement, the Complement of the Subject (Cs) 

(Subject Complement) as in 7a and 8a, and the Complement of the Object (Object 

Complement) (Co), as in 7b and 8b: 

S P Cs S P Od Co 

7a That map was useful 7b We found that map useful 

8a Ken Brown is President 8b They made Ken Brown President 


The Subject Complement and Object Complement do not encode a different kind of 

participant. Rather, they characterise or identify the Subject or the Object, respectively. 

The basic clause structures formed by configurations of these functions are as follows: 

S-P S-P-O S-P-O-O S-P-C S-P-Od-Co S-P-O-C 

4.1.3 The Adjunct 

We will recognise three main classes of Adjunct: 

• Circumstantial Adjuncts, which provide the setting for the situation expressed 

in the clause, as regards place, time and manner, among others: The new liner 

‘Queen Elizabeth II’ sails tomorrow from Southampton. 

• Stance Adjuncts, which express the speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of the 

content of the clause: Obviously, he’ll rely on you even more now. 

• Connective Adjuncts, which link two clauses, or parts of clauses, signalling the 

semantic relation holding between them: The hotel was rather noisy. On the other 

hand, it wasn’t expensive (contrast). 

36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4.2 CRITERIA FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS 

The criteria adopted for the classification of clause functions are four: determination by 

the verb, position, ability to become the subject and realisations of these functions. 

4.2.1 Determination by the verb 

The number and type of objects and complements that can occur in a clause are 

determined by the verb according to its potential – described in chapters 3 and 5 as its 

‘valency’. We say that a certain verb predicts an object or a complement. Eat, for 

example, predicts an object that expresses the thing eaten. One sense of carry predicts 

an object that refers to the thing carried (They carried backpacks). Disappear, however, 

does not predict or admit an object (*He disapppeared the money). Determination is 

related to verb class. 

Transitive verbs usually require one or more objects. They occur in type SPO (carry), 

type S-P-Oi-Od (send), and type S-P-O-C (find) in one of its uses. 

Intransitive verbs such as disappear occur in type S-P. They do not admit an object, 

but certain intransitive verbs predict a complement of space or time, as will be explained 

shortly. 

More exactly, we should talk about transitive or intransitive uses of certain verbs, 

as a great many verbs can be used in English both transitively and intransitively (see 

Chapter 3). Land is transitive in The pilot landed the plane safely, but intransitive in The 

plane landed. Carry is transitive in They carried backpacks, but it has an intransitive use 

in His voice carries well (= ‘projects’). 

A locative element is required by a few transitive verbs such as put and place (Put 

the handkerchiefs in the drawer; Place the dish in the microwave). Without this locative 

element, the clause is syntactically and semantically incomplete (*Put the dish). It 

therefore has the status of a central clause element. A locative element is also predicted 

by many intransitive verbs of motion such as come, go, fly, drive, which can predict such 

meanings as Direction (flying south) and Goal, which marks an end-point (go to Rome). 

Both types will be represented here as Locative/Goal Complements subsumed under 

the abbreviation (C loc 

). However, it is also possible to use these verbs without a locative, 

as in for example Are you coming? Don’t go! I’ll drive. (Drive in fact predicts an object or 

a locative or both, as in I’ll drive you to the station.) 

From these we can see that prediction is less strong than requirement. An expression 

of manner is required with one sense of treat (they treated the prisoners badly) and 

with the intransitive verb behave (she has been behaving strangely lately). The verb last 

predicts an expression of extent in time (the concert lasted three hours); however, 

sometimes the lack of duration can be inferred as in Their love didn’t last. When predicted 

or required by the verb, elements such as place or time are analysed as circumstantial 

Complements, the equivalent of obligatory adverbials in some grammars. A cognitivesemantic 

view in terms of Source, Path and Goal, following verbs of motion, is given in 

chapters 8 and 12. 

Copular verbs, a type of intransitive, require a Subject Complement. Only verbs 

capable of being used as copulas can be used in this way. So, for instance, be and feel as 

in I am cold, I feel cold can be used as copulas in English but touch cannot (*I touch cold). 



Besides predicting an attribute, verbs of being such as be, remain, stay predict being 

in a location. Their Complements are then analysed as locative (C loc 

). 

The following examples illustrate the parallel between attributes as Subject and 

Object Complements and the Locative/Goal types. Evidently there are many other verbs 

which function in only one of these patterns: 

Attributive 

He stayed calm 

She went pale 

He drives me mad 

A bicycle will get you fit 

Locative/Goal 

He stayed in bed 

She went to work 

He drives me to the airport 

A bicycle will get you to work 

By contrast, adjuncts are not determined by any particular type of verb. Suddenly, for 

instance, can be used with intransitive verbs like disappear and transitive verbs like carry. 

Moreover, adjuncts differ from subjects and objects in that there is no limit to the number 

of adjuncts that can be included in a clause. 

4.2.2 Position 

Objects occur immediately after the verb, with the indirect object before the direct object 

when both are present (The bomb killed a policeman (Od); He sent me (Oi) an email (Od)). 

Complements also occur after the verb or after an object. Adjuncts occupy different 

positions according to type, and are often moveable within the clause. 


4.2.3 Ability to become the subject 

Objects can normally become the subject in a passive clause, since the system of voice 

allows different semantic roles to be associated with Subject and Object functions (The 

bomb killed the policeman/The policeman was killed by the bomb; I sent her an email/She 

was sent an email). 

However, passivisation with ‘promotion’ to subject is not a watertight criterion 

for the identification of object functions. It can be too exclusive and too inclusive. 

Passivisation excludes from object status NGs following verbs such as fit, which otherwise 

fulfil the criteria for objects (see 6.1.1). 

Conversely, passivisation can promote to subject NGs that are certainly not objects. 

Such is the case in the well-known example This bed was slept in by Queen Victoria, 

derived from the active Queen Victoria slept in this bed, in which this bed is part of 

a prepositional phrase (PP) functioning as a locative Complement, not as an object. A 

prepositional phrase has within it a nominal group, however, which increasingly 

in present-day English is able to become subject in a corresponding passive clause. 

Examples of this kind, such as The flowerbeds have been trampled on occur when the 

subject referent is visibly affected by the action, as is the case here, or acquires some 

importance, as in the case of the bed slept in by Queen Victoria. 

38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4.2.4 Realisations of these functions 

As participants, Objects are typically realised by NGs and answer questions with what? 

who? or which? as in What did they carry? in response to example 3 in 4.1.2. 

Subject and Object Complements can be realised by Adjective groups (AdjG) (useful ), 

as in 7a and 7b, or by a NG (a student), as in 8a and 8b. 

Circumstantial Adjuncts are realised by PPs (drive on the right) or AdvGs (drive slowly) 

and sometimes NGs (I’ll see you next week). They generally answer questions with where? 

when? how? why? as in Where does he work? or How did it happen? 

4.3 BASIC SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES OF THE CLAUSE 

Clausal elements or functions enter into varied relationships with each other to express 

different types of proposition concerning different states of affairs. These are exemplified 

as follows, and are treated further in Chapter 3. 

S-P Tom | disappeared 

S-P-Od We | hired | a car 

S-P-Oi-Od I | have sent | them | an invitation 

S-P-Cs My brother | is | a physiotherapist 

S-P-A He | works | in London 

S-P-Od-Co They | appointed | James | First Secretary 

S-P-Od-C loc 

I | put | the dish | in the microwave 

The following extract illustrates some of the possible configurations of clause elements 


(where + stands for a coordinating element): 

At the hotel | I | paid | the driver | and gave | 

A S P Oi + P 

him | a tip. || The car | was | powdered with dust. || 

Oi Od S P Cs 

I | rubbed | the rod-case | through the dust. || 

S P Od A 

It | seemed | the last thing that connected me with 

S P Cs 


Spain and the fiesta. || The driver | put | the car | 

S P Od 

in gear | and | went | down the street. || I | watched 

C loc 

+ P C loc 

S P 

it turn off to take the road to Spain. || I | went | 

Od S P 

into the hotel | and | they | gave | me || a room. || 

C loc 

+ S P Oi Od 

It | was | the same room I had slept in when Bill and 

S P Cs 

Cohn and I were in Bayonne. || That | seemed | a very long time ago. || 

S P Cs 

Ernest Hemingway, Fiesta (The Sun Also Rises) 


In the remaining sections of this chapter we shall describe the syntactic features of each 

clausal function and the principal realisations of each, together with any relevant 

discourse characteristics. Reference will be made to the semantic roles associated with 

these elements, but these are dealt with more fully in Chapter 4. 

Clause functions such as Subject and Predicator are capitalised when first introduced. 

Later mentions are usually in lower case, with the exception of Complement as a clause 

function, which is always capitalised, in order to distinguish it from the complement of 

a noun, adjective or preposition. 

4.4 REALISATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS 

It is important to remember that, with the exception of the predicator function, there is 

no one-to-one correspondence between class of unit and syntactic function in English. 

So, whereas the predicator is always realised by a verbal group, the other functions 

display a considerable range of possible realisations by different classes of group and 

clause. It is true that most functions are typically realised by a certain class of unit (for 

example, subjects and objects by NGs), but the versatility of the language is such that 

almost any group or clause can realise these functions. As we analyse texts, or create 

our own, we must be aware that each function can be realised by different classes of 

unit, and each class of unit can perform various functions. 

40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In the following pages, the realisations of each clause element are arranged in order 

of typicality. We sometimes use the more exact word ‘prototypical’ for something that 

shows most of the characteristics of its type and is therefore a good example of the type 

or function, and ‘non-prototypical’ for something that is a less good example. A 

nominal group, for example, is a prototypical realisation of the subject function, whereas 

a prepositional group is non-prototypical in subject function. When the element is 

realised by the head-word of a group, the realisation is normally regarded as a group 

unit. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATOR MODULE 5 

SUMMARY 

1 The Subject is the syntactic function identified by the features of position, 

concord, pronominalisation and reflection in question tags. Semantically, almost 

all participant roles can be associated with the subject. Cognitively, it is that 

element which has the highest claim to function as Topic in a specific clause in 

context. Syntactically, it is prototypically realised by a NG, but can also be 

realised by a wide variety of groups and clauses. 

2 The Predicator is the syntactic function that determines the number and type of 

Objects and Complements in a clause. It is identified syntactically by position 

and concord. It is associated with a number of semantic domains. 


5.1 THE SUBJECT (S) 

5.1.1 Semantic, cognitive and syntactic features 

A. Semantic and cognitive features 

The Subject is that functional category of the clause of which something is predicated. 

The prototypical subject represents the primary participant in the clause and has the 

strongest claim to the cognitive status of Topic – who or what the clausal message is 

primarily about (see 28.4). This means that in basic clauses (that is: finite, active, 

declarative clauses) of ‘doing’, the subject aligns with the semantic function of Agent, 

the one who carries out the action. If there is an agent in the event expressed by such 

a clause, that element will be the subject. 

However, the subject can be associated with almost every type of participant 

role. The following examples illustrate some of the possible roles aligned with the 

subject: 

42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Jones kicked the ball into the net. (Agent ) 

The ball was kicked into the net. (Affected in a passive clause) 

Tom saw a snake near the river. (Experiencer in a mental process) (see 17.1) 

The secretary has been given some chocolates. (Recipient in a passive clause) 

Semantic roles are treated in Chapter 4, Topic and Theme in Chapter 6. 

B. Syntactic features 

The Subject is that syntactic function which, in English, must be present in declarative 

and interrogative clauses, but is not required in the imperative. In discourse, when two 

or more conjoined clauses have the same subject, all but the first are regularly ellipted. 

He came in, sat down and took out a cigarette. 

A clear and easy criterion is the question tag. The Subject is that element which is 

picked up in a question tag (see 23.8) and referred to anaphorically by a pronoun: 

Your brother is a ski instructor, isn’t he? 

Susie won’t mind waiting a moment, will she? 

The Subject is placed before the finite verb in declarative clauses, and in whinterrogative 

clauses where the wh-element is Subject (see 23.6): 

Unfortunately, everyone left early. 


Who came in late last night? 

It is placed after the finite operator (the first element of the VG, 2.5.2) in yes/no 

interrogative clauses, and in wh-interrogative clauses in which the wh-element is not 

Subject (see 23.6): 

Are you pleased with the result? 

Did everyone leave early? 

What film did you see last night? (What film is Object) 

When did Sylvia get back? (When is Adjunct) 

When pronouns are used, the pronominal forms – I, he, she, we and they – are used to 

realise subject function, in contrast to the objective forms me, him, her, us and them, which 

are used for Objects. You and it are the same for both. Possessive forms may stand 

as subject: 

Yours was rather difficult to read. 

Jennifer’s got lost in the post. 

Subjects determine the concord of number (singular or plural) and person with the verb. 

Concord is manifested only in those verb forms that show inflectional contrast: 


The librarian/he/she/has checked the book. 

The librarians/I/you/we/they have checked the book. 

Where is my credit card? Where are my credit cards? 

With verb forms that show no number or person contrast – such as had, in the money 

had all been spent – we can apply the criterion of paradigmatic contrast with a present 

form such as has (the money has all been spent). 

When the Subject is realised by a collective noun, concord depends on how the 

referent is visualised by the speaker: 

The committee is sitting late. (seen as a whole) 

The committee have decided to award extra grants. 

(seen as a number of members) 

Subjects determine number, person and gender concord with the Subject 

Complement, and of reflexive pronouns at Cs, Oi and Od: 

Jean and Bill are my friends. 

She cut herself (Od) on a piece of broken glass. 

Why don’t you give yourself (Oi) a treat? 

5.1.2 Realisations of the Subject 

Subjects can be realised by various classes of groups and clauses: 


A. Nominal Groups – That man is crazy 

Nominal groups are the most prototypical realisation of subject, as they refer basically 

to persons and things. They can range from simple heads (see 45.3.1) to the full 

complexity of NG structures (see 50.1): 

Cocaine can damage the heart as well as the brain. 

The precise number of heart attacks from using cocaine is not known. 

It is alarming. 

B. Dummy it – It’s hot 

This is a non-referential or semantically empty use of the pronoun it, which occurs in 

expressions of time, weather and distance, such as: 

It’s nearly three o’clock. 

It’s raining. 

It is six hundred kilometres from Madrid to Barcelona. 

Syntactically, English requires the presence of a subject even in such situations, in order 

to distinguish between declaratives and interrogatives: 

Is it raining? How far is it from here to Barcelona? 

44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

There is no plural concord with a NG complement, as would occur in Spanish 

counterparts, for example: Son las tres. Son seiscientos kilómetros a Barcelona. 

C. Unstressed there – There’s plenty of time 

Unstressed there (see 19.3; 30.4) fulfils several of the syntactic criteria for subject: 

position, inversion with auxiliaries and repetition in tag phrases; but unlike normal 

subjects it cannot be replaced by a pronoun. Concord, when made, is with the following 

NG: 

There was only one fine day last week, wasn’t there? 

There were only two fine days last week, weren’t there? 

Concord with the following NG is made in writing, but not always in informal spoken 

English with the present tense of be, and is never made when the NG is a series of proper 

names: 

How many are coming? Well, there’s Andrew and Silvia, and Jo and Pete. 

*There are Andrew and Silvia and Jo and Pete. 

Because of the lack of concord and pronominalisation, unstressed there can be 

considered as a subject ‘place-holder’ or ‘syntactic filler’, rather than a full subject, since 

the unit following the verb is clearly the notional subject. For its function as a 

presentative device, see 30.4. 

The following comment on Monte Carlo by J. G. Ballard in The Week illustrates some 

of the syntactic features and realisations of the Subject (see exercise). 


Have you ever been to Monte Carlo? 1 It ’s totally dedicated to expensive shopping. 2 

You go to these gallerias and walk past a great temple to ultra-expensive watches, 

then another to ultra-expensive clothes. 3 It’s quite incredible 4 – you see the future of 

the human race there. 5 There is a particularly big galleria, which never has anyone 

inside it. 6 It’s five or six floors of cool, scented air, with no one in it. 7 . I thought to 

myself – is this supposed to be heaven? 8 And I realised that, no, it ’s not heaven 9 It ’s 

The Future. 10 

D. Prepositional phrase and Adverbial group as subject – Now is the time 

These function only marginally as subject and usually specify meanings of time or place, 

but instrumental meanings and idiomatic manner uses can also occur. 

Will up in the front suit you? (PP of place) 

Before midday would be convenient. (PP of time) 

By plane costs more than by train. (PP of means) 


Just here would be an ideal place for a picnic. 

Slowly/gently does it! (AdvG of manner) 

(AdvG of place) 

E. Adjectival head – the poor 

The Adjectival Group as such does not function as subject. However, certain adjectives 

– preceded by a definite determiner, normally the definite article, and which represent 

either (a) conventionally recognised classes of people, as in The handicapped are 

given special facilities in public places, or (b) abstractions – can function as heads of 

(non-prototypical) NGs (see 51.5). The latter type is illustrated in this extract from a 

book blurb: 

This novel plunges the reader into a universe in which the comic, the tragic, the real 

and the imagined dissolve into one another. 

F. Embedded clauses (see 3.6.3) 

Clauses can realise every element or function of clause structure except the predicator. 

Cognitively, this means that we as speakers encode, as the main elements of clauses, 

not only persons and things but facts, abstractions and situations. Both finite and 

non-finite clauses are available for embedding but not every clause function is realised 

by all types of clause. The main types were outlined in Chapter 1. Here five of the 

relevant one(s) are referred to when describing the realisations of subject, objects and 

complements. 

There are two main types of embedded finite clause: that-clauses and wh-clauses, 

the latter being either indirect interrogative clauses or nominal relative clauses. They 

are illustrated in the following examples, where they all realise the subject element. 


That he failed his driving test surprised everybody. (that-clause) 

Why the library was closed for months was not explained. (wh-interrogative) 

What he said shocked me. (wh-nominal relative clause) 

That-clauses at subject are used only in formal styles in English. In everyday use they 

are more acceptable if they are preceded by the fact. The that-clause thus becomes 

complement of a NG functioning as subject: 

The fact that he failed his driving test surprised everybody. 

(NG) 

A more common alternative is to extrapose the subject that-clause, as in It surprised 

everybody that he failed his driving test, explained in G. below. 

Wh-interrogative clauses express indirect questions. They do not take the 

inversion characteristic of ordinary interrogatives, however; so, for instance, *Why was 

the library closed for months was not explained is not acceptable. 

Nominal relative clauses also have a wh- element, but they express entities and 

can be paraphrased by ‘that which’ or ‘the thing(s) which’ as in: 

What he said pleased me = ‘that which’/the things which he said pleased me. 

46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Non-finite clauses at Subject are of two main types, depending on the VG they 

contain: to-infinitive, which can be introduced by a wh-word, and -ing clauses. (The 

third non-finite clause type, the -en clause, is not used in this way.) The ‘bare’ infinitive 

is marginally used: 

To take such a risk was rather foolish. (to-inf. clause) 

Where to leave the dog is the problem. (wh- + to-inf. clause) 

Having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (-ing clause) 

Move the car was what we did. (bare infinitive clause) 

To-infinitive and -ing clauses at subject can have their own subject; bare infinitive clauses 

cannot. A to-infinitive clause with its own subject is introduced by for: 

For everyone to escape was impossible. (For + S + to-inf.) 

Sam having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. (S + ing-cl.) 

The pronominal subject of an -ing clause can be in the possessive or the objective case. 

The objective form is the less formal: 

Him/his having to go back for the tickets was a nuisance. 

G. Anticipatory it + extraposed subject – It was silly to say that 

Subjects such as that he failed to pass the driving test and for everyone to escape sound 

awkward and top-heavy, especially in spoken English. The derived structure with 

‘anticipatory it’ is now generally preferred, as it is much easier to encode and the 

pronoun it is the ‘lightest’ possible subject filler: 


It surprised everybody that he failed his driving test. 

It was impossible for everyone to escape. 

Here the that-clause or the to-infinitive clause is extraposed (see 30.5), that is, placed 

after the Od (everybody) or Cs (impossible). The initial subject position is filled by the 

pronoun it. Extraposition is commonly used in both speech and writing, especially 

when the subject is long and heavy, and is better placed at the end of the sentence, in 

accordance with the informational and stylistic principle of ‘end-weight’ (see 30.3.2). 

Extraposed subjects frequently occur as the complement of a noun or adjective in 

SPCs structures, as in the following illustrations: 

It’s easy to forget your keys. (To forget your keys is easy) 

It’s a pity (that) you are leaving the firm. (That you are leaving the firm is a pity) 

It is time he stopped fooling around. 

Notice that, for the apparently extraposed clause that follows It is (high) time, there is no 

corresponding pattern with the clause in initial position (*That he stopped fooling around 

is high time). 


Likewise, the clause following it + verbs of seeming (seem, appear) and happening 

(happen, turn out), is obligatorily extraposed: 

It seems that you were right after all. (*That you were right after all seems.) 

It so happened that the driver lost control. (*That the driver lost control happened.) 

Pronouns account for a high percentage of subjects in the spoken language, as can 

be seen in the following recorded dialogue about the mini-skirt. Several other types of 

subject are also illustrated in the main and embedded clauses of this text, including two 

different functions of it: 

Q. What about the mini-skirt itself? What was the origin of that? 

A. That 1 started in the East End of London. Mary Quant 2 picked it up and then 

a lot of other designers 3 did too. I 4 think again it 5 was reaction against the long 

skirts of the 1950s. It 6 was smart to get much, much shorter. I 7 think that, partly, 

it 8 was fun to shock your father and older people, but it 9 was also a genuinely 

felt fashion, as we 10 can see by the fact that it spread nearly all over the world. 

I 11 think it 12 is a lovely look, long leggy girls. The fact that fat legs are seen, 

too, 13 is just bad luck. But I 14 still don’t think that the mini-skirt 15 is going to 

disappear for some time. I 16 think girls 17 just love the feeling. 

1 

demonstrative pronoun; 2 proper noun; 3 NG; 4 pronoun; 5 pronoun: 6 anticipatory it 

+ to-infinitive; 7 pronoun; 8 anticipatory it + to-infinitive; 9 pronoun; 10 pronoun; 

11 

pronoun; 12 anticipatory it + NG; 13 the fact + that-clause; 14 pronoun; 15 NG; 

16 

pronoun; 17 NG 

(Janey Ironside in Artists Talking: Five artists talk to Anthony Schooling) 


5.2 THE PREDICATOR (P) 

We use the term Predicator for the clause element present in all major types of clause, 

including the imperative clause (in which the subject is not usually present in English). 

The predicator is the clause function that largely determines the remaining structure 

of the clause, by virtue of being intransitive, transitive or copular. 

As seen in 4.1, the predicator may constitute the whole of the predicate, as in The 

plane landed, or part of it, as in The plane landed on the runway. 

The predicator is identified by position in relation to the subject. 

The predicator function is realised by both finite (e.g. waits) and non-finite (waiting) 

lexical and primary verbs. 

Functionally, finiteness is often carried by an auxiliary verb – such as is, was – to 

specify tense (past/present) and voice (be + -en), and is then followed by the predicator 

(is making, was made). For the Finite–Subject relation in interrogative structures, see 

Chapter 5. 

48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Semantically, the predicator encodes the following main types of ‘process’: 

• material processes of ‘doing’ with verbs such as make, catch, go; 

• mental processes of ‘experiencing’, with cognitive verbs of perception (e.g. see), 

cognition (know), affectivity (like) and desideration (hope); and 

• relational processes of ‘being’ with verbs such as be and belong. 

These, and certain subsidiary types, are discussed in Chapter 4. 

Phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs are discussed in this chapter (as clause element) 

and in Chapter 8 (as regards meaning). 

The following passage about the Valley of the Kings shows the Predicator function 

in both finite and non-finite clauses (see exercise): 

It [the Valley of the Kings] lies about six hundred kilometres south of Cairo, the 

present-day capital of Egypt, near the Nile. 1 Across the river is the city of Luxor, 2 

once called Thebes and one of the greatest capitals of the ancient world. 3 This dusty, 

dried-up river valley is the most magnificent burial ground in the world. 4 During the 

second millennium B.C., Egyptian workers quarried a series of tombs beneath this 

valley, 5 decorating them with mysterious predictions of the underworld 6 and filling 

them with treasures. 7 There, with infinite care and artistry, they laid out the 

mummified and bejewelled bodies of their rulers 8 and surrounded them with their 

belongings, 9 making the valley one of the greatest sacred sites in history. 10 

(Gerald O’Farrell, The Tutankamun Deception) 



DIRECT, INDIRECT AND MODULE 6 

PREPOSITIONAL OBJECTS 

SUMMARY 

1 The Direct Object (Od) and Indirect Object (Oi) are central syntactic functions 

which encode participants in transitive clauses, and are identified by the 

following features: 

2 Position. In clauses with one Object, The Direct Object follows the verb (She 

wanted to borrow a video). When there are two Objects, the Direct Object 

follows the Indirect Object (So I lent her (Oi) one (Od)). 

3 Paraphrase. The Oi usually has an alternative prepositional paraphrase (I lent 

one to her), with the status of a Prepositional Object, but the Od has not. 


4 Pronominalisation. Since objects encode participants, they can be realised by 

objective case pronouns (me, him, her, us, them). 

5 ‘Promotion’ to subject in a passive clause. Both direct and indirect objects usually 

have the potential of being subject in a corresponding passive clause (He sent 

them a fax. The fax (S) was sent. They (S) were sent a fax). 

6 Semantic roles. The indirect object is associated with the Recipient and 

Beneficiary roles, the direct object with the Affected, among others. 

7 Realisations. Both Objects are realised typically by Nominal Groups expressing 

entities; less typically by other classes of unit. 

6.1 THE DIRECT OBJECT (Od) 

6.1.1 Syntactic and semantic features 

After the subject and the predicator, the direct object is the most central of all clause 

constituents. It is characterised by the following features: 

50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• It occurs only in transitive clauses with transitive verbs such as hit, buy, send. 

• It is placed immediately after the predicator, but follows an indirect object, if there 

is one – 

I have sent the invitations (Od). 

I have sent everyone (Oi) an invitation (Od). 

• It is typically realised by a NG, as in I saw the burglar (NG), but may also be realised 

by embedded clauses, as in I saw what he did (cl.). 

• It can generally be ‘promoted’ to become subject in a corresponding passive 

clause – 

The invitations (S) have been sent. (corresponding to the Od in I have sent the 

invitations) 

• Direct objects can be tested for, by questions beginning with Who(m)? What? Which? 

How much/ many? and by wh-clefts. 

What did you send? 

What I sent were the invitations 

(wh-cleft) 

• Semantically, a prototypical direct object occurs in a high-transitivity situation (see 

21.4) – that is, in a process of ‘doing’ in which the referent’s state or location is 

affected in some way, as in the first example below. 


However the Od is associated with a wide variety of semantic roles in which ‘affectedness’ 

is not a feature, and with many types of verbs (see Chapter 4), some of which are 

illustrated in the following examples: 

He headed the ball into the net. (Affected) 

The burglars used an acetylene lamp to break open the safe. (Instrument) 

I felt a sudden pain in my arm. (Phenomenon: i.e. that which is experienced) 

He gave the door a push. (Range: i.e. the nominalised extension of the verb; see 

20.2) 

He swam the Channel. (Affected locative) 

The highly non-prototypical Range Ods (20.2) include have a rest/ smoke/ drink; take a 

sip/nap, give a kick/nudge, do a dance, and many others. The NG in these cases is a 

deverbal noun (i.e. derived from a verb) which follows a verb that is ‘light’ in semantic 

content such as have. Such combinations are very common. 

The Channel in swim the Channel is a direct object, whereas in swim across the Channel 

it is the NG complement of a prepositional phrase functioning as Adjunct. The difference 

is that the Od version is more integrated within the clause, and perhaps for this reason 

appears to present the event as more of an achievement. The same difference is present 

in climb Everest and ride a horse vs climb up Everest and ride on a horse, respectively. The 

achievement is clearly completed in the former case, but leaves open the possibility of 


incompletion in the latter. Speech act deverbal nouns such as promise and warning are 

commonly used as Ods, in some cases following a light verb (make), in others a specific 

verb (issue): 

He made a promise 

He issued a warning 

6.1.2 Realisations of the Direct Object 

The Direct Object can be realised by groups and by clauses. There are five main 

possibilities: 

A. Nominal Group We hired a caravan 

The typical realisation of the Direct Object function is the nominal group, ranging from 

a pronoun 1 or proper name to full NGs 2. In fact, as new entities are often introduced 

into the discourse in object position, the principle of end-weight (see 30.3.2) can make 

for the frequent occurrence of longer and more complex NGs at Direct Object in certain 

registers as in 3: 

1 I don’t understand it. 

2 Have you read that new novel I lent you? 

3 Forest fires are threatening the world’s remaining population of orang-utangs. 


A small number of common verbs take untypical direct objects. They include verbs 

such as have (They have two cars), cost (it cost ten pounds), lack (She lacks confidence), 

resemble (She resembles her elder sister), fit (Do these shoes fit you?), suit (That colour 

doesn’t suit me), weigh (The suitcase weighs twenty kilos), contain (That box contains 

explosives) and measure (It measures two metres by three.) All these answer questions with 

What? Who? How much/how many?, as is usual with Ods. These verbs don’t passivise, 

but their Ods pass the wh-cleft test: What she lacks is confidence. 

B. Anticipatory it – I find it strange that she left 

The semantically empty pronoun it is necessary as an ‘anticipatory Direct Object’ in 

SPOdCo structures in which the Od is realised by a finite or non-finite clause: 

S P (Od) Co Od 

I find it strange that he refuses to come. 

She might consider it insulting for you to leave now. 

You must find it flattering having so many fans. 

52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

C. Prepositional Phrase – The boss prefers before 10 for the meeting 

Prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realise direct object: 

I would prefer before noon for a meeting. 

Don’t choose by a swamp for a picnic. 

D. Finite clause – You know (that) I’m right 

The two types of finite clause found at subject can also function as a less prototypical 

Direct Object: nominal that-clauses, that often being omitted in informal styles, and 

wh-clauses (see Chapter 3). 

They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause) 

No-one knows where he lives. (wh-clause) 

You can eat whatever you like. (wh-nominal clause) 

Both that-clauses and wh-clauses at Od can sometimes become subject in a passive 

clause and then extraposed: 

It is feared that there may be no survivors. 

It is not known where he lives. 

(extraposed cl.) 

However, passivisation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more 


reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase, as seen above. We can apply this to the following 

example with wonder, which rejects passivisation but fulfils the wh-cleft test: 

I wonder whether they know the truth. 

*Whether they know the truth is wondered. 

What I wonder is whether they know the truth. 

E. Non-finite clause – They enjoy travelling by train 

Non-finite clauses realising Direct Object function are of two types: infinitive clauses 

with or without to, and -ing clauses. 

Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. 

Many Londoners prefer travelling by train. 

We analyse such clauses as embedded at Od on the strength of the following criteria: 

• The non-finite clause can be replaced by a NG (prefer the train) or by it/that 

(prefer it). 

• The non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence (What many 

Londoners prefer is to travel/ travelling by train). 


However, not all non-finites pass these tests. We do not analyse as embedded clauses 

at direct object ‘phased’ verbal groups with certain types of catenatives, as in He failed 

to appear, I tried to speak (see 39.2). Although superficially similar, they do not fulfil the 

above criteria. Taking He failed to appear, we can’t say *He failed it, nor make a 

corresponding cleft *What he failed was to appear. In both cases it would be necessary 

to add to do; What he failed to do was appear, which confirms the phased nature of such 

VGs. As a full lexical verb, as in fail the exam, fail does of course fulfil these criteria. 

Many embedded clauses at direct object occur with an explicit subject of their own; 

otherwise, the implicit subject is the same as that of the main clause: 

(i) to-infinitive clause – 

The villagers want to leave immediately. (implicit subject [they]) 

The villagers want the soldiers to leave immediately. (explicit subject the soldiers) 

(ii) -ing clause – 

Do you mind waiting a few minutes? (with implicit subject) 

Do you mind me/my waiting a few minutes? (with explicit subject in objective 

or possessive case) 

(iii) to-infinitive or -ing clause – 

He hates telling lies. (implicit subject) 

He hates people telling lies. (explicit subject) 

He hates for people to tell lies. (for + explicit subject + to-inf) (AmE) 


Again, non-finite clauses are very non-prototypical direct objects. They represent 

situations, not entities, and do not easily passivise. However, many can become the focus 

in a wh-cleft: What he hates is people telling lies/ for people to tell lies. 

The following news item, ‘Fire Threat to Apes’ from The Week, illustrates some of 

the realisations of subject and object functions (see exercise 2, p. 77). 

Coal fires raging deep underground in the forests of Borneo could threaten the 

world’s remaining populations of wild orang-utans. 1 Scientists fear that the blazes 

may trigger another devastating cycle of forest fires, 2 reducing the apes’ habitat to 

the point of extinction. 3 Scientists have identified 150 fires in the region 4 – but suspect 

the total number could exceed 3,000. 5 Coalfield fires expert Dr. Alfred Whitehouse 

described the devastation caused by underground fires he witnessed in the Kutai 

national park. 6 “The orang-utans are driven into smaller and smaller areas of forest,” 

he said. 7 “It was tragic. 8 I was in a mining area 9 and there were three orang-utans 

hanging to the last standing tree. 10 

54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6.2 THE INDIRECT OBJECT (Oi) 


The indirect object occurs only with verbs which can take two objects such as give, send. 

Its position in clause structure is between the verb and the direct object: I sent them 

a fax. 

It is typically realised by a NG, but occasionally by a wh-nominal clause. As a 

pronoun, it is in the objective case. 

The indirect object is associated with two semantic roles, Recipient (the one who 

receives the goods or information), and the Beneficiary or ‘intended recipient’. The 

differences between the two are reflected in the syntax. 

Recipient Oi 

She has lent me a few CDs. 

The doctor gave the injured man oxygen. 

Sammy Karanja is teaching the students 

maths. 

Beneficiary Oi 

I’ll buy you a drink. 

He got us the tickets. 

She left him a note. 

In passive counterparts the Recipient Oi corresponds to the subject. By contrast, 

most Beneficiary Objects do not easily become subject in a passive clause, although 

this restriction is not absolute, at least for some speakers: 


Recipient as Subject 

Beneficiary as Subject 

I have been lent a few CDs. 

The injured man was given oxygen. 

The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja. 

*You’ll be bought a drink. 

*We were got the tickets. 

He was left a note. 

Both Recipient and Beneficary Oi have an optional prepositional paraphrase, which 

functions as a Prepositional Object. For the Recipient, the preposition is to, for the 

Beneficiary it is for. The prepositional form is often used to bring the Oi into focus, 

particularly when it is longer than the Od: 

The doctor gave oxygen to the injured man. 

She lent a few CDs to her next-door neighbour. 

He is teaching maths to the first-year students. 

I’ll buy drinks for you all. 

He got the tickets for us all. 

She left a note for her husband. 

The Oi can generally be left unexpressed without affecting the grammaticality of 

the clause: 


The doctor gave oxygen. 

He doesn’t like lending his CDs. 

Sammy Karanja is teaching maths. 

I’ll buy the drinks. 

He got the tickets. 

She left a note. 

With some verbs (show, tell, teach, etc.) the Od may be unexpressed: 

Who told you (the answer)? 

Perhaps you could show me (how to do it.) 

He’s teaching immigrant children (maths). 

6.2.2 Realisations of the Indirect Object 

Both Recipient and Beneficiary Indirect Objects are typically realised by NGs, and less 

typically by wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional 

alternative: 

The clerk handed him the envelope. (Recip./NG) 

You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (Recip./nom. relative cl.) 

Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (Ben/NG) 

More marginally, a Recipient Oi can be realised by a non-finite -ing clause or a PP, but 

these options are not open to a Beneficiary Oi, which always refers to an entity: 

I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl) 

Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (PP) 


6.3 PREPOSITIONAL VERBS AND THE PREPOSITIONAL 

OBJECT (Op) 

A subsidiary type of Object is that which is mediated by a preposition. We will call this 

the Prepositional Object (Op) – Oblique Object is another term – as in: 

Jo looked after my cat. 

You can rely on Jane in an emergency. 

The other kids all laughed at Amy when she got her face dirty. 

These examples all have in common the following characteristics: 

• The NG following the preposition encodes a participant in the clause structure. 

• The preposition is associated with a particular verb, often called a prepositional 

verb. Idiomatic prepositional verbs have separate lexical entries in dictionaries. 

• Without the preposition, the clause would either be ungrammatical (*look my cat, 

*count Jane, *laughed Amy) or, in some cases, have a different meaning altogether, 

as in see to the baggage (attend to it) as opposed to see the baggage. 

56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• The preposition can’t be replaced by another preposition without changing the 

meaning (look after the cat, look for the cat, look at the cat). 

6.3.1 Types of verb + preposition combinations 

There are three main types of prepositional verb, as illustrated by the previous examples. 

Type A (look + after) 

This combination functions as a lexical unit in which the verb + the preposition together 

have a different meaning from their separate words. ‘Look after’ has nothing to do with 

looking, nor with the usual meaning of ‘after’in relation to space or time. Other verbs of 

this type are exemplified here: 

I came across some old photos (find) 

How did you come by that job (obtain) 

Sandy has come into a fortune (inherit) 

She takes after her mother (resemble) 

We took to each other at once (like) 

I’ve gone off yogurt (lose the liking for) 

Type B (rely + on) 

This is a less idiomatic combination whose meaning is sometimes, though not always, 

transparent. Verbs in this group – account for (explain), refer to, tamper with (interfere 

with) – are not used without their specific preposition: 


How do you account for the lack of interest in the European elections? 

Someone has been tampering with the scanner. 

Type C (laugh + at) 

The verb + preposition represents a special use, usually with a distinctive meaning, of 

a verb which otherwise can function without the preposition (for example, Everyone 

laughed; Don’t laugh). Other verbs include look (at), believe (in), count (on), hear (of), wait 

(for), hope (for). 

look at the sky 

wait for the bus 

hear of a good offer 

hope for a rise in salary 


6.3.2 Syntactic behaviour of prepositional verbs 

Applying some of the constituency tests (see 2.2), we find the following: 

Type A 

The verb + preposition behave syntactically as one unit, whereas the PP ‘after the cat’ 

does not, as regards fronting, focus of a cleft, wh-question and adverb insertion: 

Acceptable 

Unacceptable 

Fronting: My cat Jo looked after. *After my cat Jo looked. 

Focus of a cleft: It’s my cat (that) Jo looked after. *It’s after my cat (that) Jo looked. 

Wh-question: Whose cat did Jo look after? *After whose cat did Jo look? 

Adverb insertion: Jo looked after my cat carefully. ?Jo looked carefully after my cat. 

Type B 

The PP can function as an independent unit, although the effect is marked and very 

formal. In spoken English the preposition preferably stays close to the verb: 

Formal 

Informal 


Fronting: On Jane you can rely. Jane you can rely on. 

Focus of a cleft: It’s on Jane (that) you can rely. It’s Jane you can rely on. 

Wh-question: On whom can you rely? Who can you rely on? 

Adverb insertion: You can rely totally on Jane. Who can you totally rely on? 

Type C 

Syntactically, the PP functions in the same way as Type B. However, the formal variant 

is at odds with the type of verb that usually falls into this group. 

Formal 

Informal 

Fronting: At Amy the kids laughed. Amy the kids laughed at. 

Focus of a cleft: It was at Amy that they laughed. It was Amy they laughed at. 

Wh-question: At whom did the kids laugh? Who did the kids laugh at? 

58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6.3.3 Stranding the preposition 

When the preposition stays close to its verb, as occurs in the examples on the right, we 

say that it is stranded, that is, displaced from its position in a PP. The verb and the 

preposition stay together, with the stress usually on the verb. Stranding of prepositions 

occurs, not only in the structures illustrated, but also with prepositional verbs used in 

passive clauses, as we’ll see in a moment, and in relative clauses, as in the following: 

Non-stranded preposition 

Stranded preposition 

*The cat after which Jo looked . . . The cat that Jo looked after . . . 

The person on whom you can rely . . . The person you can rely on . . . 

The girl at whom the kids laughed . . . The girl the kids laughed at . . . 

Taking all these tests together, it is clear that in idiomatic Type A combinations, the 

preposition always stays close to the verb, that is, it is always stranded. In Type B and 

Type C, the whole prepositional phrase can stay together as a unit, although this is 

a marked option in spoken English. The non-stranded form, when it occurs, is reserved 

for highly formal contexts and formal text types, such as academic prose. But even 

in highly formal contexts the stranded form is usually preferred in spoken English, as 

the following quotation illustrates. The speaker is the US Secretary of State, Colin Powell, 

addressing the United Nations Council in February 2003: 


What we need is not more inspections.What we need is not more immediate access. 

What we need is immediate full unconditional cooperation by Irak. To this day we 

have not seen the level of cooperation that was expected, looked for, hoped for. 

6.3.4 The prepositional passive 

The previous quotation also illustrates stranding in the prepositional passive (was looked 

for, hoped for). In many combinations, although not in all, the NG complement of a PP 

can become subject in a passive clause. The preposition is obligatorily stranded: 

My cat was looked after 

Jane can be relied on 

Amy was laughed at 

*After my cat was looked 

*On Jane can be relied 

*At Amy was laughed 

6.3.5 Realisations of the Prepositional Object 

Experientially, the unit following the preposition is seen as a participant in the situation, 

for the reasons previously discussed. NGs are the typical realisations of the Op, but 

nominal clauses and non-finite -ing clauses also occur: 


He almost ran over a rabbit on a country road last night. (NG) 

I strongly object to what you are insinuating. (nominal clause) 

He believes in getting things done as quickly as possible. (-ing cl.) 

It is clear that verbs which control prepositions do not constitute a homogeneous 

class. There are various degrees of integration, ranging from the relatively loosely integrated 

such as smile (at) and wait (for), where the verb can function without a preposition, 

to those which bond with the preposition to form a new lexical unit (look after, take 

to). The latter are given separate entries in dictionaries and, in those dictionaries 

which provide grammatical information, are given different analyses. The PP following 

Type 3 verbs such as smile and wait is often classified as Adjunct or as prepositional 

Complement (PPC). According to use in context, one analysis may be more suitable 

than another. 

In this book we use the term prepositional Object for the NG complement of a 

preposition which can refer to a participant, distinguishing this function from that of the 

circumstantial PP functioning as C loc 

or as Adjunct. Compare, for example, We waited 

for the bus with We waited at the bus-stop, where at the bus-stop is Adjunct. The distinction 

is not absolute, however, as we saw in the example This bed was slept in by Queen Victoria. 

Cognitive factors of attention and salience intervene to allow some of the NGs in 

circumstantial PPs to become subjects, as in this house hasn’t been lived in. 

6.4 PHRASAL VERBS: THE VERB + PARTICLE COMBINATION 


Phrasal verbs consist of a lexical verb + an adverbial ‘particle’ (p). They can be 

intransitive (without an Object: get up) or transitive (taking a Direct Object: switch it off ). 

Phrasal prepositional verbs consist of a lexical verb + a particle + a preposition (put 

up with). They function like idiomatic prepositional verbs. 

6.4.1 Syntactic features 

Phrasal verbs are combinations of a lexical verb and an adverbial particle (p) (get up, 

switch on/off, take back, sit down). They may be intransitive, with no object, as in 1 or 

transitive (with a direct object) as in 2 and 3: 

1 What time do you usually get up in the morning? 

2a She switched off the light. 2b She switched the light off. 

3 She switched it off. 

With a noun as Object, the particle in most cases may either precede or follow the object 

as in 2. But if the Object is a pronoun, the particle is placed after it, as in 3. 

The motivation for this choice has to do with the distribution of information. 

We focus on the new information by placing it last. So in 2a the new information is the 

light; while in 2b and 3 it is the switching off (see Chapter 6). Pronouns do not usually 

represent new information and are placed before the particle. 

This choice of emphasing either the noun or the particle is not possible with a 

synonymous one-word verb. Compare: 

60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

They cancelled the wedding. 

They called off the wedding. 

They called the wedding off. 

(focus on wedding) 

(focus on wedding) 

(focus on off) 

Some verb + particle combinations can be used both transitively and intransitively, 

e.g. blow up (= explode), break down (= reduce to pieces). In some cases the transitive 

and intransitive clauses form an ergative pair (see 15.1) with a causative meaning in the 

transitive: 

Terrorists have blown up the power station. (transitive) 

The power station has blown up. (intransitive) 

while in others the meaning is related by metaphorical extension: 

They broke down the door to rescue the child. (transitive) 

Her health broke down under the strain. (intransitive) 

The car has broken down. (= stop working) (intransitive) 

6. 4. 2 Differences between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs 

We explain here differences of position, stress and adverb insertion in the clause, 

illustrating them with the phrasal verb break up and the prepositional verb break with, 

as in He broke up the party (phrasal verb) and He broke with his girl-friend (prepositional 

verb). 

A pronoun follows a preposition but precedes the particle of a phrasal verb (as 

elsewhere, the asterisk indicates an ungrammatical sequence): 


He broke with her. 

*He broke her with. 

He broke it up. 

*He broke up it. 

The particle in phrasal verbs is stressed, especially when in final position in the clause, 

whereas a preposition is normally unstressed. In prepositional verbs the stress normally 

falls on the verb (capitals indicate the stressed syllable; see also 29.2): 

He broke it UP. 

Which party did he break UP? 

He has BROken with her. 

Which girl has he BROken with? 

As seen in 6.3.2. Type B, an adverb can sometimes be placed between a verb and its 

following preposition. Phrasal verbs do not normally admit an adverb between the verb 

and the particle: 

*He broke completely up the party. 

He broke completely with his girl-friend. 

In idiomatic phrasal verbs the particle is usually analysed as part of the verb (peter out. 

There is no separate verb ‘peter’) In ‘free’ combinations in which the adverb particle 

is directional, this is analysed as Complement, as in The rain came down. The adverbial 


particle can be fronted (Down came the rain) for rhetorical purposes, and this mobility is 

a feature of Complements and Adjuncts. With non-directional meanings, the adverbial 

particle is inseparable from the verb, and can’t be fronted (The car broke down, *Down 

broke the car). 

The semantics of phrasal verbs is described in Chapter 8. 

6.4.3 Phrasal-prepositional verbs 

Phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of a lexical verb followed by an adverbial particle 

and a preposition, in that order: run up against, do away with. They are particularly 

characteristic of informal English, and new combinations are constantly being coined. 

Phrasal-prepositional verbs function like prepositional verbs, taking a prepositional 

object in the clause: 

We ran up against difficulties. (=encounter) 

They have done away with free school meals. 

(=abolish) 

Finally, it is important to realise that many verbs, whether single- or multi-word, can 

be followed by a PP functioning as a circumstantial Complement in the clause, as in 

They went into the garden. They express meanings of place, direction, time or means. 

They are generally questioned by Where, when or how (Where did they go (to)? How 

did you come?) as opposed to What? Who? as is usual with Objects. 

Multi-word verb Prepositional Object PP as Adjunct or Comp. 


I’ll call on Dr. Jones I’ll call on Friday 

They looked into the matter They looked into the cave 

She came by a fortune She came by bus 

I’ll stand by my word I’ll stand by the window 

We put up with the noise We put up at a hotel 

They played on our sympathy They played on their home ground 

Furthermore, there is a parallel between intransitive phrasals like walk down and 

single verbs of movement followed by a directional Complement (walk down the stairs). 

In many cases, it is possible to analyse the former as the ellipted version of the latter, 

especially when the situation is known. 

These alternatives also allow us to specify direction as Path + Ground or as Path 

alone. (These notions are explained in Module 40.) Compare: 

He walked down the stairs. He walked down. 

S P C (Path + Ground) S P C (Path) 

62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In this passage from Three Men in a Boat, the three friends decide to have a picnic (see 

exercise 6 on p. 78): 

When George drew out 1 a tin of pineapple from the bottom of the hamper and rolled 

it into the middle of the boat, we felt that life was worth living after all. We are very 

fond of pineapple, all three of us. We looked at the picture 2 on the tin; we thought 

of the juice. 3 We smiled at one another, 4 and Harris got a spoon ready. 

Then we looked for something to open the tin with. 5 We turned out 6 everything 

in the hamper. We turned out 7 the bags. We pulled up 8 the boards at the bottom of 

the boat. We took everything out 9 on to the bank and shook it. There was no tinopener 

to be found. 

Then Harris tried to open the tin with a pocket-knife, and broke the knife and cut 

himself badly; and George tried a pair of scissors, and the scissors flew up 10 and 

nearly put his eye out. 11 While they were dressing their wounds, I tried to make a 

hole in the tin with the spiky end of the boat pole, and the pole slipped and jerked 

me out 12 between the boat and the bank into two feet of muddy water, and the tin 

rolled over 13 and broke a tea-cup. 



SUBJECT AND OBJECT MODULE 7 

COMPLEMENTS 

SUMMARY 

1 There are two main types of Complement: that which complements the Subject 

(Cs) and that which complements the Object (Co). The Subject Complement 

completes the predicate after a copular verb by specifying an Attribute of the 

Subject or its identity. No passivisation is possible. The Subject Complement 

can be realised by AdjGs, by definite and indefinite NGs, and by clauses. 

2 The Object Complement (Co) completes the predicate with an AdjG or a NG 

following a direct object. The Direct Object, but not the Complement, can 

become subject in a passive clause. The Co is realised by AdjGs, definite and 

indefinite NGs and clauses. 


3 When the Cs is a pronoun, use is divided between the subjective and the 

objective case. The Co pronoun is always objective. 

7.1 THE COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBJECT (Cs) 


The Subject Complement is the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb and 

which cannot be made subject in a passive clause: 

Who’s there? It’s me/It’s I. 

She became a tennis champion at a very early age. 

Feel free to ask questions! 

The Subject Complement does not represent a new participant, as an Object does, but 

completes the predicate by adding information about the subject referent. For this 

reason the Subject Complement differs from the Object in that it can be realised not 

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

only by a nominal group but also by an adjectival group (Adj.G), as illustrated in the 

previous examples. 

The objective case (me) is now in general use (It’s me) except in the most formal 

registers, in which the subjective form (it’s I) or (I am he/she) are heard, especially in 

AmE. 

As well as be and seem, a wide range of verbs can be used to link the subject to its 

Complement; these add meanings of transition (become, get, go, grow, turn) and of 

perception (sound, smell, look) among others, and are discussed in modules 12 and 17. 

The constituent following such verbs will be considered Subject Complement if the verb 

can be replaced by be and can’t stand alone, without a change of meaning: 

I know it sounds stupid, but . . . (= is stupid) cf. *I know it sounds. 

That looks nice. (= is nice) cf. *That looks. 

More problematic is the constituent following other verbs that could be used 

intransitively with the same meaning, as in: 

Saint Etheldreda was born a Saxon princess. (she was born) 

He returned a broken man. (he returned) 

He died young. (he died) 

We shall consider such constituents as Complements on the strength of the possible 

paraphrase containing be (When he returned he was a broken man; When he died he was 

young). 

There is, typically, number agreement between the subject and its Complement, and 

gender agreement with a reflexive pronoun at complement, as in Janet isn’t herself today. 

There are, however, several common exceptions to number agreement: 


Joan and Lionel make a good couple. 

My neighbour’s cats are a nuisance/a joy. 

Are these socks wool? No, they’re cotton. 

The twins are the same height. 

Complements of the type a good couple in Joan and Lionel make a good couple are 

explicable on semantic grounds, couple being inherently plural in meaning. Semantic 

criteria may also be invoked to explain the use of a nuisance/a joy in My neighbour’s cats 

are a nuisance/a joy, since abstractions such as these are equally applicable to singular 

or plural subjects. 

A third type, exemplified by expressions such as wool, cotton, rather an odd colour, the 

same height/length/shape, etc., can all be paraphrased by a PP with of (of wool, of rather 

an odd colour, of the same height, etc.), which formerly had greater currency. They all 

express qualities of the subject, and in present-day English the NG form without a 

preposition is the more common. 

Copular verbs predict meanings of being something, describing or identifying the 

subject referent. The Subject Complement completes the predicate by providing information 

about the subject with regard to its Attributes or its identity. The identifying type 

is typically reversible, the attributive is not: 


The concert was marvellous. (attributive) *Marvellous was the concert. 

The concert was a great success. (attributive) *A great success was the concert. 

The orchestra was the London Philharmonic. (The London Philharmonic was 

(identifying) 

the orchestra.) 

When be is followed by an expression of location in space or time (in the garden, at 

10 o’clock), this Complement is analysed as locative (see 4.2.1; 9.2). Sometimes a 

circumstantial expression (e.g. out of work) is semantically equivalent to an attributive 

one (e.g. unemployed). 

7.1.2 Realisations of the Subject Complement 

Attributive subject complements are realised by AdjGs and NGs. Identifying Subject 

Complements can be realised by NGs and by clauses. 

A. Attributive Complements (S-P-Cs) – She was ambitious 

AdjG 

NG 

As + NG 

She is twenty-two years old. 

Sam is a very lucky man. 

His research was recognised as a great contribution to science. 

The Rolling Stones’ concert was acclaimed as the event of the season. 

B. Identifying Complements (S-P-Cs) – Her name was Bettina 

NG 

Sierra Leone is one of the world’s biggest producers of diamonds. 


Fin. that-cl. Ken’s belief is that things can’t get any worse. 

Nominal relative cl. He has become what he always wanted to be. 

Non-fin. bare inf.cl. The only thing I did was tell him to go away. 

Non-fin. to-inf. -S My advice is to withdraw. 

+ for + S The best plan is for you to go by train. 

Non-fin. -ing cl -S What I don’t enjoy is standing in queues. 

+S What most people prefer is others doing/for others to do the 

work. 

Note that NGs and AdjGs can occur as attributive or identifying Subject Complements, 

in passive clauses derived from S-P-Od-Co structures: 

You are regarded as a friend of the family 

The gates were left open all night 

(We regard you as a friend of the family) 

(Someone left the gates open all night) 

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Some realisations of Subject Complements are illustrated in the following passage from 

a university magazine, Oxford Today, in which a graduate, Steve Baker, characterises 

the early stages of his career: 

New College, poorest of the rich colleges, dullest of the clever colleges and so far 

down the river that we had to row on the Thames is the place where I grew up. 1 I 

loved it then and I love it now. But for me real life started in investment banking. It 

was called merchant banking 2 but was just as fashionable then to pretentious young 

squirts as it is now. 3 . The pay on the other hand was something else. 4 Everyone apart 

from me seemed to have a private income. Worse still, they all had private shoots 

and invited the chairman. No shoot, no promotion. No promotion, no pay. No pay, 

no shoot. It was circular 5 and it was vicious. 6 Then there were the social duties. Clients 

tended to be rich, foreign and important. 7 We squirts were the entertainment 8 when 

their offspring hit town. Unfortunately, one of them was, to me, quite beautiful. 9 I 

stumbled, flailed around a bit and fell. It was ridiculous. 10 I still drove my bubble 

car, she owned the bank that owned the factory. It could not last. It didn’t. 

1 

NG (ident.); 2 NG (attrib); 3 AdjG (attrib.); 4 NG (attrib.); 5 AdjG (attrib); 6 AdiG 

(attrib); 7 AdjG (attrib.); 8 NG (ident.); 9 AdjG (attrib.); 10 AdjG (attrib.) 

7.2 THE COMPLEMENT OF THE OBJECT (Co) 



The Object Complement is the constituent that completes the predicate when certain 

verbs such as find, make and appoint lead us to specify some characteristic of the Direct 

Object (see also Module 11). The Co is normally placed immediately after the direct 

object: 

You (S) are making (P) me (Od) angry (Co). 

You (S) aren’t going to like (P) me (Od) angry (Co). 

There is typically number agreement between the Direct Object and the nominal group 

realising the Object Complement, as in: Circumstances (S) have made (P) the brothers (Od) 

enemies (Co). But there are occasional exceptions – expressions of size, shape, colour, 

height, etc. – which are to be explained in the same way as those seen in 7.1.1: 

You haven’t made the sleeves the same length. 

The Object Complement can characterise the direct object by a qualitative attribute or 

by a substantive attribute expressing the name or status of the object referent. 


Police found the suspects unwilling to cooperate. (qualitative) 

They have elected Ken captain of the golf club. (substantive) 

The burglars left the house in a mess. (circumstantial) 

Sometimes a Co realised by a prepositional phrase (The burglars left the house in a mess) 

is similar in meaning to an adjectival complement (The burglars left the house untidy). 

We can distinguish its status as Complement from the superficially similar realisation 

by an optional Adjunct (in five minutes in The burglars left the house in five minutes) by 

the intensive relationship linking the Od and its complement. This can be tested by 

paraphrase with be (The house was in a mess; *The house was in five minutes). The two 

meanings are dependent on the related meanings of leave: ‘leave something in a state’ 

and ‘go away from’, respectively. 

7.2.2 Realisations of the Object Complement 

Attributive Object Complements can be realised by: 

AdjG 

NG 

Finite nominal cl. 

Non-finite -en cl. 

A sleeping pill will rapidly make you drowsy. 

His friends consider him a genius. 

Dye your hair whatever colour you like. 

The authorities had the demonstrators placed under house arrest. 

Nominal Co elements are sometimes introduced by the prepositions as or for, and are 

then analysed as ‘oblique’ Object Complements. That is, the relationship between the 

NG and the verb is not direct, but mediated by a preposition. Some verbs require this; 

with others such as consider it is optional: 


as + NG 

for + NG 

Party members regard him as the best candidate. 

Do you take me for a complete idiot? 

68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ADJUNCTS (A) MODULE 8 

SUMMARY 

1 Adjuncts (A) are optional elements of a situation expressed by a clause. There 

are three main types according to their function. 

2 Circumstantial Adjuncts provide information concerning time, place, manner, 

means etc. These are treated more fully in Module 20. 

3 Stance adjuncts provide an attitudinal comment by the speaker on the content 

of the clause or sentence. There are three classes of stance adjuncts: epistemic, 

evidential and evaluative. 


4 Connective adjuncts are not elements of structures, but connectors of structures. 

They signal how the speaker intends the semantic connections to be made 

between one part of the discourse and another. In discourse studies, many 

connective adjuncts are analysed as discourse markers. 

5 Adjuncts are realised by groups and clauses, according to type and function. 

8.1 SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES 

In contrast with the more central clausal constituents, which are realised only once in 

a clause – there is one subject/direct and indirect object/predicator/subject or object 

complement per clause – it is common to find a number of adjuncts in a single clause. 

The following illustration has five circumstantial adjuncts, which in this clause are all 

optional: they can be omitted without affecting the grammaticality of the clause. The 

bracketed items are adjuncts: 

(If at all possible) I’ll see you (tomorrow) (after the show) (with Pete and Susan) 

(outside the main entrance). 

Adjuncts can be added to any of the basic clause structures: 


SP(A) 

SPOd (A) 

SPOp(A) 

SPOiOd(A) 

SPCs(A) 

SPOdCo(A) 

The bells rang all day long. 

Tom hired a car at Doncaster. 

You must allow for delays in holiday periods. 

He sends me flowers through Interflora. 

The weather is rather unpredictable in these parts. 

They elected her Miss Universe in Miami. 

Whereas the more central elements of clause structure typically have fixed places in 

the clause, many adjuncts are characterised by their flexibility as regards position: 

Hastily she hid the letter. 

She hastily hid the letter. 

She hid the letter hastily. 

While the great majority can occur at the end of the clause, they also occur frequently 

in initial and medial positions, these being determined to a great extent by semantic and 

pragmatic considerations (see 55.2). 

Semantically, adjuncts represent circumstances, specifications and comments 

of many different types which are attendant on the verb or the whole clause. A further 

characteristic of adjuncts is the tendency of different types of meanings to be expressed 

by different adjuncts in a single clause, not as coordinated realisations of a single 

adjunctive element, but as separate, multiple adjuncts: 

Surprisingly (stance), she almost (degree) forgot to set the alarm clock last night (time). 


8.2 MAIN CLASSES OF ADJUNCTS 

Adjuncts (A) are grouped into three main classes according to their function in the 

clause: circumstantial adjuncts (8.2.1), stance adjuncts (8.2.5) and connective 

adjuncts (8.2.7). 

A fourth group consists of operator-related adjuncts. Certain single adverbs and 

adverbial groups which can function as adjuncts of usuality (usually), frequency 

(sometimes, never), degree (just), modality (probably) and aspectuality (still, yet, 

already), among others, relate closely to the verb. These tend to be placed near the finite 

operator (We have just finished; she is probably waiting). They are discussed in Chapter 

11, together with the distribution, position and function of adverbs. 

8.2.1 Circumstantial Adjuncts 

Circumstantial adjuncts provide experiential details about the action or state described 

by the verb, and answer such questions as where? when? how? why? and occasionally 

what? as in What do you want it for? What did he die of? Of all the types of adjunct, the 

circumstantials are the ones most similar to clause constituents: like subject and object 

they may be made the focus of a cleft. So in the example Tom bought a new car last month, 

we may highlight each element except the verb, including the adjunct of time. Other 

types of circumstantial adjunct don’t pass this test, however: 

70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

It was last month that Tom bought a new car. (adjunct) 

It was a new car that Tom bought last month. (object) 

It was Tom who bought a new car last month. (subject) 

*It was probably/*usually/*surprisingly/*still that Tom bought a new car last 

month. 

8.2.2 Realisations of the Circumstantial Adjunct: Summary 

Circumstantial adjuncts are realised by a wide variety of units: 

She called me yesterday. 

She called me too late. 

She called me from the office. 

She called me this morning. 

She called me while I was out. 

She called to tell me the news. 

She called me, using her mobile. 

She called me, scared out of her wits. 

Afraid to leave the house, she called me. 

Adverb 

AdvG 

PP 

NG 

Finite clause 

Non-fin. to-inf.cl 

Non-fin.-ing cl. 

Non-fin.-en cl. 

Verbless clause 

While non-finite -ing, -en and verbless clauses undoubtedly give background information, 

syntactically it is more problematic to analyse them as adjuncts. They are more loosely 

integrated into the clause and can’t be made the focus of a cleft (*It was scared out of 

her wits that she called me) as can other circumstantials, including to-infinitive clauses 

(It was to tell me the news that she called me). 

Units that are set off from the main clause by a comma or a pause are called 


supplementives (see also Chapter 10 for various types of supplementive). The -ing 

and -en types, as well as verbless clauses such as afraid to leave the house fall into this 

category. Semantically, they may be understood as reduced clauses of means or reason 

with an adjunctive function. Here, Afraid to leave the house not only lacks a main verb 

and a subject but is related to the predicate. (She was afraid to leave the house.) Such 

‘detached predicatives’ are used in written genres, where they economically add 

information, typically in initial position as part of Theme (see 28.10 and 51.5). 

8.2.3 Circumstantials functioning as central clause elements 

As explained in 4.1, certain verbs predict a circumstantial element, without which the 

clause is incomplete syntactically and semantically. They then have the status of a 

Complement, and are summarised again here: 

• Location in place or time, after a verb of position such as be, stay, live, lie, etc., 

as in: We live in troubled times, The farm is situated in a valley. 

• Extent in time or place with verbs such as take, as in The journey takes several 

days, or last, as in The performance lasts (for) three hours, in which the preposition 

is optional. In discourse, the time duration may be omitted if it is understood, as in 

Their love didn’t last, meaning ‘didn’t last a long time’. 


• Direction and Goal after verbs of movement such as go, come or of movement + 

manner such as fly, as in We flew south (Direction), We flew to New York (Goal). 

• Source in She tiptoed out of the bedroom, We flew from London. 

• Manner with behave, as in, She is behaving rather strangely. Also with one sense of 

the transitive verb treat, as in: They treated the prisoners badly. 

8.2.4 Circumstantials and their ordering in discourse 

There is a strong tendency to add circumstantial information, even when it is not strictly 

required by syntactic or semantic criteria for a single clause, one reason being that it 

is often crucial to the development of the discourse. So, rather than saying Tom disappeared, 

we might add an optional circumstantial such as among the crowd, into the 

Underground or below the surface of the lake. 

Even more clearly, the conditional clause adjunct – as in If you don’t learn, you’re not 

much good as a teacher – is necessary for a full understanding of the speaker’s intended 

meaning. Without it, the message is very different. Conversely, with verbs such as 

leave, arrive and go, Source, Goal and Location adjuncts are omitted if they are contextually 

understood (haven’t they left/arrived/gone yet?). The semantic classification 

of circumstantial elements is described in Module 20. 

When a number of circumstantials cluster at the end of a clause, they tend to be 

placed in certain semantic orderings, such as Source-Extent-Path-Goal. This is partly 

illustrated in this slightly adapted sentence from the text below, taken from a report 

entitled ‘How to survive a Colombian kidnapping’, in The Week. We can see that ‘Source’ 

does not figure, while ‘Purpose’ does. 


I slithered a few yards down the steep to the stream for a wash 

bank 

Extent direction (Path) (Goal) Purpose 

When I was not playing games with Tom, I started to make up nicknames for our 

guards. One morning I slithered down the steep bank to the stream for a wash, 

accompanied by one of the female guards. I was in desperate need of a shave and 

my washing companion kindly lent me her mirror. I removed the whiskers with my 

final blunt razor and looked up to see if she approved. She was standing there in a 

striking combination of lacy red knickers and bra, offset by Wellington boots, an AK- 

47 and a surly stare. I could make out a large lovebite on her right breast. God! I 

thought, I’ve landed myself on the set of a Russ Meyer movie: Bras and Guns. As I 

stood there awkwardly, uncertain as to where to look, her boyfriend appeared at the 

top of the bank. He was dressed smartly in an American woodland leaf uniform and 

carried an AK-47. How he kept his uniform so clean and pressed was a mystery. In 

the top of his boot I noticed a pink comb and pink-backed mirror. He pulled them out 

and began to do his hair. From that point on the couple were known as Mr and Mrs 

Comb. 

72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

8.2.5 Stance Adjuncts 

These express the speaker’s evaluation or comment on the content of the message, or 

the viewpoint adopted. Syntactically, they often remain somewhat separate from the 

clause, since their message refers to the whole of the clause or sentence. For this reason, 

they are usually found before the clause or after it, as in the first two examples below. 

But they can also be placed parenthetically or between commas, within a clause or 

sentence, as in the last two: 

Naturally, he spoke to me when he saw me. 

He spoke to me when he saw me, naturally. 

He naturally spoke to me when he saw me. 

He spoke to me, naturally, when he saw me. 

Textually, stance adjuncts are of three main kinds: epistemic, evidential and 

evaluative (see also 28.12, as Theme). 

A. Epistemic stance adjuncts – Do you believe me? Of course I do 

These express the speaker’s opinion regarding the validity of the content, commenting 

on the certainty, doubt, possibility and obviousness of the proposition: 

Undoubtedly, he is the finest pianist alive today. 

Obviously, he’ll rely on you even more now. 


B. Evidential adjuncts – Apparently, the picture is a fake 

These signal the source of knowledge or information. Sources range from the speaker’s 

own experience or belief (In my view/In my experience) to the beliefs or accounts of others 

(According to ...In the words of . . . and finally hearsay – supposedly, apparently): 

According to the weather forecast, there’s a hurricane on the way. 

C. Evaluative adjuncts – Amazingly, he won a gold medal 

These are attitudinal, reflecting the subjective or objective attitude of the speaker 

towards the content and sometimes also towards the addressee: 

Surely you can make up your own mind! 

Broadly speaking, the Health Service is satisfactory. 

Unfortunately, our team didn’t win. (subjective) 

(objective) 

D. Style and domain adjuncts 

Two further types of stance adjunct are Style and Domain adjuncts. Style adjuncts are 

the speaker’s comment on the way s/he is speaking (honestly, frankly, confidentially). 


Domain adjuncts signal from what viewpoint the message is orientated (technologically, 

legally, saleswise, etc.): 

Quite frankly, it seems to me a lot of bullshit. 

Medically, the project has little to recommend it. 

8.2.6 Realisations of the Stance Adjunct: summary 

Stance adjuncts can be realised by adverbs, prepositional phrases, finite and non-finite 

clauses: 

Adverbs: surely, obviously, frankly, honestly, confidentially, hopefully, 

probably 

PPs: in fact, in reality, at a rough guess, by any chance, of course 

Non-fin cl: to be honest, to tell the truth, strictly speaking 

Fin. cl: if I may be frank with you . . .; don’t take this personally, but ... 

8.2.7 Connective Adjuncts 

These tell us how the speaker or writer understands the semantic connection between 

two utterances, or parts of an utterance, while indicating the semantic relationship 

holding between them: The hotel was rather noisy. On the other hand, it wasn’t expensive 

(contrast). They are not therefore elements of structure, but connectors of structure: 

Between groups: Lord Shaftesbury was a persuasive speaker and furthermore 

a great pioneer of social reform. 


Between clauses: The students are on strike; nevertheless, the examinations 

will not be cancelled. 

Between sentences: He has been undergoing treatment for asthma since he was 

a boy. Consequently, he never went in for sports. 

Between paragraphs: In addition to all this . . . 

First of all . . . 

In conclusion . . . 

That is to say, such connectors occur at some boundary established at a significant point 

in the organisation of the text. They have a textual function. 

Semantically, many different types of connection can be expressed. Here, we shall 

briefly exemplify four main types (see also chapters 6 and 7): 

additive: 

contrast: 

causal: 

temporal: 

besides, in the same way, what’s more, moreover, plus (AmE), as well, 

also 

instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless, rather, yet 

for, because, so, therefore, then, in that case, consequently, thus 

first, then, next, after that, finally, at once 

74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

8.2.8 Realisations of the Connective Adjunct: summary 

Adverbs: 

PPs: 

AdjGs: 

AdvGs: 

Fin. cl: 

Non-fin.cl: 

nevertheless, moreover, first, therefore, next, now namely, 

accordingly, consequently, alternatively 

in other words, by the way, on top of that 

last of all, better still 

more accurately 

that is to say, what is more 

to sum up, to cap it all 

In daily life, turns in conversation are often initiated by a common institutionalised 

connective adjunct, such as Well . . ., Now . . ., Oh . . ., So . . ., Right . . ., functioning 

as discourse markers. Their role is double: they mark a new speaker’s turn in the 

conversation, and at the same time they mark the management of information, as well 

as the speaker’s attitude to the message. Well has a variety of meanings, signalled by 

intonation, ranging from decision to deliberation. Oh is a surprisal, indicating that the 

information received is contrary to expectations, or that the speaker is adjusting to 

the new information or perception. I mean, you see and you know regulate shared and 

unshared knowledge. Look and Hey are attention signals, while yes, yeah, no and nope 

are responses that can occur together with other markers. Here are some examples of 

discourse markers in spoken English: 

Oh my coffee’s gone cold! 

It was dreadful! That shop. 

I’ve lost my keys! 

[BNC KCU] 

Oh, that’s supposed to be a good shop! [BNC KST] 

Well, what do you expect? You never put them away. 


The semantic and textual functions of circumstantial, stance and connective adjuncts 

are described and illustrated in chapters 6 and 7, and – as realised by adverbs – in 

Chapter 11. 

Several of these markers, as well as stance and connective adjuncts, occur in the 

following extract from Alan Ayckbourn’s play Just Between Ourselves, in which Neil 

comes to Dennis’s house to inspect a car for sale. 

Dennis: 

Neil: 

Dennis: 

Neil: 

Dennis: 

It’s the pilot light, you see. It’s in a cross draught. It’s very badly sited, that stove. 

They should never have put it there. I’m planning to move it. Right, now. 1 You’ve 

come about the car, haven’t you? 

That’s right. 

Well, 2 there she is. Have a look for yourself. That’s the one. 

Ah. 

Now 3 I’ll tell you a little bit about it, shall I? Bit of history. Number one, 4 it’s not 

my car. It’s the wife’s. However, 5 now 6 before you say ah-ah – woman driver, 

she’s been very careful with it. Never had a single accident in it, touch wood. 


Well 7 , I mean 8 look 9 , you can see hardly a scratch on it. Considering the age 10 . 

To be perfectly honest 11 , just between ourselves 12 , she’s a better driver than me 

– when she puts her mind to it. I mean 13 , look 14 considering it’s what now – 

seven – nearly eight years old. 15 Just look for yourself at that body work. 

Neil: Yes, Yes 16 . 

1 

marker/connective; 2 connective; 3 connective; 4 connective; 5 connective; 6 connective; 

7 

marker; 8 marker, 9 attention signal; 10 stance; 11 stance; 12 marker; 13 stance; 14 attention 

signal; 15 stance; 16 response signal. 

FURTHER READING 

Biber et al. (1999); Fawcett (2000); Greenbaum and Quirk (1990); Halliday (1994); 

Huddleston and Pullum (2002); Quirk et al. (1985); Schiffrin (1987); Thompson (2002); 

Surely as a stance marker: Downing (2001); Downing (2005). 


The skeleton of the message: Introduction to clause structure 

Module 4 


1 †Bracket the non-essential constituent(s) in each of the following clauses 

(1) Many of the houses must have disappeared since my father’s day, 

(2) I explained briefly to Mrs Davies that there was a power cut. 

(3) It seemed a good idea at the time. 

(4) The war lasted more than forty years. 

(5) I felt my face turn red. 

(6) Somebody snatched my bag in the park. 

(7) Before the fall of the Berlin Wall, spying practically dominated the political life of 

that capital. 

(8) I’ll just put something in the microwave. 

(9) The telephone began to ring insistently at six o’clock on a cold November day. 

(10) Arsenal became League champions for the fifth time on Monday. 

Module 5 

1 †Check the criteria for identifying Subject. Then read the text about Monte Carlo in 5.1.2 

(p. 45). Which of the criteria for Subject are clearly fulfilled? Which do not occur at all? 

Add some question tags and note the pronominal forms that occur. 

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2 †Identify the constituent that realises Subject function in each of the following clauses: 

(1) The use of caves for smuggling is as old as the hills. 

(2) There were about half a dozen men seated in the bar. 

(3) The light of a torch flickered. 

(4) What the critics failed to understand is that his art was not sacrificed to popularity. 

(5) The list of people who she says helped her is long. 

(6) It was my great good fortune to meet him before he died. 

(7) Run like mad was what we did. 

(8) It makes sense to tell the neighbours you are going away on holiday. 

(9) It is sometimes argued that there is no real progress. 

(10) Reading in a poor light is bad for your eyes. 

3 †Extrapose the Subject in the following clauses. Start with ‘It . . .: 

(1) That Pam is seeking a divorce surprised us. 

(2) To leave without saying goodbye was bad manners, really. 

(3) Who she goes out with doesn’t interest me. 

(4) For such a man to succeed in the world of politics requires a lot of nerve. 

(5) That recognising syntactic categories at first sight is not easy is obvious. 

4 Read the passage on the Valley of the Kings in 5.2 (p. 49). Underline the words that realise 

the Predicator function and say which are finite and which non-finite. 

Module 6 


1a †Identify the constituent which functions as Direct Object in each of the following clauses, 

and the class of unit which realises this function. 

(1) I’ve lived most of my life in the country. 

(2) He banged the door shut as he went out. 

(3) He pointed out that foreign doctors were not permitted to practise in that country. 

(4) The negotiations have achieved very little. 

(5) She lacks discretion. 

(6) A team of divers have discovered what they believe to be sunken treasure. 

(7) He considers it unlikely that the money will be refunded 

(8) One doubts that many will survive the long trek over the mountains. 

(9) You might ask what is the use of all this. 

(10) He shovelled a ton of gravel into the back garden. 

1b Discuss these realisations from the point of view of their prototypicality as Od. 

2 Turn to the text ‘Fire Threat to Apes’ at the end of 6.1.2 (p. 54), where you will find the 

Subjects and Direct Objects in italics. 

a †Identify them by S and O respectively, and state the type of realisation in each case. 


. †Comment on the relative length and ‘heaviness’ of the units. Which are heavier in general 

– those of S or O? What is the subject in 5 ? Is the Subject of 8 a dummy or, if not, what is 

it referring to? 

3 †Which of the following clauses contain a constituent that functions as Recipient Indirect 

Object, and which contain a Beneficiary Indirect Object? Apply the passivisation and 

prepositional tests to distinguish between the two: 

(1) They did not give the leaders time to establish contact. 

(2) Why should I write him his French essays? 

(3) I am going to get myself another coffee. 

(4) Can I get you girls anything? 

(5) He is offering us a chance in a million. 

(6) Can you give me a lift as far as the station? 

(7) You owe me 7 Euros for that pair of tights from the Sock Shop. 

(8) She has bought her boy-friend a butterfly pillow to use on long flights. 

4 †Applying the criteria discussed in 6.4, identify the phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs and 

phrasal-prepositional verbs in the following clauses: 

(1) Does it put you off to enter a room and find everyone staring at you? 

(2) They don’t approve of what we are doing. 

(3) Is that the time? I’d better get back. 

(4) A burglar could not easily break into this house. 

(5) So he didn’t turn up after all at McDonald’s? 

(6) His work-mates are always getting at him, he says. 

(7) Things don’t always come up to our expectations. 

(8) This is our stop. We get off here. 


5a †Sort the following examples according to whether they contain Op or Adjunct: 

a. She ran through the film script. c. You can see through the trees 

b. She ran through the streets. d. You can see through his excuses. 

5b †Why is *Up large bills she ran ungrammatical while Up the stairs she ran is acceptable? 

5c 

†She decided on the bus is ambiguous. Explain the two readings, adding material if 

necessary. 

5d †For the following sequences provide an ellipted version consisting of verb + adverb: 

He rode out of the courtyard. 

We swam across the lake. 

They jumped over the fence. 

Get into the car, all of you! 

6 Read again the passage from Three Men in a Boat in section 6.4.3 (p. 63). Identify the 

italicised sequences. Say whether the verb + adverb combinations are transitive or 

intransitive. Try to find one-word lexical equivalents for these. Do they give the same flavour 

and informality as the phrasal verbs? Discuss possible alternative analyses for 2, 3 and 4. 

78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 7 

1 †Identify the types of Complement (Subject, Object) in each of the following clauses and 

state the class of unit which realises each of these. 

(1) Acting is not very hard. The most important things are to be able to laugh and to 

cry (Glenda Jackson in The Times). 

(2) They must prove themselves fit for the task. 

(3) Spying on firms has become a multi-million pound industry. 

(4) What will they call the baby? 

(5) Life is a series of accidents. That’s what he thinks. 

(6) He made his films accessible to a wide public. 

(7) The weather has turned unexpectedly cold. 

(8) Video-games keep them happy for hours. 

(9) She looked utterly miserable. 

(10) Sweden has made it illegal for parents to smack their children. 

2a †The following short text on bike riding illustrates Complements. Underline the part of 

each numbered unit which realises an obligatory Complement and state whether it is Cs, 

Co, Locative/Goal or any other type: 

Cyclists are not only healthy 1 – they are smart. 2 Bike riding is one of the most efficient 

ways of getting about. 3 When comparing the energy expended with speed and 

distance covered, even the rustiest two-wheeler outstrips the hummingbird, the 

cheetah and the jumbo jet. 

There are an estimated 14 million bikes in Britain – with 5 million of them 

gathering dust in garages. A pity, because bicycles are so versatile as transport or 

for simple pleasure. 4 

While getting you to work, 5 a bicyle also gets you fit. 6 For every half an hour’s 

pedalling, a 150lb person burns up 300 calories. The heart and back leg muscles 

are strengthened – all while sitting down. Because the bodyweight is supported, 

cycling is effective exercise. 7 


2b Write a paragraph in which you argue against the supposed benefits of cycling. 

Module 8 

1 †Distinguish between the different types of Adjunct (circumstantial, stance and connectives) 

in the clauses below: 

(1) He was chairman of the English Tourist Board for five years. 

(2) First, we booked the seats, then we went for dinner, and after that we took a taxi 

to the theatre. 

(3) The soldier allegedly crawled under the barbed wire to reach the arms depot. 


(4) Hopefully, student admissions will continue to rise. 

(5) Shaped like a spiral staircase, the ‘double helix’ of DNA continues to transform 

our understanding of the story of life. 

2 †Analyse the constituents following the verb find in these two clauses: 

(1) The police found the gang’s hide-out without much difficulty. 

(2) The police found the gang’s hide-out more elaborately equipped with technology 

than they had expected. 

3 †In the following extract from Kathleen Mayes’ Beat Jet Lag, mark each constituent of the 

clauses with |. Then give (a) the function, and (b) the class of unit which realises the function: 

The sun never sets on the tourist empire. But travel pictures, business contracts and 

sports programmes don’t tell the full story: getting there may be no fun at all. Aircraft 

perform flawlessly, but what happens to passengers, flight crews and cabin staff? 

Jet lag. A mass phenomenon, almost as universal as the common cold. 


80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHAPTER 3 

THE MESSAGE 

Complementation of the verb 

INTRODUCTION: MAJOR COMPLEMENTATION PATTERNS 

AND VALENCY 83 

Module 9: Intransitive and copular patterns 85 

9.1 Subject – Predicator 85 

9.2 Subject – Predicator – Locative Complement 86 

9.2.1 Pragmatic inference of circumstantial meanings 86 

9.3 Subject – Predicator – Adjunct 87 

9.4 Subject – Predicator – Complement of the Subject 88 

9.4.1 Verbs of being and becoming 88 


9.4.2 Other linking verbs 88 

Module 10: Transitive patterns 90 

10.1 Subject – Predicator – Direct Object 90 

10.2 Verbs used transitively and intransitively 91 

10.3 Subject – Predicator – Prepositional Object 91 

10.4 Subject – Predicator – Indirect Object – Direct Object 92 

10.4.1 Verbs of transfer and intended transfer 92 

10.4.2 Less prototypical three-place verbs 94 

10.5 Subject – Predicator – Direct Object – Prepositional Object 95 

10.6 Frame, perspective and attention 96 

10.7 Subject – Predicator – Direct Object – Object Complement 97 

10.7.1 Current and Resulting Attributes 97 

10.8 Subject – Predicator – Direct Object – Locative Complement 99 

Module 11: Complementation by finite clauses 100 

11.1 Meanings and patterns of that-clause complements 102 

11.1.1 Verb + that-clause 102

11.1.2 Dropping or retaining the complementiser that 103 

11.1.3 Verb + NG + that-clause 104 

11.2 Say and tell 105 

11.3 Meanings and patterns of wh-clause complements 105 

11.3.1 Indirect interrogatives 105 

11.3.2 Nominal relatives 106 

11.3.3 Non-finite variants 106 

11.3.4 Indirect exclamatives 107 

Module 12: Complementation by non-finite clauses 108 

12.1 Catenative complements 108 

12.2 Meanings expressed by to-infinitive clauses 109 

12.2.1 Type 1: V + to-infinitive 109 

12.2.2 Type 2: V + NG + to-infinitive clause with subject 110 

12.2.3 Type 3: V + NG + to-infinitive 110 

12.3 Meanings expressed by bare infinitive clauses 111 

12.3.1 Type 4: V + NG + bare infinitive 111 

12.4 Meanings expressed by -ing clauses 112 

12.4.1 Type 5: V + -ing clause 112 

12.4.2 Type 6: V + NG + -ing clause 112 

12.4.3 Potential and factual meanings contrasted: to-infinitive and -ing clauses 113 

12.5 Past participial clauses 113 


12.5.1 Type 7: V + NG + -en clause 113 

Summary of major verb complementation patterns 114 


Exercises 116

INTRODUCTION: 

AND VALENCY 

MAJOR COMPLEMENTATION PATTERNS 

Complementation of the verb refers to the syntactic patterns made up by configurations 

of the clause elements that we examined individually in the previous chapter. Each 

pattern contains a Subject and a Predicator. The number and type of other elements in 

each pattern is determined by the verb, as we saw in Chapter 2. Complementation of 

the verb is a very rich and complex area of English grammar. 

The aim here is to outline as simply as possible the main choices open to speakers 

from the standpoint of the verb. Choices are, however, balanced by requirements. 

Certain verbs in English may not admit a pattern, or a realisation of a pattern, that is 

perfectly normal in another language. 

There are three main types of complementation: intransitive, copular and transitive. 

The transitive has three sub-types. 

Type of complementation Structural pattern Illustration 

Intransitive S-P Ted laughed 

Copular S-P-C The idea is crazy 

Transitive 

Monotransitive S-P-O He bought a video 

Ditransitive S-P-O-O He gave Jo the video 

Complex-transitive S-P-O-C I find the idea crazy 


The number of verbs in common use in English is very large, especially in certain 

constructions, such as the monotransitive. In addition, many verbs – especially those 

of general meaning, such as get, turn and make – admit more than one type of 

complementation, each of which reflects a different type of situation. Make, for instance, 

can enter into all but intransitive patterns: 

I’ll make some tea. 

I’ll make you a pizza. 

He made the coffee too strong. 

They make a good couple. 

It makes for good relations. 

SPOd 

SPOiOd 

SPOdCo 

SPCs 

SPOp 

The potential number of participants, including the subject – that is, the number of 

‘places’ in the clause that the verb controls – is sometimes referred to as its semantic 

valency. Different classes of verbs have different semantic valencies. The verb eat, for 

example, is a two-place verb: it has a semantic valency of two, because in any event 

of eating there must be an eater and a thing eaten. There are one-place verbs, which 

have a subject only, belonging in principle to the SP pattern. Two-place verbs have a 

subject and one other element, as in the SPC and SPO patterns. Three-place verbs have 

a subject and two other elements as in the SPOO and SPOC patterns. Syntactic valency 

DEVELOPMENT: VERB COMPLEMENTS 83

efers to the number of nominal elements present in any given clause that have a direct 

grammatical relation to the verb. In The lions ate away at their prey, there is one nominal 

element, as their prey does not have a direct grammatical relation to the verb. Syntactic 

valency often corresponds to its semantic valency, but not always. Weather verbs such 

as rain and snow, for instance, have no semantic participant and so have a semantic 

valency of zero. As finite clauses in English require a subject, however, dummy it is used 

with such verbs, giving a syntactic valency of 1. Valency is reduced when one or more 

elements are omitted in use. For instance, eat has a semantic valency of 2 as in He ate 

an orange; the valency is reduced to 1 in What time do you eat here? 


84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

INTRANSITIVE AND MODULE 9 

COPULAR PATTERNS 

SUMMARY 

1 Where there is no complementation the verb is said to be intransitive. The 

structure is S-P. Some verbs are always intransitive (arrive, snow, blink, vanish). 

Others represent intransitive uses of basically transitive verbs (eat, drive, read). 

2 Some intransitive verbs, particularly those of position (live, lie) or movement 

(go, walk), usually require a Locative or Goal Complement, respectively. 

3 Locative Adjuncts are commonly present but not necessarily required after many 

verbs such as work, arrive, retire and stop. Locative and other circumstantial 

information is often pragmatically inferred in discourse. 


4 The S-P-Cs pattern contains a copular verb that links the subject to a Complement 

encoding what the subject is or becomes. The most typical copula is be. Other 

verbs used as copulas in English provide additional meaning to the mere linking. 

This may be sensory (look, feel, smell, sound, taste) or refer to a process of 

becoming (become, get, go, grow, turn). The notion of ‘being’ also includes 

being in a place, expressed by a circumstantial locative Complement, as we 

saw in 8.2.3. 

9.1 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR 

This pattern contains a one-place verb such as sneeze, which has a subject but no 

complement. We distinguish the following types of intransitive verb: 

• verbs of behaviour which is typically involuntary or semi-voluntary: laugh, smile, 

cry, blink, blush, cough, sneeze, sigh, tremble, yawn; wait, stay; die, collapse, faint, fall, 

(They all laughed, someone yawned, one soldier fainted.) 

• verbs of weather: rain, snow (It’s raining. It’s snowing. The sun rose.) 

• verbs of occurrence: appear, disappear, go, come, arrive, depart, vanish, fade, 

happen: 


Has everyone arrived? 

Hopes of avoiding war are now fading. 

• idiomatic intransitive phrasal verbs such as crop up as in a problem has cropped 

up, where there is no verb ‘crop’ of the same meaning (see 6.4.2). By contrast, with 

free combinations of verb + particle used literally as in the bird flew away, the particle 

is analysed as a directional Complement (6.4.2 and 9.2). Opinions differ in this 

respect, however, some preferring Adjunct in the case of free combinations. 

Note that some of these ‘pure intransitives’ can also function in other structures, as we 

shall see later on. 

9.2. SUBJECT–PREDICATOR–LOCATIVE COMPLEMENT (C loc 

) 

Other intransitives of the following types typically require a Complement of place, 

direction or destination to complete their meaning. Location in space is extended 

to include location in time (see also 10.8 for certain transitive verbs with similar 

requirements): 

• Location in place or time: be, stand, live, lie, remain 

• Movement + manner of movement: walk, run, stroll, crawl, fly 

The National Theatre stands near the river. 

The amusement park is just over there 

She is lying in a hammock. 


Lunch was at one o’clock. 

We walked home. 

The soldier crawled under the wire fence. 

We can compare this verb lie, meaning to be in a prone position, with lie, a ‘pure’ 

intransitive, meaning to tell lies: He is lying in a hammock vs He is lying. 

We can also contrast uses of the same verb, such as run, which can occur either as 

a pure intransitive in the answer to How does Tom keep fit? – He runs, or with a Goal 

Complement in He runs to the bus-stop every morning (see 8.2.3). 

Note that, for brevity, the term C loc 

is used to encompass both Locative and Goal 

meanings. 

9.2.1 Pragmatic inference of circumstantial meanings 

Similarly, other verbs of position, such as wait and stay, and verbs of movement such 

as go, leave, come and walk can either function as pure intransitives or be followed by a 

Locative/Goal Complement. The choice depends to a great extent on whether there is 

sufficient support from the context to sustain the intransitive. For example, if a contrast 

is being made – as in Do you want to leave or would you rather stay? – the intransitive verb 

alone is sufficient, because the location is pragmatically inferred as being the place where 

86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

the addressee is. Similarly, in You can either take the bus or walk, the destination is 

obviously known from the context, and a suitable reply would be ‘I’ll walk’. 

However, if the location or destination are not inferrable, a locative or Goal 

Complement becomes necessary as in We went home. Without the specification ‘home’, 

the verb would carry insufficient semantic ‘weight’ and informativeness to complete the 

predicate. 

Complements are more tightly integrated than Adjuncts, the tightest being the Subject 

and Object complements following copular verbs (see 9.4; 10.7). 

9.3 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – ADJUNCT 

With other verbs such as work, arrive, retire, stop a circumstantial Adjunct is commonly 

added, but it is not a requirement because the verb has sufficient weight in itself. 

This may be for cultural reasons, for example, work being interpreted as ‘have a job’ (1b 

below), retire as ‘retire from employment’ (3b), or because of the aspectual meanings 

conferred by the perfect (3b, 4b) and progressive (2b) aspects, which lend ‘weight’ 

to the verb (see 43.3). Compare: 

S-P-A 

S-P 

1a Tom works in London. 1b Does his sister Priscilla work? 

2a We arrived late. 2b The guests are arriving. 

3a He retired last year. 3b He has retired. 

4a We stopped at the Equator. 4b The clock has stopped. 


The following extract from a war correspondent’s records illustrates similar choices: 

Real travelling, of course, is done the hard way. Planes merely get you to the general 

area; 1 to penetrate to the difficult places 2 you have to go by four-wheel drive or by 

horse or by boat. Or you can walk. 3 

It is the expeditions that stand out 4 most in the memory: being driven 5 across the 

North African desert by bedouin who relied on the sky and the look of the sand 

dunes rather than instruments, and who arrived 6 at precisely the right place at 

precisely the time they had promised; or heading 7 out from Yekaterinburg, the former 

Sverdlovsk, to visit Boris Yeltsin’s home village of Butka, on a morning so cold that 

the road was a slick ribbon of ice and the driver had to peer 8 through the strip of 

clarity two inches thick on the windscreen; or leaving the Ugandan capital Kampala 

to drive 9 into Rwanda, stopping 10 at the Equator to take photographs of ourselves, 

and shredding three tyres along the way; or hiring a marvellously colourful bus which 

drove us to the nastiest and most frightening of the Peruvian drugs towns in relative 

safety, because it never occurred to the drug dealers or their allies, the military, that 

we would arrive 11 in this fashion. 

(John Simpson, It’s a Mad World, My Masters) (see exercise, p. 117). 


9.4 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – COMPLEMENT OF THE SUBJECT 

Copular verbs link the subject with a complement which characterises or identifies the 

subject referent: 

A couch potato (S) is (P) someone who lies watching television all day (Cs). 

This new game (S) is (P) incredibly simple and endlessly gripping (Cs). 

The most prototypical copular verb is be, which can be followed by a wide range of 

adjectives and NGs. Others, such as remain, keep, taste, smell, sound, fall, feel, come, grow 

and turn, are followed by a more limited range of adjectives which are often specific to 

a particular verb, as illustrated below. 

9.4.1 Verbs of being and becoming 

Verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes: 

The reason is simple. 

Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic. 

We have to remain optimistic about the future. 

Will you keep still! 

Verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow 

suggests gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes: 


Her latest novel has become a best-seller. 

We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didn’t appear. 

His face went white. 

An adjective functioning as Cs may have its own to-infinitive clause complement (we 

are anxious to hear from you; glad to hear the good news). The various meanings expressed 

by such complements are explained in 53.1.2. Here are some typical combinations of 

verb + adjective, current and resulting: 

Current 

be careful 

seem annoyed 

look cheerful 

sound familiar 

smell spicy 

Resulting 

become dangerous 

get stressed 

turn nasty 

prove unsatisfactory 

go wild 

9.4.2 Other linking verbs 

A small number of verbs that are normally used without a complement (fall, come, run) 

can function as copulas with specific adjectives as Cs: 

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The child fell flat on its face. 

The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill. 

The label has come unstuck. 

As be predicts not only being something but being somewhere, it can also link the subject 

to a circumstance, usually of position, place or time. The Complement is then identified 

as C loc 

, as described in 4.2 and 9.2. 

The following extract from an interview in the Sunday Times Magazine gives an idea 

of how the verb and its complements contribute to the expression of interpersonal 

relations in a text. The young person interviewed is Kirsty Ackland, the daughter of an 

actor. The structures she chooses help to express the meanings she wants to convey. 

When she describes herself or another person she uses copular complementation. When 

she describes the interaction between herself and her actor father, or between herself 

and her school-friends, she uses ditransitive complementation. 

Until I was about 13, 1 when I became terribly shy, 2 I was absolutely desperate to be 

an actress. 3 My sister Sammy and I would beg Dad to 4 let us go to drama school 5 

but there was no way he would allow it 6 until we’d been educated. I went to Putney 

High School. 7 I was the only one in the family 8 who didn’t get a scholarship. 9 Dad 

turned up 10 for parents’ evenings and things like that but he never helped 11 with the 

homework. I used to help him. 12 I loved hearing his lines. 13 But I never told anyone 14 

I was the daughter of an actor. 15 Most of the fathers of the girls at school were 

‘something in the City’ and I pretended Dad was an interior decorator. 16 


1 

copular (state); 2 copular (becoming); 3 copular (state); 4 ditransitive + Od + let + 

inf.clause; 5 ditransitive vb + Od +clause; 6 monotransitive + situation; 7 intransitive + 

C loc 

; 8 copular, state, identifying; 9 monotransitive + thing; 10 intransitive; 11 transitive 

(Od unexpressed); 12 monotransitive + Od; 13 monotransitive + situation; 14 ditransitive; 

15 copular (state); 16 object (that)-clause of fact 


TRANSITIVE PATTERNS MODULE 10 

SUMMARY 

1 Monotransitive patterns contain a two place verb (carry, say) and have one 

Object. The Object is a Direct Object or a Prepositional Object. Objects, like 

Subjects, most typically represent an entity (a person or thing), less typically a 

fact or a situation within the main situation. Entities are typically realised by 

group structures, facts and situations by clauses. We will postpone the discussion 

of clausal realisations to Module 11. 

2 Ditransitive patterns contain a three-place verb (give, offer, rob, blame). 

Semantically, they express situations in which three participants are involved, 

encoded syntactically as the subject and the two objects. There are two main 

patterns. 


3 One pattern contains a verb such as give, send, owe, which takes two Objects, 

Indirect and Direct, sequenced in that order (give Jo a copy), each of which 

can potentially become subject in a passive clause. 

4 The second pattern, with verbs such as remind and rob, takes a Direct Object 

followed by a Prepositional Object whose preposition is controlled by the verb 

(It reminds me of Italy). Only the Direct Object can become subject in a passive 

clause. 

5 The complex-transitive pattern has one Object and one Complement, after 

verbs such as appoint, name and find. 

10.1 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – DIRECT OBJECT 

Verbs which take a direct object are very numerous and of different semantic types 

(carry the luggage, know the answer, feel the heat of the flames, enjoy the film, want a 

copy). The semantic types are described in Chapter 4. 

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I (S) ate (P) a toasted cheese sandwich (Od) [for lunch today A] 

She was wearing one of her father’s extra-large T-shirts. 

They don’t watch kids’ TV programmes. 

We must put away all this stuff. 

10.2 VERBS USED TRANSITIVELY AND INTRANSITIVELY 

Many verbs in English are used both transitively and intransitively with the same 

meaning. They include several types: 

1 Verbs with an implied Object, such as smoke (cigarettes), drive (a car), park (a car), 

drink (alcohol), save (money), wave (one’s hand), as in Do you smoke? He doesn’t drive. 

Such intransitive uses can be considered as instances of valency reduction, that is 

the normal valency of two of these verbs is reduced to one. As these reductions are 

based on cultural schemas and tend to have an implication of habituality, they are 

not extended to other object referents such as wave a flag, drink milk. With certain 

verbs such as read, write, eat and teach the deleted direct object is not specific, and 

is perhaps unknown, as in He teaches and she writes. 

Drinking and driving don’t match. 

It is impossible to park in the city centre. 

They are saving to buy a house. 

He waved to us from the bridge. 


2 Causatives with an intransitive counterpart, constituting an ergative pair 

(see Chapter 4): 

He opened the door. (SPOd) 

The camera clicked. 

The door opened. (SP) 

She clicked the camera. 

3 Verbs with a reflexive meaning: 

He shaved (himself), She dressed (herself). 

4 Verbs with a reciprocal meaning: 

Tom and Jo met at a concert. (met each other) 

10.3 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT 

Verbs which take a Prepositional Object are: prepositional verbs such as see + to, 

deal + with (see to the plane tickets, deal with an emergency), phrasal prepositional verbs 


such as run out of (run out of petrol), and multi-word combinations that end in a 

preposition, such as get rid of (get rid of old newspapers). The criteria for distinguishing 

these verbs from phrasal verbs are discussed in Chapter 2. 

Here is a short list of some common verbs followed by a preposition. Certain verbs, 

such as think and hear, control more than one preposition with a slight difference of 

meaning. 

Common verbs that can be followed by a preposition 

for on to at with in of after 

account bank admit aim deal believe dispose look 

allow call consent get reason confide think take 

hope count keep hint hear 

long rely refer look 

look 

resort 

The Prime Minister (S) can’t account (P) for the loss of votes(Op). 

We’re banking on everyone’s support for the rally. 

He would never resort to cheating. 

What are you hinting at? 

10.4 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – INDIRECT OBJECT – DIRECT 

OBJECT 


There are two main types of ditransitive complementation: the basic type, in which an 

Indirect Object is followed by a Direct Object, illustrated here, and another, in which a 

Direct Object is followed by a prepositional Object. The first is discussed now, the 

second in 10.5. 

10.4.1 Verbs of transfer (give, lend ) and intended transfer 

(buy, get) 

Types: I gave her a present I got her a present 

This is the basic ditransitive pattern. Three-place verbs like give have a subject and two 

Objects, representing the transfer of goods or information from one person to another. 

They also include speech act verbs such as ‘offer’ and ‘promise’. Here are some more 

verbs like give: 

hand lend offer owe pass promise read send show teach throw write 

He showed the policeman his driving licence. (He showed his driving licence to the 

policeman.) 

92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

We are offering our clients a unique opportunity. ( ...to our clients) 

She owes several people large sums of money. ( . . . to several people) 

As the examples show, the indirect Object has a prepositional counterpart, the give 

type with to, the get type with for (I gave a present to her. I got/bought a present for her). 

The PP functions as a prepositional object. 

Verbs of intended transfer carry out a service for someone, or even a disservice, as 

in They set him a trap/They set a trap for him. Other verbs like get and buy include the 

following: 

book bring build buy cash cut fetch find leave spare keep make pour 

save 

Book me a sleeper on the night train. ( ...a sleeper for me) 

Will you call me a taxi, please? (. ..a taxi for me) 

He got us a very good discount. (. ..a good discount for us) 

With the ‘give’ type, two passives are usually possible: 

Active: I gave Jo a copy. 

Passive 1: Jo was given a copy. (Oi in active clause → S in passive clause) 

Passive 2: A copy was given to Jo. (Od in active clause → S in passive clause) 

?A copy was given Jo. (? Indicates divided acceptability) 


The ‘first passive’ brings the Recipient participant to subject (Jo). The ‘second passive’ 

brings the thing given to subject, followed by the Recipient as prepositional object 

(to Jo). The non-prepositional form A copy was given Jo, is considered ungrammatical 

by many speakers, but is accepted by others. Two orderings whose equivalents are 

acceptable in certain languages but which are ungrammatical in English are the 

following: *To Jo was given a copy and *To Jo it was given a copy. 

The difference between the two valid passive forms is a question of information 

packaging (see 29.1). They are useful alternatives when the active subject is not known 

or is not important in the discourse, as can be seen in the following extract from an 

article in Time magazine under the heading ‘Education: doing bad and feeling good’: 

A standardized math test was given to 13-year-olds in six countries last year. 

Koreans did the best, Americans did the worst, coming in behind Spain, Britain, 

Ireland and Canada. Now the bad news. Besides being shown triangles and 

equations, the kids were shown the statement ‘I am good at mathematics’. Koreans 

came last in this category. Only 23% answered yes. Americans were No. 1, with an 

impressive 68% in agreement. 


American students may not know their math, but they have evidently absorbed 

the lessons of the newly fashionable self-esteem curriculum wherein kids are taught 

to feel good about themselves . . . Judging by the international math test, . . . kids 

already feel exceedingly good about doing bad. 

Note that certain ditransitive verbs such as send are often used with a directional 

meaning encoded as Goal Complement (C loc 

): They sent their children to boarding-school. 

There is no non-prepositional counterpart of a Goal Complement as there is with send 

+ Oi + Od: Compare: They sent me a postcard with *They sent boarding-school their children. 

The latter is ungrammatical. 

10.4.2 Less prototypical three-place verbs 

There is a good deal of variation in ditransitive verbs. Not all verbs display the alternative 

structures of those listed in 10.4.1. Here are just a few of the most common variants: 

Type: explain + NG + Prepositional Object 

to us 

He explained the problem 

Typical verbs are: announce, confess, deliver, mention, return and say. There is no 

corresponding structure with the Oi in its usual place: *He explained us the problem. That 

is, these verbs take only the oblique, that is, prepositional object as a second object. 


What did she say to you? 

I never mentioned your name to anyone. 

Type: wish + NG + NG 

We wish you luck 

Other verbs: allow, cost, wish, refuse and ‘light’ uses of give (see 20.2). 

These verbs have no prepositional counterpart with to. Note that the starred counterparts 

on the right are ungrammatical. Ask something of someone is sometimes possible, 

however. 

They allow everyone a ten-minute break. 

He gave the door a push. 

Let’s ask someone the way. 

*They allow a ten-minute break to 

everyone. 

*He gave a push to the door. 

*Let’s ask the way to someone. 

Many three-place verbs allow valency reduction from 3 to 2 when there is contextual 

support, as in He called a taxi, he got a discount, they blamed me, let’s ask the way. 

94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

10.5 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – DIRECT OBJECT – 

PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT 

Although predicted by the verb, the Op in this ditransitive pattern (e.g. It reminds me of 

you) is further away from the verb and less object-like than when the Prepositional 

Object is the only object in a clause. The NG (you) can’t be made subject in a passive 

clause. However, like other Objects, it encodes a participant that can be questioned by 

who 1, what 2 placed either before the preposition or, more usually, stranded (see 6.3.3). 

It can also occur in a wh-cleft 3: 

1 Who does it remind you of? (Of whom does it remind you?) 

2 What are you thanking me for? (For what are you thanking me?) 

3 What it reminds me of is Italy. 

In discourse, this element may be omitted when its referent is understood, as in They 

blamed me (for something already mentioned). The Direct Object is usually a person and 

the Op may be an entity or an event. 

Some of the verbs taking this construction are listed here according to preposition. 

Remember that a NG is placed between the verb and the preposition. 

Some verbs taking Prepositional Object as well as Direct Object 

for from of to with on 


blame prevent accuse introduce charge blame 

thank protect convince compare compliment 

deprive help supply congratulate 

rob 

sentence 

S P Od Op 

This sunblock will protect your skin from the sun’s rays. 

They robbed her of her watch and jewels. 

They charged him with assault. 

I congratulated Janet on her success. 

Only the direct object constituent can become subject in the passive clause: 

Your skin will be protected from the sun’s rays. 

She was robbed of her watch and jewels. 

He was charged with assault. 

Janet was congratulated on her success. 

Blame, a three-place verb, admits two alternative constructions with different 

prepositions, which reflect the way the event is viewed in each case. The more central 


of the two participants is placed first, as Od. In one version this is Jane; in the other the 

accident. 

blame someone (Od) for something (Op) 

blame something (Od) on someone (Op) 

He blamed Jane for the accident 

He blamed the accident on Jane. 

There are thus two passives – Jane was blamed for the accident, The accident was blamed 

on Jane – which centre respectively on ‘Jane’ and on ‘the accident’. 

Likewise, the NG following the preposition can be questioned by who or what (What 

was Jane blamed for? Who was the accident blamed on?). 

Other verbs that present a similar variation are supply, load and drain: 

We supply the school with paper (Op). We supply paper(Od) to the school (Op) 

They loaded the cart with hay. They loaded hay on to the cart. (C loc 

) 

They drained the pool of water. They drained water from the pool. (C loc 

) 

With load and drain the cognitive representation is rather different with each alternative. 

With the receptacle the cart and the pool as object, there is a notion of totality: the cart 

is completely full of hay, the pool completely drained of water. By contrast, with hay 

and water as object, there is an impression of partialness: some hay is loaded, some 

water is drained. If the definite article is used (the hay, the water), the implication is of 

totality. 

10.6 FRAME, PERSPECTIVE AND ATTENTION 


The cognitive notion of frame allows us to conceptualise a situation from different 

perspectives. For instance, Fillmore’s ‘commercial event’ frame for [BUY] includes a 

reference to four other variables, namely to a BUYER, a SELLER, GOODS and MONEY. 

A syntactic pattern formulated from the perspective of the BUYER could be as follows: 

Tom bought some old CDs from Phil for twenty euros. 

In this sentence all four variables of the BUY frame are encoded linguistically, each filling 

a different syntactic function: the BUYER (Tom) as subject, the GOODS (the CDs) as 

direct object, the SELLER (Phil) as the first adjunct and the MONEY (for twenty euros) 

as the second adjunct. This distribution of syntactic functions is the syntactic perspective, 

which here is largely controlled by the choice of the verb BUY. 

Within the same frame, it would be easy to take a different perspective by choosing 

another related verb such as SELL, CHARGE or PAY. The verb sell perspectivises 

SELLER and GOODS as subject and object, charge also perspectivises the SELLER as 

subject but the BUYER as object, and pay perspectivises the BUYER and MONEY, with 

the SELLER as optional indirect object. 

Phil sold some old CDs to Tom for twenty euros. 

Phil charged Tom twenty euros for some of his old CDs. 

Tom paid Phil twenty euros for some old CDs. 

96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The notion of perspective draws on the cognitive ability to direct one’s attention. 

To a large degree, we conceptualise events in different ways according to what attracts 

our attention. As language users, we use the verb buy when describing a commercial 

event in order to draw attention to the BUYER and the GOODS, functioning as subject 

and object respectively. We use the verb sell to focus attention on the SELLER and the 

GOODS. By means of the frame we can even call up cognitive categories that had 

no prominence and were not expressed (though they were implied) in the frame itself, 

for instance SPEND and COST. These can be externalised in sentences such as the 

following: 

Tom spent twenty euros on some old CDs 

The old CDs cost Tom twenty euros. 

For complementation by clauses see modules 11 and 12. 

10.7 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – DIRECT OBJECT – OBJECT 

COMPLEMENT 

SUMMARY 


1 Three-place verbs with one Object and one Complement of the Object are called 

complex transitive. The Direct Object typically represents a person or thing, and 

the Object Complement adds information about this referent in the form of an 

attribute: I found the house empty, He got his shoes wet. 

2 The attribute is either current (as with find) or resulting (as with get). 

3 The participant encoded as direct object can typically be made subject in a 

corresponding passive clause. 

10.7.1 Current and Resulting Attributes – He got his shoes wet 

This three-place pattern is essentially an S-P-Od pattern with an attributive Object 

Complement added. As attribute the complement specifies the state or status of the Od 

referent in relation to the situation described by the verb. The attribute may be ‘current’, 

contemporaneous with the verb (He keeps the garden beautiful), or the result of the action 

denoted by the verb (They elected her Vice-President). 

Verbs that take a current attribute after the object are stative, and include: 

• verbs of causing to remain in a certain state such as hold and keep 

• verbs such as believe, consider, think, find, imagine, presume, hold 


• verbs such as want, like and prefer 

Keep your hands steady! 

I imagined him much older. 

Do you want the roast chicken hot or cold? 

Verbs that take resulting attributes represent processes of doing, and include bake, drive 

(mad), get, leave, make, paint, turn, wipe as well as verbs of declaring, such as appoint, 

elect, call, name, declare, report and certify, which confer an official status. 

With AdjG Complement: 

It wipes the windscreen dry. 

That barking dog is driving me mad. 

The heat has turned the milk sour. 

Get your priorities right! 

They presumed her dead. 

With NG Complement: 

They elected her Vice-President. 

They appointed him Manager. 

The direct object referent in complex transitive structures can be made subject in a 

passive clause, which then has a S-P-Cs structure. In fact, with some verbs the passive 

is more common than the active, particularly when the Agent is unexpressed, as in she 

was presumed dead; he is reported missing; he was certified insane. 

With some verbs, the attribute is not essential to make a grammatical clause (It wipes 

the windscreen). This is because many verbs enter into more than one structure: wipe 

can function in a monotransitive structure (wipe the windscreen) or in a complex transitive 

structure (wipe the windscreen dry). Other examples which, without the complement, 

also fit the monotransitive structure include You’ve cut your hair (short); we got the books 

(cheap). 

A further type of attribute is that of respect. This is expressed by as + NG when 

introduced by such verbs as regard, refer to, write off, acclaim: 


Churchill referred to him as an outstanding leader. 

Fans acclaimed the Rolling Stones’ concert as the event of the season. 

As a consequence of the multi-functionality of many verbs, examples can be invented 

in which one type of unit such as a NG can realise two different types of constituent: 

He called her an angel. 

He called her a taxi. 

I’ll make you First Secretary. 

I’ll make you an omelette. 

S-P-Od-Co 

S-P-Oi-Od 

S-P-Od-Co 

S-P-Oi-Od 

98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

10.8 SUBJECT – PREDICATOR – DIRECT OBJECT – 

LOCATIVE COMPLEMENT 

Verbs such as put, place, stand, lead occur with a Locative/Goal Complement: 

I put the dish in the microwave. 

Stand the lamp near the desk. 

The track led us to a farm. 

Many other verbs such as talk, take, bring and show can be used in this way, while keep 

and hold can function with both Attributes and in Locative/Goal patterns. 

I didn’t want to go, but she talked me into it. (C loc 

) 

Keep your hands on the wheel! (C loc 

) 

Hold your head up! (C loc 

) 

Keep your hands steady! (Co) 

We hold you responsible. (Co) 



COMPLEMENTATION BY MODULE 11 

FINITE CLAUSES 

SUMMARY 

1 All clausal complements are determined by the verb. Many verbs admit more 

than one type of complementation. 

2 That-clauses form the largest group of finite clause complements and are 

controlled by transitive verbs. They are classed according to communicative 

function and meanings, which include facts, perceptions, reports and proposals. 

3 Wh-clause complements are of three types: a) indirect wh-interrogatives, b) whnominal 

clauses and c) indirect exclamatives. They occur after verbs such as 

a) ask, inquire b) advise, show, teach, tell, and c) say, tell, believe respectively. 


4 Clausal complements can be considered non-prototypical realisations of 

clause constituents. In these sections, however, we concentrate mainly on the 

patterns. 

We saw in Chapter 2 that most elements of clause structure can be realised by 

a subordinate clause functioning as Subject, or Object, or as Complement of either the 

Subject or the Object. Such clauses are then said to be embedded, as in: The doctor 

knows that you are waiting. 

The whole clause (the doctor knows that you are waiting) in which the subordinate 

clause is embedded is called the superordinate clause, while the doctor knows is the 

matrix clause. The embedded clause, introduced by a complementiser (subordinator), 

functions as a non-prototypical direct object. 

The complementiser that has little semantic value and functions as introducer of an 

embedded clause. By contrast, a wh-word has meaning and functions as a constituent 

of the embedded clause, as in The doctor knows what you need. 

The main verb is said to determine or control the dependent clause. Adjectives and 

nouns can also control clausal complements, as in We are glad (that) you came after all 

(here in a SPCs structure) and He has the conviction that he is a great actor (SPOd) 

respectively, and these will be discussed in the relevant chapters. Here, the clauses will 

100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Clause 

Subject 

Predicate 

Predicator 

Direct Object 

NG VG wh- nominal clause 

Direct Object 

Subject 

Predicator 

The doctor 

knows 

what you need 

Main clause and embedded nominal wh-clause 

be discussed as realising Object and Complement functions (Cs and Co). Clauses 

fulfilling subject function were described in 5.1.2. 

The four main types of dependent complement clause are: that-clauses, wh-clauses, 


to-infinitive clauses and -ing clauses. They are distinguished by their complementiser 

(subordinator) such as that or a wh-word, and by their own structure. They are shown 

here complementing monotransitive verbs. 

Clause as complement with monotransitive verbs 

finite that-clause: 

finite wh-clause: 

non-finite to-infinitive clause: 

without dep.cl subject 

with dep.cl. subject 

non-finite -ing clause: 

without dep. cl. subject 

with dep. cl. subject 

He believes that he’s right. 

He asked what I meant. 

He believed what I told him. 

I said how nice it was. 

He wants to stay. 

He wants us all to stay. 

He doesn’t like driving in fog 

He doesn’t like her driving in fog 


That-clauses and wh-clauses are finite, having a subject and tense-modality features, 

while to-infinitive and -ing clauses are non-finite, and lack these distinctions. All of these 

types can be used to complement verbs and adjectives. Less versatile are the ‘bare’ 

infinitive (He helped me carry the bags) and the -en participle clause, which occurs in the 

complex-transitive structure (I heard two shots fired). Non-finite complementation is 

discussed in Module 12. 

11.1 MEANINGS AND PATTERNS OF THAT-CLAUSE 

COMPLEMENTS 

A that-clause complement can be used to express factual or non-factual information 

which is reported, known, believed or perceived; it can be used to make proposals and 

suggestions and to describe situations that produce an emotive effect on the subject. 

The choice of verb combines with the meaning to determine the structural pattern. 

11.1.1 Verb + that-clause – I think it’s beautiful 

Facts, beliefs, doubts, perceptions – I believe you are right 

These meanings are expressed by a that-clause containing an indicative. This represents 

an indirect statement and follows verbs of certain types: 

• Verbs of cognition – knowing, doubting, perceiving – such as think, know, believe, 

imagine, see, doubt; with doubt, don’t know, the subordinator is if or whether. 


We know that you have lived abroad for some time. 

He could see that she was not at all happy. 

I doubt/I don’t know if/whether we’ll get there before dark. 

• Verbs of expectation – expect, hope, suppose and wish – which refer to potential 

situations rather than facts, frequently take a modal auxiliary in the indicative thatclause. 

I expect (that) you would like something to drink after your journey. 

I suppose (that) he must have lost his way. 

For omission of complementiser that, see 11.2. 

Reports – Jo says she is ill 

Reports encode things that people have said. They are introduced by verbs of 

communicating, such as say, announce, answer, explain, mean, mention, report, and 

performatives such as admit and confess. Reports are treated in Chapter 7 under ‘indirect 

speech’. 

The Minister answered that he didn’t know. 

You never mentioned that you were married. 

102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Many of these verbs (but not answer) can take an optional prepositional object with to. 

This makes them appear ditransitive; however, an indirect object can’t be added in its 

usual place after the verb, as occurs in ditransitive clauses. Such verbs are therefore 

neither typical monotransitive nor typical ditransitive verbs: 

Let me explain the situation (to you). 

You never mentioned (to me) that 

you were married. 

*Let me explain you the situation. 

*You never mentioned me that you 

were married. 

In the systemic-functional approach, verbs such as think and say are said to ‘project’ a 

dependent, but not embedded, clause as a locution or as an idea, respectively. Locutions 

and ideas do not linguistically express the cognitive representation of reality as do 

verbs of seeing or doing, for example. Rather, they express ‘a representation of a 

representation’. 

Proposals – The party suggests he call/should call an election 

Verbs such as propose, suggest, recommend and demand aim at getting someone to 

do something. The meaning in the complement clause is therefore potential, for 

which many European languages require a subjunctive. English has traditionally two 

possibilities: an uninflected subjunctive (e.g. be), common in AmE, or should + infinitive, 

common in BrE. Both are illustrated in 1 and 2. The same choices are open before an 

it + adj construction. Illustrated here is a formal use: 

It is right that this House debate this issue and pass judgement. (PM Tony Blair in the 


House of Commons, 18 March 2003) 

A third choice, adopted by some speakers, is the indicative, as illustrated in a news 

report 3: 

1 He demands that she pay/should pay him back. 

2 The chairman proposed that a vote be taken/ should be taken. 

3 They demand that he apologises to the Iraqi people. 

(For complementation by to-infinitive clause, see 12.2.) 

11.1.2 Dropping or retaining the complementiser that 

We can drop or retain the complementiser (or subordinator) that without affecting the 

meaning of the clause. However, certain factors appear to favour one choice or the 

other. 

Omission of that is favoured by the following factors: 

(a) when think or say is the main verb – I think it’s nice, Tim says it’s easy 

(b) when the subject refers to the same entity in the main clause and in the that-clause, 

as in Tim promised he’d do it 


(c) when there is a pronoun rather than a noun head in the that-clause (I think I’ll have 

a cola, She knew he would do it) 

It has also been suggested that I think and I know, for example, are not main clauses 

at all, but are better analysed as epistemic, evidential or evaluative parentheticals, 

while what is traditionally classed as the complement clause in fact carries the main 

proposition. This view is based on two pieces of evidence: the verb + its subject can be 

placed parenthetically after the clause – I’ll have a cola, I think; He’ll do it, I know – and 

the tag-question relates to the complement clause, not to the main clause – I think she’ll 

have a cola, won’t she? (not *don’t I?). 

Retaining that after a verb is favoured by: 

(d) coordinated that-clauses: Many people believe that big is best and that war is right. 

(e) passive voice in the main clause: It is believed that peace is in sight. 

(f) a NG or PP (or clause containing a NG) placed between the main clause and the 

that-clause: Can you prove to the commission that the effects are not harmful? 

Overall, that is omitted most in informal spoken registers, which is where the ‘abc’ 

factors tend to cluster, while the subordinator is retained most in formal written registers, 

which are characterised by the ‘def’ factors. These are not strict divisions, however, 

as even formal registers nowadays are often a mix of the formal and the less formal. 

The following short extracts from The Peacemakers and Girls Out Late, respectively, 

illustrate the tendencies: 


People have often assumed that, because Lloyd George opposed the Boer War, he 

was not an imperialist. 1 On the contrary, he had always taken great pride in the 

empire but he had never thought it was being run properly. 2 

She said she thought he was a stupid little creep. 3 (see exercise 2 on p. 118) 

That-clauses do not follow prepositions in English and consequently cannot realise 

the Op function. Instead, one of three solutions is adopted: a) the preposition (e.g. on) 

is omitted; b) the preposition is retained and is followed by anticipatory it, or c) the fact 

can be inserted before a that-clause with a factual meaning: 

a. He insists that we all go. 

b. He insists on it that we all go. 

c. You must allow for the fact that they are handicapped. 

11.1.3 Verb + NG + that-clause – I told you I’d be late 

Many verbs of communicating (tell, inform), verbs of causing someone to think or believe 

or know something (convince, persuade, remind, teach), and the performative verbs promise 

and warn, can take a that-clause after the direct object: 

104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

He finally convinced the jury that he was telling the truth. 

Experience has taught them that a back-up copy is essential. 

11.2 SAY AND TELL 

Note that say and tell have different complementation patterns: 

• Say is monotransitive, controlling a direct object (Say that number again; He said he 

was sorry), while tell is ditransitive, with two objects (Tell me your name, tell me you 

love me). 

• Say can take an added oblique object (What did you say to him?), but not an indirect 

object (*What did you say him?). 

• Quoted speech may realise the object of say, but not that of tell (Jill said ‘Hello’, but 

not *Jill told me ‘Hello’). 

See also 36.5. 

Recursive embedding is when a series of clauses is embedded, each within the 

previous one: I reminded him he’d said he’d find out about the flight schedules. Here, the 

that-clause direct object of remind, which comprises the remainder of the sentence, (he’d 

said he’d find out about the flight schedules) contains a further embedded that-clause he’d 

find out, which has a PP (about the flight schedules) as complement. 

11.3 MEANINGS AND PATTERNS OF WH-CLAUSE 


COMPLEMENTS 

Wh-clause complements are usually either embedded interrogative clauses or 

nominal relative clauses. The first express doubt or lack of knowledge, while the 

second contain factual information. A third type, with a to-infinitive complement, is a 

non-finite variant of types 1 and 2. A fourth type, the indirect exclamative, is similar 

to the ordinary exclamative and has an intervening NG after verbs such as tell, but not 

after say. 

There are two main patterns, which are controlled by specific verbs. Pattern 1 has 

simply a wh-complement. Pattern 2 has an intervening NG (a Recipient). Certain verbs 

such as ask can function in both patterns. A third type, with a to-infinitive complement, 

is a variant on types 1 and 2 and is very common, especially in spoken English. 

11.3.1 Indirect interrogatives 

V + wh-clause – Ask where the station is 

The verbs ask, wonder, doubt, enquire, don’t know control indirect interrogatives. The 

subordinator if is often used as an alternative to whether in indirect questions where the 

answer is either yes or no: 


We asked what we should do/what to do. 

The tourist enquired why the museum was closed. 

Pat wondered whether/if her friends would recognise her. 

As indirect interrogatives contain an embedded question, it is important to remember 

that subject–operator inversion does not normally occur in embedded questions, unlike 

the obligatory inversion found in most independent interrogatives. Compare: 

independent interrogative 

Where is the dining-car? 

dependent interrogative 

Let’s enquire where the dining-car is. 

Not *Let’s enquire where is the dining-car. 

11.3.2 Nominal relatives 

V + NG + wh-clauses – Give them what they want 

These verbs – common ones include advise, give, show, teach and tell – can control 

nominal relative clause complements, which represent factual information and can be 

distinguished by replacing the wh-word by a more general word, such as ‘the thing(s)/ 

person(s) that’, and in some cases by a non-finite complement clause: 

He told me what I already knew. (the things which I already knew) 

Tom will show you where you can send it/the place where you can send it/where to 

send it. 

The instructor taught the dancers how they should breathe/the way they should 

breathe/how to breathe. 


As these examples illustrate, some verbs can convey a similar meaning by a non-finite 

complement. 

11.3.3 Non-finite variants 

V + NG + wh + to-infinitive clause – Ask (him) how to do it 

This combination provides a shorter variant of 11.3.1 and 11.3.2, with verbs such as ask, 

know, show, tell, teach and wonder. The NG recipient is obligatory with tell, show and 

teach, optional with ask, and not used at all with know and wonder. 

We didn’t know where to go. 

Tom told us what to do. 

(indirect interrogative) 

(nominal relative) 

Ambiguity can sometimes occur with wh-complements, as in He asked me what I knew, 

which can be analysed as an indirect interrogative (compare with the direct form What 

do you know?) or as a nominal relative (the things I knew) – the latter, for example, in the 

context of reporting on an examination. 

106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

11.3.4 Indirect exclamatives 

V + (NG) + what + NG or how + AdjG – I said how nice it was 

The embedded exclamative is introduced by either how (+ adjective) or what (+ NG) 

after two types of verbs: verbs of communicating such as say and tell, and mental verbs 

such as believe and think. Like ordinary exclamatives, it has an emotive quality (see 24.1): 

You’ll never believe what a good time we had. 

I told her how sorry I was. 



COMPLEMENTATION BY MODULE 12 

NON-FINITE CLAUSES 

SUMMARY 

1 Non-finite clauses are more loosely integrated into the superordinate clause 

than are finite clauses. Only the to-infinitive complements of certain verbs such 

as want, like and prefer and the -ing complements of like, hate among others, 

can be treated as (non-prototypical) object constituents. 

2 A series of non-finite clauses can be analysed as a chain-like structure of 

embedded non-finite complements. 

3 To-infinitive clauses tend to evoke potential situations, whereas -ing clauses are 

factual and bare infinitive clauses evoke an event in which the end-point is 

included. 


4 Participial -en clauses function as Object Complements after four types of 

verb. 

12.1 CATENATIVE COMPLEMENTS 

A catenative verb is a verb that controls a non-finite complement. ‘Catenative’ means 

‘chaining’ and reflects the way that the verb can link recursively with other catenatives 

to form a chain, as in: 

We decided to try to rent a house near the sea. 

Here there is a chain of three verbs: decide, try and rent, with to try to rent a house near 

the sea functioning as the catenative complement of decide, and to rent a house near the 

sea functioning as the catenative complement of try. 

We can add further catenative verbs to produce an even longer chain of four 

catenatives, two of which, persuade and help, have a NG object. The final verb rent is not 

a catenative: 

108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

We decided to try to persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea. 

i decide to try to persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea. 

ii try to persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea. 

iii persuade Bill to help us rent a house near the sea. 

iv help us rent a house near the sea. 

Further catenatives appear in the following section. A special type of catenative 

construction – as in He failed to appear – is discussed in 39.4. Not all catenatives behave 

in the same way. Only the complements of a few catenatives such as want, like and prefer 

can be analysed as (untypical) objects. Others cannot (see also 6.1.2E). 

12.2 MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSES 

12.2.1 Type 1: V + to-infinitive – I want to go 

These three groups of verbs take to-infinitive clause complements: 

(a) Want, wish, intend, arrange 

(b) like, love, prefer, can’t bear, hate 

(c) promise, agree, learn, forget, decide 

The to-infinitive clause in Type 1 has no explicit subject, the implied subject being that 

of the main clause. Semantically this is clear. If I want to go, the going is to be done by 

me. For the (c) group of speech-act verbs, there is an equivalent that-clause complement 

with the same meaning, but this alternative is not available to the (a) and (b) groups of 

desiderative and affective verbs: 


1 The boss wants to see us immediately. (no that-clause counterpart in 1, 2 and 3) 

2 I have arranged to go to London tomorrow. 

3 I would have preferred to invent something which helps people. A lawnmower, for 

example. (Mikhail Kalashnikov, inventor of the AK47 assault rifle, in The Times) 

4 I promise to ring you later. (compare: I promise that I will ring you later) 

5 They agreed to wait a bit longer. (compare: they agreed that they would wait a bit 

longer) 

To-infinitive clauses tend to evoke a situation that is potential. Cognitively, the infinitive 

reflects an event, with to symbolically reflecting the movement towards the event. For 

this reason the controlling verb typically ‘looks forward’ to the moment when the event 

begins. 


12.2.2 Type 2: V + NG + to-infinitive clause with subject 

– He wants us to go 

The ‘want’ verbs include: want, like, love, prefer, can’t bear, dislike, hate, wish, arrange. 

The people want the troops to leave. 

And her mother did not like her to be out for too long. (BNC GOB 1660) 

I only want us to be together. (GWH 1130) 

I have arranged for the students to go to London tomorrow. 

The ‘want’ type verbs of 1a and 1b in the previous section can also take a to-infinitive 

clause that has an explicit subject. Semantically, what the people want, what her mother 

did not like are situations, not persons or things. For this reason, the non-finite clause, 

together with its subject, is analysed as a single unit which can be considered an 

untypical direct object. This can be tested by (a) replacement by a pronoun (Her mother 

did not like that), (b) coordination (and she herself did not like it either), and (c) clefting: 

the non-finite clause and its subject can become the focus of a wh-cleft (What her mother 

did not like was for her to be out too long). 

Furthermore, although these subjects of to-infinitive clauses are in the objective case 

(us, her) they can’t be analysed as objects of the main verb. The complete clause does 

not entail The people want the troops or Her mother did not like her. Nor can they become 

subject in a passive clause: *The troops were wanted to go, *She was not liked to be out too 

long. In this respect, verbs like want contrast with those of Type 3 (in the next section) 

such as ask, advise and expect, in which the NG does represent a separate clause element. 

Note the use of for as a subordinator, introducing the non-finite clause with its subject 

(for the students to go to London tomorrow) after the main verb arrange. In AmE this use 

of for is extended to other verbs such as want and prefer. 

Finally, we can test want-type verbs with a What question: What do you want? rather 

than a Who question: Who do you want? The object of my wanting is (for) us to be 

together. 


12.2.3 Type 3: V + NG + to-infinitive 

– We asked the taxi-driver to stop 

The verbs in this type are speech-act verbs: advise, allow, ask, beg, expect, invite, tell, 

persuade, urge. The NG is both the object of the main verb and the implicit subject 

of the embedded to-infinitive clause. This NG behaves as if it were the object of the 

finite verb and can become subject in a passive clause. This divisibility of the NG is an 

important feature of ditransitive and most complex transitive complements. As with 

other verbs of this type, passives are common. 

They persuaded us to stay. 

A television campaign is advising 

teenagers to keep off drugs. 

We were persuaded to stay. 

Teenagers are being advised to keep off 

drugs. 

Semantically, we persuade, advise and invite someone, not a whole situation. 

Consequently, a test question will be with Who (Who did they persuade?). The toinfinitive 

expresses the course of action to be taken. 

110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

For these reasons, the NG referent following verbs like advise or ask must be human, 

or at least animate. This is not the case with verbs like want. Compare: 

The Browns want their house to be painted. 

*They advised/persuaded their house to be painted. 

Note that, when a to-infinitive clause is ellipted (see 29.5), to remains (They invited us to 

stay and we agreed to). 

Factual verbs such as believe, consider, know, report, suppose also take NG + to-infinitive 

as a ‘raised object’ alternative to a that-clause complement (see also 37.4). Passive forms 

are common in formal styles: 

People consider that he is a great actor. 

People consider him to be a great actor. 

He is considered (to be) a great actor. 

12.3 MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSES 

12.3.1 Type 4: V + NG + bare infinitive – We let them go 

Typical verbs are: let, have, make; see, hear, feel; help. 

Bare-infinitive clauses evoke an event in which an end-point is included, as in we 

let them go, we saw them go. Relatively few verbs occur in this pattern. They include three 

verbs of coercion, illustrated below, a few verbs of perception and the verb help. 


Don’t let anxiety spoil your life. 

They made the prisoners stand for hours. 

I’ll have my secretary make you a reservation. 

Syntactically, we analyse the non-finite clause of the make type as an object complement, 

complementing the direct object. Notice the parallel between: She made them angry/ 

She made them sit down. 

Analysis of the NG + bare-infinitive complement of perceptual verbs illustrated 

below is more problematic. Is the NG the object of the matrix clause or the subject of 

the non-finite clause? Does the NG + bare infinitive refer to a whole situation, as with 

want? 

I saw someone enter the shop late at night. 

She felt something hard hit her on the head. 

While the ‘whole situation’ view appears to be semantically acceptable, ‘I saw someone 

enter the shop’ entails ‘I saw someone’, this entailment not being the case with the want 

type. Syntactically, the NG is the object of the matrix clause and is also the subject of 

the bare-infinitive clause. 

Some of the clauses of coercion and perception (but not with causative have, or 

with feel) can be passivised, with the NG as subject and the bare infinitive replaced by 


a to-infinitive, as in: The prisoners were made to stand for hours, Someone was seen to 

enter the shop. Let is usually replaced by allow (They were allowed to go). In this respect 

we find the same divisibility of the NG as occurs with the ‘ask’ type. 

It is notoriously difficult to pin down the difference in meaning between help + bare 

infinitive and help + to-infinitive. One analysis sees the bare infinitive as direct or active 

involvement in bringing about the action expressed by the infinitive, as in: I’ll help you 

carry your luggage upstairs. With help + to, by contrast, the event is seen to be the consequence 

of the helping, and often means ‘contribute to’ rather than active involvement 

by the helper, as in Acupuncture can help people to give up smoking. 

12.4 MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY -ING CLAUSES 

12.4.1 Type 5: V + -ing clause – I like listening to music 

This type of clause uses the verbs: like, love, avoid, dislike, hate, enjoy, miss, resent, risk, 

can’t, help. 

Non-finite -ing clauses as complements tend to express factual meanings. Syntactically 

they function as non-prototypical direct objects, following the criteria adopted for 

analysing to-infinitive clauses as objects in 12.2, Type 2. 

They disliked living in a big city. 

I avoid travelling in the rush hour. 

12.4.2 Type 6: V + NG + -ing clause – I saw them waiting 


See, hear, feel, smell, find, leave, catch, discover, come across, keep 

The subject of the -ing clause is also the object of the superordinate clause. It can 

become subject in a passive clause. 

They caught him stealing from the till. 

She found the child sleeping peacefully. 

He was caught stealing from the till. 

The child was found sleeping peacefully. 

With verbs of perception we can often make a distinction between a completed action, 

expressed by the bare infinitive, and an uncompleted action or action in progress, 

expressed by an -ing clause. Compare: We watched the house burn down and We watched 

the house burning. 

Note that verbs of starting, stopping and continuing among others, when followed by 

either to-infinitive or -ing clauses, are analysed in this book not as lexical verbs followed 

by a complement, but as ‘phased’ or concatenated verbal groups that express aspectual 

meanings such as ingressive, egressive and continuative (see 39.2), as in He started 

smoking at the age of fifteen. 

Verbs of retrospection such as regret, remember and forget (but not recall, which 

takes only -ing) mark a difference of time reference in relation to the main verb. With a 

to-infinitive clause, the action expressed is seen as following the mental process of 

112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

emembering or forgetting, whereas an -ing form marks the action as previous to the 

mental process: 

I remembered to turn off the gas. 

I remembered turning off the gas. 

I forgot to turn off the gas. 

I regret telling/having told you the 

bad news. 

I regret to tell you there is some bad 

news. 

(I remembered that I had to turn off the gas 

and I did.) 

(I remembered that I had turned off the gas.) 

(I forgot that I had to turn off the gas and 

didn’t turn it off.) 

(I am sorry that I told you the bad news.) 

(I am sorry to have to tell you bad news.) 

Regret + to-infinitive is always followed by a verb of communication – say, tell, announce, 

inform – used with present time reference. Both the regretting and the telling occur at 

the moment of speaking, whereas regret + -ing has no such limitation (She regretted 

going out without an umbrella). 

12.4.3 Potential and factual meanings contrasted: to-infinitive 

and -ing clauses 

Because the to-infinitive looks forward to the event, it tends to be used when a specific 

occasion is referred to, often of a future or hypothetical kind, as in I would like to go to 

Paris. An -ing clause, by contrast, expressing factual meanings, as in I like going to Paris, 

entails that I have been to Paris, whereas I would like to go to Paris does not. 

Emotive verbs such as like, love, hate and prefer (but not enjoy, detest and dislike, which 

admit only -ing clauses) can establish this distinction clearly. 


I like listening to music. 

Most people hate standing in queues. 

I’d like to buy a good stereo. 

Most car-owners would hate to be without 

a car. 

For many speakers, however, the to-infinitive is a valid alternative in the expression of 

factual meanings, especially with a notion of habit: I like to cook for my friends. 

12.5 PAST PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES 

12.5.1 Type 7: V + NG + -en clause – We’ll get it mended 

These are S-P-Od-Co structures with a past participal complement. They are controlled 

by four types of verb: 

• the causative verbs get and have – We’ll have some repairs done to the house, 

• volitional verbs: want, like, prefer – The boss wants these records updated; 


• verbs of perception: see, hear, feel – I felt my arm grasped from behind; and 

• verbs of finding and leaving – Airport officials have found an unidentified 

bag abandoned in the coffee-shop. 

Some of the variety of two-complement patterns is illustrated in this extract from the 

National Enquirer: 

Sniffing food for about 30 seconds before you eat it can help you lose weight 1 says 

an expert in weight loss. 

‘You’re in fact tricking the brain into thinking 2 that you’ve already eaten, explains 

Dr. Alan Hirsch, ‘so you don’t eat as much.’ 

In a study, Dr. Hirsch had 20 people sniff their food 3 before eating it – and the 

results were amazing. ‘We found that they each lost between 10 and 12 pounds over 

a three-month period.’ 

So if you have an urge for a candy bar, hold it up to your nose 4 for 30 seconds, 

then put it away. 5 Usually you’ll be able to resist the urge to eat it! 

1 

help + Od + infinitive clause (potential action); 2 trick + Od + prep. + -ing clause 

(metaphorical Goal); 3 causative have + Od + infinitive clause (action); 4 hold + Od + 

two Loc/Goal Complements; 5 put + Od + Loc/Goal Comp. 

SUMMARY OF MAJOR VERB COMPLEMENTATION 


PATTERNS 

1 No complement patterns with intransitive verbs 

V only (‘pure’ intransitive) The post has arrived. 

V + implied object 

That dog bites. 

V (reciprocal meaning) 

They met at a party. 

V + obligatory locative 

She lives in Tokyo. 

2 One-complement patterns with copular verbs 

V + AdjG 

The game is very simple. 

V + NG This road is the M40. 

3 One-complement patterns with monotransitive verbs 

V + NG 

That dog bit me. 

V + prep + NG 

I’ll see to the sandwiches. 

Finite clause 

V + finite that-clause 

V + finite wh-clause 

He believes that he is right. 

114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(indirect interrog.) 

(nominal relative) 

(indirect exclamative) 

Non-finite clause 

V + non-finite to-infinitive clause 

With implicit subject 

With explicit subject 

V + non-finite -ing clause 

With implicit subject 

With explicit subject 

She asked what I meant. 

He believed what I told him. 

I said how sorry I was. 

He wants to stay. 

He wants us all to stay. 

They like staying out late. 

She doesn’t like them staying out late. 

4 Two-complement patterns with ditransitive verbs 

V + NG NG 

I gave Jo a copy. 

V + NG + prep + NG 

We reminded her of the time. 

Finite clause 

V + NG + that-clause 

He assured her that he cared. 

V + NG + wh-interrog. clause She asked me where the library was. 

V + NG + nominal wh clause He told me what I needed to know. 


V + NG + to-inf clause 

She told us to sit down. 


5 Two-complement patterns with complex-transitive verbs 

V + NG + AdjG 

I found it useful. 

V + NG + NG 

They consider him a genius. 

V + NG + as + NG 

They denounced the bill as unconstitutional. 

V + NG + obligatory locative Put the dish in the microwave. 


V + NG + to-infinitive clause They believe him to be a genius. 

V + NG + bare inf clause He made them stand up. 

V + NG + bare infinitive 

She saw two men enter the shop. 

V + NG + -ing clause 

He kept us waiting. 

V + NG + -en clause 

I heard two shots fired. 


Complementation patterns are illustrated in this summary of a well-known radio serial, 

published in The Week: 

The Archers: what happened last week 

Alistair asks David if he will join him in The Three Peaks Challenge 1 [climbing Ben 

Nevis, Scafell and Snowdon in 24 hours]. Oliver asks Caroline to marry him. 2 

[Caroline says no], but suggests they live together at Grange Farm. 3 Oliver is 

delighted. Dross is in trouble now that both Fallon and Ash have left. Kenton teases 

David and Alistair about the mountain challenge 4 and suggests the Ambridge Three 

Peaks instead. 5 They jump at the idea. 6 [Tom’s love life is a source of gossip.] Most 

people think he is going out with Fallon to get at Kirsty. 7 Matt Crawford tells David 

he’s found another bit of land. 8 [Kenton is being driven mad living with his parents] 

and asks David, Kathy and even Elizabeth if he can stay with them. 9 [They all say 

no.] Jill tells Kenton that Daphne’s Café is going to need a manager 10 and suggests 

he has a word with Jack. 11 Kenton begs Jack to give him the job of managing the 

café. 12 



Biber et al. (1999); Duffley (1992); Greenbaum and Quirk (1990); Huddleston and Pullum 

(2002); Levin (1993); Quirk et al. (1985); Thompson (2002); Ungerer and Schmid (1997); 

on the infinitive: Duffley (1992); on frames: Fillmore (1982); on valency: Payne (1977); 

on that-clauses: Thompson (2002). 


The development of the message: Complementation of the verb 

Module 9 

1 †With the help of a monolingual dictionary, say whether the verbs in the examples below 

are (a) exclusively intransitive or (b) can be used either transitively or intransitively: 

(1) Women today are achieving in many professions which were previously open only 

to men. 

(2) The two planes collided in mid-flight. 

(3) He has exhibited in all the major art galleries over the last five years. 

(4) You must be joking! 

(5) Most of our students baby-sit two or three evenings a week. 

(6) Pete doesn’t adapt easily to new situations. 

(7) My brother-in-law ghost-writes for at least two politicians. 

116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(8) The little bird quivered in my hands. 

(9) He thinks he can take me in, but I know when he’s bluffing. 

(10) Those couples who have no children of their own are often eager to adopt. 

2 †Of the verbs which could be used transitively in exercise 1, which ones can be considered 

to have an Object unexpressed (a) by social convention, (b) with reflexive meaning, (c) 

with reciprocal meaning? 

3 †Suggest the underlying semantic valency of the verb pay. 

4 Turn to the text by John Simpson in 9.3 (p. 87). Underline those expressions in the text that 

you consider to be loc/manner/goal Complements. Discuss why they appear to be 

obligatory; hasn’t the verb sufficient semantic weight without them? Discuss those cases in 

which an Adjunct is not present because it is inferrable from the context. 

Module 10 

1 †(a) Choose the most appropriate prepositional verb from the list in 10.3 to fill the gap in 

each of the sentences below. Then (b) put each sentence into the passive: 

(1) You can’t ....Cecil, he has such fixed ideas. 

(2) It is not easy to . . . . old broken furniture. 

(3) They will ....the Minister of Defence to explain the charges of negligence. 

(4) The target they are ....is too high. 

(5) You should . . . . your schedule if you hope to deliver the goods on the agreed 

date. 


2 Explain the semantic difference between ‘She wrote a letter to her brother’ and ‘she wrote 

a letter for her brother’. 

3 With the help of a good dictionary, work out the complementation patterns, and the 

meanings of leave. Give examples. 

Module 11 

1 †Combine the following pairs of clauses so that the first clause can be analysed as an 

embedded constituent of the superordinate clause. Add or omit whatever is necessary. The 

first is done for you: 

(1) He has lived abroad for several years. I gather that from what he says. 

From what he says, I gather (that) he has lived abroad for several years. 

(2) Have we enough petrol to reach Barcelona? I doubt it. 

(3) Is there an emergency kit in the building? Who knows? 

(4) Where is the nearest Metro station? I asked. 

(5) You keep the keys. We have all agreed on that. 


(6) Some of the documents are missing. The Under-Secretary can’t account for it. 

(7) Why doesn’t he look in the safe? I suggest that. 

(8) We have just heard that. The spokesman confirmed it. 

(9) He has been under great strain lately. We must allow for that. 

(10) These letters must be posted today. Will you see to it please? 

2 †Read again section 11.1.2 on dropping or keeping the that- complementiser. Identify 

which factors make for the retention or omission of the subordinator that in each that-clause 

in the examples that follow the explanation on p. 104. 

3 †Give a reason for the omission or retention of that before the embedded clauses in: 

(a) 

(b) 

In a friendly way Wilson had also suggested that Koo travel to France on the same 

boat as the Americans. (The Peacemakers) 

I said I thought she was still crazy about him. (Girls Out Late) 

4 †Analyse the following in terms of recursive embedding: 

He says he’s really sorry he said he’d take someone else to the dance. 

5 †Say which of the italicised clauses in the examples below are nominal relative clauses, 

which are indirect interrogative clauses and which are embedded exclamatives: 

(1) He asked where I had been all afternoon. 

(2) The spokesman announced what we had all been hoping to hear. 

(3) You’ve no idea how cold it was in Granada at Easter. 

(4) They don’t know who sprayed the graffiti on the Faculty walls. 

(5) I said what a pity it was they couldn’t be with us. 

(6) He’s sure to fall in with whatever you suggest. 


6 †Explain why the following constructions are ungrammatical: 

(a) *They suggested to start at 8.00. 

(b) *She explained me the difference between the two constructions. 

Module 12 

1 Answer the following questions using to-infinitive clauses or -ing clauses to express situations 

within the main situation – at least to start off with! 

(1) What do you particularly dislike doing on Monday mornings? 

(2) Is there anything you regret not doing? 

(3) If people go off on holiday without locking up the house, what do they risk? 

(4) What things do you feel you can’t afford? 

(5) What kind of thing would you absolutely refuse to do? 

(6) Is there any kind of situation that you miss when you are away from home? 

118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2 Analyse the following catenative chain: 

They want to try to get all their neighbours to refuse to sign the petition. 

Now try to construct a catenative chain using a series of to-infinitive clauses beginning as 

follows: I hope to . . . 

3 Answer the questions below and note the complementation patterns you use: 

(1) What kind of thing would you find it impossible to promise someone to do? 

(2) Would you rather owe someone money or a favour, or have money or a favour 

owed to you? 

(3) What would you advise an overweight friend to eat? 

(4) How would you encourage an oversensitive person to react? 

(5) How would you help someone to be assertive without being aggressive? 

(6) What would you recommend a bored housewife to do? 

4 †Write out the complementation pattern of each of the following. The first is done for you: 

(1) He never allowed Thomas to drive the jeep in his absence. 

v + NG + to-inf. 

(2) The shopkeeper asked me what I wanted. 

(3) His powerful imagination makes him quite different from the others. 

(4) Keep your shoulders straight. 

(5) He left her sitting on the bridge. 

(6) They like their next-door neighbours to come in for a drink occasionally. 

(7) I would prefer Mike to drive you to the station. 


5 Read again ‘The Archers: what happened last week’ (p. 116). Underline the main verb 

and write out the complementation pattern it determines in each numbered clause. Ignore 

the clauses in brackets. For example, sentence (i) is as follows: V+NG+wh-cl (if = whether). 

6 If you are giving an opinion in English about a person, a place, a thing, an event, etc., 

from a rather subjective point of view, you will find yourself using monotransitive structures 

with that-clause complements (I think she is rather silly), complex transitive complementation 

(Oh, I found her good fun) and copular complementation (He seems rather too full of 

himself). Discuss among a group of friends a person, place or event known to you all. 

Tape your conversation (try to forget you are being recorded!) and then analyse what you 

have said. Note the constructions you have not used. 

7 With the help of a good dictionary, work out the various complementation patterns that 

the following verbs can control: prefer and drive. 


CONCEPTUALISING CHAPTER 4 

PATTERNS OF EXPERIENCE 

Processes, participants, circumstances 

Module 13: Conceptualising experiences expressed as 

situation types 122 

13.1 Processes, participants, circumstances 122 

13.1.1 The process 123 

13.1.2 The participant roles (semantic functions) involved 

in the situation 124 

13.1.3 The circumstantial roles associated with the process 124 

13.2 Types of process 125 

13.3 Inherent participants and actualised participants 125 

Module 14: Material processes of doing and happening 128 


14.1 Agent and Affected in voluntary processes of ‘doing’ 128 

14.2 Force 130 

14.3 Affected subject of involuntary processes of ‘happening’ 130 

Module 15: Causative processes 132 

15.1 Causative material processes and ergative pairs 132 

15.2 Analytical causatives with a resulting Attribute 134 

15.3 Pseudo-intransitives 135 

Module 16: Processes of transfer 137 

16.1 Recipient and Beneficiary in processes of transfer 137 

16.2 Summary of material process types 138 

Module 17: Conceptualising what we think, perceive 

and feel 139 

17.1 Mental processes 139 

17.2 Cognitive processes: knowing, thinking and believing 141

17.3 Perception processes: seeing, hearing and feeling 142 

17.4 Affective and desiderative processes: liking and wanting 142 

17.4.1 Affective processes: loving and hating 142 

17.4.2 Desiderative processes: wanting and wishing 143 

Module 18: Relational processes of being and becoming 144 

18.1 Types of being 144 

18.2 The Attributive pattern 145 

18.3 Circumstantial relational processes 146 

18.4 Possessive relational processes 146 

18.5 The Identifying pattern 148 

Module 19: Processes of saying, behaving and existing 151 

19.1 Verbal processes 151 

19.2 Behavioural processes 152 

19.3 Existential processes 153 

Module 20: Expressing attendant circumstances 155 

20.1 Place, time and other circumstances 155 

20.2 Range 158 


Module 21: Conceptualising experiences from a different 

angle: Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor 160 

21.1 Basic realisations and metaphorical realisations 160 

21.2 Nominalisation as a feature of grammatical metaphor 162 

21.2.1 Process realised as entity 163 

21.2.2 Attribute realised as entity 164 

21.2.3 Circumstance as entity 164 

21.2.4 Dependent situation as entity 164 

21.3 High and low transitivity 165 

21.4 Summary of processes, participants and circumstances 166 


Exercises 167

CONCEPTUALISING MODULE 13 

EXPERIENCES EXPRESSED 

AS SITUATION TYPES 

SUMMARY 

1 Semantically, a clause represents a pattern of experience, conceptualised as a 

situation type. 

2 Situation types comprise three main types: material, mental and relational. There 

are also three subsidiary types: behavioural, verbal and existential. 

3 Each situation type consists of the following: 

• The process: the central part of the situation, realised by a verb. Process 

types include those of doing, happening, experiencing, being and existing. 

• Participant roles: these symbolically represent the persons, things and abstract 

entities involved in the process. 

• Attributes: the elements which characterise, identify or locate the participant. 

• Circumstances: those of time, place, manner, condition, etc. attendant on 

the situation. 


4 The type of process determines the nature and number of the participants. 

Certain inherent participants can remain unactualised when understood in the 

context. 

5 The valency of the verb specifies the number of inherent participants of 

any process, and by reduction indicates the result of unactualising one or 

more participants. This type of analysis runs parallel to the traditional 

transitive–intransitive analysis. 

13.1 PROCESSES, PARTICIPANTS, CIRCUMSTANCES 

In this chapter we look at the clause as a grammatical means of encoding patterns of 

experience. A fundamental property of language is that it enables us to conceptualise 

and describe our experience, whether of the actions and events, people and things of 

122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

the external world, or of the internal world of our thoughts, feelings and perceptions. 

This is done through transitivity, contemplated in a broad sense, which encompasses 

not only the verb but the semantic configuration of situation types. 

The clause is, here too then, the most significant grammatical unit. It is the unit 

that enables us to organise the wealth of our experience, both semantically and syntactically, 

into a manageable number of representational patterns or schemas. Our personal 

‘construals’ of each individual situation are then selected from these patterns. In describing 

an event, for instance, we might say that it just happened, or that it was caused 

by someone’s deliberate intervention, or that it is unusual, or that we feel sad about 

it, among other possible construals. In this chapter we will be talking about patterns of 

‘doing’, ‘happening’, ‘experiencing’ and ‘being’ as the main types, together with a small 

number of subsidiary types. 

As language-users, we are interested in events and especially in the human 

participants involved and the qualities we ascribe to them, what they do, say and feel, 

their possessions and the circumstances in which the event takes place. The semantic 

schema for a situation, therefore, consists potentially of the following components: 

• the process (a technical term for the action (e.g. hit, run), state (e.g. have) or change 

of state (e.g. melt, freeze) involved. 

• the participant(s) involved in the process (basically, who or what is doing what to 

whom); 

• the attributes ascribed to participants; and 

• the circumstances attendant on the process, in terms of time, place, manner, and 

so on. 


13.1.1 The process 

There is no satisfactory general term to cover that central part of a situation, the part 

which is typically realised by the verb and which can be an action, a state, a meteorological 

phenomenon, a process of sensing, saying or simply existing. Following Halliday, 

we here use the term ‘process’ for all these types. We can also analyse them as dynamic 

processes and stative processes. 

Dynamic and stative processes 

Dynamic situations and processes involve something that occurs or happens; they can 

be tested for by means of the question ‘What happened?’ Stative situations and 

processes are conceived of as durative over time, and as existing rather than happening, 

so it doesn’t make sense to ask ‘What happened?’ in such cases. Generally, dynamic 

processes easily occur in the progressive (Pete is going away) and the imperative (Go 

away, Pete!), whereas most stative processes don’t usually accept the progressive or the 

imperative (*Pete is seeming kind. *Hear a noise!). See also 43.5. 

CONCEPTUALISING: PROCESSES AND PARTICIPANTS 123

13.1.2 The participant roles (semantic functions) involved 

in the situation 

In classifying situations into schemas, we filter out the wealth of detail that we find in 

our personal experiences, to focus on the salient participant(s) that belong to different 

types of situation. These are usually just one or two, at the most three. When one of the 

participants is human, it is typically assigned the primary role (Agent/Subject) in 

the semantic and syntactic constructions. This is a consequence of our anthropocentric 

orientation in conceptualising events. 

While human participants occupy a prime place among the semantic roles, the term 

‘participant’ does not refer exclusively to persons or animals, but includes things and 

abstractions. A participant can be the one who carries out the action or the one who is 

affected by it; it can be the one who experiences something by seeing or feeling; it 

can be a person or thing that simply exists. The terminology used to identfy participant 

roles may be less familiar to you than the corresponding syntactic terms. As we go on, 

you will find that labels are useful in semantics, just as in syntax, in order to talk about 

concepts. We will try to keep them as simple and transparent as possible. 

The Attributes ascribed to entities either identify or characterise the entity, 

or state its location in space or time. They are realised syntactically by the intensive 

Complements (Complement of the Subject and Complement of the Object). 

13.1.3 The circumstantial roles associated with the process 

These include the well-known circumstances of time, place, manner and condition, 

as well as a few others. They are typically optional in the semantic structure, just as 

their adjunctive counterparts are in the syntactic structure. Circumstances can, however, 

be inherent to the situation: for instance, location is obligatory with certain senses 

of ‘be’, as in the ice-cream’s over there, and with ‘put’ in its sense of ‘placing’ as in let’s 

put it in the freezer (see 4.2.1; 10.8). 


Fred bought a new shirt in Oxford Street yesterday 

Participant Process Participant Circumstance Circumstance 

At the present time the state of the is critical 

economy 

Circumstance Participant Process Attribute 

We have now outlined the framework that will serve to carry the different configurations 

of semantic functions that go to make up semantic structures. It is not the 

case, however, that any particular configuration is inherently given in nature. There are 

various ways of conceptualising a situation, according to our needs of the moment and 

what the lexico-grammatical resources of a language permit. 

For instance, on the day planned for a river picnic we may look out of the window 

and say it’s cloudy, specifying simply a state (is) and an Attribute (cloudy); alternatively, 

124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

that the sky is cloudy, adding a participant (the sky) for the Attribute. More ominously, 

someone might say the clouds are gathering, in which the situation is represented as a 

dynamic happening rather than as a state, with a participant (clouds) and a dynamic 

process (are gathering), leaving implicit the circumstance of place (in the sky). Or we may 

say nothing at all about the clouds, but instead interpret what we see by saying I think 

it’s going to rain. 

There is no one-to-one correlation between semantic structures and syntactic 

structures; rather, the semantic categories cut across the syntactic ones, although with 

some correlation. Semantic structures and syntactic structures do not, therefore, always 

coincide; rather, they overlap. In both cases, however, it is the process, expressed by 

the verb, that determines the choice of participants in the semantic structure and of 

syntactic elements in the syntactic structure. In Chapter 3 the possible syntactic combinations 

are discussed from the point of view of verb complementation and verb type. 

In this chapter we shall start from the semantics; at the same time we shall try to relate 

the choice of semantic roles to their syntactic realisations. 

One obvious problem in the identification of participants and processes is the 

vastness and variety of the physical world, and the difficulty involved in reducing this 

variety to a few prototypical semantic roles and processes. All we can attempt to do is 

to specify the paradigm cases, and indicate where more detailed specification would be 

necessary in order to account semantically for the varied shades of our experience. 

13.2 TYPES OF PROCESS 

There are three main types of process: 


(a) Material processes are processes of ‘doing’ (e.g. kick, run, eat, give) or ‘happening’ 

(e.g. fall, melt, collapse, slip). 

(b) Mental processes, or processes of ‘experiencing’ or ‘sensing’ (e.g. see, hear, feel, 

know, like, want, regret). 

(c) Relational processes, or processes of ‘being’ (e.g. be, seem) or ‘becoming’ (e.g. 

become, turn), in which a participant is characterised, or identified, or situated 

circumstantially. 

There are also three subsidiary processes: behavioural, verbal and existential. We shall 

see, as we go on, that the presence or absence of volition and energy are important 

factors in distinguishing between processes. 

13.3 INHERENT PARTICIPANTS AND ACTUALISED 

PARTICIPANTS 

Most processes are accompanied by one or more inherent participants; the nature 

of the process determines how many and what kind of participants are involved. 

The material process represented by the verb fall for instance, has only one participant, 

whereas kick typically requires two: one participant is the Agent who carries out the 


action, and must be ‘animate’ and typically ‘human’; the other is the participant affected 

by the action of kicking, and is not required to be human, or even animate. 

In the example Ted kicked the ball both the inherent participants are actualised as 

Ted and the ball. If we say Ted kicked hard, however, only one participant, the Agent, is 

actualised. The second participant, the one affected by the action, is unactualised but 

understood. In everyday uses of English, speakers frequently find it convenient not to 

actualise certain inherent participants. Give, for instance, is typically a three-participant 

process as in Mary gave the Red Cross a donation. Only two participants are actualised, 

however, in Mary gave a donation and only one in Mary gave generously. 

Certain participants are omitted in this way when they are conventionally understood 

from the context of culture or context of situation, for example: 

Do you drive? (a car) 

Have you eaten yet? (lunch/dinner) 

Shall I pour? (the tea/coffee) 

Our team is winning (the match/race) 

I can’t see from here (the screen, the time . . .) 

The participant is not specific in electricity can kill, remarks like that can hurt, elephants 

never forget, Enjoy! and is perhaps not even known to the speaker in he teaches, she writes. 

Processes such as meet and kiss can be understood as having implicit reciprocity in, for 

instance, your sister and I have never met (each other). 

Some processes have typically no participants; for example, statements about the 

weather, time and distance such as it’s snowing, it’s half past eleven, it’s a long walk to the 

beach. In these the pronoun it is merely a surface form required to realise the obligatory 

Subject element. It has no corresponding semantic function. 


Traditionally, the term intransitive has been used to refer to verbs that express 

one-participant processes such as fall or no-participant processes such as rain, whose 

action does not extend to any Object. The term transitive has been used to refer to 

verbs and clauses in which the process is extended to one or more Objects. Following 

this convention, give is transitive in Mary gave a donation but intransitive in Give generously! 

Similarly, the semantic analysis into actualised and unactualised participants is 

paralleled by the syntactic analysis of verbs such as drive, eat etc. as being either 

transitive (taking an Object) or intransitive (with no Object). 

In this book we shall use ‘transitive’ and ‘intransitive’ as syntactic terms, while 

referring semantically to one-, two- or three-participant processes, with ‘actualised’ or 

‘unactualised’ inherent participants. 

The number of participants (including the subject) involved in a process can also be 

referred to as its valency. A process with one participant is said to be monovalent 

– as in the ice melted. A process with two participants is bivalent – as in the postman 

rides a motorcycle; a process with three participants is trivalent – as in Mary gave 

the Red Cross a donation. The valency is reduced from three to two, or from two to 

one when participants are not actualised, as in the examples above (see also Chapter 

3, Introduction). 

To sum up, processes such as eat and see each have two inherent participants (the 

one who eats or sees, and the one that is eaten or seen). But in our previously listed 

126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

examples only one is actualised. The items in brackets represent the conventionally 

understood second participant. As regards valency, in each case the normal valency of 

two is reduced to one. As regards transitivity, each of the verbs is potentially transitive, 

but as the second participant is unactualised, the use is intransitive. 



MATERIAL PROCESSES OF MODULE 14 

DOING AND HAPPENING 

SUMMARY 

1 The first main category of processes, material processes, includes several 

kinds: ‘doing’, ‘happening’, ‘causing’ and ‘transferring’. Typically, the action 

of ‘doing’ is carried out by a volitional, controlling human participant: the Agent. 

A non-controlling inanimate agent is called Force, for instance an earthquake. 

2 In processes of doing, the action either extends no further than the Agent itself, 

as in she resigned, or it extends to another participant, the Affected (the ball in 

Pelé kicked the ball). A special type of ‘doing’ is the process of transfer, in which 

an Agent transfers an Affected participant to a Recipient or is intended for a 

Beneficiary (give someone a present, make someone a cake, respectively). 


3 In involuntary processes of happening, the Affected undergoes the happening 

(the roof fell in, the old man collapsed). 

4 The order of elements in the semantic structures is iconic, that is, the linguistic 

ordering of the event reflects our conceptualisation of the event. 

14.1 AGENT AND AFFECTED IN VOLUNTARY PROCESSES 

OF ‘DOING’ 

Material processes express an action or activity which is typically carried out by a 

‘doer’ or Agent. By ‘Agent’ we mean an entity having energy, volition and intention that 

is capable of initiating and controlling the action, usually to bring about some change 

of location or properties in itself or others. Agents are typically human. 

A. Agentive Subject of a voluntary process of ‘doing’ – They all left 

A voluntary one-participant process can be carried out by an Agent as Subject operating 

on itself: 

128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Agent 

The Prime Minister 

We 

Process 

resigned 

sat down 

One-participant voluntary material processes answer the question What did X do? 

(What did the Prime Minister do? The Prime Minister resigned.) To test for Agent, we 

can ask the question Who resigned? (The Prime Minister did). 

B. Affected participant in a voluntary process of ‘doing’ – Ted hit Bill 

With action processes such as resigning and sitting down, the action does not extend 

to another participant. With others, such as hitting and carrying, it does. The second 

participant is someone or something affected by the action denoted by the verb in an 

active clause, as a result of the energy flow. This participant is called the Affected (other 

terms in use for this participant are Patient and Goal). 

Agent Process Affected 

Ted hit Bill 

Pelé kicked the ball 

The porter is carrying our baggage 


For those material processes that have two participants, an Agent and an Affected, 

it also makes sense to ask the question What did Ted do? (He hit Bill), and to identify 

the Affected by the question ‘Who(m) did Bill hit?’ 

C. Affected Subject in a passive clause – Bill was hit by Ted 

Consequently, if the process extends to an Affected participant, the representation can 

be made in two forms, either active, in which Agent conflates with Subject, as above, 

or passive, in which Affected conflates with Subject: 

Affected Material process Agent 

Bill was hit by Ted 

The ball was kicked by Pelé 

Our baggage is being carried by the porter 

A further kind of material process is illustrated in Fiona made a cake and Dave wrote 

a letter. Neither the cake nor the letter existed before the process of making or writing, 

so they cannot be classed as ‘Affecteds’. Rather, they are created as a result of the 

process, and can be called ‘Effected participants’. However, no syntactic distinction is 

made between Affected and Effected participants; the distinction is purely semantic. 


14.2 FORCE 

The notion of agency is a complex one, which includes such features as animacy, 

intention, motivation, responsibility and the use of one’s own energy to initiate or control 

a process. In central instances, all these features will be present. In non-central instances, 

one or more of these features may be absent. If we say, for example, that the horse 

splashed us with mud as it passed we do not imply that the horse did so deliberately. We 

do not attribute intentionality or responsibility or motivation to the horse in this situation. 

We might call it an ‘unwitting Agent’. 

The higher animals, and especially pets, are often treated grammatically as if they 

were humans. Nevertheless, rather than devise a different term for every subtype of 

agency we will make just one further distinction: that between animate and inanimate 

Agents. This is useful in order to account for such natural phenomena as earthquakes, 

lightning, electricity, avalanches, the wind, tides and floods, which may affect humans 

and their possessions. They are inanimate, and their power or energy cannot therefore 

be intentional. They can instigate a process but not control it. This non-controlling entity 

we call Force; it will include such psychological states as anxiety, fear or joy. 

Force Process Affected 

The volcano erupted 

Lightning struck the oak tree 

An earthquake destroyed most of the city 

Anxiety can ruin your health 


In the following description, the subjects in italics realise the role of Force and most 

of the verbs encode material processes: 

The cold crept in from the corners of the shanty, closer and closer to the stove. Icycold 

breezes sucked and fluttered the curtains around the beds. The little shanty 

quivered in the storm. But the steamy smell of boiling beans was good and it seemed 

to make the air warmer. 

(Laura Ingalls Wilder, The Long Winter) 

14.3 AFFECTED SUBJECT OF INVOLUNTARY PROCESSES 

OF ‘HAPPENING’ 

Not all material processes involve a voluntary action carried out by an Agent. In 

situations expressed as Jordan slipped on the ice, the roof collapsed, the children have grown, 

the vase fell off the shelf, the participant, even when animate, is neither controlling nor 

initiating the action. This is proved by the inappropriateness of the question ‘What did 

130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

X do?’ and of the wh-cleft test (*What the children did was grow). Rather, we should ask 

‘What happened to X?’ The participant on which the action centres in such cases is, 

then, Affected. It is found in involuntary transitional processes such as grow and melt, 

which represent the passage from one state to another, and in involuntary actions and 

events such as fall, slip and collapse, which may have an animate or an inanimate 

participant. 

Affected Subject Involuntary process Circumstance 

Jordan slipped on the ice 

The children 

have grown 

The roof 

collapsed 

The vase fell off the shelf 

In the following passage almost all the clauses are intransitive: the Subject participant 

varies from Agentive (voluntary) to Affected (involuntary animate, or inanimate). 

Encounter between an Indian father and his son 

So I raced out of my room, 1 with my fingers in my ears, to scream 2 till the roof fell 

3 

down about their ears. 

But the radio suddenly went off, 4 the door to my parents’ room suddenly opened 5 

and my father appeared, 6 bathed and shaven, his white ‘dhoti’ blazing, 7 his white 

shirt crackling, 8 his patent leather pumps glittering. 9 He stopped 10 in the doorway 

and I stopped 11 on the balls of my feet and wavered. 12 

(Anita Desai, Games at Twilight) 


1 

Agentive Subject; 2 implicit Agentive Subject; 3 Affected inanimate Subject; 4 Affected inanimate 

Subject; 5 Affected inanimate Subject; 6 Agentive Subject; 7 Affected inanimate Subject; 8 Affected 

inanimate Subject; 9 Affected inanimate Subject; 10 Agentive Subject; 11 Agentive Subject; 

12 

animate diminished volition 

The high number of one-participant processes in this text helps to make us participate 

in the boy’s apprehension. Inanimate objects (radio, door, roof, ‘dhoti’, shirt, pumps) 

appear to take on a life of their own, able to carry out actions which to him are potentially 

violent and threatening (fall down, blaze, crackle, glitter). Potentially threatening, too, are 

his father’s actions, in this context. They are not extended to any other entity; he simply 

appears and stops. But the foreboding is there. The boy’s actions are not directed towards 

anything except escape (race out). But this initial volition weakens, becomes semivoluntary 

(scream) and is almost lost in the final intransitive (wavers). 


CAUSATIVE PROCESSES MODULE 15 

SUMMARY 

1 In causative material processes some external Agent or Force causes something 

to happen. In the paradigm case, a responsible, purposeful human Agent 

directly causes an Affected to undergo the action named by the verb. The 

Affected, not the Agent, is the inherent participant that undergoes the process, 

as in I rang the bell. 

2 When the Affected object of a transitive-causative clause is the same as the 

Affected subject of the corresponding intransitive clause, we have an ‘ergative 

pair’. 

3 A ‘pseudo-intransitive’ expresses the facility of a participant to undergo a 


process: Glass breaks easily. 

15.1 CAUSATIVE MATERIAL PROCESSES AND ERGATIVE 

PAIRS 

The prototypical pattern of direct causation is quite complex. A controlling, purposeful, 

responsible Agent directs its energy towards something or someone (the Affected), so 

that this undergoes the action named by the verb, with a consequent change of state. 

The following example illustrate this transitive-causative structure. 

Initiating Agent Process Affected 

Paul opened the door 

Pat boiled the water 

I rang the bell 

From this perspective, the action of boiling, ringing, etc. is initiated by a controlling 

Agent or a Force participant: The sun melted the ice. 

132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The Affected is, however, the essential participant, the one primarily involved in the 

action. It is the door that opens, the water that boils and the bell that rings. 

If we conceptualise the situation from a different angle, in which no Agent initiator 

is present, we encode the process as ‘happening’ of its own accord. An Agent can’t be 

added. This is the anti-causative structure. 

Affected 

The door 

The water 

The bell 

Process 

opened 

boiled 

rang 

When the Affected object of a transitive clause (e.g. the bell) is the same as the 

Affected subject of an intransitive clause, we have an ergative alternation or ergative 

pair, as in I rang the bell (transitive) and the bell rang (intransitive). This key participant 

in both cases is sometimes called the Medium. Ergative systems in many languages are 

ordinarily characterised by morphological case marking, the subject of the intransitive 

clause and the object of the transitive clause being marked in the same way, while the 

Agentive subject is marked differently. This is not the case with English which instead 

marks both the subject of an intransitive clause and that of a transitive clause as nominative, 

and the object of the transitive as accusative. We can see this in the two meanings 

of leave: he left (went away, intrans.), he left them (abandon, trans.). 

Nevertheless, the term ‘ergative’ has been extended to English on the basis of the 

semantic association between S (intrans.) and O (trans.) in alternations illustrated by 

boil, ring, etc. The semantic similarity between these two is one of change of state. 

The test for recognising an ergative pair is that the causative-transitive, twoparticipant 

structure must always allow for the corresponding one-participant, anticausative 

structure. Compare the previous examples (e.g. he opened the door/the door 

opened) with the following, in which the first, although transitive, is not causative. There 

is no intransitive counterpart, and consequently, no ergative pair: 


Pelé kicked the ball. 

*The ball kicked 

Ergative pairs account for many of the most commonly used verbs in English, some of 

which are listed below, with examples: 

burn 

break 

burst 

close 

cook 

fade 

freeze 

I’ve burned the toast. The toast has burned. 

The wind broke the branches. The branches broke. 

She burst the balloon. The balloon burst. 

He closed his eyes. His eyes closed. 

I’m cooking the rice. The rice is cooking. 

The sun has faded the carpet. The carpet has faded. 

The low temperature has frozen the milk. The milk has frozen. 


melt 

run 

stretch 

tighten 

wave 

The heat has melted the ice. The ice has melted. 

Tim is running the bathwater. The bathwater is running. 

I stretched the elastic. The elastic stretched. 

He tightened the rope. The rope tightened. 

Someone waved a flag. A flag waved. 

Within this alternation – described here as an ‘ergative pair’ – there is a set of basically 

intransitive volitional activities (walk, jump, march) in which the second participant is 

involved either willingly or unwillingly. The control exerted by the Agent predominates 

in the causative-transitive: 

He walked the dogs in the park. 

He jumped the horse over the fence 

The sergeant marched the soldiers. 

The dogs walked. 

The horse jumped over the fence. 

The soldiers marched. 

It is also possible to have an additional agent and an additional causative verb in the 

transitive clauses of ergative pairs; for example, The child got his sister to ring the bell, Mary 

made Peter boil the water. 

15.2 ANALYTICAL CAUSATIVES WITH A RESULTING 

ATTRIBUTE 


One final type of causative we will consider is the analytical type, based on combinations 

with verbs such as make and turn. In these an Agent brings about a change of state in 

the Affected participant. The resulting state is expressed by an Attribute (Complement 

of the Object in a syntactic analysis). 

Agent Process Affected Resulting Attribute 

They are making the road wider and safer. 

This machine will make your tasks simple. 

The heat has turned the milk sour. 

Pat had her face lifted. 

The resulting change of state in the Affected participant is sometimes part of the 

meaning of a morphologically related causative verb: widen is the equivalent of make 

wide and simplify means make simple. With such verbs there are alternative SPOd 

causative structures: They are widening the road; This machine will simplify your tasks. For 

other adjectives such as safe there is no corresponding causative verb. Certain dynamic 

verbs such as turn can be used in specific causative senses in English. Have introduces 

a passive sense, expressed by a participle (cause to be -en). 

Analytical causatives and causative-transitives are illustrated in the following text: 

134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The cold wind made the horses eager to go. 1 They pricked their ears forward and 

back 2 and tossed their heads, 3 jingling the bits 4 and pretending to shy at their own 

shadows. They stretched their noses forward, 5 pulling on the bits and prancing to 

go faster. 

(Laura Ingalls Wilder, The Long Winter) 

1 

causing a change of state (eager) in the Affected participant (horses); 2 causing the Affected 

(their ears) to undergo an action (prick . . . forward and back); 3 causing the Affected (their 

heads) to undergo an action (toss); 4 causing the Affected (the bits) to undergo an action (jingle); 

5 

causing the Affected (their noses) to undergo an action (stretch . . .). 

Clauses 2, 3, 4 and 5 contain verbs used causatively and could have an anti-causative 

counterpart: 

Their ears pricked forward and back 

Their heads tossed 

The bits jingled 

Their noses stretched forward 

In clause 1 the cold wind is the inanimate causer, which initiates the action. In the 

remaining clauses they (the horses) are the causative Agent, setting in motion parts of 

themselves or their harness. By choosing the two-participant, rather than the oneparticipant 

structure, the author is able to present the horses as lively, eager beings. 


15.3 PSEUDO-INTRANSITIVES 

A further type of Affected Subject occurs with certain processes (break, read, translate, 

wash, tan, fasten, lock) which are intrinsically transitive, but in this construction are 

construed as intransitive, with an Affected subject. 

Glass breaks easily. 

This box doesn’t shut/close/lock/fasten properly. 

Colloquial language translates badly. 

Some synthetic fibres won’t wash. Usually they dry-clean. 

Fair skin doesn’t tan quickly, it turns red. 

Pseudo-intransitives differ from other intransitives in the following ways: 

• They express a general property or propensity of the entity to undergo (or not 

undergo) the process in question. Compare glass breaks easily with the glass broke, 

which refers to a specific event. 

• Pseudo-intransitives tend to occur in the present tense. 


• The verb is accompanied by negation, or a modal (often will/won’t), or an adverb 

such as easily, well, any of which specify the propensity or otherwise of the thing to 

undergo the process. 

• A cause is implied but an Agent can’t be added in a by-phrase. 

• There is no corresponding transitive construction, either active or passive, that 

exactly expresses the same meaning as these intransitives. To say, for instance, 

colloquial language is translated badly is to make a statement about translators’ 

supposed lack of skill, rather than about a property of colloquial language. The 

difficulty of even paraphrasing this pattern shows how specific and useful it is. 

For the similarity of intransitive subjects and transitive objects as conveyors of new 

information, see Chapter 6. These are the roles in which new information is overwhelmingly 

expressed. 

See 30.3 for passive counterparts of active structures and 30.3.3 for the get-passive. 

These, like copular counterparts, are not identical in meaning to the structures discussed 

here, but demonstrate some of the many ways of conceptualising an event. 

Ed broke the glass 

The glass was broken (by Ed) 

The glass got broken 

The glass was already broken 

The glass broke 

Glass breaks easily 

active 

be-passive 

get-passive 

copular (state) 

(anti-causative) 

(pseudo-intransitive) 


136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PROCESSES OF TRANSFER MODULE 16 

SUMMARY 

1 There are three participants in the processes of transfer: Agent, Affected and 

Recipient or Beneficiary. 

2 The Recipient is a central participant in three-participant processes such as give. 

It encodes the one who receives the transferred material. 

3 The Beneficiary is the optional, non-central participant in three-participant 

processes such as fetch. It represents the one for whom some service is done. 


16.1 RECIPIENT AND BENEFICIARY IN PROCESSES OF 

TRANSFER 

With processes that encode transfer – such as give, send, lend, charge, pay, offer and owe 

– the action expressed by the verb extends not only to the Affected but to a third inherent 

participant, the Recipient, as in: 

Ed gave the cat a bit of tuna. 

Bill’s father has lent us his car. 

Have you paid the taxi-driver the right amount? 

The Recipient is the one who usually receives the ‘goods’, permission or information. 

(With owe there is a ‘moral’ Recipient who has not yet received anything.) 

The Beneficiary, by contrast is the optional, not inherent, participant for whom some 

service is done. This often amounts to being the intended recipient. However, it is not 

necessarily the same as receiving the goods. I can bake you a cake, but perhaps you 

don’t want it. 

This difference is reflected in English in the syntax of verbs such as fetch, get, make, 

buy, order and many verbs of preparation such as cook, bake and mix, which can be 

replaced by make. These can represent services done for people rather than actions to 

people. 


Nurse, could you fetch me a glass of water? 

Yes, but soon I’ll bring you your orange juice. I’ll get you something to read, too. 

Semantically, both Recipient and Beneficiary are typically animate and human, while 

syntactically both are realised as indirect object (see 6.2.1). Occasionally an inanimate 

Recipient occurs as in: ‘We’ll give the unemployment question priority.’ An inanimate 

Beneficiary is possible but unlikely: ?I’ve bought the computer a new mouse. 

The two syntactic tests for distinguishing Recipient from Beneficiary, namely 

passivisation and the prepositional counterpart, are discussed in 6.2.1 and 10.4.1. 

Recipient and Beneficiary can occur together in the same clause, as in the following 

example, which illustrates the difference between the one who is given the goods (me) 

and the intended recipient (my daughter): She gave me a present for my daughter. 

Both Recipient and Beneficiary may be involved in processes of an unbeneficial 

nature such as they sent him a letter-bomb, in which him is Recipient; and they set him a 

trap in which him is Beneficiary. 

16.2 SUMMARY OF MATERIAL PROCESS TYPES 

Example Participant(s) Type 

The Prime Minister resigned Agent doing (intrans.) 

Ed kicked the ball Agent + Affected doing (trans.) 

The volcano erupted Force doing (intrans.) 

The dog died Affected happening (intrans.) 

Ed broke the glass Agent initiator + Aff/Medium causative-trans. 

The glass broke Affected/Medium anti-causative 

Glass breaks easily Affected pseudo-intrans. 

The glass was broken (by Ed) Affected (+ optional Agent) passive 

The glass got broken Affected get-passive 

They made the road wider Ag. + Aff + Attribute analytical causative 

Ed gave the cat a bit of tuna Ag. + Rec + Aff transfer (trans.) 


138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CONCEPTUALISING WHAT MODULE 17 

WE THINK, PERCEIVE AND FEEL 

SUMMARY 

1 Mental processes comprise processes of perception (see, hear, feel), of 

cognition (know, understand, believe) and of affection and desideration (like, 

fear; want, wish). 

2 There is always a conscious participant, the Experiencer, who perceives, 

knows, likes, etc. There is usually a second participant, the Phenomenon – 

that which is perceived, known, liked or wanted. 


17.1 MENTAL PROCESSES 

Not all situations that we wish to express linguistically centre on doings and happenings. 

Mental processes are those through which we organise our mental contact with the 

world. There are four main types: cognition, such as know, understand, believe, doubt, 

remember and forget; perception, encoded by verbs such as see, notice, hear, feel and 

taste; affectivity, such as like, love, admire, miss and hate; desideration such as hope, 

want, desire and wish. Some of these are illustrated in the following invented sequence: 

Tom saw a ball in the tall grass. He knew it wasn’t his, but he wanted to get it. He 

didn’t realise there were lots of nettles among the grass. He soon felt his hands 

stinging. He wished he had noticed the nettles. 

With mental processes it makes no sense, as it does with material processes, to talk 

about who is doing what to whom. In, for example, Jill liked the present, Jill is not doing 

anything, and the gift is not affected in any way. We can’t apply the ‘doing to’ test to 

processes of liking and disliking, asking for instance ‘What did Jill do to the present?’ 

In many cases, a better test is to question the Experiencer’s reaction to something. It is 

therefore inappropriate to call Jill an Agent and the present the Affected. Rather, we need 

two more semantic roles: 


Jill liked the present 

Experiencer Process Phenomenon 

The Experiencer (or Senser) is the participant who sees, feels, thinks, likes, etc., and 

is typically human, but may also be an animal or even a personified inanimate object 

(The rider heard a noise, the horse sensed danger, your car knows what it needs). The use of 

a non-conscious entity as Experiencer in a mental process is often exploited for 

commercial ends, as in this last example. 

The second participant in a mental process, that which is perceived, known, liked, 

etc., is called the Phenomenon. Mental processes are typically stative and nonvolitional. 

When they occur in the present tense they typically take the simple, rather 

than the progressive, form. Compare this feature with material process verbs, for 

which the more usual, ‘unmarked’ form for expressing a happening in the present is 

the progressive. Another feature of stative verbs is that they do not easily occur in the 

imperative (Know thyself is a famous exception). 

*Jill is liking the present *Like the present, Jill! (mental) 

Bill is mending the bicycle. Mend the bicycle, Bill! (material) 

Mental processes can sometimes be expressed with the Phenomenon filling the Subject 

slot and the Experiencer as Object, although not necessarily by means of the same verb. 

This means that we have two possible construals of the mental experience: in the one 

case, the human participant reacts to a phenomenon, as in 1 and 2, while in the other 

the phenomenon activates the attention of the experiencer, as in 3 and 4. Reversibility 

is helped by the fact that the passive is possible with many mental processes: 


Experiencer Process Phenomenon 

1 I don’t understand his motives 

2 Most people are horrified by the increase in violence 

Phenomenon Process Experiencer 

3 His motives elude me 

4 The increase in violence horrifies most people 

Similarly, English has the verb please, which is used occasionally in this way: I don’t 

think her choice pleased her mother (BNC G31639). More often ‘pleased’ is used as an 

adjective, as in he was very pleased with himself, which adjusts to the predominant pattern 

by which human subjects are preferred to non-human ones. ‘Pleased’ also tends to be 

equivalent to ‘satisfied’ or polite ‘willing’ as in University officers will be pleased to advise 

anyone ...(BNC G31 871), which is quite different affectively from ‘like’. 

In all the examples so far, the Phenomenon has been a single entity, expressed as a 

nominal group as the Object of the verb. But it can also be a fact, a process or a whole 

situation, realised by a clause (see 11.1), as in the following examples: 

140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

We knew that it would be difficult 

Nobody saw the train go off the rails 

I fancy going for a swim 

17.2 COGNITIVE PROCESSES: KNOWING, THINKING AND 

BELIEVING 

Cognitive processes are encoded by such stative verbs as believe, doubt, guess, know, 

recognise, think, forget, mean, remember, understand. A selection of examples is given 

below. Feel is also regularly used as an equivalent of ‘believe’. Most verbs of cognition 

have as their Phenomenon a wide range of things apprehended, including human, 

inanimate and abstract entities encoded as nominal groups (a) and (b). Facts, beliefs, 

doubts, perceptions and expectations are encoded as finite that-clauses (c) and (f), finite 

wh-clauses (e), or non-finite clauses (d), as discussed in modules 11 and 12. 

Experiencer Cognitive process Phenomenon 

I don’t know anyone of that name (entity) (a) 

Everybody remembered his face (entity) (b) 

Susan felt that the first idea was the best (fact) (c) 

She has forgotten to leave us a key (situation) (d) 

Nobody realised that it was too late (situation) (e) 

Beryl thought that you were ill (belief) (f) 


Many cognitive processes allow the Phenomenon to be unexpressed when this is 

‘Given information’ (see 29.2), for example I don’t know, Jill doesn’t understand, Nobody 

will remember. 

In the following short extract, the author has chosen processes of cognition, perception, 

affection and one behavioural to reflect the mental make-up of a meteorologist 

whose work contributed to chaos theory: 

Lorenz enjoyed 1 weather – by no means a prerequisite for a research meteorologist. 

He savored 2 its changeability. He appreciated 3 the patterns that come and go in the 

atmosphere, families of eddies and cyclones, always obeying mathematical rules, yet 

never repeating themselves. When he looked 4 at clouds he thought 5 he saw 6 a kind 

of structure in them. Once he had feared 7 that studying the science of weather would 

be like prying a jack-in-the-box apart with a screwdriver. Now he wondered 8 whether 

science would be able to penetrate the magic at all. Weather had a flavor that could 

not be expressed by talking about averages. 

(James Gleick, Chaos, Making a New Science) 

1 

affection; 2 perception; 3 cognition; 4 behavioural; 5 cognition; 6 perception; 7 affection; 8 cognition 


17.3 PERCEPTION PROCESSES: SEEING, HEARING AND 

FEELING 

As expressed by the non-volitional senses of see and hear in English, perception is an 

involuntary state, which does not depend upon the agency of the perceiver, who in fact 

receives the visual and auditory sensations non-volitionally. However, as the term 

Recipient has been adopted for the one who receives goods and information in threeparticipant 

processes, we will keep to the terms Experiencer or Senser. In the following 

illustrations you will notice that can is used when expressing non-volitional perception 

at the moment of speaking. This use replaces the present progressive, which is 

ungrammatical in such cases (*I am smelling gas). 

Tom saw a snake. 

I can feel a draught. 

We heard a noise. 

Can you taste the lemon in the sauce? 

I can smell gas. 

The verbs see and feel are often used in English as conceptual metaphors for the cognitive 

processes of understanding and believing, respectively, as in You do see my point, don’t 

you? – No, I don’t see what you mean. I feel we should talk this over further. In addition, see 

has a number of dynamic uses, such as See for yourself! with the meaning of ‘verify’, and 

see someone off, meaning ‘accompany someone to the station, airport’, among many 

others. The progressive can be used with these (see 43.5). 

Corresponding to non-volitional see and hear, English has the dynamic volitional verbs 

look, watch and listen, among others. These are classed as behavioural processes. 

The perception processes of ‘feeling, ‘smelling’ and ‘tasting’ each make use of one 

verb (feel, smell and taste) to encode three different ways of experiencing these sensations: 

one stative and non-volitional (I can smell gas), a second dynamic and volitional (Just 

smell these roses!) and the third as a relational process (This fish smells bad). In languages 

other than English, these differences may be lexicalised as different verbs. 

In processes of seeing, hearing and feeling, English allows the Phenomenon to 

represent a situation that is either completed (I saw her cross the road) or not completed 

(I saw her crossing the road) (see 12.4). 


17.4 AFFECTIVE AND DESIDERATIVE PROCESSES: 

LIKING AND WANTING 

17.4.1 Affective processes: loving and hating 

Under affectivity process we include those positive and negative reactions expressed 

by such verbs as like, love, please, delight, dislike, hate and detest. Common desiderative 

verbs are want and wish. 

We both love dancing. 

I detest hypocrisy. 

The ballet performance delighted the public. 

Do you want a cup of coffee? 

142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The Phenomenon in affectivity processes can be expressed by a nominal group which 

represents an entity, or by a clause representing an event or a situation. The situation 

is represented as actual or habitual by means of an -ing clause, while a to-infinitive clause 

will be interpreted as potential. For this reason, the latter is used in hypothetical 

meanings. Some verbs admit only one or other of the forms. Other verbs such as like, 

love and hate admit either (see also 12.4), and illustrate this semantic distinction in the 


-ing clause 

They enjoy walking in the woods. 

She likes visiting her friends. 

I hate having a tooth out. 

to-infinitive clause 

They love to walk in the woods. 

She would like to visit Janet. 

I would hate to have my teeth out. 

17.4.2 Desiderative processes: wanting and wishing 

These are expressed by such verbs as want, desire and wish. The Phenomenon role of 

want and desire can be expressed as either a thing or a situation, encoded by a nominal 

group or a to-infinitive clause, respectively; with wish only the situation meaning is 

possible. Both desire and wish can be used as very formal variants to want, and 

consequently occur in quite different registers and styles. 


Do you want anything else? (thing) 

Do you desire anything further this evening, sir? (thing) 

If you want to stay overnight, just say so. (situation) 

If you wish to remain in the college, you must comply with the regulations. (situation) 

If you desire to receive any further assistance, please ring the bell (situation) 

Wishing, however, can also express in the Phenomenon role a longing for an event or 

state that is counter to reality. This notion of unreality is expressed by a simple Past 

tense (or the Past subjunctive were if the verb is be) or a Past Perfect. These Past tenses 

have the effect of ‘distancing’ the event from speech time. Wish takes modal would + 

infinitive to refer to future time. The complementiser that is normally omitted (see 11.1): 

present-time reference 

past-time reference 

future-time reference 

I wish Ted were here with us. 

I wish Ted had been here with us. 

I wish Ted would come soon. 


RELATIONAL PROCESSES OF MODULE 18 

BEING AND BECOMING 

SUMMARY 

1 The third main category of processes, relational processes, expresses the notion 

of being, in a wide sense. In English there are two main patterns of ‘being’: 

the Attributive, as in Tom is a pilot, and the Identifying, as in Fred is the 

doorman. 

2 The participant in the Attributive structure is the Carrier, the entity to which is 

ascribed an Attribute. The relations are of three kinds: attributive: Tom is 

keen, Tom is a pilot; circumstantial: The bus stop is over there; possessive: 

That car is mine. In possessive structures the participants are known as the 

Possessor and the Possessed. 


3 The identifying pattern is reversible: it identifies one entity in terms of another. 

These are the Identified and the Identifier as in Fred is the doorman/The 

doorman is Fred. A different analysis assigns Value to the more general role 

(the doorman) and Token to the one that fills that role (Fred). 

4 The process itself is encoded by linking verbs (mainly be and have) whose 

function is to carry tense and to relate the Carrier to its Attribute, the Identified 

to its Identifier and the Possessor to the Possessed. Others like lack and feel 

encode additional meanings. 

18.1 TYPES OF BEING 

Relational processes express the concept of being in a broad sense. They answer the 

questions ‘Who or what, where/when or whose is some entity, or What is some entity 

like?’ In other words, relational processes cover various ways of being: being something, 

being in some place/at some time, or in a relation of possession, as illustrated here: 

1 Mont Blanc is a (high) mountain. (an instance of a type) 

2 Mont Blanc is popular with climbers. (attribution) 

3 Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. (identification) 

144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4 Mont Blanc is in the Alps. (circumstance: location) 

5 Those gloves are yours. (possession) 

There are two main patterns, the attributive as in 1, 2, 4 and 5 and the identifying, as in 

3. We shall take a look at each in turn. 

18.2 THE ATTRIBUTIVE PATTERN 

There is one participant, the Carrier, which represents an entity. Ascribed to the Carrier 

is an Attribute, which characterises the entity in some way. Here are some examples: 

Carrier Process Attribute 

Their eldest son was a musician 

The unemployment figures are alarming 

Sports equipment is on the third floor 

In the examples seen so far, the Attribute characterises the entity in the following 

ways: as an instantiation of a class of entities (a mountain, a musician) or a subclass (that 

of high mountains, as in (1); by a quality (popular with climbers, alarming); by a location 

(in the Alps, on the third floor); or as a type of possession (yours) (see also 18.4). 

There is an intensive relationship between the Carrier and its Attribute. That is to say, 

the Carrier is in some way the Attribute. The Attribute is not a participant in the situation, 

and when realised by a nominal group the NG is non-referential; it can’t become the 

Subject in a clause. Attributive clauses are non-reversible in the sense that they don’t 

allow a Subject–Complement switch. They allow thematic fronting (see 28.7) as in . . . 

and a fine musician he was too, but a fine musician is still the Attribute, and he the Subject. 

The process itself, when encoded by be, carries little meaning apart from that of tense 

(past time as in was; present as in is, are). Its function is to link the Carrier to the Attribute. 

However, the process can be expressed either as a state or as a transition. With stative 

verbs such as be, keep, remain, seem and verbs of sensing, such as look (= ‘seem’), the 

Attribute is seen as existing at the same time as the process described by the verb and 

is sometimes called the current Attribute. 

With dynamic verbs of transition such as become, get, turn, grow, run, the Attribute 

exists as the result of the process and can be called the resulting Attribute. Compare 

The weather is cold with The weather has turned cold. 


Current Attribute 

We kept quiet 

He remained captain for years 

Your sister looks tired 

The public are weary of strikes 

Resulting Attribute 

We fell silent 

He became captain 

She gets tired easily 

The public has grown weary of strikes 


There is a wide variety of verbs in English to express both states and transitions (see 

9.4). As states, the most common verbs of perception such as look, feel, sound, smell and 

taste keep their experiential meaning in relational clauses. An Experiencer participant 

(e.g. to me) can be optionally added to this semantic structure: 

feel 

feel as if 

look 

look like 

sound 

smell 

taste 

The surface feels too rough (to me) 

My fingers feel as if they were dropping off with the cold 

Does this solution look right? (to you) 

[What’s that insect?] It looks like a dragonfly (to me) 

His name sounds familiar (to me) 

That fish smells bad (to me) 

This soup tastes of vinegar (to me) 

The verb feel can function in two types of semantic structure: with an Experiencer/ 

Carrier (I feel hot; she felt ill), or with a neutral Carrier (the surface feels rather rough). 

In expressions referring to the weather, such as it is hot/cold/sunny/windy/frosty/cloudy/ 

foggy, there is no Carrier and much of the meaning is expressed by the Attribute. 

18.3 CIRCUMSTANTIAL RELATIONAL PROCESSES 

These are processes of being in which the circumstantial element is essential to the 

situation, not peripheral to it (see also 9.2). The circumstance is encoded as Attribute 

in the following examples and stands in an intensive relationship with the Carrier: 


Location in space: The museum is round the corner. 

Location in time: Our next meeting will be on June 10. 

Means: 

Entrance to the exhibition is by invitation. 

Agent: 

This symphony is by Mahler. 

Beneficiary: 

These flowers are for you. 

Metaphorical meanings: He’s off alcohol. Everyone’s into yoga nowadays. 

The circumstance is encoded by the verb in The film script concerns (= is about) a 

pyschopath who kidnaps a girl, The desert stretches as far as the eye can see, The carpet 

measures three metres by two, The performance lasted three hours. 

Examples such as Tomorrow is Monday; Yesterday was July 1st are reversible and can 

be considered as identifying circumstantial processes. 

18.4 POSSESSIVE RELATIONAL PROCESSES 

The category of possession covers a wide number of subtypes, of which the most 

prototypical are perhaps part-whole (as in your left foot), ownership (as in our house) and 

kinship relations (such as Jane’s sister). Other less central types include unowned 

possession (as in the dog’s basket), a mental quality (her sense of humour), a physical quality 

146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(his strength), occupancy (his office) and an association with another person (my friends 

and colleagues). All these types and others are grammaticalised at the level of the clause 

in possessive relational processes. A relatively small number of verbs occur, principally 

be, have, own and possess. The two participants involved are the Possessor and the 

Possessed. The notion of possession is expressed either by the Attribute, as in That 

computer is mine, or by the process itself, as in I have a new computer. 

A. Possession as Attribute 

In this, the verb is be and the Attribute/Possessor is encoded by a possessive pronoun 

(mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) or by an ’s phrase such as John’s in The green Peugeot 

is John’s. The sequence is similar with belong, although it is then the verb that conveys 

the notion of possession: 

The be/belong possessive structure 

Possessed/Carrier Process Possessor/Attribute 

These keys are my brother’s 

This glove isn’t mine 

This mansion belongs to a millionaire 


B. Possession as process 

English has several verbs to express possession. With be, have, own, possess and the more 

colloquial have got, the Carrier is the Possessor and the Attribute is the Possessed. 

Also included in the category of ‘possessing’ are the notions of not possessing (lack, 

need), of being worthy to possess (deserve), and the abstract relations of inclusion, 

exclusion and containment: 

Verbs of possession in the Possessor–Possessed structure 

Possessor/Carrier Process Possessed/Attribute 

The baby has blue eyes 

His uncle owns a yacht 

I don’t possess a gun 

He lacks confidence 

Plants need water 

You deserve a prize 

The price includes postage 

The price excludes breakfast 

That can contains petrol 


Relational processes are extremely common in all uses of English. The following 

extract is based on an interview with a young farmer who breeds pigs. He describes 

them, not by what they do, but as they are; this view is reflected in the large number of 

Attributes. 

Pigs are different. 1 A pig is more of an individual, 2 more human 3 and in many ways 

a strangely likeable character. 4 Pigs have strong personalities 5 and it is easy to get 

fond of them. 6 I am always getting fond of pigs and feel a bit conscience-stricken 7 

when I have to put them inside for their whole lives. Pigs are very clean animals 8 

but, like us, they are all different; 9 some will need cleaning out 10 after half a day 

and some will be neat and tidy 11 after three days. Some pigs are always in a mess 12 

and won’t care. Pigs are very interesting people 13 and can leave quite a gap when 

they go off to the bacon factory. 

(Ronald Blythe, Akenfield) 

18.5 THE IDENTIFYING PATTERN 

The participant roles in an identifying relationship are known as Identified and 

Identifier. Identification means that one participant, the Identified, is identified in terms 

of the other (the Identifier), in a relation of symbolic correlates. The Identifier is the one 

that fills the wh- element in a wh-question corresponding to the identifying clause: 


(a) [What/Which is Mont Blanc?] 

Mont Blanc (Identified) is the highest mountain in Europe (Identifier). 

(b) [Which is your father-in-law? Looking at a photograph] 

My father-in-law (Identified) is the one in the middle (Identifier). 

Identifying processes are reversible. The previous illustrations can be turned around, 

with the Identified/Identifying roles now represented by the opposite constituent: 

(c) [What/Which is the highest mountain in Europe?] 

The highest mountain in Europe (Identified) is Mont Blanc (Identifier). 

(d) [Who/Which is the one in the middle?] 

The one in the middle (Identified) is my father-in-law (Identifier). 

The difference between the two sequences lies in which element we want to identify; 

for instance, do we want to identify Mont Blanc or do we want to identify the highest 

mountain in Europe? In a discourse context this is a matter of presumed knowledge. 

Question (a) presumes that the listener has heard of Mont Blanc but doesn’t know its 

ranking among mountains. The answer could be ‘Mont Blanc (Identified) is the highest 

mountain in Europe (Identifier)’, in which the highlighted part represents tonic 

148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

prominence and the new information. Question (c) presumes that our listener knows 

there are high mountains in Europe, but not which one is the highest, receiving the 

answer ‘The highest mountain in Europe (Identified) is Mont Blanc (Identifier)’. 

Alternatively, in answer to the same question Which is the highest mountain in Europe? 

we could say ‘Mont Blanc (Identifier) is the highest mountain in Europe (Identified)’. 

In spoken discourse it is the Identifier that typically receives the tonic prominence 

that is associated with new information, whether this is placed at the end (the usual 

position) or at the beginning of the clause. In each sequence, then, one half is typically 

something or someone whose existence is already known (the Identified), whereas the 

Identifier presents information as unknown or new to the listener. (These notions are 

explained more fully in Module 29 on information packaging.) 

Reversibility in Identifying clauses 

Identified 

Identifier 

Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. 

My father-in-law is the one in the middle. 

Identifier 

Identified 

Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe. 

My father-in-law is the one in the middle. 


A further concept complementary to Identifying processes is that of ‘representation’ 

or ‘roles filled’. One participant, the Token, is the entity that ‘represents’ or ‘fills the 

role of’ the other, the Value, as in: 

Token/Identified 

Value/Identifier 

My father-in-law is (= fulfils the role of) the club’s Secretary 

Negotiation is (= represents) the key to resolving the dispute 

Here the question is ‘Which role (Value) does my father-in-law/ negotiation (Token) 

fulfil or represent?’ However, we can put the question the other way round: ‘Which is 

the role of Club Secretary played by?/ the key to resolving the dispute fulfilled by?’ We 

have a different conflation of Identified/ Identifier with Token/ Value: 

Value/Identified 

Token/Identifier 

The club’s Secretary is (fulfilled by) my father-in-law 

The key to resolving the dispute is (represented by) negotiation 

The two sets of roles are different in kind. Identified and Identifier depend for their 

interpretation on the point in discourse in which they occur: the Identified is the one 

which has already been introduced, and the Identifier identifies it in a new way. Token 

and Value assignation depends, by contrast, on the intrinsic semantic properties of the 


two ways of referring to the entity. Whichever is the more generalisable is the Value, 

while the Token is the specific representation of the Value. In a particular text, the Value 

points to particular cultural values and organisation, such as the importance of 

negotiation in resolving disputes, and granting denominations to people who fill certain 

functions in society. The following passage, Colours in Rugs across Cultures, illustrates 

such correspondences: 

The meaning of individual colours varies from culture to culture. In Muslim countries, 

green – the colour of Mohammed’s coat – is sacred and is very rarely used as a 

predominant colour, but it forms an important part of the dyer’s palette in non-Muslim 

cultures, particularly in China; here, the sacred colour is yellow, in which the Emperor 

traditionally dressed. White represents grief to the Chinese, Indians and Persians. 

Blue symbolises heaven in Persia, and power and authority in Mongolia. Orange is 

synonymous with piety and devotion in Muslim countries, while red, the most 

universal rug colour, is widely accepted as a sign of wealth and rejoicing. 

(BNC EXO 393–398) 

Finally, the difference between the Attributive and the Identifying patterns is reflected 

in the syntax in three ways: Only the identifying type is reversible (cf. *A high mountain 

is Mont Blanc); only the characterising type can be realised by an adjective (The 

unemployment figures are alarming); and Nominal groups that realise characterising 

Attributes are usually indefinite (a musician), while NGs that realise identifying Attributes 


are usually definite (the club Secretary). 

Certain relational processes of possession can be analysed by the Identifying pattern, 

and are reversible if suitably contextualised as identifying people’s possessions. For 

example, sandwiches: Yours is the ham-and-cheese; Tim’s is the egg-and-lettuce and mine is 

the tomato-and-tuna. Similarly, circumstantial Attributes can be reversed when explaining 

the layout of an area: Across the road, past the fountain is the Prado Museum. On your left 

is the Ritz Hotel. Further back is the Real Academia. 

150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PROCESSES OF SAYING, MODULE 19 

BEHAVING AND EXISTING 

SUMMARY 

1 Processes of saying and communicating are verbal processes. The participant 

who communicates is the Sayer, and is typically human, while what is communicated 

is the ‘Said’ and may be a reported statement, a reported question 

or a reported directive (order, request, etc.). A Recipient, the addressee, is 

required with tell, and a Target may also be present in some verbal processes. 

2 Behavioural processes are half-way between material and mental processes, in 

that they have features of each. They include involuntary processes (cough) and 

volitional processes (watch, stare, listen). 

3 Existential processes, rather than stating that things simply exist, tend to specify 

the quantification and/or the location of something: There are bits of paper 

everywhere. The single participant is the Existent, which may be an entity or 

an event. 


19.1 VERBAL PROCESSES 

Verbal processes are processes of ‘saying’ or ‘communicating’ and are encoded by such 

verbs as say, tell, repeat, ask, answer and report. They have one participant which is 

typically human, but not necessarily so (the Sayer) and a second essential participant, 

which is what is said or asked or reported (the Said). A Recipient is required with tell 

and may be present as an oblique form (e.g. to me) with other verbal processes: 

Sayer Verbal process Recipient Said 

She had to say her name twice 

That clock says five past ten 

The police officer repeated the question 

Jill told him what she knew 

Our correspondent reports renewed fighting on 

the frontier 


The Sayer can be anything which puts out a communicative signal (that clock, Jill, 

our correspondent). What is said is realised by a nominal group or a nominal what-clause 

(what she knew). As these examples show, verbal processes are intermediate between 

material and mental processes. From one point of view, communicating is a form 

of ‘doing’, and in fact the Sayer is usually agentive or made to appear agentive, as in the 

case of the clock. Like material processes, verbal processes readily admit the imperative 

(Say it again!) and the progressive (What is he saying?). 

On the other hand, the action of communicating is close to cognitive processes such 

as thinking. Verbs of saying, telling and others can be followed by a clause that 

represents either the exact words said (direct report) or a reported version of the 

meaning (indirect report). Many speech-act verbs can function in this way, to report 

statements, questions, warnings, advice and other speech acts: 

She said: ‘I won’t be late’ (quoted statement or promise) 

She said she wouldn’t be late (reported statement or promise) 

She said: ‘Don’t go to see that film’ (quoted directive: advice) 

She told us not to go to see that film (reported directive: advice) 

These alternative encodings are described more fully in Chapter 7. For the syntacticsemantic 

differences between say and tell in English, see 11.2. 

When however, the message is encapsulated as a speech act by means of a nominal 

– such as ‘apology’, ‘warning’, ‘greeting’, ‘thanks’ and many others – it is treated as a 

participant in the verbal process. The verb then may express the manner of saying: 


The airport authorities issued an apology 

Someone shouted a warning 

Retired cop vows revenge (press headline) 

Wish in I wish you a merry Christmas is clearly both mental and verbal. Talk and chat are 

verbal processes, which have an implicit reciprocal meaning (They talked/ chatted [to 

each other]). Talk has no second participant except in the expressions talk sense/ nonsense. 

Speak is not implicitly reciprocal and can take a Range participant; see 20.1 (She speaks 

Spanish. He speaks five languages). 

Besides the Sayer and the Said, a further participant, the Target, encodes the person 

or thing at which the message is directed, as in: 

Everyone is acclaiming the new musical as the event of the year. 

19.2 BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES 

A borderline area between mental processes and material processes is represented by 

behavioural processes such as cough, sneeze, yawn, blink, laugh and sigh, which are 

usually one-participant. They are considered as typically involuntary; but it may be that 

there is a very slight agency involved. They can be deliberate, too, as in he coughed 

discreetly, he yawned rudely, in which the adjunct of manner implies volition. Acting 

excepted, most volitional adjuncts could not be used with die, collapse and grow, which 

are typically lacking in agency and volition. 

152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

We have already seen that mental processes such as see and hear have behavioural 

counterparts (watch and listen, respectively), which are dynamic and volitional, and have 

agentive Subjects, while see, taste and feel have both non-volitional and volitional senses. 

Similarly, think (in the sense of ponder) and enjoy can be used dynamically: 

What are you thinking about? 

I am enjoying the play enormously. 

Enjoy! 

19.3 EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES 

Existential processes are processes of existing or happening. The basic structure consists 

of unstressed there + be + a NG (There’s a man at the door; there was a loud bang). There 

is not a participant as it has no semantic content, although it fulfils both a syntactic 

function as Subject (see 5.1.2) and a textual function as ‘presentative’ element (see 30.4). 

The single participant is the Existent, which may refer to a countable entity (There’s 

a good film on at the Scala), an uncountable entity (There’s roast lamb for lunch) or an 

event (There was an explosion). 

Semantically, existential processes state not simply the existence of something, but 

more usually expand the Existent in some way: 

• by adding a quantitative measure and/or the location of the Existent: 

I went for a walk in the woods. It was all right, there were lots of people there. 

BNC GUK 2339–2400 

There were all sorts of practical problems. 

• with quantification and an Attribute characterising the Existent: 

There are some pages blank. 

There were few people in favour. 

• with quantification and expansion of the Existent by the addition of clauses: 

There are few people who realise the danger. 

There ’s nothing to be done about it. 


The process in existential clauses is expressed by the following verbs: 

• most typically by be; 

• certain intransitive verbs expressing positional states (stand, lie, stretch, hang and 

remain); 

• a few intransitive dynamic verbs of ‘occurring’, ‘coming into view’ or ‘arrival on the 

scene’ (occur, follow, appear, emerge, loom) (cf. 30.4.3). 

These are illustrated below: 

There remain many problems. 

There followed a long interval. 

There emerged from the cave a huge brown bear. 


Existential there may be omitted when a locative or directional Adjunct is in initial 

position: 

Below the castle (there) stretches a vast plain. 

Out of the mist (there) loomed a strange shape. 

Without ‘there’ such clauses are very close semantically to reversed circumstantial 

clauses. However, the addition of a tag question – with there, not a personal pronoun 

(Close to the beach stands a hotel, doesn’t there? *doesn’t it?) – suggests that they are in fact 

existentials. 

The following extract from D. H. Lawrence’s story The Lost Girl illustrates existentials: 

She looked at the room. There was a wooden settle in front of the hearth, stretching 

its back to the room. 1 There was a little table under a square, recessed window, 2 on 

whose sloping ledge were newspapers, scattered letters, nails and a hammer. 3 On 

the table were dried beans and two maize cobs. 4 In the corner were shelves, 5 with 

two chipped enamel plates, and a small table underneath, on which stood a bucket 

of water and a dipper. 6 Then there was a wooden chest, two little chairs and a litter 

of faggots, cane, vine-twigs, bare maize hubs, oak-twigs filling the corner by the 

hearth. 7 


154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

EXPRESSING ATTENDANT MODULE 20 

CIRCUMSTANCES 

SUMMARY 

The circumstantial element in English covers a great variety of meanings, of which 

the most common are those related to place and time, manner, contingency, 

accompaniment, modality, degree, role, matter and evidence. They are described 

from the point of view of their syntactic function in 8.1 and also as group structures 

in 57. 

20.1 PLACE, TIME AND OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES 

There are many parallel expressions of place and time, in many cases introduced by the 


same preposition (see also Module 59): 

Place 

Time 

location at home, in the park, on the desk at 5 o’clock, in May, years ago, on 

Tuesday 

source from the library, from Ed from January 

path the plane flew over the hills, They stayed over the weekend 

through the clouds 

direction towards the south towards midnight 

goal to Canada to June 

[we went] home 

extent for several miles for several years 

extent + goal as far as Granada until 10 o’clock, by Tuesday 

relative here, there, nearby, in front, now, then, recently, before/ 

behind us 

after dinner 

distributive at intervals, every 100 yards, at intervals, every so often, now 

here and there 

and then, off and on 


Locative, goal and directional meanings are questioned by where? (the preposition 

to is not used in questions other than the verbless Where to?); source meanings by where 

...from? and for time, since when? extent by how far? how long? and distribution by how 

often? 

A. Manner 

The notion of manner (How?) is extended to include the notions of means (By what 

means?, instrumentality (What with?) and comparison (What like?): 

Manner how? Don’t do it that way; do it gently. 

Means how? It’s cheaper by bus. 

Comparison what ...like? Snow lay like a blanket on the ground. 

Instrument what ...with? You can stick the pieces together with glue. 

They levelled the site with a bulldozer. 

B. Instrument 

This is the tool or means, generally inanimate, used by a controlling Agent to carry out 

the process. It is strongly associated with the preposition with: Write with a pen. 

With some verbs the notion of Instrument is incorporated into the process itself. In 

this way, bulldoze can be used as a material process: the builders bulldozed the site. Other 

examples include: 

He elbowed his way through the crowd. (by using his elbows) 

Figo headed the ball into the goal. (by using his head) 

They levered the rock into position. (by using a lever) 


C. Contingency 

The circumstantial element of contingency covers such meanings as cause, purpose, 

reason, concession and behalf: 

Cause what cause? The child took the pen out of envy. 

They are dying of hunger. 

Purpose what ...for? He is studying for a degree. 

The team is training to win. 

Reason why? We stayed in on account of the rain. 

He stopped because he was tired. 

Concession despite what conditions? In spite of the delay, we reached the 

concert hall in time. 

Behalf who/what for? Give up smoking for the sake of your 

health. 

I’ll speak to the Director on your behalf. 

Condition under what conditions? Send a telegram, if necessary. 

156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

D. Accompaniment 

Accompaniment expresses a joint participation in the process, involving either the 

notion of ‘togetherness’ or that of ‘additionality’. Each of these can be either positive or 

negative: 

togetherness positive Tom came with his friend/with a new haircut. 

togetherness negative Tom came without his friend/without the car. 

additionality positive Tom came as well as Paul. 

additionality negative Tom came instead of Paul. 

E. Modality 

Modality expresses the notions of possibility, probability and certainty (see 44.1): 

possibility 

probability 

certainty 

His new novel will possibly come out next month. 

It will probably be well received. 

It will certainly cause a lot of controversy. 

F. Degree 

Circumstantial expressions of degree either emphasise or attenuate the process: 

emphasis I completely forgot to bring my passport. 

attenuation You can hardly expect me to believe that. 


G. Role 

Role answers the question What as? or In what capacity? 

capacity 

I’m speaking to you as a friend. 

As an actor he’s not outstanding, but as a dancer he’s brilliant. 

H. Matter 

This element adds the notion of ‘with reference to . . .’ and is realised by a wide variety 

of simple and complex prepositions, including those circumstantial complements that 

follow certain verbs such as deprive, rob and help oneself (see 7.3.1 and 10.3.2): 

We have been talking about her wedding. 

Is there any news of the missing seamen? 

With regard to your order of July 17 . . . 

As for that, I don’t believe a word of it. 

You shouldn’t deprive yourself of vitamins. 

Help yourself to wine. 


I. Evidence 

Relates to the source of information in verbal processes and is expressed by as x says, 

or according to x: 

As the saying goes, no news is good news. 

According to the weatherman, there will be heavy snowstorms this weekend. 

Some of the numerous types of circumstance available are illustrated in the following 

extract from John Le Carré, The Spy Who Came In from the Cold. This type of fiction 

tends to contain very detailed references to the circumstances accompanying each 

episode: 

He’d noticed it first during the Riemick case, 1 early last year. 2 Karl had sent a 

message; he’d got something special for him and was making one of his rare visits 

to Western Germany; 3 some legal conference at Karlsruhe. 4 Leamas had managed 

to get an air passage to Cologne, 5 and picked up a car at the airport. 6 It was still 7 

quite early in the morning 8 and he’d hoped to miss most of the autobahn traffic to 

Karlsruhe 9 but the heavy lorries were already 10 on the move. He drove seventy 

kilometres in half an hour, 11 weaving between the traffic, taking risks to beat the 

clock, 12 when a small car, a Fiat probably, 13 nosed its way out into the fast lane 14 

forty yards ahead of him. 15 Leamas stamped on the brake, turning his headlights 

full on and sounding his horn, and by the grace of God 16 he missed it; missed it by 

the fraction of a second. 17 


1 

extent: time; 2 location: time; 3 goal: space; 4 location: space; 5 goal: space; 6 location: 

space; 7 relative: time; 8 location: time; 9 goal: space; 10 relative; 11 extent: time; 

12 

purpose; 13 modality; 14 direction: space; 15 location: space; 16 cause; 17 degree. 

20.2 RANGE 

Rather than a circumstance, Range is a participant: the nominal concept that is implied 

by the process as its scope or range: song in sing a song, games in play games, race in run 

a race. Some, such as song, are derived from a related verb; others such as game are not. 

Perhaps the most common type of Range element today are the deverbal nominals 

which complement lexically ‘light’ verbs such as have and give: 

Have an argument, a chat, a drink, a fight, a rest, a quarrel, a smoke, a taste, an 

experience 

Give a push, a kick, a nudge, a smile, a laugh, a kiss; a presentation, a lecture 

Take a sip, a bath, a nap, a photograph, a shower, a walk 

Do a dance, a handstand, a left/ right turn, a sketch, a translation, some work, some 

cleaning, some painting 

158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Ask a question 

Make a choice, a comment, a contribution, a mistake, a payment, a reduction, a 

suggestion 

Using this type of range participant (a kick, a push, etc.) with a ‘light’ verb entails the 

meaning of the nominal as verb. In other words, if you take a sip of the juice, you sip 

the juice. If we have a chat, we chat. In some cases, such as make an effort, there is 

no corresponding verb. One reason for the popularity of this construction today is the 

potential that the noun has for being modified in various ways. It would be difficult 

to express by a verb, even with the help of adverbs, the meanings of specificness, 

quantification and quality present in she took a long, relaxing hot bath, they played two 

strenuous games of tennis, I had such a strange experience yesterday. 

As a result of modification, the nominal is longer and heavier than the verb which 

precedes it. This allows us to build up our message to a climax (see 6.1.2d). Furthermore, 

the Range nominal can initiate a wh-cleft structure more easily than a verb can (see 30.2) 

as in A good rest is what you need. 



CONCEPTUALISING MODULE 21 

EXPERIENCES FROM A 

DIFFERENT ANGLE 

Nominalisation and grammatical metaphor 

SUMMARY 

1 The semantic structures described so far reflect the basic semantic-syntactic 

correspondences we use when encoding situations. They reflect the typical way 

of saying things. Agents carry out actions that affect other participants, 

Experiencers perceive Phenomena. Furthermore, processes have been realised 

by verbs, entities by nouns, and Attributes by (for instance) adjectives and 

possessives. These are the basic realisations which are found in the language 

of children and in much everyday spoken English. But any state of affairs can 

be conceptualised and expressed in more than one way. A more nominalised 

version encodes actions and states as nouns, which involves a complete 

restructuring of the clause. This has been called ‘grammatical metaphor’. Its 

most obvious characteristic is nominalisation. 


2 Thus, a process can be realised as an entity: government spending is one 

example. Similar transferred functions occur with attributes and circumstances. 

These alternative realisations of the semantic roles involve further adjustments in 

the correspondences between semantic roles and syntactic functions in the clause. 

3 Grammatical metaphor is a feature of much written English and of spoken 

English in professional registers. 

4 The ‘transitivity hypothesis’ offers an alternative view, in which transitivity is a 

matter of gradation from high to low. 

21.1 BASIC REALISATIONS AND METAPHORICAL 

REALISATIONS 

Situations and events can be conceptualised and expressed linguistically in two major 

ways. More transparent, because they are closer to the speaker’s experience, are the 

basic transitivity patterns that we have examined so far throughout this chapter. In these 

semantic structures the processes, participants and circumstances are encoded by their 

typical clause functions, with agency and chronological sequencing made explicit. That 

160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

is, in active clauses, the inherent participants such as Agent, Affected, Experiencer and 

Carrier are realised by NGs, processes are realised by VGs and circumstantials by PPs 

and by AdvGs. This correspondence between the semantics and the syntax of English 

structures is indeed the typical one, but it is by no means the only one. 

We have to beware of assuming that a one-to-one correspondence exists between 

any semantic function and any syntactic function. We have to beware of assuming that 

entities such as people and things are necessarily expressed by nouns, that actions are 

necessarily expressed by verbs and that qualities are necessarily expressed by adjectives. 

Except in the language of children and in very basic English, our linguistic representation 

of reality tends to be more complex. Any situation can be expressed in more than one 

way; the first or typical realisation may be called the ‘iconic’ one, in which the form 

mirrors the meaning; any others are the ‘metaphorical’. The two forms may be illustrated 

by an example. 

Suppose that I wish to tell you that my friends and I walked in the evening along the 

river as far as Henley. In the ‘typical’ or ‘iconic’ version, I first select the process type 

from the options ‘material’, ‘mental’ and ‘relational’ processes. A process of ‘doing’ fits 

the conceptualised situation best, and more specifically, a process of motion which 

includes manner. Among possible types of motion I select a material process walk. To 

accompany a process such as walk used intransitively, I then select an Agent, or ‘doer’ 

of the action, and a number of circumstantial elements, of time, place and direction as 

a setting, to give the following semantic structure and its lexico-grammatical realisation: 

Agent Material Time circ. Place circ. Goal 

process 

circ. 


NG VG PP PP PP 

We walked in the evening along the river to Henley 

This is not the only way of expressing this situation. Instead, I could have said Our 

evening walk along the river took us to Henley. In this ‘metaphorical’ interpretation the 

semantic functions are ‘transferred’ in relation to the syntactic functions. The material 

process walk has now become Agent, and the circumstances of time (in the evening) and 

place (along the river) have become classifier and post-modifier, respectively, of the new 

Agent realised at subject (evening walk along the river). The original Agent we is now 

divided into two; one part functions as possessor of the Subject entity (our evening walk 

along the river), the other as Affected (us) of a new material process expressed by the 

verb took. Only the Goal circumstance to Henley is realised in the same way in both 

interpretations: 

Agent Material process Affected Goal 

NG VG NG PP 

Our evening walk took us to Henley 

along the river 


This second interpretation is a very simple instance of ‘grammatical metaphor’ or 

alternative realisations of semantic functions, and is a phenomenon which occurs all 

the time, in different degrees, in adult language, especially in certain written genres. 

Even in everyday spoken language it sometimes happens that the metaphorical form 

has become the normal way of expressing a certain meaning. We have seen that the 

Range element (see 20.1) drink/chat/rest in have a drink/chat/rest is the one that 

expresses the process, while the syntactic function of Predicator is now realised by the 

‘light’ verb have. These are simple types of transferred semantic functions which have 

been incorporated into everyday language. Now compare the ordinary correspondences 

in example a below with the nominalised version of b: 

Agent/Subject Material process Place/Adv Comparison/Adv 

a. People in all 

countries are [now] travelling abroad much more than they 

used to. 

Abstract Subject Relational Time/Adv Abstraction 

process 

b. Foreign travel is everywhere on the increase. 

In a we have a process of ‘doing’ (are travelling), with an Agent/Subject and three 

circumstances (now, abroad and much more than they used to). In b, by contrast, the 

process is relational with be, the human Agent has disppeared, and instead we have 

an abstract subject based on the verb ‘travel’ (foreign travel), followed by two circumstances. 

Apart from these differences, we note that the two meanings are not quite 


equivalent. The notion of ‘all countries’ is replaced by the less explicit ‘everywhere’, that 

of ‘abroad’ is replaced by ‘foreign’, while the notions expressed by ‘now’ and ‘used to’ 

are not encoded at all, but remain implicit. 

More importantly, the two versions represent two different cognitive mappings of a 

situation on to different semantic and syntactic structures. The event is ‘perspectivised’ 

differently in each case, with attention centred in the second on the salient abstraction 

‘foreign travel’, rather than on persons. 

21.2 NOMINALISATION AS A FEATURE OF GRAMMATICAL 

METAPHOR 

It is clear that a choice of transferred realisations such as these has as one result the 

loss of human agency, which is usually replaced by an abstraction related to the original 

Agent (government spending, foreign travel). A second result is an increase in lexical 

density: Nominal groups become long and heavy. For this reason, nominalisation is 

the form of grammatical metaphor most consistently recognised under different labels. 

It distances us from the event, raising the representation of a situation to a higher level 

of abstraction. Once objectified and depersonalised in this way, the event or abstraction 

162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

is conceptualised as if it had temporal persistence, instead of the transience associated 

with a verb. 

At the same time, nominalisations are more versatile than verbs. The noun ‘explosion’ 

from ‘explode’ can carry out all the functions realised by nominals, such as a Subject or 

Direct Object (The explosion occurred at 6 a.m.; leaking gas caused an explosion). With this 

new status as a referent, a nominalisation can give the impression that what it expresses 

is a recognised piece of information, whose validity is beyond dispute. Compare the 

following a extract from a news item with the non-nominalised b version: 

a. Government spending showed positive growth in the last quarter in contrast to its 

sharp fall in the previous one. 

b. The government spent much more in the last quarter than was planned, whereas 

it spent considerably less in the previous one. 

As soon as we examine samples of more formal English – that used in specialised fields 

such as the natural sciences, the social sciences, politics, administration and business, 

finance and technology – we find a great number of such nominalisations. These tend 

to be abstract nouns derived from verbs and other parts of speech, which can encode 

quite complex meanings. 

Lexical metaphor can occur together with grammatical metaphor, as illustrated by 

‘growth’ and ‘fall’, so common in texts on economics. Here, grammar borders on lexis, 

and different languages have different means of visualising one semantic function as 

if it were another. Here we can do no more than briefly outline some of the transfers of 

semantic functions. In the following sections, metaphorical forms are given first, with a 

basic corresponding meaning suggested in the right-hand column. 


21.2.1 Process realised as entity 

This is by far the most common type of grammatical metaphor. Many are institutionalised 

nominalisations, such as the following: 

Nominalised form 

Basic form 

a. Without the slightest hesitation. Without hesitating at all. 

b. Take a deep breath. Breathe deeply. 

c. There was a sudden burst of X burst out laughing suddenly. 

laughter. 

d. The exploration and mapping of X continued to explore and map the world. 

the world went on. 

Many others, however, represent a more original view of reality on the part of the 

speaker or writer, as in example e: 

e. His conception of the drama has He conceives of the drama in a way that 

a very modern ring. 

sounds very modern to us. 


21.2.2 Attribute realised as entity 

An Attribute can be realised as an entity by means of an abstract noun. The forms may 

be morphologically related: bigness–big as in example a and usefulness–useful in b. The 

remaining parts of the sentence may have different correspondences, which are not in 

a one-to-one relationship with the forms of the nominalised version. 

a. Bigness is paid for, in part, by If firms are very big, they will be fewer and 

fewness, and a decline in will have less need to compete. 

competition. 

b. The usefulness of this machinery This machinery is becoming less useful. 

is dwindling. 

21.2.3 Circumstance as entity 

A common shift is to have a temporal circumstance functioning as a locative Subject. 

This involves a new verb, such as ‘find’, ‘witness’ and ‘see’ in these examples: 

a. August 12 found the travellers in The travellers were/arrived in Rome 

Rome. on August 12. 

b. The last decade has witnessed During the last decade agricultural 

an unprecedented rise in technology has increased as never before. 

agricultural technology. 

c. The seventeenth century saw the In the seventeenth century scientific works 

development of systematic began to be published systematically. 

scientific publication. 


As these new processes are transitive, typically taking an Object, further nominalisations 

are to be expected, such as rise (or increase) in agricultural technology, instead of increase 

as a verb. In many cases, such as c it is difficult to ‘unpack’ the metaphorical encoding 

completely into a simpler form. The two forms of expression are the result of different 

cognitive encodings. 

21.2.4 Dependent situation as entity 

A whole state of affairs, which in its congruent form would be realised as a subordinate 

clause, can be visualised as an entity and expressed by a nominal: 

Fears of disruption to oil supplies 

from the Gulf helped push crude oil 

prices up dramatically. 

Because people feared that oil would not 

be supplied as usual from the Gulf, the 

price of crude oil rose dramatically. 

We can observe that, in many cases of nominalisation, normal human Agents and 

Experiencers are absent, replaced by abstractions that are in some way related to them 

(‘fears’, ‘laughter’) and may be more emotionally charged. In other cases, those where 

a temporal entity ‘witnesses’ the event, the human Agent may not be recoverable at all, 

as in b and c above. 

164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

These few examples may serve to show that in English grammatical metaphor is 

a very powerful option in the presenting of information. It reconceptualises an event as 

a participant, with the consequent restructuring of the rest of the clause, which influences 

the way the information is perceived. It presents a different cognitive mapping from 

that of the ‘congruent’ or iconic correspondence between syntax and semantics that 

is found in basic English. In institutionalised settings, the concept of grammatical 

metaphor goes a long way towards explaining professional jargons such as journalese 

and officialese as written forms. Others, such as the language of business management, 

use nominalisation in spoken as well as written English (see p. 166 for summary of 

processes, participants and circumstances). 

21.3 HIGH AND LOW TRANSITIVITY 

A different approach to transitivity, which has not been discussed in this chapter for 

reasons of space, is the ‘transitivity hypothesis’. This views transitivity in discourse as 

a matter of gradation, dependent on various factors. A verb such as kick, for example, 

fulfils all the criteria for high transitivity in a clause with an expressed object such as 

Ted kicked the ball. It refers to an action (B) in which two participants (A)are involved, 

Agent and Object; it is telic (having an end-point) (C) and is punctual (D). With a human 

subject it is volitional (E) and agentive, while the object will be totally affected (I) and 

individuated (J). The clause is also affirmative (F) and declarative, realis, not hypothetical 

(irrealis) (G). By contrast, with a verb such as see as in Ted saw the accident, most of the 

criteria point to low transitivity, while the verb wish as in I wish you were here includes 

even irrealis (G) in its complement as a feature of low transitivity. Susan left is interpreted 

as an example of reduced transitivity. Although it has only one participant, it rates higher 

than some two-participant clauses, as it fulfils B, C, D, E, F, G and H. 


high transitivity 

low transitivity 

A. PARTICIPANTS 2 or more participants 1 participant 

B. KINESIS action non-action 

C. ASPECT telic (end-point) atelic (no end-point) 

D. PUNCTUALITY punctual non-punctual 

E. VOLITIONALITY volitional non-volitional 

F. AFFIRMATION affirmative negative 

G. MODE realis irrealis 

H. AGENCY Agent high in potency Agent low in potency 

I. AFFECTEDNESS OF O Object totally affected Object not affected 

J. INDIVIDUATION OF O Object highly individuated Object non-individuated 


21.4 SUMMARY OF PROCESSES, PARTICIPANTS AND CIRCUMSTANCES 

Process Example Participant Attribute Circumstance 

1 The Prime Minister resigned Agent 

2 Ted kicked the ball into the net Agent + Affected Locative/Goal 

3 Lightning struck the oak tree Force + Affected 

4 Jordan slipped on the ice Affected Locative 

5 Pat boiled the water Agent + Affected 

6 The water boiled Affected 

7 They’re making the road wider. Agent + Affected Resulting 

8 Glass breaks easily Affected Manner 

Material 9 Do you drive? Agent + unactualised Affected 

10 I gave the cat some tuna. Agent + Rec. + Affected 

11 Will you fetch me a newspaper? Agent + Ben. + Affected 

Behavioural 12 Tom watched the snake. Experiencer (volitional) + Phenom. 

Mental 13 Tom saw the snake. Experiencer (non-volitional) + Phenom. 

14 Tom knows the answer. Experiencer + Phenom. 

15 We were pleased by the news. Rec. Experiencer + Phenom. 

16 The news pleased us very much. Phenom. + Rec. Experiencer Degree 

17 I wish you were here. Experiencer + Phenom. (unreal) 

18 Tom is generous. Carrier Characterising 

19 Tom is the secretary. Carrier/Token Identified Value/Identifying 

20 The film lasted three hours. Carrier Circumstantial 

21 Those gloves aren’t mine. Possessed Possessor 

Verbal 22 I didn’t say that. Sayer + Said 

23 Mary told me a secret. Sayer + Rec. + Said 

Existential 24 There’s a notice on the door. Existent Locative 

25 There are some pages blank. Existent Current 



Halliday (1994); Thompson (1996); on relational processes, Davidse (1992), Davidse 

(1996) and Davidse (2000); on Token and Value, Toolan (1992) (together with works 

cited above); on types of ‘being’ and ‘possessing’, Langacker (1991). On grammatical 

metaphor and nominalisation: Chafe (1994); Downing (2000); Eggins (1994); Halliday 

(1994); Martin (1992). On object omission, pseudo-intransitives, ergatives, Kilby (1984), 

Martínez Vázquez (1998), Payne (1997). On valency, Payne (1997). On verb classes and 

alternations, Levin (1993). On ‘take a sip’ etc., Round (1998). On the ‘transitivity 

hypothesis’, Hopper and Thompson (1980). 


Expressing patterns of experience: Processes, participants, 

circumstances 

Modules 13 and 14 

1 †Identify each process in the following examples as a process of ‘doing’ (material), a 

process of ‘experiencing’ (mental) or a process of ‘being’ (relational): 

(1) This country exports raw materials. 

(2) I prefer ballet to opera. 

(3) The abbey is now a ruin. 

(4) Do you know the author’s name? 

(5) The wounded soldier staggered down the road. 

(6) The weather has turned warm. The days are becoming longer. 


2 †Work out for each of the examples below: 

• the number of inherent participants (the verb’s semantic valency) 

• the number of actualised participants in this use 

• whether the verb’s valency is reduced in this use 

1a) She teaches 12-year-olds maths. 2) This dog bites. 

1b) She teaches maths. 

1c) She teaches. 3) Cats purr. 

3 †Say whether it in each of the following clauses refers to a participant or is merely a Subjectfiller: 

(1) It rained heavily last night. 

(2) I can lend you ten pounds. Will it be enough? 

(3) Her baby is due next month and she knows it is a girl. 

(4) Where’s your bicycle? It’s in the garage. 

(5) It’s our first wedding anniversary today. 


4 †Fill in the blank space with a suitable Force participant: 

(1) As we left the hotel,. ..........was blowing off the sea. 

(2) Huge ..........crashed onto the beach and broke against the rocks. 

(3) Several bathers were caught by the incoming .........and had to be rescued 

by the coastguard patrol. 

(4) Further inland, a usually tranquil .........broke its banks and flooded the 

surrounding fields. 

(5) In the mountains above the village, campers were surprised by a sudden ...... 

. . . which threatened to engulf their tents. 

5 Write a short paragraph on ‘A forest fire’, using Force participants and material processes. 

6 †Say whether the italicised nominal group is an Agentive Subject or an Affected Subject: 

(1) Beatrice writes black-humour comedies for television. 

(2) The little bird died of cold. 

(3) Angry housewives attacked the striking dustmen with umbrellas. 

(4) Three shop-assistants were sacked by their employer. 

(5) Many buildings collapsed during the earthquake. 

7 †Identify the italicised participant as Affected or Effected: 

(1) He paints surrealist portraits of his friends. 

(2) Don’t pick the flowers! 

(3) In their youth they wrote pop-songs and made fortunes. 

(4) They carve these figures out of wood. 

(5) Engineers are installing a telephone booth. 


Module 15 

1 †Say which of the following clauses are causative and write underneath these the 

corresponding intransitive constructions where appropriate. 

(1) The stress of high office ages most Prime Ministers prematurely. 

............................................. 

(2) Smoking can damage your health. 

............................................. 

(3) Swarms of locusts darkened the sky. 

............................................. 

(4) They sprayed the crops with insecticide. 

............................................. 

(5) Pain and worry wrinkled his brow. 

............................................. 

168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(6) The photographer clicked the camera. 

............................................. 

(7) The truck tipped a load of sand onto the road. 

............................................. 

(8) This year the company has doubled its sales. 

............................................. 

2 †Say whether the participant in the following one-participant situations is acting (Agent), 

is acted upon (Affected) or whether the propensity of the participant to undergo the action 

is being expressed. 

(1) This kind of material creases easily. 

(2) The car broke down. 

(3) Glass recycles well. 

(4) Two of the deputies arrived late. 

(5) He ruled with an iron hand. 

(6) This cream whips up in an instant. 

(7) Peaches won’t ripen in this climate. 

3 †Explain the difference in meaning, in terms of participants and processes, and the types 

of relations we have examined, between the following representations: 


(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

Sarah is cooking the rice. 

Sarah is cooking. 

The rice is cooking. 

Sarah cooks beautifully. 

Rice cooks easily. 

Why would you not expect to hear normally ‘Sarah cooks easily’? 

4 †Comment on the italicised processes in the following quotation from Shakespeare’s Antony 

and Cleopatra (Act 2, Scene 2, l.224): 

Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale 

Her infinite variety: other women cloy 

The appetites they feed, but she makes hungry 

Where most she satisfies. 

5 Imagine you are a copy-writer for a well-known cosmetic firm. You are told to write a 

brochure for a new range of cosmetics. Include in your description causative verbs such 

as soften, whiten, lighten, lessen, tighten, freshen, refresh, cleanse, smooth, moisturise and/ 

or SPOdCo structures containing make or leave and an Attribute. 

6 With the help of a good dictionary, draw up a list of verbs that can be used in ergative 

pairs and compare them with their equivalents in another language. 


Module 16 

1 †Identify the italicised participant as Recipient or Beneficiary: 

(1) Don’t forget to send us a postcard. 

(2) My brother-in-law has been offered a job analysing mud for an oil company. 

(3) Can I get you something to eat? 

(4) I think Sammy would like you to buy him an ice-cream. 

(5) How much do we owe your parents for the tickets? 

Module 17 

1 †Identify each of the processes in the main clauses of the following sentences as one of 

perception, cognition or affectivity. Say whether the Phenomenon is an entity, a fact or a 

situation: 

(1) He recognised a group of fellow Americans by their accent. 

(2) Yesterday I saw a mouse in the supermarket. 

(3) The miner knew he wouldn’t see the light of day again for many hours. 

(4) Most people hate going to the dentist. 

(5) Did you watch the World Cup Final on television? 

(6) He wondered whether he had heard correctly. 

(7) He could hardly believe that what had happened to him was true. 

(8) With a cold like this I can’t taste what I’m eating. 

2 †Write an alternative construction for each of the following clauses so that Experiencer is 


made to coincide with Subject, as in (b) below: 

(a) The news delighted us. 

(b) We were delighted with the news. 

(1) Neither of the proposals pleased the members of the commission. 

.............................................. 

(2) His presence of mind amazed us. 

.............................................. 

(3) The dramatic increase of crime in the cities is alarming the government. 

.............................................. 

(4) The fact that she seems unable to lose weight worries her. 

.............................................. 

(5) Will the fact that you forgot to phone annoy your wife? 

.............................................. 

170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 18 

1a †Identify the types of ‘being’ and the participants in the following relational processes 1–8. 

1b †Assign Token and Value to the participants in 7 and 8. 

(1) The dormouse is a small rodent related to the mouse. 

(2) The dormouse is famous for its drowsiness and long winter sleep. 

(3) The Dormouse is one of the characters in Alice in Wonderland. 

(4) I felt quite nervous all through the interview. 

(5) I haven’t any change, I’m afraid. 

(6) The concert will be in the sports stadium at nine o’clock. 

(7) Food is the supreme national symbol. 

(8) What we call civilisation or culture represents only a fraction of human history. [BNC 

HRM 433] 

2 †Add a suitable Attribute or circumstance to each of the following clauses and say whether 

it is current or resulting: 

(1) After wandering around in circles for more than an hour, we ended up ....... 

(2) Keep your money . . .....in this special travelling wallet. 

(3) Growing coffee proved to be more .......than they had expected. 

(4) Stand ......while I bandage your hand. 

(5) Feel .......to do as you like. 

3 Below are two opposite opinions on the effects of television on viewers: (a) the opinion of 

an art specialist, and (b) that of a psychologist. Elaborate on one of these opinions, 

expressing your opinion of television programmes by at least a proportion of relational 

clauses: 


(a) 

(b) 

Watching television easily becomes a compulsive and addictive occupation, unlike 

watching ballet or looking at pictures. 

Our children are neither bored nor stultified; all of us need to dream the same 

daydream until we have had our fill of it . . . and the more frustrating reality is for 

us, the greater is our need. 

Module 19 

1 †Complete each of the following sentences containing verbal processes and say whether 

the result is a reported statement, a reported question or a reported directive: 

(1) Mounted policemen urged the crowd ....... 

(2) This notice says ....... 

(3) The usher at the House of Commons explained ....... 

(4) Let’s enquire at the information desk ....... 

(5) I have asked the nightwatchman ....... 

(6) You’d better not tell the children ....... 

(7) A voice over the loudspeaker announced ....... 

(8) Recent reports from the north confirm ....... 


2a Add a suitable Existent to each of the following existential clauses and say whether your 

Existent represents a countable entity, a non-countable entity or an event: 

(1) There appeared on the horizon ....... 

(2) There was .......and all the lights went out. 

(3) There’s .......in the next village, where you can get quite a good meal. 

(4) On the floor there lay ....... 

(5) Just opposite the cinema there’s .......you can send an email from there. 

(6) There’s no . . .....to lose; the taxi will be here in five minutes. 

2b †In which of the clauses in 2 could there be omitted and why? 

3 †Look at The Lost Girl text on p. 154 and identify which Existents are introduced by 

existential there and which are not. How are these others introduced? What appears to 

be the main conditioning factor? Is quantification important for distinguishing the two types? 

4 Add expansions of three types (locative, attributive, clausal) to each of the following 

existentials: 

(1) There was a plane ...... 

(2) There were a few members ....... 

(3) There’s nothing . . ..... 

5 Study the text in 18.4 (p. 148) and then write a paragraph describing one of the following: 

(1) The house of a friend who collects objects from all over the world. 


(2) A carnival. 

Use existential clauses with different types of expansion and omit there sometimes. 

Module 20 

1 †Identify the italicised circumstantial element in each of the following: 

(1) Trains to Lancing run every twenty minutes in off-peak periods. 

(2) It’s supposed to be quicker by first-class mail. 

(3) In spite of the forecast for storms, they set off in a rowing-boat to cross the lake. 

(4) Someone may have done it out of spite. 

(5) Payments must be made by the end of the month. 

(6) The horse show was cancelled on account of the epidemic. 

(7) As a do-it-yourself decorator, I’m not the most enterprising. 

(8) As for the dog, he’ll have to go to a kennels for a month. 

2 †Say which of the following italicised items is Instrument, which is Means and which Range: 

(1) They blocked the road with dustbins. 

(2) We crossed the Channel by ferry. 

172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(3) Rita and Pam had a fierce quarrel. 

(4) She managed to open the suitcase with a hairpin. 

(5) They lead a quiet life. 

Module 21 

1 †Give a possible basic form for each of the following sentences. Comment on the semanticosyntactic 

changes involved in the nominalised form here. Provide a translation into another 

language of the ‘metaphorical’ (i.e. more nominalised) form, if possible. 

(1) We had a long chat. 

(2) Bombing continued throughout the night. 

(3) Canada saw the launch of a 50-day election campaign last weekend. 

(4) His obvious intelligence and exceptional oratory won him [Franz Josef Strauss] a 

place in Konrad Adenauer’s 1951 cabinet as minister without portfolio. 

(5) The release came after rising expectations in Washington throughout the day that 

Professor Steen, aged 48, would be the hostage to be freed. 

2 Revision exercises: turn to the extract of an interview with Kirsty Ackland on p. 89. 

(1) On some paper, make out separate columns to fill in each type of process, such as 

mental processes of perception, cognition and affectivity. Make a column for 

problematic processes. 

(2) Go through the text again, assigning each process with its participants to a column, 

Include ellipted participants when these are clearly understood. List the circumstantials. 

Make a numerical or statistical count of the number of instances of each 

type of process. List them in order of frequency. 

(3) Which type of process is the most frequent? Do you find this surprising? Which 

aspects of her life is Kirsty most concerned with? What do you think this tells us 

about the speaker? Would a dialogue in which you took part, on the same subject, 

be similar? 

(4) Read the article on the transitivity hypothesis (in Hopper and Thompson 1980) and 

try to apply the criteria to some of the examples in exercise 21.1. 


3 Do you find that instances of grammatical metaphor and nominalisation in the sentences 

tend to be high rather than low, or conversely, low rather than high in transitivity? Can 

you explain the reasons for your conclusion? (You may want to check up first on the 

aspectual distinctions discussed in 42.2.) 


INTERACTION BETWEEN CHAPTER 5 

SPEAKER AND HEARER 

Linking speech acts and grammar 

Module 22: Speech acts and clause types 176 

22.1 The basic correspondences 177 

22.2 Direct and indirect speech acts: what the utterance ‘counts as’ 178 

Module 23: The declarative and interrogative clause types 180 

23.1 Clause types and the mood element: Subject–Finite variation 181 

23.2 The declarative clause type 181 

23.3 Interrogative clauses, negation and the do- operator 182 

23.4 Yes/no interrogatives and their responses 183 

23.5 Alternative interrogatives 185 

23.6 Wh- interrogatives 185 

23.7 Double interrogatives: questions within questions 186 

23.8 Question tags 187 

23.9 Features of the main types of tag 187 

23.10 Invariant question tags 189 


Module 24: The exclamative and imperative clause types 190 

24.1 The exclamative 191 

24.2 The imperative 191 

24.2.1 The verb in the imperative 193 

24.2.2 Negative and emphatic imperatives 194 

24.2.3 Let’s and Let us 194 

24.3 Verbless and freestanding subordinate clauses 195 

24.4 The subjunctive in English 196 

Module 25: Indirect speech acts, clause types and 

discourse functions 197 

25.1 Performatives and the declarative 197 

25.2 Exclamations 199

Module 26: Questions, clause types and discourse functions 201 

26.1 Rhetorical questions 201 

26.2 Questions as preliminaries 201 

26.3 Some, any and negative forms in biased questions 202 

26.4 Biased declaratives with attitudinal markers 203 

Module 27: Directives: getting people to carry out actions 205 

27.1 Directives and the imperative 205 

27.2 The discourse functions of let’s imperatives 207 

27.3 Politeness in directives 207 

27.4 Modalised interrogatives as polite directives 208 

27.5 Declaratives as directives 208 

27.6 Indirectness, impoliteness and confrontation 209 

27.7 Clause types and illocutionary force: summary table 210 

27.7.1 Clause combinations 211 


Exercises 213 


SPEECH ACTS AND MODULE 22 

CLAUSE TYPES 

SUMMARY 

1 Speech acts are the acts we perform through words. Certain general types of 

speech act are basic to everyday interaction; these are statements, questions, 

exclamations and directives, the latter covering orders, requests and instructions 

among others. 

2 Each of these basic speech acts is associated in the grammar with a type of 

clause: the declarative is typically used to encode a statement, the interrogative 

a question, the imperative a directive and the exclamative an exclamation. 

These are the direct correspondences between form and function that we refer 

to as direct speech acts. 


3 Indirect correspondences are also common in English. Thus declaratives, as 

well as encoding statements, can be used to ask questions, utter exclamations 

and issue directives, in addition to other speech acts such as promising and 

warning. In such cases the form is used to convey an ‘illocutionary force’, or 

intended meaning, that is different from its basic one. You’re staying here, then? 

has the form of a declarative – but, with appropriate intonation, the force is that 

of a question, as is indicated by the punctuation. The relationship between 

clause type and force is therefore not one-to-one but many-to-many. 

4 Even more indirectly, the words we use do not always express the full 

illocutionary force of our intended speech act. For example, It’s cold in here 

might be intended, and interpreted, as a request to turn up the heating. Hearers 

use inference to recover the intended meaning at specific points in a 

conversation, based on assumptions of cooperativeness, truth, relevance and 

cultural knowledge.

22.1 THE BASIC CORRESPONDENCES 

When we speak or write to each other, we perform acts through words, such as thanking 

and promising. These are ‘speech acts’. Certain general types of speech act are very 

basic, in that most, if not all, languages have ways of representing them by means of 

the grammar. These are statements, questions, exclamations and directives. 

These basic speech acts are encoded in the grammar in the system of clause types 

or moods, as shown in the diagram below. The indicative is the grammatical category 

typically used for the exchange of information, in contrast to the imperative, which 

grammaticalises our acting on others to get things done by requesting, ordering and so 

on. The exclamative grammaticalises the expression of emotion. 

declarative 

Polar (yes/no) 

indicative 

interrogative 

independent 

clause 

exclamative 

non-polar (wh-) 

imperative 


Interrogative clauses can be either polar (yes/no interrogatives) or non-polar (whinterrogatives). 

These are discussed in Module 23. 

The basic correspondences between clause types and speech acts are summarised 

as follows: 

Clause type Basic speech act Example 

Declarative making a statement You are careful. 

Interrogative (yes/no) asking a question Are you careful? 

Interrogative (wh-) asking a question How careful are you? 

Exclamative making an exclamation How careful you are! 

Imperative issuing a directive Be careful! 

The traditional term ‘command’ is nowadays applicable only in contexts of great 

inequality and power such as the military. The term directive is used instead in 

everyday environments, to cover such acts as requests, prohibitions and instructions, 

as well as orders and commands. 

INTERACTION: SPEECH ACTS 177

22.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS: WHAT THE 

UTTERANCE ‘COUNTS AS’ 

It is important to separate the concepts of statement, question and directive, which are 

semantic-pragmatic categories of meaning in use, from the grammatical categories of 

declarative, interrogative and imperative, which are typically associated with them. When 

a clause type is used to carry out the speech act typically associated with it, it is 

considered to be a direct speech act. Thus, in a direct speech act the declarative is said 

to have the illocutionary force of a statement, an interrogative has the force of a 

question, an imperative has the force of a directive, and an exclamative has the force of 

an exclamation. The force is the speaker’s ‘intended meaning’ at that particular point in 

the discourse. The table above shows this basic or typical correspondence between the 

two sets of categories; and in the following invented dialogue based on an advertisement, 

each clause type in the independent clauses realises its typical speech act: 

Is that you Brad? 1 Simon here. 

Hi, Simon. 

Did the board reach a conclusion? 2 

They’ve decided to launch the product, 3 if the terms are right. 

How do ours compare? 4 

Very well. But are you sure you can put up the necessary capital? 5 

We’ve got a massive loan from the Bank of England. 6 

In that case, let’s go. 7 

Have we got the deal, then? 8 

You’ve got it. 9 

Fantastic. How soon do you expect to be able to sign? 10 


1 

interrog./question; 2 interrog./question; 3 declar./statement; 4 interrog./question; 

5 

interrog./question; 6 

declar./statement; 7 

imper./directive; 8 

interrog./question; 

9 

declar./statement; 10 interrog./question 

In interpersonal interaction, however, the relationship is frequently more complex – and 

more flexible. Every clause type can carry out different speech acts. When a clause type 

has any other but its typical force, we consider it an indirect speech act. That is, it 

‘counts as’ an act different from its typical correspondence. 

We can rewrite one of the executives’ utterances so that the correspondence between 

gramatical form and its function is no longer direct: 

So we’ve got the deal, then? 

(declarative which ‘counts’ as a question) 

Looking at it the other way round, our new version of this utterance still ‘counts as’ a 

question, as in the original text, even though it’s expressed by a different clause type. 

Even more indirectly, the words we use do not always express the full meaning of our 

intended act, as we can see in the following familiar situational dialogue: 

178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

A. The door-bell’s ringing. 

B. I’m in the bath. 

A. Okay, I’ll go. 

A’s first utterance is to be interpreted as a directive to B: ‘Answer the door’. B’s utterance 

counts as a statement explaining why she can’t answer the door (‘I’m in the bath’), at 

the same time implying that A should answer the door. A’s second utterance shows that 

he has inferred the implied request and will comply with it. Notice that neither 

participant has made specific reference to answering the door. 

In this chapter we will be more concerned with the first type of indirect correspondence, 

the relationship between grammatical form and pragmatic meaning. 

In interpersonal interaction, however, especially in conversation, the second type – ‘not 

saying exactly what you mean’ and expecting the addressee to infer your meaning – is 

also extremely common in English. 

The motivation for using indirect speech acts is often that of tact, politeness or simply 

economy of effort. Assuming that speakers are cooperative and make their utterances 

relevant, hearers use inference in order to recover the intended meaning. For instance, 

a colleague’s question on leaving the office Have you come by car today? may lead the 

addressee to infer that the colleague is politely requesting to be given a lift. Inference 

is also based on cultural knowledge, for example, that people who have cars often give 

lifts to those who don’t. 

In inferring the speaker’s meaning, the situational context is all-important, as is the 

relationship between speaker and hearer. In different situations, or at different points 

in a conversation, any one utterance may take on a different pragmatic force. If an 

explosion has just been heard in the car-park, Have you come by car today? will suggest 

a very different intended meaning, perhaps that of a warning, or a suggestion to go and 


see what has happened. As in other areas of the grammar, a form can fulfil more than 

one function, and a function can be fulfilled by more than one form. 

It is not always possible to make a clear-cut distinction between one type of indirect 

speech act and another. Sit over here by me may be a request or an invitation, or a 

combination of the two. Similarly, Simon’s response We’ve got a massive loan from the 

Bank of England is at once a statement and an assurance in answer to Brad’s somewhat 

anxious question. This indeterminacy of pragmatic meaning is not, in general, a disadvantage, 

as it allows the interlocutors in a situation to negotiate the outcome of any 

one utterance as they go along. 


THE DECLARATIVE AND MODULE 23 

INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE TYPES 

SUMMARY 

1 Syntactically, the five clause types are distinguished in English by the presence 

or absence of Subject and the ordering of Subject (S) and a finite verb (F). The 

rest of the clause remains the same. The Finite is realised by a primary verb 

(am, is, are, was, were, has, had), a modal verb (can, must, etc.) or a tensed 

lexical verb (sells, sold, etc.), and is the first or only element of the verbal group. 

2 The declarative is the basic clause type, with Subject-Finite ordering (It is ready, 

I can swim, Ice melts). Interrogative and negative clauses in English require 

a finite operator. The primary verbs be and have, and the modal verbs (can, 

will, etc.) function as finite operators, carrying inversion (Is it ready? Can you 

swim?), polarity (the positive–negative distinction) – as in It is ready vs It isn’t 

ready – and emphasis (I am ready). If there is no primary or modal verb in 

the clause, a form of do is used as operator (Does she smoke? She doesn’t 

smoke). 


3 Interrogative structures in English are of two main types: yes/no (polar) and wh- 

(non-polar), the latter with a preceding wh-element. Both have Finite-Subject 

ordering except when Who is Subject (Who said that?). A subtype, the 

alternative interrogative, consists of two polar interrogatives joined by or (Do 

you want it or don’t you?). The wh- words ending in – ever act as intensifiers 

(Whatever do you mean?), as do more colloquial items (What the devil . . .). 

4 Echo questions repeat all or part of a previous speaker’s utterance (We leave 

at 5 a.m. – 5a.m?). Double interrogatives consist of one interrogative embedded 

within another (Do you know what time it is?), the answer being pragmatically 

determined. 

5 Abbreviated clauses (I can’t, Is it?) are independent ellipted clauses based on 

Subject–operator and operator – Subject patterns. They are commonly used as 

short interactive responses after questions, statements, exclamations and 

directives. 

180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6 Question tags are also abbreviated yes/no interrogatives. They are not 

independent, but appended to a main clause. There are two types, reversed 

and constant, distinguished by polarity, appendibility and, in part, intonation. 

Invariant tags include right, okay and – for some speakers – innit, the latter 

often socially stigmatised. Like other ellipted forms, tags are an important 

interactive device in spoken English. 

23.1 CLAUSE TYPES AND THE MOOD ELEMENT: SUBJECT- 

FINITE VARIATION 

In English, the declarative, interrogative and imperative moods of a clause are 

distinguished syntactically by variation in one part of the clause, called the mood 

element, while the rest of the predicate, sometimes called the residue, remains 

unchanged. The elements of structure which together form the mood element are 

Subject (S) and Finite (F). Variation consists in the presence or absence of Subject and 

the ordering of the two elements, as summarised in the table below. These different 

syntactic variations are referred to as ‘clause types’: 

Clause type Order Example 

Declarative Subject-Finite Jane sings. 

Interrogative (yes/no) Finite + Subject Does Jane sing? 

Interrogative (wh-) wh + Finite + Subject What does Jane sing? 

Exclamative wh + Subject + Finite How well Jane sings! 

Imperative no subject, base form Sing! 

of verb 


23.2 THE DECLARATIVE CLAUSE TYPE 

The declarative is the basic clause type, with Subject-Finite ordering, as in: 

Subject Finite Predicator 

1 We are meeting again tomorrow. [BNC AON 1644] 

2 You might need a holiday. [BNC AYP 47] 

The Finite, meaning specified for tense or modality, is always the first or only element 

of a verbal group (see also chapters 1 and 8). It is realised by either a verbal operator 

(is, can, has, etc.), as in 1 and 2, or a tensed (past or present) form of the lexical verb, 

as in 4 and 5. The primary verbs function both as operators 1 and as main verbs 3: 


Subject 

Finite/Predicator 

3 We are late again. 

4 She arrives tomorrow. 

5 They sell fish and chips here. 

More exactly, in positive declarative clauses, Finite and Predicator fuse in the present 

and past tensed forms of lexical verbs and of be and have when used as main verbs. The 

operator is always realised by a verb: primary, modal or do, as explained and illustrated 

in 3.1. 

The Finite element relates the proposition to a point of reference: either a time 

reference, by tense, or the speaker’s judgement by means of modality, as discussed in 

chapters 8 and 9. 

23.3 INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES, NEGATION AND THE 

DO-OPERATOR 

In interrogative clauses, the Finite verb precedes the Subject, the rest remaining the 

same. 

Finite Subject Predicator 

Are we meeting again tomorrow? 

Do you need a holiday? 

Does she expect us soon? 

Did they emigrate to Australia after all? 


When no operator is already available in the clause, a form of do (do, does, did) is brought 

in as a dummy operator. That is, it has no semantic value but simply fulfils the syntactic 

requirement of ‘finite operator’ (see 3.1.1), as illustrated in the last three examples. The 

functions of the operators that interest us here are, first, that they signal by position that 

the clause is interrogative, and second, they carry polarity, that is, they are either 

positive or negative. This positive–negative contrast is an essential semantic feature 

associated with finiteness. In order to be affirmed or denied, a proposition has to be 

either positive or negative. 

Negation, as we saw in 3.2, is usually expressed by the negative particle not, which 

follows the operator or is joined to it as n’t. Note that the negative interrogative with 1st 

person singular ‘I’ is not *amn’t but aren’t in Standard English. Other exceptions include 

can’t, won’t and shan’t. (Operators also function in question tags, both positive and 

negative, as illustrated here and discussed with further examples shortly. See also 

Chapter 8.) 


I won’t be going home for lunch. [BNC KNY 251] 

It doesn’t seem right, does it? [BNC FUL 178] 

You don’t sell bibles, do you? [BNC C86 2553] 

182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Negative-interrogative forms (see also Chapter 1) are illustrated as follows: 

Finite Subject Predicator 

Won’t you be going home for lunch? 

Don’t you sell bibles? 

The do forms can be used to add emphasis with lexical verbs in the declarative: 


They do sell them 

You do know about that, don’t you? [BNC H9W 1033] 

Interrogative clauses typically occur in interpersonal situations, and their direct speechact 

function or force is to ask for information. There are two main types of interrogative, 

the yes/no type and the wh-type. The examples we have seen so far are of the yes/no 

type. 

23.4 YES/NO INTERROGATIVES AND THEIR RESPONSES 

In the yes/no type it is only the polarity that is in question. The speaker asks for 

confirmation or denial of the clause content, to be expressed by yes or no. Such minimal 

replies often sound rather curt, however: 


A. Do you sell fish fingers? 

B. No. 

A. At all? You don’t? [BNC KBC 717–721] 

(B’s first response overlaps with A’s question; B’s reply might be): 

B. You can get them from the supermarket. 

A feature of spoken English is the use of ellipted responses such as Yes, it is, No, we don’t, 

I can’t, has he? based on the Subject-operator (declarative) and operator-Subject 

(interrogative) patterns. These are independent abbreviated clauses. They are used 

in response to questions, statements, exclamations and directives. They show more 

interest and involvement than a mere Yes or No, and even more than mere silence! In 

conversation they keep the talk alive by passing the turn from one speaker to another: 

A. Always drunk isn’t he? 

B. He’s a sweet old man though. 

A. Is he? 

B. Gets me nice birthday presents. 

A. Does he? 

B. Mm. [BNC 3503–3507] 


Another way of responding is by an echo question. This repeats part, or sometimes 

all, of an immediately preceding utterance by another speaker. The motivation for using 

echoes is that the hearer did not comprehend, found difficult to believe, or did not hear 

properly what had been said: 

I’m going to sell my golf clubs. 

What did you say to him? 

Sell them? 

What did I say to him? 

In interactive situations, in fact, a wide range of responses occurs, as speakers often 

express greater or less certainty about the proposition: 

Have you got any stamps? 

No, I don’t think I have, in fact I know I haven’t. [BNC KCX 3771–3772] 

In the following extract from Harold Pinter’s Applicant an eager applicant for a job is 

asked a great many unexpected questions by the interviewer Miss Piffs. All her questions 

are of the yes/no type, yet few are in fact answered by yes or no. The applicant Lamb 

shows his perplexity and surprise by responding in a variety of ways: 

Piffs: Would you say you were an excitable person? [1] 

Lamb: Not – unduly, no. Of course, I – [2] 

Piffs: Would you say you were a moody person? [3] 

Lamb: Moody? No, I wouldn’t say I was moody – well, sometimes 

[4] 

Piffs: Do you ever get fits of depression? [5] 

Lamb: Well, I wouldn’t call them depression exactly. [6] 

Piffs: Do you often do things you regret in the morning? [7] 

Lamb: Regret? Things I regret? Well, it depends what you mean by 

often, really – I mean when you say often – [8] 

Piffs: Are you often puzzled by women? [9] 

Lamb: Women? [10] 

Piffs: Men. [11] 

Lamb: Men? Well, I was just going to answer the question about 

women – [12] 

Piffs: Do you often feel puzzled? [13] 

Lamb: Puzzled? [14] 

Piffs: By women. [15] 

Lamb: Women? [16] 

Piffs: Men. [17] 

Lamb: Oh now, just a minute I . . . Do you want separate answers 

or a joint answer? [18] 


184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

23.5 ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVES 

Alternative interrogatives also start with an operator, like the yes/no type, but yes or 

no is no longer an appropriate answer. Instead, one of the two alternatives presented in 

the question is expected to be chosen, but again, variants are possible, as shown in B’s 

answers: 

A. Do you study for enjoyment or to advance your career? [BNC BNA 1630] 

B. – For enjoyment 

– To advance my career 

– Both 

23.6 WH-INTERROGATIVES 

Wh-interrogatives contain an element of missing information which is embodied in the 

wh-word. What the speaker is seeking in this type of interrogative is the identity of that 

element. The rest is presupposed, that is, taken as given. For instance, What do you want? 

presupposes that you want something. The wh-word can fill a syntactic function of the 

clause or be part of a group or phrase. 

Wh-word Finite Subject Syntactic function 

What do you want? (Od) 

What is it for? (complement of a prep.) 

Who(m) have they appointed? (Od) 

Who can it be? (Cs) 

Whose dog is it? (determinative in NG) 

When shall we go? (A) 

How did it happen? (A) 

How old is she? (Cs) 

How long have you known him? (A) 

Why would I do that? (A) 

Where have you most enjoyed working? (A) [BNC BNA 28496] 


There is one exception to the Finite-Subject order in wh-interrogative clauses. This is 

when the wh-element itself functions as subject or as part of a NG at subject: 

Subject F/P 

Who told you that? 

Which glass got broken? (determinative in NG) 

The functional motivation for the ordering of interrogatives in English is that whatever 

is questioned comes first. If it is the polarity that is questioned, the finite operator comes 

first. If it is the identity of an unknown element, a wh-element comes first, followed by 

the Finite-Subject ordering. If the unknown element is the Subject, that (in the form of 

a wh-element), comes first. 


This means that, basically, the entire interrogative system in English has Finite- 

Subject ordering, except when the Subject’s identity is itself questioned. 

Note that, in some languages, interrogative inversion is that of the Subject and the 

whole verbal group, as in Spanish ¿Ha llegado Pedro? We must be aware that this 

variation is ungrammatical in English (*Has arrived Peter?), except with primary verbs 

(be and have) in simple tenses. Compare: Has Peter a bicycle? is possible, but *Has had 

Peter lunch? is ungrammatical. Furthermore, certain languages rely on intonation to 

express a question, using only the declarative form. This is also possible in English (see 

26.4) but it does not regularly replace the use of the interrogative structures. 

The following dialogue between two friends illustrates declarative clauses and the 

two main interrogative types. Finite elements are italicised: 

So what did you do at the weekend, Janet? 

Well, Jeff and I went off to Whitby to visit our in-laws. We took the dog with us and 

we all ended up having a walk along the beach. 

Can you walk right along the cliffs to Robin Hood’s Bay? 

I think you probably could do, but it’s quite dangerous. You can get through 

occasionally when the tide’s out, but it doesn’t stay out for very long and you can get 

caught. 

(authors’ data) 

intensifier 

The wh-interrogative expressing words the surprise, sometimes perplexity combine or with disbelief the word of the -ever, speaker. which Why acts ever as an 


often spelt as two words, the other items as either one or two: 

is 

Whoever would believe such a story? 

Wherever did you hear that? 

Why ever didn’t he let us know he was coming? 

Besides the -ever combinations, wh-interrogative words can be intensified informally by 

certain lexical items which include on earth, in the world, and other more marked 

colloquialisms including semi-taboo words, such as the devil, the hell. 

Why on earth didn’t you get in touch? 

Ellie! Where the hell have you been? 

(Girls Out Late) 

See 3.1 and 26.3 for negative-interrogatives. 

23.7 DOUBLE INTERROGATIVES: QUESTIONS WITHIN 

QUESTIONS 

A wh-interrogative can be embedded as a constituent of a polar interrogative, in which 

case the wh-interrogative has the order of a declarative clause, as in Do you know what 

186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

time it is? rather than *Do you know what time is it? (see also Chapter 3). There are two 

questions involved in this case: (a) the polarity of the main clause, in this example 

whether the addressee knows the answer to the wh-question; and (b) the content 

embodied in the wh-element. The intention of the speaker, together with the context, 

will ‘weight’ one or other in importance. For example, if the addressee is slowly packing 

a suitcase to catch a train shortly, (a) ‘knowing the time’ is likely to be more important. 

On the other hand, if the speaker’s watch has stopped, (b) ‘the time is x’ is likely to be 

of greater interest to the speaker. The force is different too. In (a) Do you know what time 

it is? has the force of a polite reminder, while in (b) it will be interpreted as a request. 

23.8 QUESTION TAGS 

Question tags are not independent clauses, but they do require a response, and are 

highly interactive. Structurally, tags are abbreviated yes/no interrogatives consisting of 

an operator (either positive or negative) and a pronoun, which repeats the subject or 

substitutes for it. Question tags are attached to one of the following clause types: 

a declarative clause: 

an exclamative clause: 

an imperative clause: 

It was quiet in there, wasn’t it? 

How quiet it was in there, wasn’t it? 

Be quiet for a moment, will you? 

Of these, the declarative is by far the most common. The tag is usually placed at the 

end 1–5, but sometimes in the middle 6: 


1 Ben is in South Africa, isn’t he? 

2 He isn’t with Gordon, is he? 

3 You live in Hammersmith, don’t you? 

4 You don’t live in Chelsea, do you? 

5 It doesn’t really matter, does it? 

6 It’s easy, isn’t it, to get into the habit? 

23.9 FEATURES OF THE MAIN TYPES OF TAG 

There are two main types of declarative mood tag, distinguished by polarity sequence. 

Type 1 tag has opposite polarity to that of the main clause. That is, if the main clause 

is positive, the tag is negative, and vice versa, as in the examples so far. 

There is either rising or falling intonation on the tag. A rising tone on the tag 

indicates doubt, and so the meaning is ‘Am I right?’ If however the intonation is falling, 

it expresses greater certainty, so that the meaning of the tag is more like ‘I’m asking 

you to confirm this’ and simply seeks agreement. 

The Type 2 tag has constant polarity, that is, the same as the main clause. It occurs 

mostly in combinations of positive declarative clauses with positive tags. Type 2 tags 

typically have a rising tone on the tag, and the statement is often preceded by a discourse 


marker, such as Oh, So or Well now, which indicates that the speaker is expressing a 

conclusion or inference drawn from the situation or from what has been said before. 

The effect is often emotive and can either express an agreeable surprise or else sound 

pejorative, depending on the implication. 

Oh, so you’re the new assistant, are you? 

Oh so that’s what she said, is it? 

Well now, this is the Norman chapel, is it? 

You found the address, did you? 

The following extract, from James Saunders’ play Over the Wall, parodies a doctor’s 

questioning of a patient, who is not allowed time to reply: 

Falling hair, loss of weight, gain of weight, tenseness, got a drink problem have you, 

smoking too much, hallucinations, palpitations, eructations, on drugs are you, can 

you read the top line, overdoing it at work perhaps, worrying about the work, about 

the spouse, about where to go for your holiday, about the mortgage, about the value 

of the pound, about the political situation, about your old mother, about the kids, 

kids playing up are they, not doing well at school, got a drink problem have they, 

smoking, on drugs are they, suffering from loss of weight, falling hair, got any 

worries have you? 

Yes! 


In both types of question tag, the pronoun in the tag is co-referential with the subject, 

and the operator, not the pronoun, carries the tonic stress. 

There is a third, less common but very useful variant, illustrated by the following 

example: 

Ooh! I love squirrels, don’t you? [BNC KBW 12683–12684] 

Here the pronouns are not co-referential. The sentence subject is invariably I and that 

of the tag, you. It is you, not the operator, that carries the tonic stress, marking a contrast 

with the 1st person, the speaker. The tag invites the addressee to agree or disagree with 

the speaker’s opinion. 

When an embedded clause that encodes the main propositional content of the 

sentence is introduced by a clausal fragment such as I think or I suppose expressing 

epistemic stance, the tag refers to the embedded clause, not to the clausal fragment (see 

also 36.2). The stance expression can be placed parenthetically: 

I think he left before lunch, didn’t he? (not *don’t I?) 

(He left, I think, before lunch, didn’t he?) 

188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I suppose you’d prefer a cold drink, wouldn’t you? (not *don’t I?) 

(You’d prefer a cold drink, I suppose, wouldn’t you?) 

Indefinite human singular pronouns take they in the tag: 

Everybody seemed to enjoy themselves, didn’t they? 

Nobody will agree to that, will they? 

Somebody should be told, shouldn’t they? 

The discourse function of tags following declaratives is to seek confirmation or agreement 

with the previous statement and to keep the conversation going. Tags are questions 

and so require an answer. They enable the speaker to elicit a response from the 

hearer, where a tagless declarative or imperative would not necessarily achieve this end. 

Together with abbreviated clauses and fragments as short responses, tags provide the 

main structural-functional devices for furthering speaker-hearer involvement. 

With certain speech act functions, such as good wishes and warnings, a question tag 

is not used. Instead, other forms such as the following are used, in which the adverbs 

do not have their normal ideational value: 

See you later, then! Have a good journey, then! 

That plate is hot, mind Look out, there! Come on, now! 

23.10 INVARIANT QUESTION TAGS 


Invariant tags are those such as Right? 1 and okay?, which are not derived from the 

structure of the main clause. A form which is spreading rapidly is innit. This was 

originally derived from isn’t it, and is used in popular, non-standard speech as a tag 

appended to a declarative 2, 3. In the vernacular it is also used as a negative 

interrogative main verb and a question tag, in the same sentence 4. Furthermore, in 

some communities it is becoming a generalised tag used in environments other than 

those containing the operator is 5. In this respect, innit is like right and okay, although 

less generally accepted than they are. 

1 Getting over a cold, right? [BNC KBF 13393] 

2 It’s a nice pattern innit? [BNC KB8 7338] 

3 Oh it’s cold innit? [BNC KE3 8928] 

4 Ah innit lovely innit? [BNC KBE 9639] 

5 You know our life story innit? [BNC KCS 1718] 

Like other tags, innit? seeks confirmation or agreement from the addressee. Right and 

okay, however, also function (like all right) as responses indicating agreement or 

compliance 6, and also as discourse markers to call attention and initiate an action 7: 

6 . . . whenever you want to read there, you can do that. 

Okay right right. [BNC KCV 0941–0942] 

7 Right, er, let’s have a look then [BNC KB3 1867] 


THE EXCLAMATIVE AND MODULE 24 

IMPERATIVE CLAUSE TYPES 

SUMMARY 

1 Exclamative clauses open with a wh- element what or how, followed by a NG 

or adjective/adverb, respectively. Like the declarative, they have Subject-Finite 

ordering. Exclamative what is a determinative (What a mess!), while how 

functions as a degree adverb (How strange it was!), unlike pronominal what 

and manner adverb how in wh- interrogatives (What is it? How is she?). They 

are used to make exclamative statements. 

2 The imperative consists of the base form of the verb alone, without modals, tense 

or aspect (Stop!). This can be preceded by the negative form don’t or emphatic 

do. There is no overt subject, but a 2nd person subject (stressed you) can be 

added, usually for purposes of contrast with another person (You sit down and 

I’ll stand). Somebody, everybody, nobody can also be used and, like you, refer 

to the addressee(s). These, and other forms, can also be used as vocatives. A 

polite clause tag is will you? Let’s is the imperative particle used for a 1st person 

imperative, typically suggesting a joint action. It is to be distinguished from the 

lexical verb let, from which it derived. The unmarked function of imperatives is 

to issue a directive. 


3 Reduced clauses are extremely common in spoken English and fulfil an important 

interactive function. They include abbreviated clauses (basically S-F or F-S in 

structure) that function independently, question tags, verbless clauses of various 

degrees of ellipsis, echoes, and freestanding subordinate clauses (which it does). 

In this module we refer mainly to the typical speech act associated with each 

clause type. 

4 The subjunctive is not a clause type but a verb form. It remains outside the system 

of clause types and has a very limited use in British English, rather more in 

American English. 

190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

24.1 THE EXCLAMATIVE 

The exclamative clause type starts with a wh- word, either the determinative what, 

followed by a nominal group or the degree adverb how and an adjective, adverb or 

statement: 

Wh- element 

What a shock 

they’ll have! 

What a mess we’ve got ourselves into! [BNC G0J 4081] 

What a lot of interference there is! [on the telephone] 

How dark 

it is! 

How 

it snowed! 

Exclamatives have the Subject-Finite ordering that is characteristic of the declarative, 

and the element following the wh- word is a clause constituent which has been brought 

to the front of the clause. For these reasons exclamative clauses are sometimes considered 

as an emotive element superimposed on the declarative rather than as a distinct 

mood. 

The declarative clauses corresponding to these examples are as follows: 

They’ll have a shock. 

We’ve got ourselves into a mess. 

It is dark. 

It snowed. 


How-exclamative clauses sound somewhat theatrical nowadays, especially when 

followed by an adverb (How well he played!). More commonly heard than clausal 

exclamatives in everyday spoken English are abbreviated noun-headed or adjectiveheaded 

forms: 

What a mess! What a surprise! What a nightmare! 

What a player! What very sad news! How exciting! 

Oh great! Big deal! Fantastic! (see also 25.2) 

Embedded (or indirect) exclamatives occur regularly in both spoken and written English. 

We refer to them in 11.3.4 under wh- complements, and simply illustrate them here: 

You wouldn’t believe how badly the prisoners were treated. 

24.2 THE IMPERATIVE 

The most striking feature of an imperative clause is that it requires no overt Subject in 

English. In this it differs sharply from the other clause types: 

Be careful! 

Come on! Hurry up! 


The subject is pragmatically understood to be the addressee, and this is confirmed by 

the presence of a reflexive pronoun (yourself, yourselves) 1, a question tag (will you) 2 or 

by a vocative (you, you people, you guys, used to address women as well as men) 3, 6. 

Stressed you positioned immediately before the imperative is usually interpreted as 

subject, and is typically used to mark a contrast with the speaker or a 3rd person 4. 

Subject and vocative are less distinct when realised by someone 7, everyone, or a NG 

such as passengers on flight IB580 to Vigo 8 preceding the verb. They could be either 

subject or vocative, or even merge. Both are optional and both refer to the addressees, 

representing either all or a sub-set of those persons present in the speech situation. 

When placed in final position 1, a pronoun or NG would normally be considered a 

vocative. 

1 Help yourselves, everyone! 

2 Be quiet, will you! 

3 Shut up, you two! 

4 You stay here and I’ll get the tickets. 

5 Hey, Helena, calm down! [BNC KCE 1507] 

6 Come on, you guys, the shops will be shutting soon. (Girls Out Late) 

7 Someone call an ambulance! 

8 Passengers on flight number IB580 to Vigo please proceed to gate number 17. 

Vocatives are able to occupy various positions, typically final 3, but also medial 6 and 

initial, often preceded by an attention-getter 5. Common vocatives are first names, 

Johnny, Pat, kinship names Mum/Mom, Grandad, endearments darling, love, honey, pet, 

pronoun you + noun you guys, surnames and titles, Mr Roberts, and (now less common) 

honorifics madam, sir. Vocatives fulfil important interpersonal functions in getting someone’s 

attention, singling out one individual among a group and maintaining relationships, 


either of a close or friendly nature or, less commonly nowadays, marking distance and 

respect. 

As these examples illustrate, imperatives typically encode directives, which range 

from orders 2, 3 to encouragement 6, urgent request 7, invitation 1 and instructions 8 

(see also 27.1). 

The following exchange between two women friends was overheard on the London 

Underground when a seat became vacant. Two functions of you occur; as subject of an 

imperative and as vocative after an imperative: 

A 1 

B 2 

A 3 

B 4 

A 5 

Sit down! 

No, you sit down! 

You’re the one with the feet. 

So are you. You sit down! 

Sit down with the feet, you! 

You in B 2 

and B 4 

subject of imperative. You in A 5 

vocative after an imperative. 

192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

24.2.1 The verb in the imperative 

Another important structural feature of the imperative is that it uses the base form of 

the verb, with no modals or tense-aspect forms. This is shown by the use of be in Be 

careful ! (not *are (being) careful, *can be careful). The grammatical status of the base form 

as a non-finite is somewhat problematic, however. It does not share functions with other 

non-finite verb forms; rather, the imperative has more in common, functionally, with 

finites than with the non-finites. Like interrogatives, it relates the speaker to the hearer 

and to the here-and-now, typically in face-to-face interaction. 

Because the base form is indistinguishable from some declarative forms, there is 

potentially structural ambiguity between an imperative with a you-subject and a 

declarative. This is disambiguated only in speech, by stress on the imperative subject: 

A. How do we get tickets for this show? 

B. You go and stand in the queue. (unstressed, declarative, use of ‘generic’ you = 

‘one’) 

A. What shall we do, then? 

B. You go and stand in the queue while I park the car. (stressed, imperative) 

There is, however, a distinction between declarative and imperative when the verb is 

be, as in role-taking. This is because be has retained different forms for person and tense 

(am, is, are). Compare: 

You be the doctor and I’ll be the nurse. (imperative) 

You’re the doctor and I’m the nurse. (declarative) 


The declarative 3rd person singular finite form -s avoids ambiguity with a 3rd person 

subject imperative. Note however that please always points to a directive meaning: 

Imperative 

Everybody sit down, please! 

Nobody say a word! 

Declarative 

Everybody sits down. 

Nobody says a word. 

If the Subject is plural, the verb form is the same in both types, but intonation, pause, 

gesture and common sense serve to clarify the meaning in a specific context. 

Ticket-holders (pause) come this 

way! 

Those in agreement (pause) raise 

their hands! 

Ticket-holders come this way. 

Those in agreement raise their hands. 


24.2.2 Negative and emphatic imperatives 

Don’t (placed before a subject) and do are used to negate or emphasise 2nd person 

imperatives, respectively. (To some speakers, do sounds rather old-fashioned now.) 

Negative & Subject Base/Predicator 

emphasis 

You be careful, now! 

Don’t be silly! 

Don’t you speak to me like that! 

Do keep still, Pat! 

24.2.3 Let’s and Let us 

Another feature of the imperative in English is the use of let’s to form a 1st person 

plural imperative with the implicit Subject we. Its typical use is to suggest or urge 

a collaborative action that includes both speaker and addressee(s). It is also used, 

however, as a disguised order by speakers in authority, as in the third example. The tag 

question used with 1st person imperatives is Shall we? 

Let’s take a few photos, shall we? 

Let’s go home, shall we? 

Let’s have some silence now! 

Let’s is historically derived from let us and in very formal settings, including church 


services, the unabbreviated form is heard: 

Let us pray. 

Let us consider the possible alternatives. 

It may be that let’s is beginning to function as an unanalysed pragmatic particle, as in 

non-standard let’s you and I do it. The negative form of let’s is let’s not, although don’t let’s 

is also heard 

Let’s not waste any more time. [BNC AMB 799] 

Oh, don’t let’s talk about it, Len. [BNC GVT 2492] 

Let’s is not to be confused with the normal imperative of the lexical verb let meaning 

permit, allow, as in: 

Let me do it! 

Let me help you. 

As an illustration of the differences between the particle let and lexical let (= allow), 

compare: 

Let’s go and see that new film! 

Please let us go and see that new film. 

(particle let) 

(lexical let) 

194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Let’s go! (let as particle) Let us go! (lexical verb let) 

us = I + you 

Pronoun us reduced to ’s 

No subject pronoun can be added 

The tag is shall we? 

The verb is not ellipted 

us = me + other(s) 

Pronoun us not reduced 

2nd person subject you can be added: 

You let us go! 

The tag is will you?/can’t you? 

Phrasal verb is ellipted with verbs of 

direction: Let us in/out (= come/go in/out) 

Obviously, both uses of let can occur in the same clause, as in Let’s let them in now. 

The pragmatic particle let can also introduce a wish (the optative mood) as in Let there 

be light and is used only in formal registers (for inclusive and exclusive we/us, see 45.7.1). 

24.3 VERBLESS AND FREESTANDING SUBORDINATE 

CLAUSES 

Spoken English and genres which imitate it are rich in ellipsis and reduced forms 

in general. We have already seen examples of abbreviated clauses, echo questions 

and tags. 


Verbless clauses 

We use the term ‘verbless clause’ to cover ellipted clauses which lack one or more 

structural elements: Subject and Finite verb 1, 2, 3, 5, Finite verb 4. They therefore 

lack the alternative orderings characteristic of abbreviated clauses. Some can take 

question tags, however, with either rising or falling intonation. Without a tag, intonation 

indicates the force of a statement, question or exclamation. 

1 (He is) in New York, isn’t he? (question) 

2 What a waste of time, (it was) wasn’t it! (exclamation) 

3 (This is) Simon here. (self-identifying statement on the phone) 

4 (Are) you ready? (question) 

5 (It’s) fantastic! (exclamation) 

In conversational exchanges in English, certain wh- questions without a finite verb play 

a part as initiators and responses. They can have the force of an invitation (How about 

some lunch?), an encouraging suggestion (Why not give it another try?), an inquiry (How 

come Sheila’s not with you?) 


Freestanding subordinate clauses 

These also are characteristic of ongoing conversation. Two very common types are the 

sentential relative clause introduced by which 1 and clauses of reason introduced by 

because or cos 2 (see 35.3). The interesting feature is that they are not attached to a 

previous clause, but are freestanding, both intonationally and as regards punctuation. 

Functionally, they reinforce or give the reason for making the previous utterance: 

1 and, he said, well with the coal fire and all that, he said, it’ll, it’ll get dirty 

Mm which it will, won’t it? [BNC KE6 10518–10519] 

2a Because you’re worth it. (Closing utterance in L’Oréal hair care advertisements.) 

2b Did you see King Lear when it was on on the television? Cos I taped that as well. 

[BNC KDM 3696–3697] 

24.4 THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN ENGLISH 

In English, mood has to do with clause types rather than verb inflection. It leaves the 

subjunctive somewhat isolated, since this is not a clause type, but a verb form which 

in present-day British English plays a very marginal role, although it is rather more 

common in American English. 

As regards the expression of non-factual meaning, the subjunctive has also lost 

ground. In independent clauses the subjunctive can express a wish, but only in fossilised 

stereotyped expressions like Long live the Queen! So be it, Heaven be praised! Far be it from 

me to doubt your word. Even in subordinate clauses, a clearly identifiable present 

subjunctive is limited to the uninflected VG occurring with a 3rd person singular subject 

in that-clause complements of certain verbs and adjectives, as in: It is right that this House 

debate this issue. In less formal contexts the indicative or should + infinitive are now 

used by many speakers. (We recommend that he gets/should get a visa.) 

A past subjunctive can be identified only in the form were in the 1st and 3rd persons 

singular of be (If I were you ...If he were to return alive . . .) in subordinate clauses of 

condition and concession, where it is still very current. Most non-factual notions, such 

as the expression of doubt and hypothesis, are conveyed in English by other grammatical 

means, principally any and its compounds and the modal auxiliaries, especially should, 

could, may and might (see Module 44). 

One area in which an indicative–subjunctive contrast is made is in a certain type of 

if clause, as in: 


If he was here I didn’t see him. 

If he were here I would surely see him. 

(indicative) 

(subjunctive) 

Only the second if clause is truly conditional. The first, meaning ‘if it is true that he was 

here’, is rhetorical condition in that his being here is not a condition for my seeing him. 

This is also referred to as pragmatic conjunction (see 35.3). 

196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS, MODULE 25 

CLAUSE TYPES AND DISCOURSE 

FUNCTIONS 

SUMMARY 

While examining the structure of clause types, we have mainly illustrated them with 

their unmarked correspondences, but these are not the only ones. All language in 

use carries out acts, and this is what distinguishes an utterance from a sentence. A 

sentence is a grammatical object, but when it gets used in context what we have is 

an utterance. The meaning of an utterance depends on what it is being used to do 

– what kind of speech act is being performed. 

In this section we shall start with the speech act and see how the clause types 

can carry out different intended meanings from their basic ones. 

1 All language performs acts, but there is no one-to-one correspondence between 

clause type and speech-act function. Here we look at some of the indirect 

correspondences, together with other discourse functions. 


2 Certain verbs such as promise, advise and warn, when used in the declarative, 

are potentially explicit performatives, that is they can carry out the act they 

name. This is the case with a 1st person subject and the present tense (I promise). 

3 Exclamations can be made, with appropriate intonation, by all clause types, 

as well as by verbless clauses reduced to a nominal group or an adjective. 

25.1 PERFORMATIVES AND THE DECLARATIVE 

We have seen that making a statement is the basic function of the declarative. A 

statement describes a state of affairs in the world and has a truth value, which can be 

confirmed, questioned or denied (She is at home; Is she at home? She is not at home). Stating 

something is performing the verbal act of stating. The declarative is unique among clause 

types, however, in its ability to carry out certain acts by naming them. These are explicit 

performatives. 


With certain verbs – such as promise, advise and warn – a declarative carries out the 

speech act it names. Such declaratives usually address the hearer directly, as in: 

1 I promise I’ll be careful. [BNC B3J 1436] 

2 We advise you to book early to avoid disappointment. [BNC AMW 1335] 

3 If you insist on staying, I warn you, you’ll get no help [BNC H94 724] 

from me. 

4 And we have a very good selection of Indian restaurants: [BNC HDT 49] 

I recommend the Kashmir. 

That is, the speaker carries out the act of promising, advising, warning and recommending, 

respectively. Declaratives such as these don’t have truth value. It makes no 

sense to ask if they are true or false. Instead, we can ask if they work as performatives. 

With a 1st-person speaker and present tense, as in I promise I’ll be careful, the performative 

is explicit and the speaker is fully accountable as the doer of the speech act. 

As long as the underlying Subject is the speaker or the writer, the passive forms 5, 

6, or an active form with an impersonal NG Subject 7, have the same effect: 

5 You are advised to book early to avoid disappointment. 

6 Passengers are requested to have their boarding cards ready. 

7 Liverpool Airport apologise for any inconvenience caused to the public during 

building works. 

Performatives become less explicit when modalised (with can or must), when introduced 

by let, want, I’m afraid or when nominalised. They still count as performatives, however: 


8 I can offer you beer, whisky, gin, coke ... 

9 Let me thank you once more for your collaboration. 

10 My apologies for cross-postings. (for sending a repeated email message) 

11 I must beg you not to tell anyone about this. 

12 I am afraid I have to request you to move to another seat. 

13 I wanna thank you all. God bless you. (President George W. Bush to the 

American people in the aftermath of 11 September 2001) 

These ‘hedged’, that is, indirect, forms are felt to be still performing the act named by 

the verb. In addition, they are more polite than direct forms because they avoid invoking 

power and status. Hearers may perceive them to be more sincere, as is also the case 

with the informal use of wanna instead of want to in the President’s thanks. 

Other verbs that can be used as explicit performatives include: agree, apologise, beg, 

bet, congratulate, declare, guarantee, offer, object, warn, wish and many others. 

With pronouns other than I/we, or with past tense or perfect aspect, such verbs do 

not carry out the act they name; instead, they are statements which report a speech act: 

I offered them beer, whisky, gin, cola ... 

They have requested passengers to have their boarding cards ready. 

You might wonder why we don’t use performatives all the time, if they are so efficient. 

One reason is that not all verbs are potentially performative. For instance, we can’t 

198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

threaten someone in English by saying ‘I threaten you’, nor hint by saying ‘I hint that 

you are wrong’. These acts have to be done indirectly. 

A second reason is that explicit performatives sometimes appear to invoke authority 

or status. The power factor is most obvious in ‘ritual performatives’ such as: 

Then I declare the meeting closed. 

[BNC GUD618] 

I name this ship Aurora. (Authorised person at launching of 

the ship) [BNC 9W787] 

Negative declaratives typically express a negative statement, which may have the 

force of a rejection 1. Negating an explicit performative can have the effect of greatly 

attenuating the force, as in 2, though this is not the case with passives 5. Negative 

declaratives can also express a polite question 3, an exclamation 4 or a prohibition 5: 

1 I don’t need any more calendars, thank you. 

2 I don’t promise you that I’ll convince him. 

3 Bill hasn’t said anything about the weekend? 

4 I never heard such rubbish! 

5 Smoking is not allowed in here 

With some performatives such as advise, what we have is transferred negation. The 

negative particle not is transferred from its logical place in the dependent clause to the 

main clause (see 3.6 for other verbs, such as think, which behave this way): 

I don’t advise you to buy those shares (= I advise you not to buy those shares). 


Certain verbs such as promise and bet are sometimes used performatively to carry out 

a different act from the one they name. Basically, promise carries out acts which benefit 

the addressee, while bet is used to lay a wager. But, in the examples that follow, this is 

not the case: promise is being used to threaten the addressee while bet informally 

expresses strong probability: 

Now get out of bed and don’t you dare make a sound. One sound and you won’t 

make another, I promise you. [BNC FSG 2608–2609] 

I bet they have their problems, like us. [BNC H94 862] 

25.2 EXCLAMATIONS 

Appropriate intonation can be imposed on any type of unit, including a single word, to 

express an exclamation (Splendid!). 

With appropriate intonation, all the clause types can be used to make exclamations: 

the exclamative structure 1, 2; an interrogative 3, 4; a declarative 5, 6; an imperative 

7; a verbless clause 8, 9; a nominal group 10: 

Using the exclamative structure: 1 What an idiot he is! 

2 How tall you’ve grown! 


Using an interrogative 3 Isn’t it a lovely day! 

4 Would you believe it! (expressing 

disbelief) 

Using a declarative 5 You must be joking! 

6 You can’t be serious! 

Using an imperative 7 Fancy meeting you here! 

Using a verbless clause 8 What an idiot! 

9 Amazing! Rubbish! 

Using a nominal group 10 The trouble I’ve had with Jamie! 

Interrogative exclamations, unlike basic exclamatives, call for agreement or 

disagreement from the hearer: A. Isn’t it a lovely day! B. Yes, it is. 

Such, so and other intensifying items such as terribly also confer exclamative force on 

a declarative: 

He’s such a bore! 

It’s terribly hot! 

It’s so tiring! 

It was extraordinarily beautiful! 


200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

QUESTIONS, CLAUSE TYPES MODULE 26 

AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS 

SUMMARY 

Questions typically seek information from the hearer that the speaker does not know. 

Responding to different motivations are questions functioning as preliminaries, 

rhetorical questions and leading questions of various types. The latter include 

interrogatives that are biased according to the kind of answer the speaker expects, 

towards a neutral, positive or negative assumption. These are marked by nonassertive 

forms (any), assertive forms (some) and negative forms (no, not any), 

respectively. Positive assumptions allow for positive forms, with some even in 

negative questions. Other leading questions consist of tentative declaratives with 

conducive markers and appropriate intonation, sometimes called ‘queclaratives’. 

Ellipted verbless clauses rely heavily for interpretation on intonation and their position 

in the exchange. 


The most basic intention in asking questions is to get information that we believe the 

addressee knows. It is not the only one, however. We here refer to two others. 

26.1 RHETORICAL QUESTIONS 

Do you expect me to wait here all day? 

What could I say? 

Why bother? 

Rhetorical questions are used to make a comment or an exclamation. A response is not 

expected. 

26.2 QUESTIONS AS PRELIMINARIES 

In interpersonal interaction the yes/no interrogative is sometimes used as a preliminary 

to something else. That is, the question is not so much seeking information as serving 

as a preliminary to an expansion of the speaker’s topic 1 or a veiled request 2: 


1 A. Have you read this book? 

B. No, no. 

A. It’s about a plane that crashes in the Andes and no-one comes to their rescue 

... 

2 A. Are you going to the hospital this morning? 

B. No. 

A. Well if you do it’ll give us a chance to find out whether he’s coming home 

today or tomorrow. [BNC KP1 36–38] 

This function of yes/no questions would appear to be the basis of advertisements which 

use this type of interrogative in their text in imitation of speech patterns. Using a 

problem–solution schema, the following ad poses a series of problems or worries as 

questions, which are answered by a diagnosis in a clause of another type: 

Do you need coffee and colas to keep you going throughout the day? 

Do you feel run-down and stressed, and struggle to keep up with life’s daily 

demands? 

Are you exhausted for several days after a hike or work-out at the gym? 

Is the “war on terrorism” making you feel worried, tired or depressed? 

You may be suffering from adrenalin disease. 

(Smart Publications) 


26.3 SOME, ANY AND NEGATIVE FORMS IN BIASED 

QUESTIONS 

The questions expressed by yes/no interrogatives are often biased according to the kind 

of answer the speaker expects, and are based on neutral, positive or negative 

assumptions. 

If the speaker has a neutral assumption about the answer, non-assertive forms 

(any, anybody, ever, yet, etc. (see 3.3) will be added to a positive interrogative: 

Do you know anyone in Westminster? 

Is the bank open yet? 

With a positive assumption, assertive forms (see 3.3) – some, somebody, always, already, 

too, etc. – are added to the positive interrogative: 

Do you know someone in Westminster? 

Is the bank open already? 

Negative-interrogative yes/no questions are based on conflicting attitudes. The speaker 

had originally expected that the answer would be or should be positive, but new 

202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

evidence suggests that it will be negative. This conflict produces a feeling of surprise, 

disbelief or disappointment. If the addressee is directly involved, the biased question 

can imply a reproach. In this type of question, nuclear negative forms (see 3.2) – no, 

nobody, no-one, never, etc. – can be added to a positive interrogative: 

Is there no butter? 

(There should be some butter, but it seems 

there isn’t.) 

Do you know no-one in Westminster? (You ought to know someone, but it seems 

you don’t.) 

Alternatively, non-assertive forms can be added to a negative interrogative: 

Isn’t there any butter anywhere? 

Don’t you know anyone in Westminster? 

Assertive forms can be added to a negative interrogative to reflect a positive bias 

despite an originally negative assumption: 

Isn’t there some butter somewhere? 

Don’t you know someone in 

Westminster? 

(It seems there isn’t, but I expect there is.) 

(It appears that you don’t, but I think you 

must know someone.) 

With offers, it seems more polite in English to assume a positive outcome, namely that 

the offer will be accepted. For this reason, the some forms are normal in such cases: 

Would you like some more coffee? [BNC KPV 2948] 


Do you want something – a soft drink – before you go? [BNC KCA 952] 

Negation by nuclear negative elements – as opposed to negation by the negative particle 

not – is explained in Chapter 1 (section 3.3), together with assertive and non-assertive 

items (see 3.4). 

26.4 BIASED DECLARATIVES WITH ATTITUDINAL MARKERS 

Speakers also use declaratives to seek confirmation of their assumptions in a tactful 

way. Most simply, the declarative is accompanied by appropriate intonation: You are 

seeing her? You don’t mind if I stay? They are, in fact, leading questions and for this reason 

have been called queclaratives. Frequently, certain items function as markers to ‘draw 

out’ the desired information by reinforcing the speaker’s assumption: 

• epistemic verbs with 1st person subject (I suppose, believe, guess, bet, assume) 

• hearsay verbs with 1st person subject (I understand, I’m told, I hear) 

• adverbs used as inferential connectives (so, then) 

• attitudinal adjuncts of assurance or assumption (of course, no doubt) 

• attitudinal adjunct of challenge or assumption (surely) 

• a displaced wh- element (who, what, where, etc. in final position) 


Examples are: 

I suppose you’ve heard the news? 

I understand you’re leaving your job? 

I hear you’ve been offered a new post? 

She wasn’t invited to the wedding, then? 

So there’s nothing we can do? 

She knows all about it, of course? 

But surely you can just defrost it in the 

microwave? 

So you took the documents to which 

Ministerial office? And you left them 

where? 

(epistemic verb) 

(hearsay verb) 

(hearsay verb) 

(inferential connective) 

(inferential connective) 

(attitudinal adjunct) 

(attitudinal adjunct) 

(displaced wh-element) 

More indirectly still, speakers can hint that information should be provided by You were 

about to say ...? 

The position of the declarative in the conversational sequence and the reply that 

follows can also help us to see how these markers function. For instance, an interviewer 

in a chat show might press a participant to admit that she had left her husband and child, 

which she denies: 

Interviewer: 

Young woman: 

So you’ve reported, basically, that you walked out? 

No, I didn’t walk out. 


Ellipted yes/no questions (a type of verbless clause) are extremely common in spoken 

English. With these, it is even more important than usual to use appropriate intonation. 

For example, if you are pouring coffee for someone, you might offer sugar and milk 

by saying simply Sugar? Milk? with a rising tone. A falling tone would be inferred as a 

statement, ‘Here is the sugar, here is the milk’, but wouldn’t necessarily be interpreted 

as an offer. 

204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

DIRECTIVES: GETTING PEOPLE MODULE 27 

TO CARRY OUT ACTIONS 

SUMMARY 

1 The clearest way of trying to get someone to do something is by an imperative. 

Strong impositions that invoke power and status are not socially acceptable in 

English in many everyday situations, even when accompanied by please. 

Orders are usually avoided and are preferably made indirectly as requests by 

using other clause types. Question tags either soften or heighten the force of 

the directive; with imperatives, tags tend to sound familiar. 

2 Modalisation is another resource for producing directives. With modalised 

declaratives the effect is usually stronger and more formal, while modalised 

interrogatives tend to sound more polite. In contexts of urgency (Help! Stop!) 

the imperative can be used, as in others in which the hearer’s welfare is referred 

to (Sleep well! Have fun!). 


3 Besides directing other people to do things, the speaker can commit him/herself 

to carrying out an act. Performative uses of promise and modal will with a 

declarative do precisely this. The particle let’s is used to make suggestions for 

actions, usually to be carried out jointly with the addressee. It can also function, 

however, as a disguised order or request. 

27.1 DIRECTIVES AND THE IMPERATIVE 

Although the basic speech act associated with imperative clauses is commonly held to 

be that of expressing a command, the imperative is used more frequently in English for 

less mandatory purposes. It can imply attitudes and intentions that are not actually 

formulated in the clause, and which can only be interpreted through a knowledge of the 

background context and of the relationships that exist between the persons involved. 

In fact, the difference between commands and other directives such as requests, 

invitations and advice is, as we have already seen, not clear-cut. It depends on such 

factors as the relative authority of the speaker towards the addressee and whether the 


addressee is given the option of complying or not with the directive: in the case of a 

command there is no option, whereas with a request there is. 

Other factors include which of the two interlocutors is judged to benefit from the 

fulfilment of the action: a piece of advice benefits the addressee, whereas a request 

benefits the speaker. Good wishes (Get well soon!) rarely refer to agentive acts (see 14.1) 

and so aren’t directives. 

Politeness is also a major factor. The more the action is likely to benefit the addressee, 

the more socially acceptable an imperative will be. Otherwise, an imperative is likely to 

sound curt or demanding in English. 

Consider the following cost–benefit scale on which the imperative is kept constant. 

The utterances at the lower end of the scale sound more polite than those at the top, 

even though there are no specific markers of politeness present: 

1 Peel those potatoes more cost to addressee less polite 

2 Hand me the newspaper 

3 Sit down 

4 Look at that 

5 Enjoy your holiday 

6 Have another sandwich more benefit to addressee more polite 

(Adapted from Leech 1983) 

Other factors override politeness, however, such as emergency (Help!) or attentionseeking 

in conversation (Look, what I meant was . . .); the imperative can also be used 

when the speaker and hearer are carrying out a joint task (Pass me the spanner), when 

the hearer’s interests are put first (Don’t worry! Cheer up! Take care!), and even as a 

discourse initiator or topic introducer (Guess who I saw this morning at the bank). 


The speech-act force of imperatives has, therefore, to be worked out by the addressee 

from the logical meaning of the sentence combined with the inferences made on the 

basis of context and the speaker–hearer relationship. Isolated examples can simply 

illustrate some typical interpretations: 

Get out of here! 

Keep off the grass. 

Please close the window! 

Don’t tell me you’ve passed your driving test! 

Do that again and you’ll be sorry. 

Pass your exams and we’ll buy you a bike. 

Don’t forget your umbrella! 

Mind the step!/ Be careful with that hot plate! 

Feel free to take as many leaflets as you like. 

Just listen to this! 

Try one of these! 

Let’s go jogging! 

Come on now, don’t cry!/ Go on, have a go! 

Sleep well! Have a safe journey! 

Suppose he doesn’t answer. 

command 

prohibition 

request 

disbelief 

condition of threat 

condition of promise 

reminder 

warning 

permission 

showing interest/involvement 

offer 

suggestion 

encouragement 

good wishes 

considering a possible happening 

206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Think nothing of it. 

[Some people make easy profit.] Take drug 

handlers. 

rejecting thanks 

illustrative example of a claim 

27.2 THE DISCOURSE FUNCTION OF LET’S IMPERATIVES 

Imperatives (especially with let’s) can fulfil a textual function in regulating the 

conversational flow, in many cases to the advantage of the more powerful speaker: 

Let’s get started 

Let’s start by ... 

Let’s see/let me see 

Let’s just stick to the main concern 

More people read magazines than, 

let’s say, historical treatises. 

a call to attention 

management of the topic 

hesitation marker, to avoid silence and 

keep the floor 

disallowing an interruption/topic 

management 

giving a possible example 

27.3 POLITENESS IN DIRECTIVES 

After an imperative, a modal tag acts as an intensifier, either softening or heightening the 

insistence of the directive. Will you? and could you? convey a high degree of optionality 

while can’t you? questions the hearer’s apparent inability to do something, conveying 

impatience and low optionality. The more optional the act appears to be, the more polite 


is the request. 

Intonation and the words used can make even will you less polite, however; Shut up 

and Drop dead don’t become polite by adding will you. Rising intonation is typically 

polite and persuasive, failing intonation more insistent. 

Check this for me, will you? 

Sign this for me, would you? 

Keep this for me, can you? 

Hold this for me, could you? 

Keep quiet, can’t you? 

polite, anticipates willingness 

polite, anticipates willingness 

familiar, anticipates willingness 

less familiar, anticipates willingness 

insistent, anticipates unwillingness 

These examples are characteristic of contexts of familiarity. With the exception of 

can’t, they question and anticipate the addressee’s willingness to carry out the action, 

and are polite but familiar, expressing solidarity. The negative imperative tag will you? 

is also familiar as in Don’t be late, will you?, while the invariable tag mind is more insistent: 

Don’t be late, mind! 

Where there is no relationship of closeness between the speakers, these forms may 

sound over-familiar. In such cases most modalised interrogatives are safer without tags. 


27.4 MODALISED INTERROGATIVES AS POLITE DIRECTIVES 

The directive force is overlaid onto the interrogative. Such directives are more polite 

precisely because as interrogatives they appear to give the addressee the option of 

refusing, as in the following examples: 

1 Can you close the door? 

2 Will you close the door? 

3 Could you close the door? 

4 Would you close the door? 

5 Won’t you close the door? 

6 Can’t you close the door? 

7 Must you leave the door open? 

8 Do you mind closing the door? 

The modals in 3 and 4 Could you? and Would you? are most polite because by the use 

of oblique (‘past’) forms they create conceptual distance between themselves and the 

speech act. Furthermore, distance correlates with less social involvement. The speaker 

conveys the impression that closing the door is of no great personal benefit; this gives 

the hearer a wider margin for possible refusal. As in the imperative tag, can’t 6 is not 

polite as a request. Won’t 5 is not polite either, as it appears to question the hearer’s 

unwillingness to carry out the rather trivial act of closing the door. Such unwillingness 

to carry out simple actions that obviously need doing also violates cultural conventions 

of cooperation. By contrast, won’t you? as an offer or invitation (make yourself at 

home, won’t you) is polite because it expresses warmth and generosity, and presumes 

that the act benefits the addressee. Must 7 is ironical, implying that the hearer has an 

insurmountable urge to leave the door open. 


Responding to directives 

Requests are sometimes responded to by a standard phrase: A. Do you mind closing the 

door? B. Not at all/Certainly/Sure. Of these, not at all responds to the sentence meaning 

of Do you mind?, whereas certainly and sure clearly respond to the pragmatic meaning 

of ‘request’ rather than to the sentence meaning, since they are not to be taken as 

certainly/sure I mind closing the door. Offers can be accepted by Yes, please or Thanks, 

and refused by No, thanks. Thank you alone is not interpreted as a refusal in English. 

Suggestions are responded to in many different ways such as okay, I might, it’s an idea. 

27.5 DECLARATIVES AS DIRECTIVES 

A declarative which contains a modal auxiliary (e.g. can, shall, will, may, might, must, 

ought, should) and refers to an action to be carried out by the addressee can be used 

with the force of a directive. They are usually quite strong, invoking authority: 

You will report to Head Office tomorrow. 

Dogs must be kept on a lead. 

(command) 

(strong obligation) 

208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

You may/can leave now. 

Surely you can take your own decisions! 

(permission) 

(exclamative-directive) 

A 1st person declarative with a modal can have the effect of committing the speaker to 

a course of action: 

I’ll meet you at the entrance at about nine. 

I must rush off now to my aerobics class. 

Note that the modals also express meanings of prediction (will, shall), logical necessity 

(must), possibility (may, might) and reasonable inference (should, ought) – see 44.3. These 

meanings are almost always clearly distinguishable from the directive meanings, as in: 

There will be time for a few questions. 

It must be almost half-past nine. 

(prediction) 

(logical necessity/deduction) 

27.6 INDIRECTNESS, IMPOLITENESS AND CONFRONTATION 

Indirectness is part of everyday interaction in spoken English. It is important to learn 

to handle and interpret the conventional politeness forms and the force each carries, as 

these serve to construct and negotiate meanings and actions which lead to a satisfactory 

outcome for both or all the participants. 

This does not mean that speakers are invariably polite to each other. Far from it. 

Mutual insults among some communities represent a form of solidarity. In many other 

contexts, competitiveness or a desire to score off the adversary lead quickly to confrontational 

attitudes and acrimonious exchanges. Indirectness and implicit meanings are 


common in such cases also, as is illustrated in the following extract from Ian Rankin’s 

novel Set in Darkness. 

Detective Inspector Linford is sitting in his BMW in the only spare bay belonging to 

a large office block in Edinburgh. Another car approaches and stops, its driver 

sounding the horn and gesturing: 

‘That’s my space you’re in, so if you wouldn’t mind.......?’. 1 

Linford looked around. ‘I don’t see any signs.’ 2 

‘This is staff parking.’ 3 A glance at a wristwatch. ‘And I’m late for a meeting.’ 4 

Linford looked towards where another driver was getting into his car. ‘Space there 

for you.’ 5 

‘You deaf or what?’ 6 Angry face, jaw jutting and tensed. A man looking for a 

fight. 

Linford was just about ready. ‘So you’d rather argue with me than get to your 

meeting?’ 7 He looked towards where another car was leaving. ‘Nice spot over 

there.’ 8 


‘That’s Harley. He takes his lunch hour at the gym. I’ll be in the meeting when he 

gets back, and that’s his space. 9 Which is why you move your junk heap.’ 10 

‘This from a man who drives a Sierra Cosworth.’ 11 

‘Wrong answer.’ 12 The man yanked Linford’s door open. 

‘The assault charge is going to look bloody good on your CV.’ 13 

‘You’ll have fun trying to make a complaint through broken teeth.’ 14 

‘And you’ll be in the cells for assaulting a police officer.’ 15 

The man stopped, his jaw retreating a fraction. His Adam’s apple was prominent 

when he swallowed. Linford took the opportunity to reach into his jacket, showing 

his warrant card. 

‘So now you know who I am.’ 16 Linford said, ‘But I didn’t catch your 

name . . .?’ 17 

‘Look. I’m sorry.’ 18 The man had turned from fire to sun, his grin trying for 

embarrassed apology. ‘I didn’t mean to . . . 19 (see exercise) 

You will see that the numbered sentences of the fictional dialogue are either declaratives 

or interrogatives, although some of the clauses are verbless. Notice how the two speakers 

overlay the basic force of question and assertion with other more implicit forces such 

as explanation, reason, warning, threat, apology, challenge, provocation, 

suggestion, excuse. It is these indirect meanings that are inferred and which interest 

us here. 

Linguists have long debated on how we successfully interpret such indirect speech 

acts and how we distinguish between different degrees of politeness. One cognitive 

explanation is that such meanings are represented in the form of ‘illocutionary scenarios’, 


that is, organised structures of our generic knowledge. Such scenarios are abstracted in 

our minds from a number of stereotyped situations in everyday life within a particular 

culture. For English, though not necessarily for other languages, the indirect way of 

making a request is, as we have seen, to question the addressee’s capability (can you?) 

or willingness (will you?) to carry out the act. As capability and willingness are necessary 

conditions for doing the act, such questionings stand for the whole speech act of 

requesting, by a process of metonymy – the part standing for the whole. In activating a 

scenario for strong directives, however, the cost-benefit and power factors have also to 

be taken into account. 

27.7 CLAUSE TYPES AND ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE: 

SUMMARY TABLE 

This table illustrates some of the more conventional correspondences between 

mood types and their illocutionary force. Many speech acts can also be expressed by 

units both larger and smaller than the clauses, as well as by non-linguistic means such 

as gestures. 

210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Clause type Illocutionary force Example 

DECLARATIVE Statement We are ready to go. 

Explicit performative I beg you to reconsider your decision. 

Hedged performative We wish to thank you for all your help. 

Biased question 

So you went out with her? 

Question (displaced wh-) You took the documents to which 

ministry? 

Exclamation 

It was so hot! 

Directives: 

order Papers are to be in by April 15. 

request 

I wonder if you would lend me your car. 

I suppose you haven’t got any change 

on you. 

prelude to request I’m terribly sorry but, could you . . .? 

advice 

I’d sell if I were you. 

warning 

That plate’s hot! 

offer 

You must try one of these. 

EXCLAMATIVE exclamation What an angel you’ve been! 

INTERROGATIVE question Who is that man over there? 

rhetorical question Who will believe that story. 

rebuke 

How could you be so careless? 

exclamation 

Isn’t it wonderful! 

rebuke 

How dare you speak to her like that! 

Directives: 

order 

Will you please be quiet! 

request Could you lend me a pen . . .? 

suggestion/advice Why don’t you see a doctor? 

offer/invitation Won’t you sit down? 


IMPERATIVE: 

Directives: 

order 

request 

offer 

warning 

instructions 

disbelief 

Shut up! 

Save some for me! 

Have a drink! 

Mind your head! 

Twist off. 

Don’t tell me you’ve passed! 

27.7.1 Clause combinations 

Combinations of clauses can be used in English to express a polite request. The greater 

the imposition on the hearer, the longer the combination is likely to be, and it may be 

preceded by an apology: 


I’m terribly sorry to bother you. I wonder if you could possibly write me a 

testimonial. If it’s not too inconvenient, perhaps you could let me have it back by 

tomorrow. 

Clauses without subject or finite verb 

How about a swim? 

Wh-questions as suggestion 

Why not start again? 

Why all this fuss? 

verbless Why-questions as inquiry 

What to do in case of fire Wh-to-inf. clauses as directive headings 

How to boost your self-esteem 

Subordinate clauses 

To think what we might have missed! 

Not to worry! 

If only I had taken his advice! 

What if we all go for a swim? 

to-infinitive clauses as exclamations 

or as friendly advice 

if only clauses, indicating regret 

Wh-if-clauses as suggestions 

Groups and words with speech act force 

Straight ahead! 

Down with war! 

Careful! 

Silence! 

Scalpel! 



For clause types, distribution and conversational grammar: Biber et al. (1999). The mood 

element and interpersonal interaction, Halliday (1994). Direct and indirect speech acts, 

Searle (1975), Thomas (1996), Grundy (1995). Performative(ness), Austin (1962), 

Thomas (1995). Politeness and the cost-benefit scale, Leech (1983), Brown and Levinson 

(1987). Queclaratives, Geluykens (1987), Downing (2005); Surely as a stance marker, 

Downing (2001); ‘I think’, Thompson (2002), Kärkkäinen (2003); Cooperativeness and 

inferencing, Grice (1975). Types and functions of questions, Taylor (1989), Weber (1993). 

Intonation in ellipted questions, Gumperz (1982). Discourse functions of the imperative, 

De Clerck (2002). Metonymy, Panther and Thornburg (1998), Pérez Hernández and Ruiz 

de Mendoza (2002). 

212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR


Interaction between speaker and hearer 

Module 22 

†The following text is an email advertisement for computer software. It has no punctuation. 

Mark the clause boundaries by punctuation and identify the clause types, giving reasons 

for your analysis. Now suggest what type of speech acts are being performed. 

In business and personal life 

Paper is the communication medium & storage device 

Documents fill the space 

Communication takes time 

Corrections are inevitable 

Clarifications are unavoidable 

Inaccuracy costs money 

Mistakes cause losses and lost opportunites 

Efforts may be fruitless 

Results may be unattained 

Technology rises to the occasion 

The software solution is available 

For your daily private and business use 

[EDIFACT Prime takes you beyond the edge] 

Breakthroughs are your tools 

Perfection and harmony is your lifestyle 

Exchange the routine for simplicity and speed 


Module 23 

1 †In the following extract from a news item by Jeremy O’Grady in The Week, identify at 

least one occurrence of each of the following: a positive declarative, a declarative with a 

word ending in -ever, a wh-interrogative, a declarative with a modal operator, an 

exclamative, an imperative. What element goes with the interrogative and what is its 

function? Do you think these clause types show their usual speech act correspondences? 

I’m all in favour of the free market in theory, 1 but what a disappointment it often 

proves to be in practice. 2 Take plumbers. 3 In economic theory, London should be 

awash with them, the demand for their services being so high and the costs of entry 

to their trade so relatively low. 4 So where the hell are they when you want one? 5 Or 

take the principle of consumer service. 6 In theory you’d expect the market to 

acknowledge that ‘the consumer always knows best’. 7 In practice, whenever one 

complains about shoddy service, one is dismissed as an idiot. 8 


2 †Underline the Subject and Finite elements in each of the following clauses. Then (a) make 

the declarative clauses negative; (b) convert the negative declaratives into yes/no negative 

interrogatives (main clause only); (c) underline the Subject and new Finite elements: 

(1) I am going to be the last one to hear about it. 

(2) Nadine’s mum bought enough blue denim to make two skirts. 

(3) He tells everyone his life history every time he meets them. 

(4) Sheila knew where the keys were all the time. 

(5) Bill took on a great deal of responsibility in his previous job. 

3 †Imagine you are helping at an optician’s. Below are the replies to a questionnaire, but 

the questions are missing. You have to provide them. 1, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 10 are wh-questions; 

4, 5, 7 and 9 are yes/ no questions 

(1) My name is Pat O’Connor. 

(2) My address is 31 St Gerard’s Avenue, Birmingham. 

(3) I was born in Ireland in 1980. 

(4) Yes, I am using eye drops. 

(5) No, my eyes don’t smart. 

(6) Not often. I take just aspirin occasionally. 

(7) No, I don’t. I wear contact lenses. 

(8) I’ve been wearing them for a year. 

(9) Yes, I’m allergic to certain things – pollens, for example. 

(10) I started to have visual problems two days ago. 


4 †If both abbreviated clauses and tags are based structurally on Subject-Finite variation, 

in what way do they differ? Look again at the dialogue on page 183 and identify the 

instance(s) of each. For greater clarity replace B 3 ’s Mm by an abbreviated clause. Clue: 

Consider subject-operator alternation and the position of the utterances in the exchange. 

5 †Read this extract of a fictional dialogue between Nadine and Ellie and then answer the 

questions: 

N. Why have you gone pink, Ellie? [1] 

E. Oh God, I haven’t, have I? [2] 

N. Shocking pink. What is it? [3] 

E. Nothing. [4] 

(Girls Out Late) 

(a) What kind of interrogatives does Nadine use in speaking to Ellie in 1 and 3? 

(b) What does Nadine want to know? 

(c) Does she get this information in reply in 2 and 4? 

(d) What kinds of units does Ellie use in reply in 2 and 4? 

214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6 †Provide abbreviated clauses as (a) confirming and (b) disconfirming responses to each 

of the following questions: 

(1) It doesn’t seem to matter who you are. 

(2) You have two children, haven’t you, Charles? 

(3) Will you be going to the concert this evening? 

(4) Let’s find a seat. 

7 †Add (a) a reversed polarity tag to each of the following clauses, when possible; (b) a 

constant polarity tag when possible: 

(1) This wallet is yours. 

(2) You’ve got a new bicycle. 

(3) Susie likes doing crossword puzzles. 

(4) Don’t be late. 

(5) Be careful! 

(6) Your father used to work for the City Council. 

(7) Some of these shops overcharge terribly. 

(8) So he fell on his hand and broke it. 

8 Discussion: What functions do tags fulfil in interpersonal interaction? 

9 Practise saying the tags in the following examples: (a) with rising intonation, and (b) with 

falling intonation. In your reading aloud, you should aim to get in (a) the meaning of ‘Am 

I right?’ and in (b) ‘Please confirm this’. 


(1) He approved of the plan, didn’t he? 

(2) He didn’t approve of the plan, did he? 

(3) We’ll have enough money, won’t we? 

(4) We won’t have enough money, will we? 

Module 24 

1 †Decide whether the italicised item is a subject, a vocative or either. Give reasons. 

(1) Keep still, Edward, there’s a good boy. 

(2) Somebody pass me the insect repellent, quick! Thank you, dear. Now you take 

some. 

(3) Everybody lift at the same time! Right, up she goes, everybody! 

(4) Do shut up, Helen, you’re making a fool of yourself. 

(5) You all wait here, that will be best. I’ll be back in a moment. 

(6) You just leave him alone, do you hear? 

2 †The following extracts are from Al Gore’s concession speech at the conclusion of the 

2000 US presidential campaign, after he had lost the election. For each extract, say 

whether let is (a) a 2nd person imperative of the verb let (=allow), (b) the pragmatic particle 


let introducing a wish (the optative), or (c) the same particle in its function of suggesting 

an action to be carried out by speaker and addressee (a 1st person plural imperative). 

Say which type is not represented and suggest a reason for its absence: 

(1) Let there be no doubt, while I strongly disagree with the court’s decision, I 

accept it. 

(2) Let me say how grateful I am to all those who’ve supported me. 

(3) And I say to our fellow members of the world community: Let no-one see this contest 

as a sign of American weakness. 

Module 25 

1 †Say which of the verbs in the following clauses perform the act they name and which 

don’t: 

(1) I admit I was to blame. 

(2) I appeal to you as an honorary Roman to nip over here in your Popemobile and 

put an end to this wanton destruction. [BNC CA6 5953] 

(3) I demand to be paid for the hours I put in, whether your cousin passes her exams 

or not. [BNC JXT 454] 

(4) Neil and I argue about football all the time. [BNC CA6 5953] 

(5) I’ll say goodnight and I apologise for disturbing you so late. [BNC HWP 3355] 

(6) No really I insist. Please, after you! [BNC HNS 113] 

(7) The bed in the room next to you is perfectly adequate for me, I promise. 

[BNC JYC 454] 

(8) Much as I love the works of J.R.R. Tolkien, I refuse to call any dog Bilbo Baggins, 

so Bill he has become. [BNC EWB 372] 

(9) I bet you didn’t sit on the sofa with him holding hands [BNC BMS 3669] 

(10) Referring to an elusive particle that is crucial to standard theories of physics, Stephen 

Hawking is said to have placed a wager with Professor Gordon Kane, saying, ‘I’ll 

bet you $100 it has not been discovered’. 


Module 26 

1 †Identify the clause type and suggest the possible force each utterance has: 

(1) Is there any coffee? 

(2) Coffee? 

(3) Could you tell me the way to the nearest Tube station, please? 

(4) What could I say? 

(5) She didn’t leave a message, then? 

(6) Wasn’t it exciting! 

(7) Where would we be without tin openers? 

(8) Are you going to the Post Office? Yes. Then could you get me some stamps? 

(9) He is aware of the risk, of course? 

(10) So it wasn’t you who rang just now? No. I wonder who it was. 

216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2 †(a) Provide whichever biasing element seems most suitable in the following questions 

(that is, neutral, positive or negative, realised by any, some, not ...any/no or their 

compounds, respectively). (b) Answer the questions, using a suitable orientational element. 

(1) Have you . . . copies of The Times and the Guardian? 

(2) Could you get me . . . orange juice, please? 

(3) So there isn’t ...we can do? (3b) So there is . . . we can do? 

(4) Did you meet . . . interesting at the party? 

(5) Do you know . . . nice to stay for a quiet holiday near the coast? 

(6) Would you like . . . more cake? 

Module 27 

1 Provide a context for the following indirect speech acts. For instance No. 1 could be a 

father speaking to a son or daughter. If the correspondence were direct, the question would 

be asking for information, expecting an answer such as ‘No, I won’t’. This is clearly not 

the case. The correspondence is indirect, equivalent to ‘Don’t leave your bicycle outside 

in the rain!’ That is, a directive. 

(1) Will you never learn not to leave your bicycle outside in the rain? 

(2) How many times do I have to tell you not to eat crisps on the sofa! 

(3) Surely you could try to drive more slowly. 

2 †If someone says to you ‘Have you change of a pound?’ and you say ‘Yes’ without bringing 

out the change, you are reacting to the structural meaning of the interrogative, but not to 

the pragmatic meaning, the force of ‘request’. Such a response can be uncooperative or 

impolite. Suggest (i) an uncooperative and (ii) a cooperative response for the following 

utterances: 


(a) 

(b) 

Would you mind signing this petition in favour of genetically modified crops? 

Do you know the way to the Victoria and Albert Museum? 

However, the power factor may skew the reply. The following exchange occurred in a 

film: 

Lord Longhorn to his butler: Do you mind taking this book back to the library? 

(handing over the book) 

Butler: Yes sir (taking book and leaving). 

(c) 

(d) 

What is the butler responding to? Is it polite? Why does he say yes rather than no? 

And what would the butler say if he were responding to the structural meaning of 

‘Do you mind . . .?’ 

3 Discussion 

If the unmarked illocutionary force of the imperative is that of a directive, why is the 

imperative mood so often replaced by another mood structure in interpersonal interaction 


in English? In what circumstances and with what kinds of speech act is the imperative 

socially acceptable? 

4 †(a) Suggest what illocutionary force would conventionally be assigned to each of these 

utterances. Final punctuation is omitted. (b) Identify the clause type of each, specifying 

those which are performatives. 

(1) I order you not to smoke in the dining-room. 

(2) Do not smoke in the dining-room. 

(3) Members will refrain from smoking in the dining-room. 

(4) No smoking in the dining-room. 

(5) Smoking is not allowed in the dining-room. 

(6) Would you mind not smoking in the dining-room? 

(7) Members are requested not to smoke in the dining-room. 

(8) Thank you for not smoking in the dining-room. 

5 †The background of the following dialogue is a psychiatric hospital, where Jean and 

Edward have brought their daughter. For each numbered stretch of the text, identify the 

clause type (including ellipted ones). Discuss the possible force of each: 

clause type 

act 

(1) Nurse: Who sent you in here? 1 

(2) Edward: The porter at reception. 


2 

(3) Jean: We’ve been waiting nearly half 

an hour. 3 

(4) Nurse: I’m sorry. 4 

(5) We’re very understaffed today. 5 

(6) It’s the bank holiday. 6 

(7) Edward. Yes. 7 

(8) Nurse: He should have sent you straight 

to Admissions. 8 

(9) If you’ll just come this way. 9 

(Olwen Wymark, Find Me, in Plays by Women, vol. 2) 

6 †Directives: Suggest a specific directive force for each of the following questions: 

(1) Must you make so much noise? 

(2) Can you pass me that hammer? 

218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(3) Would you mind signing here? 

(4) Will you have some more icecream? 

(5) Why don’t you help yourself? 

(6) Why don’t you apply for that job? 

7 In pairs, take turns to carry out a series of directives, with the aim of getting your hearer 

to do something, first by means of a direct directive, and then by means of an indirect 

directive. Notice how your hearer reacts in each case. Remember that the greater the 

imposition on the hearer and the greater the social distance which separates speaker and 

hearer, the more polite, i.e. indirect, the speaker will have to be. But remember too that 

people are not always polite, especially if they get angry. 

(1) You need a testimonial from your tutor in order to apply for a grant at a foreign 

university. The letter must reach the university in no more than a fortnight. 

(2) Someone has repeatedly been scrawling graffiti on the wall of your house. One 

day you unexpectedly catch him/her in the act. You decide to complain. 

(3) You are at the annual staff party and inadvertently spill black coffee onto the General 

Manager’s clothes. You have to apologise. 

8 †Turn to the extract from Ian Rankin on pages 209–10 and suggest the force conveyed or 

inferred by each numbered sentence. Bear in mind such forces as explanation, reason, 

threat, apology, challenge, provocation, insult, suggestion, excuse. Now 

consider the following questions: 


(1) How many different speech acts have you identified in the dialogue of this text? 

(2) List them, giving the identification number. 

(3) Which types of speech act occur most frequently? 

(4) Which speech acts are expressed by the man, and which by Linford? 

(5) From this analysis, what inferences do you draw about the attitudes of the man and 

Linford and of how the encounter develops? 


ORGANISING THE MESSAGE CHAPTER 6 

Thematic and information structures of the clause 

Module 28: Theme: the point of departure of the message 222 

28.1 Theme and Rheme 223 

28.2 Unmarked Theme and marked Theme in declarative clauses 224 

28.3 Theme in non-declarative clauses 224 

28.4 Topic, Theme and Subject 225 

28.5 Cognitive features of the Topic 226 

28.6 Topic and Subject as Theme 226 

28.7 Introducing new potential Topics into the discourse 228 

28.8 Circumstantial Adjuncts as Themes 228 

28.9 Objects and Complements as Themes 229 

28.10 Less common thematisations in the declarative clause 230 

28.10.1 Negative adverbs 230 


28.10.2 Negative Objects 231 

28.10.3 Adverbs followed by verbs of motion 231 

28.10.4 Detached predicatives 231 

28.11 Detached Themes: Absolute Theme, Dislocations and Double Themes 232 

28.11.1 Absolute Theme 232 

28.11.2 Dislocations 232 

28.11.3 Double detached Themes 233 

28.12 Non-experiential Themes 234 

28.13 Clauses as Themes 235 

Module 29: The distribution and focus of information 238 

29.1 The information unit 238 

29.2 Given and New information 240 

29.3 Unmarked Focus and marked Focus 241 

29.4 Event utterances 242 

29.5 Ellipsis 243 

29.5.1 Textual ellipsis 243 

29.5.2 Situational ellipsis 244 

29.6 Substitution 244

Module 30: The interplay of Theme–Rheme and Given–New 246 

30.1 Thematic progression 246 

30.1.1 Simple linear progression 247 

30.1.2 Continuous progression (constant Theme) 247 

30.1.3 Derived Themes 248 

30.2 Clefting: it-clefts and wh-clefts 249 

30.2.1 Discourse functions of the it-cleft 250 

30.2.2 Discourse functions of the wh-cleft 250 

30.2.3 Variants of the wh-cleft 251 

30.3 The active–passive alternative 252 

30.3.1 Promoting one participant, demoting another 253 

30.3.2 Choosing to be informative 254 

30.3.3 Passives without an Agent 254 

30.3.4 Making smooth transitions 255 

30.3.5 The get-passive 256 

30.4 The presentative function of existential clauses 257 

30.4.1 Derived existentials 258 

30.4.2 Short existentials 258 

30.4.3 Extended existentials 259 

30.4.4 There-structures as states of affairs 259 

30.5 Extraposition of clauses 260 

30.5.1 Raised elements as new Themes 261 

30.6 Postponement 262 


30.6.1 Postponement with ditransitive verbs 262 


Exercises 263

THEME: THE POINT OF MODULE 28 

DEPARTURE OF THE MESSAGE 

SUMMARY 

1 Theme is an element of the thematic structure of a clause, of which the other 

element is Rheme. It is therefore a different category from the syntactic Subject 

and from the discourse category of Topic – what the message is about – 

although these three often coincide in one wording. 

2 It is convenient to think of Topics as organised hierarchically according to their 

level of operation: a global topic is what the whole text or discourse is about, 

an episode topic represents what a shorter, but integrated, stretch of talk or 

writing is about. Local topics are the main referents that persist throughout a 

stretch of text by means of anaphora, establishing a participant frame or referent 

chain. They are the topics most clearly related to grammatical categories. 

English makes use of certain devices to introduce new referents, potential topics, 

into the discourse and to maintain topic continuity. 


3 Theme is identified as the first clause constituent and communicatively is the 

point of departure of the message. When Theme conflates with Topic and 

Subject it can be called topical Theme. When Theme is realised by a temporal 

or spatial Adjunct it is a circumstantial Theme, which sets up a time-space frame 

within which the participant chain develops. More marked Themes such as 

fronted Complement and Object have a local textual function, such as initiating 

a change of direction by means of contrast. Relating Theme to grammar, Theme 

is unmarked when it coincides with the expected element, such as Subject in a 

declarative clause. When some other element is brought to initial position it is 

a marked Theme, and carries some additional significance in the discourse. 

Objects, Complements and Adjuncts can be thematised or fronted. Whole 

clauses can be thematised in complex sentences. 

4 Other items which tend to be placed at the beginning of the clause may be 

considered to be part of the Theme. These include connective Adjuncts such as 

however, stance Adjuncts such as personally, vocatives (Doctor!) and discourse 

markers such as Well. In this way we can talk of ‘multiple Themes’. They are 

not, however, topics. A subordinate clause in initial position may be considered 

as Theme of a clause complex.

Our attention in the two previous chapters has centred on two kinds of meaning: 

experiential meaning, which is encoded in the grammar in terms of participants, 

processes and circumstances, and interpersonal meaning, as encoded by the mood 

structures. We now turn to a third type of meaning, which helps us to organise and relate 

individual sentences and utterances within our discourse. This is textual meaning. We 

will be considering three important dimensions of textual meaning which have a place 

in English grammar and contribute to discourse coherence: first, the Theme–Rheme 

textual structure and its relation to Topic; second, the order of constituents in the 

clause and how the normal order may be altered to achieve different textual effects; and 

third, the distribution and focus of information, which makes an essential 

contribution to coherence and understandability in spoken and written English. 

INTRODUCTION 

To start, consider the following versions of the same piece of information about a coach 

tour: 

1 We’ll reach Toledo, but not Seville, before noon 

2 Before noon we’ll reach Toledo but not Seville. 

3 Toledo, but not Seville, we’ll reach before noon. 

All three utterances have the same experiential meaning: the content is the same. All 

three would normally be used to make a statement, and so they are interpersonally 

equivalent too. The difference between 1, 2 and 3 lies in the textual component of 

meaning: the information is the same, but the message is arranged or ‘packaged’ in 


different ways, and the different forms highlight different aspects of the message. More 

specifically, the element which occupies first position in the clause is different in the 

three examples: in 1 it is we, in 2 it is before noon and in 3 it is Toledo. This element is 

the Theme of the clause. Since first position is salient, what to put in it is an important 

choice, particularly in connected discourse. 

28.1 THEME AND RHEME 

Theme and Rheme are the two components which together make up the organisational 

construct that is the thematic structure of the clause. The Theme comes first and is 

identified as the first constituent in the clause. What follows is the Rheme. 

Looking at the clause as a unit of communication, we can say that Theme is the clause 

constituent which, whatever its syntactic function, is selected to be the point of departure 

of the clause as message. What goes in initial position is important for both speaker and 

hearer. It represents the angle from which the message is projected and sets up a frame 

which holds at least to the end of the clause. For the speaker, the communicative choice 

associated with Theme is ‘What notion shall I take as my starting-point in this clause? 

Shall I start by saying where we are going? Or shall I start with the ‘time-frame’ – before 

noon? Or with the places we’ll visit?’ From whichever point of departure we choose, the 

ORGANISING: THEME AND INFORMATION 223

est of the clause must proceed. For the hearer or reader Theme acts as a signal, creating 

expectations and laying the foundation for the hearer’s mental representation of how 

the message will unfold. Given these cognitive and communicative functions, it is not 

surprising that the element in initial position is so important. 

While the Theme lays the basis of the message, the Rheme says something in relation 

to it. Typically, important new information is presented in the Rheme. Let’s diagram 

this thematic structure on to our previous examples: 

Theme 

Rheme 

1 We ’ll reach Toledo, but not Seville, before noon. 

2 Before noon we’ll reach Toledo but not Seville. 

3 Toledo, but not Seville we’ll reach before noon. 

28.2 UNMARKED THEME AND MARKED THEME IN 

DECLARATIVE CLAUSES 

In selecting Theme, speakers must choose between a neutral order of clause constituents 

or a marked order. The order of clause elements in 1 has the Subject as Theme. 

This is the neutral, unmarked choice in a declarative clause, used when there is no 

good reason to depart from the usual. Any other constituent but the Subject will be 

marked, and signals an additional meaning. In the case of 2 the Theme is a circumstance 

of time, syntactically an Adjunct, and is marked. However, it does not strike us 

as very unusual. This is because adjuncts of time can occupy several positions in the 

clause. Theme 3 is an Object participant whose normal position is after the verb. Objects 

are not so mobile and sound highly marked in English when brought to initial position. 

Marked constituent orders always signal some additional meaning and have to be 

motivated. Thematised Objects tend to express a contrast with something said or 

expected by the hearer. By specifying Toledo but not Seville as the Object, the speaker 

refers explicitly to a contrary expectation and justifies the thematised element. We will 

return shortly to the most frequent types of marked Theme. For the moment, you can 

‘feel’ that certain elements sound more striking than others when in initial position. 

From these considerations, it is clear that the Theme of a clause represents a choice, 

both as the absolute point of departure of a discourse and also that of each subsequent 

clause and of each paragraph. It gives us the choice of taking as point of departure one 

or other participant in the situation described, or something else, such as a circumstance. 

It can serve to link up with what has gone before in the discourse and it helps to push 

the message forward. Because sentences do not normally occur in isolation, and 

previous sentences and utterances condition later ones, not all thematic choices will be 

equally appropriate from the point of view of creating a coherent whole. 


28.3 THEME IN NON-DECLARATIVE CLAUSES 

All the examples seen so far are of declarative clauses. In these the unmarked Theme 

is Subject. Non-declarative clauses, that is, interrogatives and imperatives, have 

224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

unmarked Themes derived from their respective clause type, as illustrated in the 

examples below. 

In examples, 4 to 7, the starting-point of the clause is the expected one, which 

announces the clause-type. Theme is marked when any other but the expected one is 

placed in initial position, as in examples 8 to 10. Marked Themes in non-declarative 

clauses are relatively uncommon. 

Unmarked Themes 

4 Are we going to Toledo? Operator + subject in yes/no interrogative 

5 When will we get there? Wh-word in wh-interrogative 

6 Have your tickets ready! Base form of verb in 2nd person (imperative) 

7 Let’s go for a swim instead. Let’s in 1st person (imperative) 

Marked Themes 

8 We are going where? Non wh-subject in a wh-interrogative 

9 Do hurry up, all of you! Emphatic do in an imperative 

10 You keep quiet! Subject in an imperative 

In yes/no interrogatives in English, unmarked Theme is the Finite operator (see 3.1), 

together with the Subject, as in 4. In wh-interrogatives, the Theme is the wh-word as in 

5. In 2nd person imperative clauses, unmarked Theme is the verb, as in 6, and let’s 

in first person imperatives, as in 7. Any other order is marked. When the wh-element 

is displaced, as in 8, the element that remains as Theme (we) is marked for a whinterrogative. 

Emphatic do, as in 9, and the Subject you, as in 10, are marked Themes in 

the imperative. 


28.4 TOPIC, THEME AND SUBJECT 

Topic is a discourse category which corresponds to ‘what the text, or part of the text, 

is about’. A whole book, chapter, essay or lecture can have a topic, for instance, ‘car 

maintenance’ or ‘the English novel in the 20th century’. A topic which coherently 

organises a whole piece of language can be called a global topic. (More exactly, of 

course, it is speakers and writers who have topics and do the organising of the text.) On 

an intermediate level, paragraphs or sections in writing and ‘episodes’ in talk each 

have their own topics. In writing, these will typically be organised under the ‘umbrella’ 

of the global topic, but they display an internal coherence of their own. Finally, 

utterances and sentences have topics which contribute to the episode and help to build 

up the discourse as a whole. We call these local topics. 

All three levels of topic are integrated in normal texts and discourses. Local topics 

are usually the only ones that have a direct grammatical realisation. They are associated 

with the main referential entities represented in speakers’ sentences and utterances, 

which to be coherent will have to relate in some way to the higher levels of topicality 

of the discourse as a whole. Sentence and utterance topics are the most relevant to the 


study of grammar, because this is one area in which discourse interfaces with a 

‘pragmatic grammar’. In a functional grammar of English, we are interested in seeing 

how the category of mainly local topic interacts with Subject and with Theme. 

28.5 COGNITIVE FEATURES OF THE TOPIC 

A number of cognitive features have been associated with major topic entities. First, the 

topic entity is inherent to the event described and it initiates the action. 

Second, the topic entity is typically high on what is called the empathy hierarchy. 

This has to do with what attracts our empathy. It starts from the speaker, since we all 

empathise most with ourselves, and continues as follows: 

Speaker > hearer > human > animal > physical object > abstract entity 

After the speaker, the hearer – as co-participant in a conversation – can be important, 

and is included with the speaker in the inclusive use of ‘we’, as in 1. But in many 

discourses a 3rd-person topic is even more common, in that we frequently talk and write 

about people, creatures and things distinct from the speaker and hearer. Abstract entities 

come last in the empathy hierarchy. 

A third feature is definiteness. This is a subjective factor since it depends on whether 

speakers and hearers have established empathy with the topic. When contact has been 

established, the topic is easily accessible and is definite. 

Fourth, the topic is the most salient participant on the scene of discourse. 

From the point of view of cognitive salience, all these features are closely associated 

with the Subject function in English. The prototypical Subject referent is inherent to the 


event described in the clause; it fulfils the semantic function of Agent, if there is an Agent, 

and initiates the action. It is typically human and definite and is the main participant at 

any one point on the scene of discourse as represented in a particular clause or 

utterance. Subject and Topic are therefore closely related in English. (It must be pointed 

out that this does not imply that all Subjects have these characteristics.) 

These features are not, however, necessarily associated with Theme. Theme and 

Topic are quite different types of category. Topics are what a text, section or clause is 

about, and Topic is always conceptualised as an entity or a nominalisation (Module 

21). Theme, on the other hand, is what the speaker or writer chooses as the point 

of departure for the message in any one clause or sentence. It may be an entity, a 

circumstance or an attribute. Only entities initiate referential chains. Let’s look now at 

the main types of themes, starting from the most central. 

28.6 TOPIC AND SUBJECT AS THEME 

Themes which conflate with Subject are participants in the transitivity structures 

and typically refer to persons, creatures and things. As such, they are the most likely 

candidates to fulfil the discourse role of Topic or ‘topical Theme’ at clause level. They 

are typically presented by the speaker as identifiable or at least accessible to the hearer 

226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

and are usually encoded by full nominal groups or proper names when introduced for 

the first time. Important Theme-Topic-Subject referents set up referent chains which 

can transcend clausal boundaries, maintaining topic continuity as long as the speaker 

or writer wishes. This is an important test for ‘aboutness’. Many referents enter the 

discourse, but only a few are selected to be major topics. 

We can track the referent chain, which can also be seen as an identity chain, of a 

major referent as it is repeated across several clauses by an anaphoric pronoun, by an 

alternative NG or by repetition of the name or proper noun. Such is the case in the 

extract about the American artist Andy Warhol from a leaflet at the Tate Modern in 

London. Andy Warhol is one of the painters whose pictures figure in the exhibition. 

Visitors are establishing contact with him through his pictures and through the following 

description: 

Andy Warhol (1962), called the ‘Pope of Pop’, cleverly fashioned his use of popular 

culture into a highly distinctive style. Working from his New York studio, called The 

Factory, he adopted mechanical processes of reproduction like stencilling and 

silkscreen printing to produce serial images taken from the media, as in Twenty-Five 

Coloured Marilyns (1962). Warhol wanted to dissolve the distinctions between ‘high 

art’, the kind you go to a museum to see, and ‘low art’, the kind used in advertisements. 

Yet he was capable of many shades of irony, and [zero anaphor] produced 

some of the icons of American art, including Ambulance Disaster. 


The ‘referent chain’ of this paragraph can be shown graphically as follows: Andy Warhol 

(Subject, proper name) – he (Subject pron.) – Warhol (Subject, surname) – he (Subject 

pron.) – zero (anaphora in which the subject pronoun is omitted in coordinated clauses). 

Indefinite, and therefore unidentified, but specific referents as Subject Themes are 

also found in English, however. We might start up a conversation by saying A man I met 

in Beirut once told me a good story. At this point in the discourse we haven’t established 

contact with either the man or the story, and for this reason both are presented as 

indefinite. Similarly, news items in the press often present an indefinite (but specific) 

Subject Theme such as ‘an amateur yachtsman’ in the text below, which can set up an 

identity chain whose referent is identified only in the second clause. (The NG Theme 

in the headline is indefinite too,with the indefinite article ‘a’ omitted, as is usual in 

journalese.) 

Fogbound sailor was yards from shore 

An amateur yachtsman has spent four days fearing that he was in the middle of the 

North Sea, unaware that he was 100 yards from shore. 

Allan McKeand, a retired industrial chemist from Skipton, North Yorkshire, ran 

into fog off the North East coastal town of Redcar on Monday. 


28.7 INTRODUCING NEW POTENTIAL TOPICS INTO 

THE DISCOURSE 

New referents have to be introduced into the discourse in order to be discussed. Some 

languages have specific morphological markers to indicate that something is being 

presented as a potential new Topic. English has no such morphological devices, but 

there are still ways of presenting new referents into the discourse. These include the 

following: 

1 The subject of an intransitive clause (including copular clauses) can present or 

identify a new entity. Such is the case in the italicised NG that identifies the fogbound 

sailor in the second of the two paragraphs in the news item. When spoken, extra 

pitch and stress (see 29.1) help the hearer to make contact with the new referent. 

2 When the Subject is known, the direct object often introduces a new entity: I saw 

a most extraordinary person in the park this afternoon. It has been estimated that 

between them the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb 

account for the majority of new entities introduced in spoken discourse. 

3 Unstressed there with be – or a presentative verb such as appear, which has the same 

effect – can introduce a new referent, as in There was a good programme on 

television last night (see 30.4). 

4 A statement can explicitly inform the hearer what the Topic is going to be, as in 

Today I want to talk to you about genetic engineering. 

5 Inversion of a copular clause can introduce a new Topic, as in Worst of all was the 

lack of fresh water (see 28.9). 


It must be emphasised that not every entity introduced into the discourse is maintained 

as a major topic with its own identity chain. Many do not survive the first mention, 

such is the volume of incoming detail to be processed mentally. In conversation, establishing 

a discourse topic is eminently collaborative, and some new entities may not be 

considered newsworthy enough to survive. 

28.8 CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADJUNCTS AS THEMES 

Among the marked Themes, Circumstantial Adjuncts – particularly those of time and 

place – are the least unusual. Comparing the examples below, we can say that the 

circumstantials in London last year have been transferred from their normal position in 

the Rheme to initial position; that is, they have been thematised or ‘fronted’. 

Theme 

We 

In London last year, 

Rheme 

did a lot of sightseeing in London last year. 

we did a lot of sightseeing. 

The function of such circumstantials is to set the necessary temporal and/or spatial 

coordinates of the text world within which the participants move, establishing a timeframe 

or place-frame for the rest of the message. Such frames or settings can hold 

over wide spans of discourse, until a different frame is set up. The exhibition leaflet in 

228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

which Warhol figures has many such temporal spans, as it describes the chronological 

progression of modern art. 

The break between European and American art 

In the first decades of the twentieth century Paris was the centre of modern art. Picasso, 

Braque and Matisse all worked there; Cubism was born there. The first part of this 

exhibition describes the dialogue that took place between Europe and America that 

gave rise to American modernism . . . 

By the early 1940s young American artists made the conscious decision to 

disconnect the line to Europe. They wanted to provoke and shock, to be the standardbearers 

of the avant-garde in a specifically American way. This radical group of artists 

launched the revolutionary movement called Abstract Expressionsim that by 1950 

had successfully invented a new contemporary art vocabulary. And, for the first time 

in the history of Western art, the centre of the artistic avant-garde shifted away from 

Europe to America. 

Initial circumstantials of time constitute a useful device for structuring lengthy stretches 

of text on a chronological basis. Time and place adjuncts do not initiate cohesive chains, 

however, although they can be referred to anaphorically in subsequent clauses by 

the adverbs there and then, respectively: We went to the theatre there, too, and it was then 

that I learned some Cockney slang. Locations such as Paris, when Subject, can set up 

topical chains and can also be followed by co-referential there, as in the text. 

There is competition between subject and adjunct Themes for initial position. If 


chronological sequencing is adopted as a method of development of the text, as in 

this extract, temporal Themes are chosen to mark crucial points, while the topic (Paris, 

young American artists) takes second position, although it is Subject. The topical participant 

chain of the young American artists is built up within the time-span created by 

the Theme. Temporal adjuncts which are not thematic, such as by 1950, are backgrounded 

by their position within a topical chain. Nevertheless they can signal important 

temporal landmarks such as turning points, shifts and the end of a previous time-span 

as in the case of by 1950. While circumstantial Themes are important in mapping 

the surface development, it is the topic referents, (participant Themes when initial), 

however, which structure the cognitive development of the text as a whole, in terms of 

its global topic. 

28.9 OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS AS THEMES 

Apart from contrast, another motivation for thematising direct objects is that of 

retrospective linking to something in the previous sentence or context: 

Moussaka you ordered, and moussaka you’ve got. 

Janet asked me to bring her some tea from London. This I did. 


When subject complements are thematised they tend to occur as evaluative 

comments made spontaneously in context, often in response to another speaker. In 

each case, there is retrospective linking. Identifying clauses, such as The music was 

the best of all, are reversible. When reversed, as in the second example, they look both 

backwards and forwards, linking to something just said, but also marking a shift to 

something new. 

[How did the meeting go?] – A complete waste of time it was (Subject Complement. 

The unmarked order: It was a complete waste of time.) 

[Was the festival a success?] Not bad. The best was the music. (reversed identifying 

clause from The music was the best.) 

Fantastic I call it! (Object Complement. Unmarked order: I call it fantastic.) 

28.10 LESS COMMON THEMATISATIONS IN THE 

DECLARATIVE CLAUSE 

28.10.1 Negative adverbs 

When we place negative adverbs such as never in initial position, we seem to be 

responding to a communicative human need to foreground and emphasise the negation. 

But while Never! can be used as a one-word full negative response in conversation, 

thematised negative constituents are much less easy to use in English than in some 

other languages. This is because they trigger the inversion of an existing auxiliary (or 

do-operator) with the subject. Furthermore, thematised negatives have an emphatic, 

marked effect, as can be seen from the following famous utterance made by Winston 

Churchill after the Battle of Britain in the Second World War. The second, more recent 

quotation, was made as a comment on television about the IRA’s apology in 2002 for 

the loss of life of non-combatants over three decades. 


Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few. 

Never before has the IRA acknowledged the loss of life in its 30-year paramilitary 

campaign. 

In everyday use such a rhetorical effect may be undesirable, and it is best to reserve 

fronted negative elements for emphatic statements or directives. With the imperative, 

there is no inversion, as the base form of the verb is used: Never say ‘never again’! Certain 

dependent clauses of condition are likewise fronted: Should you wish to change your mind, 

please let us know. The negative adjuncts never and under no circumstances, fronted seminegatives 

such as hardly, scarcely and only + an adverb of time all have a marked effect 

when fronted. Their unmarked position before the main verb avoids this problem (I have 

never seen . . . You must under no circumstances leave . . .). 

The positive and negative elements most commonly thematised in everyday spoken 

English are so and neither or nor as substitute words (see 29.6). They behave like initial 

negatives, provoking operator-subject ordering, but they have no rhetorical effect. 

230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

All my friends passed the driving-test and so did I. 

Never have I seen such a mess! 

Under no circumstances must medicines be left within reach of children. 

Only then did I realise what he really meant. 

28.10.2 Negative Objects 

These produce the same inversion, but are much less common. Negative subjects do 

not produce inversion. Compare: Not a thing could the patient remember, where not a 

thing is Object, with Nobody could remember a thing, where nobody is Subject. 

28.10.3 Adverbs followed by verbs of motion 

Initial adverbs such as up, down, in and deictics such as here, there and then are commonly 

used with verbs of motion such as come, go, run. In short spoken utterances they 

accompany or signal actions, such as In you get! (helping someone into a car) or There/ 

Here you go! (handing something to someone). There is no inversion when the subject 

is a pronoun. With a full nominal group, however, the verb and the subject invert: Down 

came the rain and up went the umbrellas: There goes my last dollar! Here comes the bus. 

In certain types of written texts such as historical narrative in tourist brochures, this 

structure can be used to mark a new stage in the narrative, and in such cases usually 

initiates a new paragraph, as in: 

Then came the Norman Conquest. 


Only simple tenses are used in this structure, not the progressive or perfect combinations. 

Thematised verbs rarely occur in the declarative clause in English. When they do, it 

is the non-finite part that is thematised: 

([He told me to run,) so] run I did. (Unmarked order: He told me to run, so I did run.) 

In the media non-finite and finite forms are sometimes fronted, together with the rest 

of the clause: 

Coming up to the stage now is this year’s winner of the Oscar . . . 

Snapped back the 18-year-old princess: ‘No comment’. 

28.10.4 Detached predicatives 

These are units headed by a noun, an adjective or a participle.They are closely tied 

to the subject but, instead of occupying a position after the verb, they are fronted, and 

have the status of supplementives, with an adjunctive function: 

A Saxon princess, she was born at Exning near Newmarket around AD 630, the 

daughter of Anna, King of the East Angles. 


These fronted phrases are common in such genres as fiction, history, advertising and 

tourism, where they provide an economical means of packing information around a 

main topic entity, without holding up the narrative. When thematic, they are 

retrospective, linking up with the immediately preceding text. When they are placed 

after the subject, they add extra details about the topic entity as in the daughter of Anna, 

King of the East Angles. 

28.11 DETACHED THEMES: ABSOLUTE THEME, DISLOCATIONS 

AND DOUBLE THEMES 

28.11.1 Absolute Theme 

The Themes analysed so far all have a place within the syntax and semantics of the 

clause. This is not the only type, however. Across the world’s languages, a very basic 

way of presenting a ‘newsworthy’ piece of information is by means of a detached 

lexical NG standing outside the clause. This ‘Chinese-style topic’ is always a definite 

NG or proper name which does not function as a constituent of the clause which follows 

it. The construction, here called Absolute Theme, is common in the spoken registers of 

many European languages, as illustrated by the following sentence, from Spanish: 

Los Beatles, sin Sgt. Pepper no tendríamos ni la mitad de la música pop de ahora. 

(The Beatles) (without Sgt. Pepper) (we wouldn’t have) (even half the pop music [we 

have] now) 


The Theme The Beatles is completely detached, with no grammatical relations connecting 

it to the second part of the message. Nevertheless, it provides a pragmatic frame 

by which the connection is made inferentially, based on contextual knowledge. 

Absolute Themes in English occur sometimes in spontaneous talk; they do not 

occur normally in written text. Here are two instances, both from news interviews on 

television. The first is in the context of a public appeal in a police inquiry, the second 

during the anthrax alarm in the aftermath of 11 September 2001. In both, the Absolute 

Theme provides a personal frame to the utterance. 

Now Manchester United, their players have been holding up a banner. 

The woman who died in New York, that’s obviously affecting her colleagues who work 

in the hospital. 

28.11.2 Dislocations 

Dislocations are different from Absolute Themes in that the ‘dislocated’ element is a 

constituent of the clause, frequently subject (as in the examples below), and is repeated 

by a co-referential pronoun (it and those respectively here) in its normal position within 

the clause. The connection is therefore encoded grammatically, not established 

inferentially. The first two illustrate what are usually known as left-dislocations. The 

last one is a right-dislocation. 

232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

That letter, was it from Bruce? (corresponding to: Was that letter from 

Bruce?) 

And those flood waters that affected the Czech Republic, those are the ones that are 

sweeping towards Germany? 

Is it new, that top – No, I bought it (Non-dislocated form: Is that top new?) 

last year. 

One explanation sometimes given of left-dislocation is that the speaker presents the 

main person or thing s/he wishes to talk about (that letter, those flood waters that affected 

the Czech Republic) without having worked out the structure to be used. A more positive 

view, cognitively and communicatively, is that by ‘detaching’ the salient referent and 

putting it first, the speaker side-steps grammatical complexity, presenting a ‘topic– 

comment’ structure that is more easily grasped than the normal one. Interrogatives 

and relatives are complex structures in English, and it is in these cases that we can find 

left-dislocation. 

Right-dislocations are more problematic to analyse as Themes, as they are not initial, 

but instead are placed after the clause as a full NG, (that top) whose referent had been 

previously introduced as a pronoun (it). The traditional view is that the final nominal is 

an afterthought, which again, implies a construction failure on the part of the speaker. 

A cognitive-functional explanation, however, suggests a motivation for this structure, 

namely, that of making explicit a referent (that top) which was accessible to the speaker 

in the context, but perhaps not so obvious to the hearer, or not in the speaker’s mind at 

the moment. 

Affectivity may provide a different kind of motivation, as in the next two examples. 

In the first the referent was an escaped pig, called McQueen; the second a relative of 

the speaker. In the third, a deictic pronoun this refers to the immediate context: 


And he not only flew over the fence, he could swim, that pig. 

He’s a cool dude, Sam. 

It’s a nice place, this. 

(news report) 

(author’s data) 

28.11.3 Double detached Themes 

Two detached Themes may occur together, the first an Absolute, the second a leftdislocation. 

The relationship between them must be pragmatically relevant. 

1 And Ben, his sister, she has disabling osteo-arthritis. 

2 And this consultant, what I like about him is that he doesn’t pass everyone on to 

his underlings; he attends to you himself. 

3 The white house opposite, the woman who lives there, her dog, he’s had to be put 

down. 

In 2 there is a wh-cleft, what I like about him (see 30.2), which is not detached. Both of 

these combinations are heard in spoken English, but rarely find their way into the written 

language. In 3 there are three detached nominal groups, the last of which, her dog, is 

picked up by the pronoun he. The function of multiple detachments is to ‘anchor’ the 


final referent to other related referents, which are presumed to be accessible to the 

hearer. 

28.12 NON-EXPERIENTIAL THEMES 

The Theme of an utterance is essentially a constituent of the transitivity structures. It 

is possible to allow for a number of non-experiential Themes, which precede the 

experiential Theme. These can be grouped into two main kinds: interpersonal Themes 

and textual Themes. 

Interpersonal Themes 

These include three main subtypes. Continuative Themes (or discourse markers), 

such as Oh, well, Ah, please (see 8.2.8), have various functions as markers of attention, 

response, request, state of knowledge, surprise and hesitation, among others. Overall, 

they signal acknowledgements by speakers and transitions from one speaker to another 

or a move to another point in spoken discourse. Examples are: 

Now who wants to come to the castle? – Oh, actually I have to do some shopping. 

Well, we’ll see you later, then. 

Another group of interpersonal Themes, Adjuncts of stance, include three main subtypes: 

epistemic, (certainly), evidential (apparently) and evaluative (surely, surprisingly) 

1. Further sub-types include style adjuncts, such as frankly, honestly, and domain 

adjuncts, such as legally, technologically, consumerwise 2, which limit the domain of 


reference of the rest of the sentence. All are discussed and illustrated in Section 8.2.5. 

A third type is made up of vocatives, such as Doctor! Mum!, and appellatives – 

ladies and gentlemen – which address people by name or by role or status 3. 

1 Surely you could find yourself a job somewhere? Honestly, I’ve tried. 

2 Technologically, though, the new model hasn’t been a success. 

3 Ladies and gentlemen, please take your seats. The coach will depart in five 

minutes. 

Textual Themes 

Textual Themes include a variety of connectors or connective adjuncts such as 

however, besides, therefore, now, first, then (non-temporal) next and anyway. These connect 

the clause to the previous part of the text by indicating relations such as addition, 

concession, reason, consequence, and so on (see 8.2.7 and 8.2.8). 

I don’t feel like playing tennis. Besides, it’s starting to rain. 

All these different types of element can be considered as being part of the Theme, 

as long as they are placed before the experiential theme (Subject, Circumstantial, Object 

234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

or Complement). Most of them can function in other positions in the clause, and so 

represent a real choice when used thematically. Coordinators such as and, but and or, 

conjunctions such as when and relative pronouns such as who, which, that are inherently 

thematic and do not have alternative placements. For this reason, they will not be taken 

into account in our analyses. 

Non-defining relatives, however, because they are analysed as supplementives 

(see 2.4.1, 49.2), may be considered as having Themes and Rhemes in their own right, 

as in the following sentence, which may be analysed as two Theme–Rheme units as 

follows: 

Ladies and gentlemen, this afternoon we are going to visit the cathedral, which was 

built in 1241 not long after the last of the great wars. 

Ladies and gentlemen, this afternoon 

Theme 

we are going to visit the cathedral 

Rheme 

which 

Theme 

was built in 1241 not long after the great wars. 

Rheme 

By including the many different classes of items within the Theme category, it is 

possible to claim that the three macro-functions of language, the experiential, the 

interpersonal and the textual, can be represented by items within the Theme. Here is 

an examples of Multiple Themes. 


Well now, Mrs Jones, what can I do for you? 

Continuative Connective Vocative Experiential 

Interpersonal Textual Interpersonal Experiential 

Theme 

Rheme 

28.13 CLAUSES AS THEMES 

Time and place are not the only types of circumstance that can be thematised: other 

types of situational frame can be established. Consider just three of the many meanings 

of as, illustrated in the following sentences: a As a gardening tool, it’s not much use (role); 

b As children under five, they get in free (status); c As children, we used to roll our eyes 

whenever grandfather told us the same old story yet again (time). 

The time Adjunct in c As children . . . could be reworded as d When we were children. 

This fact enables us to see a similarity of function between circumstances realised as 


Adjuncts, as in a, b and c, and circumstances expressed as subordinate clauses as in d. 

We can say that in a unit composed of two or more clauses, the first clause acts as 

Theme to the rest. 

Coordinated clauses joined by ‘and’ reflect the chronological order of the events 

described. The first clause is therefore the natural temporal and factual starting-point 

of the sequence. For this reason not all coordinate clauses are coherently reversible: 

The lone rider got on his horse and rode into the sunset. 

*The lone rider rode into the sunset and got on his horse. 

Even when the clauses are reversible, the resultant meanings are likely to be different; 

for, as well as chronological sequence, other meanings such as cause and effect are 

implied: 

He bought an oil-tanker and made a fortune. (i.e. his fortune resulted from his buying 

the tanker) 

He made a fortune and bought an oil-tanker. (i.e. he bought the tanker with his 

fortune) 

Subordinate clauses impose no obligation to maintain chronological sequencing. 

However, an initial subordinate clause takes as starting-point the meaning it encodes, 

such as reason 1, simultaneity 2 and condition 3: 

1 As you weren’t at home, I left a message on your answer-phone. 

2 As she stepped off the kerb, a cyclist crashed into her. 

3 If you don’t like it, you can probably change it for something else. 


Such Themes set up meaningful frames within which the rest of the clause develops, as 

is illustrated in the following short extract from Alan Ayckbourn’s Just Between Ourselves: 

I haven’t got time, mother, to start putting things in tins. If I want a nail, there’s a 

nail. I bang it in and that’s that. If I can’t find a nail I use a screw. And if I can’t find 

a screw, I don’t bother. 

Such initial clauses also set up expectations, which obviously does not happen when 

the subordinate clause is final. For instance, compare the next two examples. Each 

contains a non-finite to-infinitive clause of purpose in initial and final position, 

respectively: 

4 To cure stress, try a Jacuzzi whirlpool bath. 

5 He braked hard to avoid hitting the cyclist. 

The initial purpose clause in 4 not only sets up a purpose frame, but also names the 

goal to be achieved. For this reason, the to-infinitive clause here emphasises a sense of 

236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

premeditated purpose, which is much less explicit in 5, where the purpose clause is in 

final position. 

The two remaining types of non-finite clause, the participial -ing clause and the 

-en clause, are closely tied to the main participant in the discourse and are discussed 

in Chapter 7. The -ing clause 6 is active in meaning and expresses an action or state 

dependent upon the main situation. The -en clause 7 is passive in meaning and is 

retrospective, summing up a previous situation: 

6 Taking advantage of his present popularity, the Prime Minister called an election. 

7 Thwarted in the west, Stalin turned east. 

It is useful to remember that speakers adjust their choice of Theme to the context, 

‘attending first to the most urgent task’. When the tourist guide starts with ‘Ladies and 

gentlemen’, for instance, s/he is doing just that: attracting the hearers’ attention before 

giving them the information they need. Context is understood here to include 

potentially: 

• the situational context in which the participants interact, including the place, the 

time and the participants themselves; 

• the texual context, or ‘co-text’, which covers the previous spoken or written 

discourse; and 

• cognitive features such as the participants’ knowledge, beliefs and assumptions, in 

so far as these are relevant at any particular point in the discourse. 



THE DISTRIBUTION AND MODULE 29 

FOCUS OF INFORMATION 

SUMMARY 

1 In order to be understood, messages are divided into chunks called information 

units, which are represented in speech by tone units. These do not correspond 

to any one grammatical category, since the speaker is free to break up the 

message as desired into units which are smaller or larger than a clause. 

2 Each tone unit contains a tonic syllable, which represents the highest point of 

the focus of information. Information focus extends to the syntactic unit in 

which the tonic occurs. 


3 The tone unit in English signals the distribution of information into Given and 

New. Each information unit contains an obligatory New element and, optionally, 

a Given element, the unmarked order being Given–New. The Given is the 

information that the speaker presents as recoverable by the hearer; the New is 

the information that is presented as not recoverable by the hearer. The whole 

tone unit may contain New information, for instance at the start of a 

conversational exchange. 

4 The devices of ellipsis and substitution are used to avoid repeating 

information that is recoverable. 

5 Unmarked focus falls on the last non-anaphoric lexical item of the information 

unit. If the intonation nucleus is made to fall on some other item, it is marked and 

unequivocally represents New information. This is marked focus. Its function 

is to contrast one item with another or to add emotive colouring to the utterance. 

Focus can coincide with marked Theme and is a cohesive device in texts. 

29.1 THE INFORMATION UNIT 

Speakers divide their messages into chunks called information units. In the spoken 

language these are not represented directly by any one type of grammatical unit, 

238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

although there are certain correlations. Rather, they are signalled prosodically, by 

means of the intonation system of the language. Information units are therefore defined 

in terms of the spoken language and how speakers organise it. Readers of a written 

text, however, interpret what they read by mentally assigning information units to 

the text, helped by punctuation and the grammar. 

The prosodic unit that represents a unit of spoken information is the tone unit. A 

tone unit consists potentially of a series of stressed and unstressed syllables, and always 

contains one syllable, the tonic, which is singled out by tonic prominence. That is, it 

carries the main pitch movement (for instance, falling, rising, falling and then rising, 

rising and then falling), a jump, up or down, in pitch and possibly extra stress and added 

duration. Its function is to mark the focus of information. Or rather, it signals the 

nucleus or highest point of the unit which is informationally in focus, as in the example 

below (the capitals represent the tonic syllable): 

He’s arriving on THURSday. 

If this utterance were used to convey information, it is likely that there would be a jump 

in pitch up to THURS and that this syllable would have a pitch fall on it. In this example, 

the tone unit coincides with a clause. But speakers can choose to make tone units longer 

1 or shorter 2 than a clause, depending on how much of the information they want to 

make prominent. (The symbol // indicates the end of a tone unit.) Short answers, 

questions and commands can consist of a single prominent syllable, such as YES! WHY? 

or DON’T! If a speaker wishes to make the message highly informative and emphatic, 

each lexical word may be treated as an information unit, with as many tonics as there 

are words, as in 2 (where the tonic syllable in immediately is ME): 


1 I think it’s a great pity she didn’t GET the job // 

2 COME // HERE // IMMEDIATELY // 

Speakers shorten or lengthen tone units in response to their communicative needs. This 

response is emotive rather than deliberate, and is therefore less likely to be controlled 

than, for instance, the choice of a lexical item. Variation in the length of tone units also 

depends on several factors, some cultural, others personal. According to one cognitive 

view, the intonation unit or tone group represents the limited amount of information 

that our consciousness can focus on at any one time. This has led to the ‘one chunk per 

clause principle’ or ‘one new idea constraint’, in conversation at least. For spoken 

English a short independent clause with few content words represents the typical 

information unit. 

Other grammatical units which may correspond to tone groups include various kinds 

of adjunct, especially when initial (in the late nineteen thirties, better still, unfortunately); a 

dependent clause (although it wasn’t your fault); a main clause with an embedded clause 

(I thought we were leaving), coordinated predicates with the same Subject (he’s seen the 

pictures and likes them) and possibly NG Subjects (all the lonely people). The following are 

examples of utterances consisting of two tone units: 

// in the late nineteen THIRTIES // he went to HOLLYWOOD // 

// better STILL // send an E-mail // 


The following transcription illustrates how one speaker organises an episode into 

tone units of varying length, with overlapping units (in brackets) by speaker B. The dots 

and dashes (. -) represent progressively longer pauses. The speakers have been talking 

about football grounds in Britain, many of them quite old. 

Of course // the CONTINENTALS I suppose // they came in LATE // and they . 

build them – (B: PROPERLY //) you know// this MILAN ground // . there’s a famous 

one THERE . ÍSN’T there? // . (B: erm) you know// they were saying how SUPERB 

they were // . But the one in SPAIN // was the BEST // – (B: of course //) I thought 

it was in MADRID // – was it Real MADRID// they were fan (b: they’re all erm . . .) 

oh they were FANTASTIC // it showed the PHOTOGRAPHS of them // . people 

sitting there in the hot SUN // you know // smoking CIGARS// and it showed the 

crowds . EMPTYING // – (B: they had a practice – erm) EXIT //// (B: YEAH //) and 

about . thirty seconds LATER // or a minute later they were CLEAR // 

29.2 GIVEN AND NEW INFORMATION 

The distribution of ‘Given’ and ‘New’ information is to a great extent the motivation for 

the information unit. Each information unit contains an obligatory ‘New’ element, which 

is associated with the tonic of the tone unit, the focus of information. There can also 

be optional ‘Given’ elements of information, which are associated with the rest of 

the tone unit. Rather than a clear-cut distinction between ‘Given’ and ‘New’, however, 

there is a gradation of givenness and newness. This is compatible with the notion of 

communicative dynamism, by which the message typically progresses from low to high 

information value (see 29.3). 

The Given element is concerned with information that the speaker presents as 


recoverable by the hearer, either from the linguistic co-text, that is, what has been said 

before, or because it can be taken as ‘known’ from the context of situation or the context 

of culture. The New element is concerned with whatever information the speaker 

presents as not recoverable by the hearer. The following exchange illustrates the 

possible relationship of Given and New to information focus: 

A. What’s new then? 

B. Well, Jim’s bought a new CAR //, Norma’s getting a DIVORCE // and Jamie’s 

got CHICKEN-POX //, but apart from that ... 

In each tone unit, the tonic syllable, identified here by capitals, represents the 

culmination of the New information. The syntactic unit in which the tonic occurs (a new 

CAR, a DIVORCE, CHICKEN-POX) is in each case ‘in focus’. The referents of the proper 

names Jim, Norma and Jamie are treated as identifiable and Given, or at least accessible, 

in the discourse situation (that is the function of proper names) and there is a gradation 

from Given to New, with the verbs bought, getting and got marking the transition: 

Jim’s bought a new CAR 

Norma’s getting a DIVORCE 

Jamie’s got CHICKEN-POX 

Given - - - - - - - - - - - - - New 

240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

29.3 UNMARKED FOCUS AND MARKED FOCUS 

In normal, unemphatic discourse, it is customary to start our message from what we 

think our hearer knows and progress to what s/he does not know. In other words, the 

unmarked distribution starts with the Given and progresses towards the New. This is 

often called the principle of end-focus. 

The neutral position for information focus is therefore towards the end of the 

information unit. In grammatical terms, this usually means that unmarked (end-)focus 

falls on the last non-anaphoric lexical item or name in the clause, as in the above 

exchange. Items which occur after the tonic can be taken as Given and are always 

unstressed, like about it here: 

Pete’s just COMPLAINED about it. 

Given - - - - New - - - - - - - - - Given 

Here, the words after complained are both grammatical rather than lexical words: that 

is, they have a largely grammatical meaning. Pronouns such as it always refer to 

something known, unless they are contrastive and therefore marked (see below). In the 

following example, the second use of WANT is anaphoric (the notion of ‘wanting’ occurs 

in the question), and is therefore not marked. Instead, DON’T is marked: 

A. Don’t you WANT it then? B. No, I DON’T want it. 

When the focus of information is placed on the last non-anaphoric lexical item in the 

clause, almost the whole clause may be New or just one part of it. For example, Jane 

dropped the COFFEE-POT could be intended to mean that it was just the coffee-pot and 


not something else that Jane dropped; or the whole unit could contain new information. 

The amount of New material can be verified by formulating questions. In answer to the 

first, only the coffee-pot would be New and the rest Given (and probably ellipted in 

speech; see 29.3), while in answer to the second, the whole unit would represent new 

information: 

What did Jane drop? [Jane dropped] the COFFEE-POT 

New - - - - - - - - - - - - 

What happened? Jane dropped the COFFEE-POT 

- - - - - - - - - - - - New - - - - - - - - - - - - 

Marked focus occurs when the tonic is placed on any other syllable than the tonic 

syllable of the last non-anaphoric lexical item. Marked focus is used for the purpose of 

contrasting one item with another, as in 1 and 2, or to add an emotive overlay, as 

in 3: 

1 SHE didn’t make the phone call, ROBERT did. 

2 The kids didn’t SIT on the sofa, they JUMPED on it. 

3 I’m SO THIRSTY! 


The first would be used in a context in which the speaker assumes that the hearer knows 

they are talking about someone making a phone call (‘make the phone call’ is Given 

information). As contrastive focus treats the focused element as New information, both 

she and Robert are treated as New, even though both must be identifiable in the context. 

Focus can fall on other, non-lexical items such as pronouns, prepositions and 

auxiliaries, again with an implied contrast or correction. The following examples 

illustrate some of the possibilities of marked focus. When auxiliaries receive focus it is 

meanings such as those of polarity contrast (i.e. positive/ negative) or tense which are 

presented as New or important information: 

MY brother sold his motorbike. [not someone else’s brother] 

Put the dog’s bowl UNDER the table. [not ON the table] 

[Wait for me!] I AM waiting for you. [corrects first speaker’s assumption that 

x is not waiting] 

[Don’t forget to return the video!] [corrects the assumption that the video has 

I HAVE returned the video. not been returned.] 

[Why didn’t you tell the truth?] [corrects the assumption that x did not tell 

I DID tell the truth. 

the truth] 

Whether for emotive reasons or for the purpose of emphasising or contrasting, it can 

happen that a single tone group contains more than one nucleus. The fall-plus-rise or 

the rise-plus-fall tones often accompany focusing of this kind. 

//It was QUITE exciting REALLY.// 

//I DO wish you’d shut UP.// 


The following advertisement illustrates the possibility speakers have of assigning focus 

to practically any item. Some of these utterances could be interpreted as contrastive, 

others simply as emphatic. 

DO you know what kind of a day I’ve had? 

Do YOU know what kind of a day I’ve had? 

Do you KNOW what kind of a day I’ve had? 

Do you know WHAT kind of a day I’ve had? 

Do you know what KIND of a day I’ve had? 

Do you know what kind of a DAY I’ve had? 

Do you know what kind of a day I’VE had? 

Do you know what kind of a day I’ve HAD? 

Well, DO you? 

29.4 EVENT UTTERANCES 

Event utterances are usually short and typically intransitive. They provide an 

interesting exception to the principle of end-focus, in that a NG Subject receives the 

tonic stress. The reason for this is that the whole event is in Focus, and there is no 

242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

presupposition (assumption) such as ‘something is bleeding’, ‘something has gone out’, 

‘someone is coming’: 

My NOSE is bleeding! 

The LIGHT’s gone out! 

[I won’t be able to go away this weekend.] My PARENTS are coming. 

Event sentences are extremely common in conversation. They often occur ‘out of the 

blue’, that is, unrelated to what was previously said, as surprisals or interruptions of 

an ongoing discourse topic. This is not always the case however. In the third example, 

the event utterance is incorporated into the dialogue as a reason for not going away 

this weekend. In languages with flexible constituent order, this type of message would 

probably be conveyed by inversion of S–P. In English, inversion is not an option here; 

instead, stress and intonation patterns are used. 

29.5 ELLIPSIS 

By means of ellipsis we leave out those elements of the clause that are recoverable. 

As a result we highlight the new information and our discourse gains in cohesion and 

coherence. Information can be recovered from the linguistic co-text or from the social 

context. Ellipsis of the first type is textual and of the second situational. 


29.5.1 Textual ellipsis 

Textual ellipsis occurs when two consecutive clauses have elements in common. The 

two clauses may form part of the same utterance by one speaker 1, or they may be 

distributed between two speakers, as in 2. The words in common are omitted in the 

second clause. In English the remaining part often ends with an auxiliary or a pronoun. 

(In the examples, ellipted material is recovered in italics.) 

1 I’m sure he would help you, if he could (help you). 

2 Shall we go for a swim? – Yes, let’s (go for a swim). 

3 Why can’t he just send a message? And for that matter, why can’t YOU? (just 

send a message) 

Catenative verbs which take to-infinitive clauses such as want, mean (= intend), used 

to and like obligatorily retain the to, with the rest of the clause ellipted, as in 4. 

Wh- complement clauses and questions can be ellipted, leaving the wh-element as in 5: 

4 A fine mess you’ve made of things. – I didn’t mean to (make a fine mess of things). 

5 Why can’t he find you a comfortable job? – He will (find me a comfortable job), 

but I don’t know when (he’ll find me a comfortable job.) 

These examples illustrate final ellipsis. Medial ellipsis is featured in 6 and 7, while 8 

illustrates initial ellipsis, where ellipsis of the pronoun is an alternative analysis to zero 

anaphora. 


6 What time does this party of Robin’s start? He said [it starts at] six-to-eight. 

7 Shirley wore jeans and Tina (wore) a miniskirt. 

8 They got on the bus and (they) sat down in the front seat behind the driver. 

29.5.2 Situational ellipsis 

In conversation and writing that imitates speech, unstressed pronouns and other 

functional items are frequently ellipted, as they are recoverable from the interactional 

context. 

Can’t hear a word 

See you soon 

Like a drink? 

Any news? 

(Subject I ellipted) 

(I’ll ellipted) 

(Would you ellipted) 

(Is there ellipted) 

Situational ellipsis is also the organising factor in ‘block language’, which includes 

newspaper headlines, telegrams and other announcements. We soon reach a point, 

however, both in textual and situational ellipsis at which the exact material ellipted 

is no longer recoverable. In such cases the concept of ellipsis is strictly not applicable, 

as in: 

To let. For hire. For sale. Vacancies. Bed and Breakfast. No parking. 

29.6 SUBSTITUTION 


Substitution likewise avoids the repetition of recoverable information; but while ellipsis 

leaves a structural slot empty, substitution replaces it by a ‘filler’ word. Consequently, 

the exact words which have been ellipted are not recoverable. A commonly used clausal 

substitute is do so, as in 1 below. This is not acceptable, however, where the verb is not 

agentive (for instance, know, like) and in such cases ellipsis is used, as in 2: 

1 You can hire a self-drive car, but I wouldn’t advise you to do so. (hire a selfdrive 

car) 

2 Some people like mangoes, others don’t. (*don’t do so). 

So substitutes for clause complements after verbs such as say, hope, think, expect, be 

afraid, suppose and believe. Not is the negative substitute with hope, be afraid and suppose: 

Is it going to rain tomorrow? The weather man says so (i.e. that it is going to rain). 

I hope not. (i.e. that it’s not going to rain). 

So can also be used as an alternative to an auxiliary + too to substitute positively, just 

as neither alternates with auxiliary + either to substitute negatively: 

This hair-dryer makes an awful noise. So does mine./Mine does too./Mine too. 

I wouldn’t like to live in this climate. Neither/Nor would we./We wouldn’t either. 

244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Ellipsis and substitution in nominal groups 

In nominal ellipsis we replace the head element by pronouns such as these, any, each, 

all, both, either, neither, none (I’ll take these, There aren’t any left); possessives such as John’s, 

and numeratives such as the first, the next three. These are discussed in modules 46 and 

47. Nominal substitution makes use of one/ones (I prefer the dark one(s)) this, that and the 

pronouns (an)other (see 45.7.4): 



THE INTERPLAY OF MODULE 30 

THEME–RHEME AND GIVEN–NEW 

SUMMARY 

1 From the point of view of communicative effect, the important positions in the 

clause are the initial position and the final position. We have examined 

separately the two structures involved, which are mapped on to each other: the 

Theme–Rheme thematic structure and the Given–New information structure. 

We now turn to the interplay between the two. We start by going beyond the 

clause to look at thematic progression in a paragraph. 

2 We then turn to a few of the major resources used in English for shifting 

information either to the beginning of the clause or to the end. We have already 

seen thematisation (thematic fronting), which brings an element to initial 

position. We shall next examine the much more common device of clefting, 

which places an element to be focused near the front of the clause. 


3 Equally important are the resources for shifting information towards the end of 

the clause where it receives end-focus without being marked. The function of 

the passive voice, of the existential sentence and of extraposition is in 

part just this. At the same time, a different Theme is selected. Speakers and 

writers of English make great use of all these devices to achieve coherence and 

liveliness in their speech and writing. 

4 The highlighting of newsworthiness is not the only motivation of information 

flow. Pragmatic motivations of an interpersonal kind, such as politeness, may 

be the influencing factor in the selection and ordering of clausal elements, in 

particular the order of clauses in complex sentences. 

30.1 THEMATIC PROGRESSION 

The unmarked correlation between Given–New and Theme–Rheme is for Given to 

coincide with the Theme, and New information with some part of the Rheme. Going 

246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

eyond the clause, a consistent progression from Given to New will help the reader’s 

understanding of the text. Three basic types of thematic progression are identified: 

simple linear, continuous and derived. 

30.1.1 Simple linear progression 

In this type, something introduced as new information in the Rheme of the first clause 

is taken up to be the Theme of the second. The wording need not be identical. 

She has a huge team of people working for her. 1 Some of them have been with her 

for years. 2 

In this example, Theme 1 is she, while a huge team of people is the focused part of Rheme 

1. A semantic sub-set, some of them, then becomes the Theme of the second clause. We 

can present it graphically as follows: 

Clause 1 Theme 1 + Rheme 1 


Adapted from Danes˘ 1974) 

30.1.2 Continuous progression (constant Theme) 

In this type, the same Theme, Mum, is maintained across a series of coordinated clauses, 


each with its own Rheme: 

Mum was always a hard worker 1 and (zero) had plenty of drive 2 but, in a small way, 

she was also proving to be quite a successful business woman. 3 

This type of progression can be diagrammed as follows. Note that the same Theme is 

maintained in the second clause by ‘zero anaphora’, which could be replaced by the 

corresponding pronoun she. 

Mum (T1) was always a hard worker 1 (R1) and (she)(T1) had plenty of drive(R2), 2 

but, in a small way, she(T1) was also proving to be quite a successful business 

woman (R3). 3 




In the illustrations of these two first types of thematic progression, we find that the 

progression is made on the basis of topic referent chains. The following news item 

The ‘lost’ Van Gogh uses both simple linear progression and constant Theme (see 

exercise at end of chapter): 


When Vincent Van Gogh left his home in the Dutch village of Nuenen in 1895, 1 

having had a blazing row with the parish priest over his use of female models, 2 he 

left hundreds of his early pictures behind in his mother’s keeping. 3 Soon after, his 

mother, too, left the village for the nearby town of Breda. 4 She packed all her 

belongings, including a chest containing her son’s works, onto a cart, 5 and then left 

the chest in storage with a family friend. 6 The friend, a local merchant, threw many 

of the pictures away 7 and sold others off the back of his cart for about five cents 

a-piece. 8 

30.1.3 Derived Themes 

In this third type, the different themes of a number of Theme–Rheme structures all relate 

to a ‘hypertheme’ or ‘global topic’. The following text comes from Aldous Huxley’s The 

Doors of Perception, in which he describes research on the drug mescalin. The 

Hypertheme is stated in the first sentence. 

Mescalin research has been going on sporadically ever since the days of Lewin and 

Havelock Ellis. Chemists have not merely isolated the alkaloid; they have learned how 

to synthesize it, so that the supply no longer depends on the sparse and intermittent 

crop of a desert cactus. Alienists have dosed themselves with mescalin in the hope 

thereby of coming to a better, first-hand understanding of their patients’ mental 

processes. Working unfortunately upon too few subjects within too narrow a range 

of circumstances, psychologists have observed and catalogued some of the drug’s 

more striking effects. Neurologists and physiologists have found out something about 

the mechanisms of its action upon the central nervous system. And at least one 

professional philosopher has taken mescalin for the light it may throw on such ancient, 

unsolved riddles as the place of mind in nature and the relationship between the brain 

and consciousness. 


The Hypertheme is mescalin research. From this, the passage develops in terms of the 

classes of researchers (the Themes, derived from the Hypertheme) and what they did 

(the Rhemes) (see diagram opposite).. 

A fourth type of progression has a split rheme, which is a combination of types 1 

and 2. This can be illustrated by the following text, which is about some photographs 

of Saddam Hussein: 

I had two particular favourites: in one he sported a green eyeshade and carried a 

tennis racket; in the other he wore a university gown and had a mortar-board on 

his head. 

Clause 1 I had two particular favourites 

Clauses 2–3 In one he sported a green eyeshade and carried a tennis racket 

248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Clauses 4–5 In the other he wore a university gown and a mortar-board on his 

head 

This can be expressed graphically 

Clause 1 T1 – R1. The Rheme implies two items, A and B: 

Clauses 2–3 In one (A) ––––––––––––––––––––––––– (T2 - - - - - - - - - - R2) 

Clauses 4–5 In the other (B) –––––––––––––––––– (T2 ––––––––––– R2) 

Hypertheme: mescalin research 

R 1 : chemists 

R 2 : alienists 

R 3 : psychologists 

T 1 

T 2 

T 3 

T 4 R 4 : neurologists 

and physiologists 

T 5 R 5 : at least one 

professional 

philosopher 


30.2 CLEFTING: IT-CLEFTS AND WH-CLEFTS 

In clefting, we re-organise the content of a single clause into two related parts. The effect 

of the resulting structures is to focus on one element, the New, which always follows a 

form of the verb be. There are two kinds of cleft: the it-cleft and the wh-cleft. Here is 

an example of each. Compare these with the plain version: They need money. 

It’s MONEY (that) they need 

What they need is MONEY 

(it-cleft) 

(wh-cleft) 

Both types of cleft have MONEY in strong focus; the it-cleft brings the focus (marked 

by tonic stress) near the front of the first unit; the wh-cleft has the focus at the end 

of the second unit. There is a lesser stress, here underlined, on need, the last word of 

the unit containing Given or presupposed information. Presupposed information is 

that which is assumed by the speaker, without being asserted. Here what is assumed 

is ‘they need something’. 

If spoken, then, the devices of intonational prominence and syntactic structure 

reinforce each other to single out money in these examples. Let’s look first at the it-cleft. 

This consists of the pronoun it, + a form of the verb be, + the strongly focused item + 

a clause starting with a relative pronoun such as who, that or which: 


It was last TUESDAY that I met Richard (compare: I met Richard last TUESDAY) 

It was the WOMEN that did the bartering. It was the WOMEN that actually got 

enough to feed the family. BNC F7L 174 

Who must register for VAT? It’s the PERSON, not the BUSINESS, who is registered 

for VAT. BNC FAU 761–762 

In such examples, it is a dummy element with no other function but to provide a subject 

for the verb be. The item in focus can be a noun group, a prepositional group, a pronoun 

or a clause. 

30.2.1 Discourse functions of the it-cleft 

The main function of the it-cleft is to mark contrastive focus. The contrast is very 

often implicit, as in Tuesday (not another day), the women, not the men; but the contrast 

may be made explicit, as in It’s the person, not the business, who is registered for VAT. 

A different, non-contrastive use, is illustrated in the following sentence from Huxley’s 

work: 

1 It was in 1886 that the German pharmacologist, Louis Lewin, published the first 

systematic study of the cactus, to which his own name was subsequently given. 

The function here is not to contrast 1886 with a different date. Rather, the function of 

such clefts, which often highlight expressions of time or place, is to signal the beginning 

of an episode in discourse. It may be the very beginning of the text, as in 1, or an oral 

announcement, 2; otherwise, the cleft may signal a shift to a new episode 3: 


2 It is with great pleasure that I announce the name of this year’s winner . . . 

3 It was only years later that I realised what he meant. 

30.2.2 Discourse functions of the wh-cleft 

1 What we want is WATney’s 

This was a famous advertising slogan, at one time, for Watney’s beer. It is clearly much 

more emphatic than the plain version 2 and even more than the it-cleft 3. 

2 We want WATney’s 

3 It’s Watney’s (that) we want. 

In both types of cleft there is presupposed information: in this case, that we 

want something. But while the it-cleft 3 suggests contrast (Watney’s, not Heineken, for 

instance), the wh-cleft 1 suggests exclusiveness at the point in the discourse when it is 

used. (It’s ONLY Watney’s we want, and no other). The wh-cleft consists of a wh-word, 

of which by far the most common is what, followed by a clause containing Given 

or presupposed information, then a form of be, followed by the New information: 

250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

What we want// (it is presupposed: that we want something) is 

Given 

Watney’s// 

New 

This structure is also sometimes called a thematic equative, since it is of the form 

‘X = Y’. 

30.2.3 Variants of the wh-cleft 

The one(s) who/that acts as replacement for the now ungrammatical who-cleft: 

The one who told me the news was Lizzy herself. (*Who told me the news was Lizzy 

herself) 

All (that) is used instead of *all what. ‘That’ is usually omitted. 

All you need is love. 

Reversed wh-clefts have the main focus at the beginning of the first unit, not at the 

end after be, as in regular wh-clefts. Some combinations (that’s what/why/how/the way) 

are stereotyped, as are the thing is/the problem is, which can also be included here: 

All you need is LOVE. (regular wh-cleft) 

LOVE is all you need. (reversed wh- cleft) 

What you should do is THIS. (regular wh-cleft) 


THIS is what you should do. (reversed wh-cleft) 

That’s what I told you. 

That’s why we came. 

The effect is to put the new information as end-focus, but to indicate its selectively New 

status very clearly. The exclusiveness inherent in an element focused in this way allows 

the wh-cleft to be used for two important discourse purposes: (a) to introduce a new 

topic (in the New part), as in 1; and (b) to correct a previous statement or assumption, 

as in 2. 

1 What I don’t understand is why they don’t have a secretary in that place. 

2 What he did was take the money and run. 

The Wh-cleft identifies a particular element exclusively. In this it differs from the basic 

clause structure and from the ordinary cleft. Compare: 

We all need a holiday. 

It’s a holiday we all need. 

What we all need is a holiday. 

(neutral: no doubt we need other things too) 

(implied contrast with something else) 

(the only thing focused on) 


Wh-clefts are always reversible, and this property distinguishes them from whembedded 

clauses which are not clefts. Compare the following: 

What he said was that he didn’t like the play. (wh-cleft) 

What he said was very interesting. (nominal relative clause) 

The first is a wh-cleft, corresponding to the plain version He said that he didn’t like the 

play. The next is NOT a wh-cleft. There is no equivalent to the form *He said very 

interesting. Another way to test this is to try for reversibility. The first is reversible, the 

second is not: 

That he didn’t like the play was what he said. 

*Very interesting was what he said. 

Certain stereotyped wh-clefts (which are not all reversible) such as What happened was 

. . ., What I mean is . . . and The thing is . . . are also used for a variety of purposes such 

as pre-signals to certain speech acts, such as giving an excuse or an explanation: 

What happened was that I missed the last train. 

The thing is, we have tickets for a concert that evening. 

What I mean is we should all try to convince him. 

30.3 THE ACTIVE–PASSIVE ALTERNATIVE 


In describing situations which involve two participants, it is usually possible to take one 

or other participant as Subject and Theme/Topic. This is done in English by means of 

the active–passive voice alternative: 

The President has released the prisoners. (active voice) 

The prisoners have been released [by the President]. (passive voice) 

In the active construction, the Agent is mapped on to Subject and Theme/Topic, while 

the Affected is in final position and receives normal, unmarked end-focus: 

The President has released the prisoners. 

Agent 

Affected 

Subject 

Direct Object 

Theme/Topic ____________ Rheme ______ 

Unmarked end-focus 

In the passive construction these correspondences are reversed. The Affected is now 

promoted to Subject and provides the point of departure, while the Agent is demoted 

from its privileged position as Subject and is usually omitted. If present, it occupies final 

position and receives normal end-focus: 

252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The prisoners have been released [by the President] 

Affected 

Agent 

Subject 

Adjunct 

Theme/ Topic _________________ Rheme ____________ 

[optional end-focused element] 

We can see that the active–passive alternative allows speakers and writers to exploit 

the two main positions in the clause, the beginning and the end. In each case, a single 

clause can be arranged so that important new information is placed in end-position, 

while already known information is placed at the beginning. What is new and important 

and what is known is of course estimated by the speaker, and is dependent on the 

context and the estimated state of knowledge at that point in the discourse. 

30.3.1 Promoting one participant, demoting another 

From the point of view of the textual organisation of what the speaker wants to say, it 

follows that any of three possibilities may condition the choice between active and 

passive: 

1 An element which is not Agent is desired as Theme/Subject/Topic. 

2 The Agent is New information, so will be placed last. 

3 The Agent is not New and is silenced. Some other element is New and is placed 

last. 


It is not simply a change of position that is involved in the re-structuring of the passive 

clause. It is also a question of topic promotion and demotion. In the active clause, 

the Agent–Subject has the discourse role of Topic. That is, it is the most important 

participant of the discourse at the point when the clause is produced. In the passive 

clause, the Agent ceases to be Subject/ Topic. Another participant (usually the Affected) 

takes on the roles of both Subject and Topic. The Recipient (see 6.2.1) can also become 

Subject in a passive clause, as in The boy was given a mountain bike for his birthday. 

The demotion of one participant and the promotion of another are two sides of the 

same coin. If we demote the Agent (or Experiencer, or Sayer), then a different participant 

(Affected, Recipient) is automatically promoted to Subject. It is clear, therefore, 

that, first, the passive is not a type of fronting or thematisation; second, it does not 

produce a marked Theme, but a different unmarked Theme; and third, the type of Theme 

involved is a participant Theme, which in this book we call Topic. Circumstantial 

Themes and textual Themes are optional additions to the core clause and play no part 

in restructuring the clause as passive. 

We now turn to the discourse motivations that involve the choice of passive. 

Basically, these are: to cut out unnecessary Given information; to manoeuvre important 

information into end position; to establish smooth connections between clauses, making 

for good information flow. These motivations work together in connected discourse. 

Choices of passive against active are not open, but are conditioned in each individual 

case by the immediate contextual environment. 


30.3.2 Choosing to be informative 

Using the passive gives us the choice of not stating who carried out the action. This is 

an important factor, because in the active clause this information can’t be omitted. What 

conditions our choice, then, between a passive without an agent and one in which we 

keep the Agent in a by-phrase at the end? The answer is: informativeness. If the Agent 

is new important information, keep it. If not, omit it. Look at this extract from Stephen 

Hawking writing about black holes, in which there is an example of each type: 

Although the concept of what we call a black hole goes back more than two hundred 

years, the name black hole was introduced only in 1967 by the American physicist 

John Wheeler. It was a stroke of genius: the name ensured that black holes entered 

the mythology of science fiction. It also stimulated scientific research by providing a 

definite name for something that previously had not had a satisfactory title. The 

importance in science of a good name should not be underestimated. 

In this passage, Hawking gives credit to the originator of the term black hole, with the 

full name of the physicist encoded as an Agent by-phrase. The second passive has no 

Agent because it is generic and implied (by anyone working in science). 

An additional motivation for the use of a passive with an Agent by-phrase occurs 

when the Agent is long. By putting it at the end we follow the principle of end-weight 

(‘shortest first, longest last’) as in the following examples, in which the Agent is 

‘weightier’ than the passive Subject: 


The front seats were filled by members of the families of the victims. 

The goal was scored by Raúl, the player with most goals to his credit this season. 

It is clear that end-focus, end-weight and informativeness are closely linked. New 

participants introduced onto the scene of discourse need to be described and defined 

in more detail than known ones. They are, consequently ‘heavy’ and are better placed 

at the end, whereas the subject in a passive clause tends to be ‘light’ (the front seats, the 

goal), pronouns being the lightest. 

Instead of an Agent, an event or a force of nature may occur in final position, as in 

the examples below, while Scotland’s railway network and the house will be considered 

important enough to become subject: 

Scotland’s railway network has been paralysed by the one-day strike. 

The house was struck by lightning. 

30.3.3 Passives without an Agent 

We have seen that uninformative Agents are silenced in discourse. More exactly, this 

may happen because the Agent is implied by the nature of the verb, but is unknown 1; 

anaphorically predictable 2; predictable by general knowledge 3; universal or general 

4; irrelevant at this point in the discourse 5; deliberately silenced in order to avoid giving 

254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

or taking blame or responsibility 6 or to maintain privacy 7; finally, recoverable as the 

author of the text. Authorial ‘I’ is preferably not mentioned in formal writing 8: 

1 My car has been stolen. 

2 When he won his gold medal he gave a huge party. Everyone was invited. [by 

him] 

3 The heart transplant was carried out successfully. [by one or more surgeons] 

4 It is hoped that war can be avoided. [Everyone has this hope] 

5 Ten thousand soldiers will be needed to operate the emergency service. 

6 The documents have been shredded and the fax hasn’t been sent. 

7 It was given to me as a present. [speaker doesn’t want to reveal the Agent] 

8 This point will be dealt with in a later chapter. 

When the Agent by-phrase is omitted in a passive clause, some other element necessarily 

receives end-focus. This may be a verb 9, an Adjunct 10, or a Complement 11. For a 

verb to be focused, it must contain the main New information and the Agent must be 

dispensable. 

9 Is this seat taken? 

10 Nothing has been heard of him for months. 

11 The letters had been sent unstamped. 

30.3.4 Making smooth transitions 

Look at the following examples. Version A is based on a real occurrence: 


A. Ann: Where did you get that wallet? 

Jo: It was given to me by my GIRL-friend. 

Given............................ New 

In this exchange that wallet is introduced at the end of the first clause and is picked up 

as subject pronoun in the second. Here we have again the simple linear Theme–Rheme 

pattern, but in this case it is the choice of the passive that enables the speaker to maintain 

topic continuity, as well as unmarked end-focus. Now look at version B: 

B. Ann: Where did you get that wallet? 

Jo: My GIRL-friend gave it to me. 

New.................................. Given 

In this version, instead of initiating a topic chain headed by that wallet, a new participant 

(my GIRL-friend) is introduced, as subject, necessarily with heavy stress (marked focus). 

This compensates for the lack of topic continuity, since in English stress patterns 

override the usual Given–New pattern, producing instead a New–Given pattern. 

It is not necessarily the passive which serves to maintain topic continuity, however. 

Compare the versions b. and c. in each of the following sets of clauses. In each case c. 

rather than b. preserves the continuity better with a., whether by means of the passive 


(1 and 2) or the active (3). Moreover, 2b violates the ‘animacy’ and ‘empathy’ 

hierarchies, which give priority to human referents. All are grammatically acceptable, 

however. 

1a. The Prime Minister stepped off the plane. 

1b. Journalists immediately surrounded her. 

1c. She was immediately surrounded by journalists. 


2b. The wind immediately buffeted her. 

2c. She was immediately buffeted by the wind. 


3b. All the journalists were immediately greeted by her. 

3c. She immediately greeted all the journalists. 

30.3.5 The get-passive 

The get-passive is used much more in speech than in writing and has an informal flavour, 

the reverse of the be-passive. Here are some examples from conversation: 

Poor fellow, he got knocked down in a road accident. 

She got bitten by a new bug of some sort in France. 

I got attacked by a fan at a football match. 

He got promoted, the lucky devil! 


The get-passive grammaticalises affective meaning, and so potentially reflects speakers’ 

involvement, whereas the be-passive is more objective. The use of the get-passive is 

therefore an option. Speakers’ interest centres on the get-passive subject and what 

happens to it, while with the be-passive interest centres on the event. Involvement of 

the subject referent is also implied by the get-passive, in that the subject is partly 

responsible for the significant result, whether this is beneficial or adverse. The be-passive, 

by contrast, is neutral. Compare: 

a. She got (herself) promoted. b. She was promoted. 

a. I got stung by a wasp. b. I was stung by a wasp. 

The action undergone by the subject of the get-passive is more often adverse than 

beneficial. In fact, all the adverse and violent things that can happen to a person or thing 

are expressible by the get-passive: get arrested, abused, fined, fired, beaten up, burgled, 

kidnapped, killed, mugged, raped, sacked, shot, vandalised and many more. The subject 

referent is either unlucky or has made an error of judgement (being at the wrong place 

at the wrong time) when bad events are described. On happier occasions, such as getting 

invited or promoted, there is often an implication that the subject referent has contrived 

to be promoted, invited and so on, or was lucky, being at the right place at the right 

time. Here is another extract from Hawking’s Black Holes and Baby Universes, with an 

example of each type of passive. He is discussing the idea that: 

256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

if one could pass through a black hole, one might re-emerge anywhere in the 

universe. Quite how to choose your destination is not clear: you might set out for a 

holiday in Virgo and end up in the Crab Nebula. 

I’m sorry to disappoint prospective galactic tourists, but this scenario doesn’t work: 

if you jump into a black hole, you will get torn apart and crushed out of existence. 

However, there is a sense in which the particles that make up your body will carry 

on into another universe. I don’t know if it would be much consolation to someone 

being made into spaghetti in a black hole to know that his particles might survive. 

30.4 THE PRESENTATIVE FUNCTION OF EXISTENTIAL 

CLAUSES 

There are several reasons for thinking that existential there has acquired a new role: 

• We saw in 19.3 the structure of the existential clause (unstressed there + a form of 

be + a NG), as in There was a fight. The semantic role of Existent is associated with 

the NG, which occupies the position after the verb and is, experientially, the notional 

subject. 

• Unstressed there, however, fulfils most of the syntactic requirements for subject, as 

seen in 5.1.1, including its use in the tag: There’s a café just round the corner, isn’t 

there? 

• Plural concord is not always maintained in spoken English, as for example: There’s 


some chocolate chip cookies out there if you want some. 

• Existential there can occur with the stressed adverb of place there in the same clause, 

as in There’s plenty more over there. 

These facts support the view that existential there (and especially there’s) has lost its 

original locative meaning and is on the way to becoming a kind of introductory particle. 

An alternative view is that its locative and deictic meaning is not entirely lost: rather, 

there points to the upcoming noun. 

Unstressed there is a presentative device in discourse. There points to the New 

information conveyed by the noun group placed at the end of the clause, where it carries 

end-weight and end-focus. In the basic types, the reverse order is not allowed, as we 

can see in the examples below. In these, a verb of very low communicative dynamism, 

be, placed in final position and preceded by an indefinite subject, violates the 

Given–New progression. The result is an ungrammatical clause in most cases. The 

corresponding existential clauses in 1–4 here are therefore basic existentials: they 

have no corresponding plain clause. 

1 *Hundreds of millions of stars are. There are hundreds of millions of stars. 

2 *Plenty of time is. There is plenty of time. 

3 *A storm was last night. There was a storm last night. 


4 *Seven of us are in the family. There are seven of us in the family. 

5 ?A man is at the door. There’s a man at the door. 

30.4.1 Derived existentials 

These are existentials that have a corresponding plain clause, based on a ‘weightier’ 

verb than be. In the following examples, the verb of the plain clause (bark, hijack) appears 

in the post-modifier position of the existential NG: 

Existential clause 

There’s a dog barking outside. 

There was another plane hijacked 

yesterday. 

Plain clause 

A dog is barking outside. 

Another plane was hijacked yesterday. 

Semantically, the location and/or the quantification of the NG referent are important 

(see 19.3) because such features may well be the most informative part of the utterance. 

When we say, for instance, there’s no milk, it is not the non-existence of milk that we are 

predicating, but rather the fact that there is no quantity of milk available at the moment 

of speaking. The spatial location is implicit. ‘Existence’, then, has to be understood in a 

very broad sense. 

30.4.2 Short existentials 

Short existentials, many containing a negative word specifying no quantity or number 

such as no, none, nobody/ no-one and nothing, are common in everyday English, as in 

the following examples: 


1 There’s no problem. 

2 There’s no point staying on then, is there? 

3 There’s nothing wrong, nothing at all. 

4 There’s nothing on television. 

5 There’s no-one around today. 

6 There’s none left. 

One of the functions of negation is to deny something previously said or implied, 

and this may be the motivation for some utterances in context (3 and 6, for instance). 

But speech acts such as reassurance (1 and 3) may be the motive for the denial. Positive 

declarative existentials may provide factual information (8) or, when they refer to the 

future, may be interpreted as predictions (7) or assurances (9): 

7 I think this is a long-term battle. There will be battles. (George W. Bush, remarks 

to the employees of the Pentagon, 17 September 2001) 

8 There have been heavy snowfalls in the north. 

9 There is bound to be another opportunity. 

258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

30.4.3 Extended existentials 

These occur as the result of expansions of the noun group (see 19.3). Common expansions 

include -ing clauses, which present an entity in action 1 or in a state 2. Certain 

postposed adjectives can express a temporary state 3, 4. Passives and comparatives 

are also common, especially with the constructions there’s nothing better/worse than ... 

in 5 and 6 respectively: 

1 There are hundreds of people clamouring for food. 

2 There is a box containing dynamite in the corner. 

3 There was plenty of food available. 

4 There are not many shops open at this hour. 

5 There were several civilians killed in a terrorist attack yesterday. 

6 There’s nothing worse than being stuck in a traffic jam when you’re late for an 

appointment. (comparative clause) 

The function of these expansions is to establish the relevance and coherence of the new 

referent at the point when it is introduced into the discourse. 

In formal English and in fiction, verbs of appearing and emerging lend themselves 

naturally to the presentation of New information (see 19.3) as in Fossil records suggest 

that there emerged a fern resistant to this disease. However, existence or appearance should 

not always be taken in a literal sense, but rather in relation to the discourse: it is 

appearance on the scene of discourse, or cognitive awareness, that counts. Because of 

this, even a verb like disappear may, in an appropriate context, function as a presentative, 

as in the first sentence of the novel by H. P. Lovecraft, The Strange Case of Charles Dexter 

Ward: 


From an asylum for the insane near Providence, Rhode Island, there recently 

disappeared an exceedingly singular person. 

From this it becomes clear that the notions ‘bringing something into cognitive 

awareness’ or ‘onto the scene of discourse’ are the key to the discourse function of therestructures. 

In this sense we can also apply the traditional term ‘existential’: once 

introduced, the new referent is ‘present’ in the discourse, and can be taken up and 

developed as a topic. 

30.4.4 There-structures as states of affairs 

A there-structure is commonly used in English to express events, happenings and states 

of affairs in a schematic way, without the intervention of participants. Frequently, the 

noun is a nominalisation of a verbal process (see 21.2): 

1 There was a fight. 

2 There was an abrupt knock at the door. 


3 There has been unprecedented industrial expansion. 

4 There was a sudden feeling of panic. 

5 There is still bribery, there is still corruption. No doubt there always will be. 

There-constructions with nominalisations have the effect of silencing the Agent of the 

action. We don’t know who knocked at the door, who panicked, who bribes whom, who 

fought whom. The occurrence is the only important part of the message. 

While the NG is typically indefinite, even definite NGs – which represent referents 

that are already accessible – can be introduced by a there-construction. This typically 

occurs when listing names of people or things 1, or when moving on to a new related 

topic 2: 

1 Who’s coming to the barbecue? Well, there’s Silvia and Pete, and Megan ... 

2 (Describing a nation and its peoples) And then there are the poor. 

This is how a woman described her new portable sauna bath, introducing each part by 

means of a there-construction: 

There’s an oval mat you put down on the floor, 1 then there’s the box which holds the 

heating element, 2 with a wooden seat on it – I put a towel on top, otherwise it gets 

too hot – then there are the sides which are soft and which you zip up. 3 It all packs away 

neatly afterwards. 

1 

indefinite NG; 2 definite NG; 3 definite NG 


30.5 EXTRAPOSITION OF CLAUSES 

Certain types of long subject clauses are usually avoided in English because they 

violate the end-weight principle, and sound awkward (see p. 47). Finite that-clauses, 

wh-nominal clauses and to-infinitive clauses can all be shifted to the end of the 

sentence and replaced by ‘anticipatory it’ in subject position. The resulting structure is 

called extraposition. 

Clause as Subject 

That the banks are closed on 

Saturday is a nuisance. 

What they are proposing to do is 

horrifying. 

To interfere would be unwise. 

Extraposed clause 

It’s a nuisance that the banks are closed on 

Saturday. 

It’s horrifying what they are proposing 

to do. 

It would be unwise to interfere. 

Extraposed clauses are much preferred in English to the non-extraposed, as they sound 

much less awkward. The reason for this is that they satisfy the principles of end-weight 

and end-focus, thus ‘packaging’ the information in a way that is easier to process. For 

extraposed direct object clauses see 6.1.2d. 

260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Extraposition is often used to express an opinion or to argue one’s case. An evaluative 

word, such as a nuisance, horrifying, unwise comes in the middle, carrying a certain amount 

of stress. The main focus falls at the end of the sentence, reversing the distribution of 

information in the non-extraposed clause. 

Normal -ing clauses as subject are not perceived to be awkward, and there is less 

motivation to extrapose them. When they are extraposed, they are usually short and do 

not necessarily carry the main focus. For this reason they give the impression of being 

additions to the main clause, rather than extraposed subjects: 

Having you with us has been 

a PLEASURE. 

Seeing all the family again was NICE. 

It’s been a PLEASURE, having you 

with us. 

It was NICE seeing all the family again. 

Unlike some languages, English does not normally allow extraposed NGs: *It was 

amazing his insolence is not possible – though, as a right dislocation (see 28.11) with 

appropriate intonation, it is possible to have It was amazing, his insolence, where a pause 

or a comma signals the dislocated NG. A few extraposed NGs do occur, however, and 

these contain expressions of quantity or extent, as follows: 

It’s unbelievable the lengths some people are prepared to go to. 

It surprises me the amount of work he can get through. 

Obligatory extraposition after seem, appear, happen, look as if – after the expressions 

it’s high time, it’s a pity, it’s no use, and the passive of say, hope and intend – is illustrated 

in 5.1.2. 

Certain constructions do not admit extraposition. One of these is the wh-cleft with a 


clause as subject, as in What we should do next is the main problem. (*It is the main problem 

what we should do next.) Another case is multiple embedding, as in That he failed his driving 

test the seventh time demonstrates that he lacks confidence. Here the first that-clause cannot 

be extraposed over the second (*It demonstrates that he lacks confidence that he failed his 

driving test for the seventh time). 

30.5.1 Raised elements as new Themes 

A person or thing mentioned in the extraposed clause, as direct object or even as part 

of the adjunct, can sometimes be brought forward (‘raised’) to stand as Theme. The 

result is a new subject Theme which is a person or thing (see also 37.4): 

To cook rice is easy – It is easy to cook rice – Rice is easy to cook. 

To live with Bill is difficult – It is difficult to live with Bill – Bill is difficult to live with. 

To teach her is a pleasure – It is a pleasure to teach her – She is a pleasure to teach. 

Only certain adjectives and nouns permit the final raising stage. They express an 

evaluative attitude to the situation, most commonly regarding the ease or difficulty 

involved. Interestingly, the new Subject/Theme appears to be made responsible for the 

situation. 


30.6 POSTPONEMENT 

Units can be made discontinuous when we want to avoid the awkwardness of having 

long, heavy units to the left of the main verb, especially when this is ‘light’. Postmodifiers 

in NGs 1, appositive reflexive pronouns 2 and clauses of comparison 3 can all occur: 

1 [?The time when no-one will write by hand any more will come] 

The time will come when no-one will write by hand any more. 

2 [You yourself did it] 

You did it yourself. 

3 [?More people than used to twenty years ago are buying a second car] 

More people are buying a second car than used to twenty years ago. 

30.6.1 Postponement with ditransitive verbs 

We saw in 10.2 that certain ditransitive verbs – such as give, deny, grant, lend, owe, show 

among others – allow two alternative structures: 

We’ve given the children bicycles. (SPOiOd) 

We’ve given bicycles to the children. (SPOdOb) 

This alternative allows us to place end-focus either on the Recipient (the children) or on 

the other participant, without using the passive. This way of adjusting the clause, to get 

the end-focus where we want it, is especially useful when one of the participants is Given 

information, often realised by a pronoun; this will normally be placed in medial position: 


We’ve given them bicycles. 

We’ve given them to the children. 

The oblique object (to the children) must be distinguished from a Goal Complement, 

which has no alternative position. Compare: 

I’ve sent the telegram to the club’s treasurer. (oblique object) 

I’ve sent the club’s treasurer the telegram. 

I’ve sent the telegram to his home. (Loc/Goal Complement) 

*I’ve sent his home the telegram. 

If we wish to combine destination and Recipient in the same clause, we replace the 

preposition to by at: 

I’ve sent the telegram to the club’s treasurer at his home. 

Two-complement verbs which do not admit postponement of a Recipient are explained 

in 10.3. 

262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR


On Theme and Rheme, Halliday (1994); on information structure, Chafe (1994), Fries 

(1981), Downing (1991), Halliday (1994), Thompson (1996), Jiménez Juliá (2000); on 

thematic progression, Danes˘ (1974); on functional sentence perspective, Danes∧ (1974), 

Firbas (1992); on topicality and coherence, Downing (2002), Downing (2004), Givón 

(2001); Goutsos (1996); on dislocations and existentials, Givón (1993), Biber et al. (1999), 

Huddleston and Pullum (2002); on Absolute Theme, Matthiessen (1995); for an overall 

view of relevant theories, Gómez-González (2000); on discourse markers, Schiffrin 

(1987), Jucker and Ziv (1998); on negation in discourse, Hidalgo-Downing (2000). On 

clefting, Collins (1991). On detachments and left/right dislocations, Lambrecht (1994), 

Downing (1997); on postponement with ditransitive verbs, Collins (1995). On cohesion, 

Halliday and Hasan (1976). On the get-passive, Downing (1996). 


Thematic and information structures of the clause 

Module 28 

1 †Underline the Theme in each of the following examples and say whether it is marked or 

unmarked. If marked, say which clause constituent has been thematised (fronted) in each 

case: 


(1) Paul telephoned an antique dealer in Brussels. 

(2) Abruptly they were cut off. 

(3) Is he a friend of yours? 

(4) Celebrating her victory today is downhill ski champion Marina Kiehl of Germany. 

(5) Freezing cold it was. 

(6) Meet me at eight at the Café de Paris. 

(7) In the American soft-drinks industry, plastic bottles are extensively used. 

(8) For months, all had been quiet in the Holy Wars. 

(9) Crazy I call it. 

(10) Never again will I fly with that airline. 

2 †Thematise one constituent of the second clause so that it links up with the first clause: 

(1) He asked me for paper, glue, sticky tape and clips. I bought him all of these. 

(2) I swim thirty lengths a day for fun. You call it fun! 

(3) He told us the history of the place. We already knew most of it. 

(4) I can’t remember what post Biggins occupies in the Government. He is Government 

spokesman. 

(5) I thought I would never get there but I did get there. 


3 †The following extract is the beginning of a story by James Joyce. 

Mrs Mooney was a butcher’s daughter. She was a woman who was quite able to 

keep things to herself: a determined woman. She had married her father’s foreman, 

and opened a butcher’s shop near Spring Gardens. But as soon as his father-in-law 

was dead Mr Mooney began to go to the devil. He drank, plundered the till, ran 

headlong into debt. It was no use making him take the pledge: he was sure to break 

out again a few days after. By fighting his wife in the presence of customers and by 

buying bad meat he ruined his business. One night he went for his wife with the 

cleaver, and she had to sleep in a neighbour’s house. 

After that, they lived apart. 

(1) First, identify the topic entities. Next, see how each is introduced. That is, which 

of the syntactic devices listed in 28.7 as topic introducers is used by the author to 

introduce Mrs Mooney and then her husband? Is Mr Mooney identified at his first 

mention? By what means are these topics maintained? 

(2) Check in which cases Topic coincides with (a) Subject; (b) Theme. 

(4) What does ‘that’ refer to in the last line? 

4 Each of the clauses below contains an experiential element as Theme. Add as many nonexperiential 

Themes as you can from the types given in 28.12 (continuatives, adjuncts of 

various types, vocatives and appellatives), to make up suitable multiple Themes e.g: 


Those flowers are ready to be thrown away. 

But honestly, Mary, judging by the look of them, those flowers are ready to be 

thrown away. 

(1) Violence in schools is an issue requiring urgent attention. 

(2) Bad manners among motorists mean danger to others. 

(3) What would you like for your birthday? 

Module 29 

1 In the extract from a conversation below, B tells how Susie looks for the money left by the 

tooth fairy under her pillow in exchange for her tooth, but her parents have forgotten to 

leave the money. Practise reading this text aloud, then tape your reading and compare it 

with that of a native speaker. 

The prosodic features indicated are as follows: 

// tone unit boundary 

| first prominent syllable of the tone unit (‘onset’) 

↑ the next syllable is stressed and also steps up in pitch 

- 

- - 

pauses, from brief to long 

- - - 

Capitals are used to indicate the nucleus. 

264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

B | ANYway // - | Susie SAID // - that . there were | no such things as FAIRies // ELVES 

// this that and the ↑ Other // – WELL // . The | night she ↑ PUT // her tooth under the 

PIL | ow // we for | got to put the ↑ MOney there // and take it a ↑ WAY // we for | got 

all aBOUT it // (A laughs) so she got | UP in the MORning // – my | TOOTH’S all gone 

// and there’s | no Money // | Dave said well / there you ↑ ARE you SEE // | YOU said 

| you didn’t be | LIEVE in FAIRies // so | how can you ex’pect the ↑ fairies to come and 

↑ SEE you if // - - | OH // but I | DO believe in FAIRies // (D laughs) you | KNOW // || 

really DO // (A laughs) so | Dave said well – ↑ try Again toNIGHT // - - 

(adapted from D. Crystal and D. Davy, 

Advanced Conversational English) 

2 †Read the following exchange aloud, trying to identify the intonation nucleus of each tone 

unit: 

A. What did she say? 

B. I don’t know. I didn’t hear her. 

A. Didn’t you hear anything? 

B. No, I’ve told you, I was in the other room. 

A. I don’t think you care about Leslie. 

B. I do care. 

A. Why don’t you talk to her then? 

B. I’m always talking to her. 

(1) Write in capitals the syllable which contains the nucleus of each tone unit. 

(2) Which of the units have unmarked focus and which have marked focus? Justify your 

identification of each in terms of Given and New information, including emphasis 

and contrastive polarity. 


3 Read aloud each clause of the advertisement on p. 242 (section 29.3) and discuss 

whether, as an utterance, each element in focus expresses an implied contrast, or is simply 

emphatic. 

4 †The following extract is from the play by Giles Cooper, Everything in the Garden. In pairs, 

reproduce it from memory and then act it out, marking the intonation nuclei clearly. Then, 

look at the discussion question below. 

Jenny: 

Bernard: 

Jenny: 

Bernard: 

Jenny: 

Bernard: 

Jenny: 

Bernard: 

Do you want an egg? 

Are you having one? 

Do you want one? 

If you’re having one, I will, otherwise no. 

You are a lazy devil! 

No. It’s just that I don’t want an egg enough to start everything going towards 

cooking it, but if you were going to do one for yourself, well, I’d want it enough 

for that. 

I don’t think I’ll have one. 

I’ll do you one if you like. 


Jenny: 

Bernard: 

You do want one? 

No, I don’t. I’ll just do you one. You ought to eat. 

What do you consider to be the principal communicative purposes of the marked focuses 

in this text? 

5 †Complete each of the sentences below using elliptical or substitution forms. Some have 

more than one possible form. 

(1) If YOU can’t do it, I very much doubt whether I . . . 

(2) I told you I’d given it back and I . . . 

(3) They arranged to come and put in a new water-heater, but they ...yet 

(4) Peter asked the girls if they would like to go for a sail and they said Yes, they . . . 

(5) Ed has the ambition to do some script-writing, but he really doesn’t know . . . 

(6) Sue’s children usually want to spend a long time on the swings, but today 

they . . . 

(7) He told me to turn down the next side-street and I . . . 

(8) And it was a one-way street? – Yes, I’m afraid . . . 

6 The following exchange, from an interview, contains an ellipted reply: 

(a) A. You don’t think genetically modified crops is the way to go? 

B. Definitely not. 

The reply in the next exchange, also from an interview, contains no ellipsis at all: 


(b) A. Did you take a bribe? 

B. I did not take a bribe, I would never take a bribe and it is absolutely out of the 

question that there was any bribe. 

(c ) Both ellipsis and substitution are economical. Can you suggest any conditions in 

which it might be better not to ellipt? And others in which ellipsis might be a 

discourse necessity? 

(d) 

Comment on the use of ellipsis and substitution in ads, both written and spoken (for 

instance, on television and radio), as in Ashamed of your mobile? 

Module 30 

1 †Turn to the text The ‘lost’ Van Gogh on p. 248. Identify the thematic progression type 

used to link each clause to the next in the paragraph. 

2 †Change the information structure of each of the following clauses into one it-cleft and, 

when possible, two wh-cleft structures: 

(1) Experts are working on the recycling of plastic. 

(2) Smoking can cause fatal diseases. 

266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(3) Last thing at night I unwind by reading and listening to the radio. 

(4) The computer industry is fighting against viruses. 

(5) Shortly after I got home I realised I had lost my purse. 

3 †The following extract is the opening paragraph of a short story, ‘Lord Mountdrago’ by 

Somerset Maugham, in The World Over: The Collected Stories, vol. 2: 

Dr. Audlin was a psycho-analyst. 1 He had adopted the profession by accident and 

practised it with misgiving. 2 When the war broke out he had not been long qualified 

and was getting experience at various hospitals; 3 he offered his services to the 

authorities and after a time was sent out to France. 4 It was then he discovered his 

singular gift. 5 

(1) Identify the single cleft sentence in the paragraph and say which element is focused. 

(2) What is the discourse function of this type of cleft? 

4 †Decide whether option (b) or option (c) provides better topic continuity with (a). With 

which option could (a) be coordinated using and or but and a zero anaphor? 

(1) (a) They stepped out of the coach. 

(b) The owner of the hotel greeted them. 

(c) They were greeted by the owner of the hotel. 


(2) (a) Edith chose a piece of chocolate cake. 

(b) She took it to her table together with an iced drink. 

(c) It was taken to her table together with an iced drink. 

(3) (a) James had planned to take the plane to Vancouver. 

(b) An air-traffic controllers’ strike delayed it. 

(c) It was delayed by an air-traffic controllers’ strike. 

(4) (a) She stood on the solitary beach. 

(b) She let the wind ruffle her hair. 

(c) The wind was allowed to ruffle her hair. 

5 †(a)For each of the sentences below, write the corresponding passive form, if passivisation 

is possible. 

(1) They founded the first kindergarten in the United States in 1856 in Watertown, 

Wisconsin. 

......................................................... 

(2) That legacy has traditionally benefited Milwaukee residents. 

......................................................... 


(3) People have taken four-year-old kindergarten as much for granted as summer 

breezes off Lake Michigan. 

......................................................... 

(4) Now there is a severe budget crunch. Milwaukee Public School officials have 

proposed the unthinkable: eliminating four-year-old kindergarten. 

......................................................... 

(5) ‘Are we to raise property taxes or are we to keep four-year-old kindergarten? These 

are the choices we may have to make,’ said a school board member. 

......................................................... 

(6) Gov. O’Keefe’s new budget has produced the dilemma. 

......................................................... 

(7) The budget reduces the proportion of the state’s share of education costs and 

imposes cost controls on local district spending. 

......................................................... 

(b) You now have a number of active–passive alternatives. Note that (2) does not passivise, 

but that the verb ‘benefit’ allows different postponed alternatives. 

Now make the sentences into a text, choosing the active or passive alternative in each 

case, according to which you find more cohesive. Add conjunctions and conjunctive 

expressions wherever these help to clarify the logical connections. 

6 Read the extract below from Raymond Chandler’s The Long Goodbye, noting the use of 


presentative ‘there’: 

There are blondes and blondes and it is almost a joke nowadays. All blondes have 

their points, except perhaps the metallic ones who are as blonde as a Zulu under 

the bleach and as to disposition as soft as a sidewalk. There is the small cute blonde 

who cheeps and twitters, and the big statuesque blonde who straight-arms you with 

an ice-blue glare. There is the blonde who gives you the up-from-under look and 

smells lovely and shimmers and hangs on your arm and is always very, very tired 

when you take her home. She makes that helpless gesture and has that god-damned 

headache and you would like to slug her except that you are glad you found out 

about the headache before you invested too much time and money and hope in her. 

Because the headache will always be there, a weapon that never wears out and is 

as deadly as the bravo’s rapier or Lucrezia’s poison vial. There is the soft and willing 

and alcoholic blonde who doesn’t care what she wears as long as it’s mink or where 

she goes as long as it is the Starlight Roof and there is plenty of dry champagne. 

There is the small perky blonde who is a little pale and wants to pay her own way 

and is full of sunshine and common sense and knows judo from the ground up and 

can toss a truck driver over her shoulder without missing more than one sentence 

268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

out of the editorial in the ‘Saturday Review’. There is the pale, pale blonde with 

anaemia of some non-fatal but incurable type. She is very languid and very shadowy 

and she speaks softly out of nowhere and you can’t lay a finger on her because in 

the first place you don’t want to and in the second place she is reading ‘The Waste 

Land’ or Dante in the original, or Kafka or Kierkegaard or studying Provençal. She 

adores music and when the New York Philharmonic is playing she can tell you which 

one of the six bass viols came in a quarter of a beat too late. I hear Toscanini can 

also. That makes two of them. And lastly there is the gorgeous show piece who will 

outlast three kingpin racketeers and then marry a couple of millionaires at a million 

a head and end up with a pale rose villa at Cap d’Antibes, an Alfa Romeo town car 

complete with pilot and co-pilot, and a stable of shop-worn aristocrats, all of whom 

she will treat with the affectionate absentmindedness of an elderly duke saying 

goodnight to his butler. The dream across the way was none of these, not even of 

that kind of world. She was unclassifiable. 

From the use of the ‘there’ construction in this text, can you argue for the view that the 

existential structure expresses existence? Or is it a presentative or a cognitive device? 



EXPANDING THE MESSAGE CHAPTER 7 

Clause combinations 

Module 31: Clause combining 272 

31.1 The complex sentence 272 

31.2 The sentence as an orthographic and rhetorical unit 274 

31.2.1 Clausal and non-clausal material 274 

31.3 Degrees of dependency between clauses 275 

Module 32: Types of relationship between clauses 277 

32.1 Syntactic relationships and semantic relationships 277 

32.2 Syntactic relationships of equivalence: coordination and apposition 278 

32.3 Syntactic relationships of non-equivalence: dependency and subordination 279 

32.4 The semantics of clause combining: types of expansion 279 


Module 33: Elaborating the message 281 

33.1 Apposition and elaboration in finite clauses 281 

33.1.1 Clarifying connectives: restating, exemplifying and upgrading 282 

33.2 Sentence relative clauses 283 

33.3 Non-finite supplementive clauses: specifying and commenting 284 

Module 34: Extending the message 285 

34.1 The semantics of coordination 285 

34.1.1 Addition 285 

34.1.2 Variation 286 

34.1.3 Alternation 286 

34.1.4 Explanation 286 

34.2 Contrastive dependency: while, whereas, but for the fact that 287 

34.3 Besides, instead of, without + non-finites 288 

34.4 Implicit meanings of -ing supplementives 288

Module 35: Enhancing the message 290 

35.1 Coordination or apposition + circumstance 290 

35.1.1 Inferred meanings of ‘and’ 291 

35.1.2 Similar meanings expressed by coordinators and subordinators 292 

35.2 Finite dependent clauses of time, contingency and manner 292 

35.2.1 Finite dependent clauses and subordinators 292 

35.3 Pragmatic conjunction 294 

35.4 Non-finite clauses expressing circumstantial meanings 296 

35.4.1 Explicit markers of circumstantial meanings 296 

35.4.2 Verb forms as circumstantial markers 297 

35.5 Discourse connectivity and cohesion: Initial vs final circumstantial clauses 298 

Module 36: Reporting speech and thought 299 

36.1 Direct and indirect reporting 299 

36.2 Direct reporting of speech and thought 300 

36.3 Backshift in indirect speech and thought reporting 303 

36.4 Reported offers, suggestions and commands 305 

36.5 Clause type in the reported clause 306 

36.6 Free direct speech and free indirect speech 307 

36.7 Free indirect thought 308 


Exercises 309 


CLAUSE COMBINING MODULE 31 

SUMMARY 

1 The term ‘sentence’ is widely used to refer to quite different types of unit. 

Grammatically, it is the highest unit and consists of one independent clause, or 

two or more related clauses. Orthographically and rhetorically, it is that unit 

which starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or 

exclamation mark. 

2 ‘Complex sentence’ is the term we shall use to refer to a unit consisting minimally 

of two clauses of equal status, or two clauses of unequal status. Coordinated 

clauses and those in an appositional relationship have equal status. Dependent 

clauses have an unequal status with respect to a main clause. Clauses 

embedded as Adjuncts are constituents of the superordinate clause in which 

they are embedded. 


3 In everyday uses of English, coordination and dependency typically interrelate 

in various patterns that contribute to produce flexible and dynamic discourse. 

4 Clause combinations reflect the cognitive organisation of our experience into 

what is presented as more salient and foregrounded, and what is less salient 

and backgrounded. 

31.1 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 

The highest grammatical unit is traditionally called the sentence. Three possible types 

of sentence are usually distinguished: 

• The simple sentence consists basically of one independent clause, as in Sam bought 

the tickets. The independent clause is the unit we consider primary, in that it 

comprises minimal grammatical completeness and unity. 

• The compound sentence consists basically of two independent clauses, linked in a 

relationship of coordination, as in Sam bought the tickets and Sue parked the car. 

272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• The complex sentence consists basically of one independent clause and one 

dependent clause, linked in a relationship of dependency, as in Sam bought the tickets, 

while Sue parked the car. 

In connected discourse, however, the combinations may be more complex and variable 

than this simple outline suggests. Coordination and subordination of clauses do not 

necessarily occur unrelatedly, each in combination with a main clause, as illustrated in 

the compound and complex sentence above. More often they interrelate. Numerous 

combinations are possible. Here are two examples. In 1, a combination of clauses occurs 

in a report about the dangers of walking on hills: 

1 However, hillwalking is largely safe(1) but there are risks(2) and we have to 

educate people about these risks(3) if we are going to improve safety(4). 

[BNC CHK 1798] 

After the connective adjunct however, two coordinated clauses (1 and 2) are followed 

by a unit consisting of a third coordinated clause (3) in which a subordinate conditional 

clause is embedded (4) as adjunct. This clause ‘if we are going to improve safety’ could 

alternatively be placed after ‘and’ but not at the beginning of the whole complex 

sentence. In these examples the + sign indicates coordination, the sign subordination. 

Round brackets enclose independent clauses, square brackets enclose subordinate 

clauses, 

(hillwalking is largely safe) + (but there are risks) + (and we have to educate people 


about these risks) [if we are going to improve safety] 

Adjunct 

Example 2 comes from a news item and illustrates a different pattern: one independent 

clause with two subordinate clauses successively embedded as adjuncts: 

2 A boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters yesterday(1) when fire broke 

out(2) while they were at home alone(3). [BNC AHX 185] 

The three clauses are organised in a hierarchical relationship. An independent clause 

(1) encodes the main content – a boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters 

yesterday. Two subordinate clauses (2 and 3) encode the circumstances of time, when 

fire broke out, while they were alone in their home. The first of these circumstantial 

clauses functions as A in the independent clause, the second as A in the previous 

subordinate clause. This is a case of double, or ‘layered’ embedding: 

(A boy saved the lives of his brother and two sisters yesterday) 

[when fire broke out 

Adjunct 

[while they were at home alone.]] 

Adjunct 

EXPANDING: CLAUSE COMBINATIONS 273

Adopting a broader application of the term, we will say that a complex sentence can 

consist of any number of clauses of different types and in different combinations. 

31.2 THE SENTENCE AS AN ORTHOGRAPHIC AND 

RHETORICAL UNIT 

The structural criteria outlined in the preceding section are not the only criteria which 

have intervened in the traditional and widely accepted concept (or concepts) of 

‘sentence’. For most native speakers of English, a sentence is something that starts with 

a capital letter and ends with a full stop (AmE ‘period’), a question mark or an exclamation 

mark. It is, then, a category associated primarily with the written language and can 

be described as an orthographical and rhetorical unit. 

31.2.1 Clausal and non-clausal material 

We have already seen (Chapter 5) how units of lower rank than an independent clause, 

such as nominal and adjectival groups, as well as incomplete clauses, appear in plays, 

stories and advertisements between a capital letter and a full stop, functioning independently 

as orthographic and rhetorical sentences. Such is the case with the italicised 

expressions in the following examples: 

The large size is unavailable. Which is a pity. 

(freestanding subordinate clause) 

[A. We’ve got the deal.] 

B. Fantastic! 


(adjective-headed exclamation) 

You deaf or what? 

(verbless clause) 

A. Have you seen the satellites, B. Oh those, no, no. 

erm, you know, our satellite places? (non-clausal) [BNC KBB 2402–2405] 

The following advertisement from Newsweek uses full stops and a dash to reflect 

tone units, as described in Chapter 6. Here, units 2, 3 and 4 could be combined to form 

one sentence, just as when analysing spontaneous speech, we can attempt to make 

a distinction between clausal units and non-clausal material. As a structural unit the 

clause is easier to identify, because of its own internal structure, as described in chapters 

2 and 3. 

With Fax the possibilities are endless. 1 

It can send a document anywhere in the States within minutes. 2 

Including drawings, diagrams – even musical notes. 3 

Exactly as it’s written. 4 

Fax. 5 Worth making a song and dance about. 6 

1 

independent clause; 2 independent clause; 3 PP or non-finite -ing clause; 4 dependent 

clause of manner; 5 NG; 6 verbless clause 

274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In this advert, only 1 and 2 are structurally independent clauses. Punctuation serves to 

reinforce the presentation of each rhetorical unit as if it were independent, as would be 

done equally clearly if the text were read aloud. 

To summarise, if we take the complex sentence as the highest structural unit, we can 

say that, structurally, the sentence is composed of clauses, but that rhetorically and 

orthographically it need not be. Both in conversation and in texts that simulate the 

spoken mode, we can find orthographic units that are clausal and others that are nonclausal. 

The difference is one of degree, however, rather than absolute. In context, 

ellipted material can often be recovered, as we saw in section 29.5. With other units, 

such as fax 5 in the advertisement, it is not possible to recover any material with certainty. 

Consequently this unit cannot in this context be considered clausal. 

31.3 DEGREES OF DEPENDENCY BETWEEN CLAUSES 

We adopt the view that dependency is not an absolute property, but rather a question 

of degree. It has been suggested that the degree of dependency between two clauses 

reflects the degree of integration, as perceived or imagined by the speaker or writer, 

between events. That is, the stronger the semantic or pragmatic connectivity perceived 

between two events, the stronger will be the syntactic connectivity between the clauses 

that encode the events. 

The tightest integration is that of embedding (see 3.7.3), by which one clause 

functions as the constituent of another clause. In previous chapters we saw that in 

clause structure embedding occurs at Subject 1, Object 2, Complement 3 (Cs), 4 (Co), 

5 (obligatory Locative Complement), and A (Adjunct) 6 and 7. See also 5.1.2F (p. 46). 

For embedding of units in nominal group structures, see Module 49. 


1 Why he resigned was never revealed. (clause embedded at S) 

2 She explained that the machine was out of order. (clause embedded at Od) 

3 The question is whether we can finish in time. (clause embedded at Cs) 

4 He made the club what it is today. (clause embedded at Co) 

5 Put the flowers where we can see them. (clause embedded at C loc 

) 

Among the various types of Adjunct described in section 8.2, circumstantial Adjuncts 

of time, contingency and manner are those which are most similar to the central clause 

constituents. They are dependent on the main clause and subordinate to it. Unlike 

clauses functioning at Object and Complement, they are optional, they are not controlled 

by the verb and they occur in both initial and final positions. 

6 Although Ed is only seven, he plays the piano beautifully. (subordinate clause as A) 

7 Annie has been saving up to buy her mother a birthday present. (subordinate clause 

as A) 

The functionally based reason for analysing such clauses as Adjuncts is the functional 

parallelism with adjuncts realised as adverbial or prepositional phrases. Compare: 


The match was cancelled because of the rain. 

The match was cancelled because it started to rain. 

Like Subject and Object, they can usually be made the focus of a cleft: 

It was because of the rain that the match was cancelled. 

It was because it started to rain that the match was cancelled. 

Circumstantial Adjuncts often appear to be more integrated into the main clause when 

they occur finally, as in 7, than when they are initial, where they fulfil a framing function, 

as in 6. These differences are explained and illustrated in section 35.5. 

More peripheral are the -en and -ing supplementive clauses (see 8.2.2) illustrated in 

8 and 9, together with the so-called ‘sentence relative’ clause 10, also a supplementive. 

Verbless clauses such as ‘if necessary’ are likewise peripheral. All are set off from the 

main clause by a comma and have their own intonation contour. Their function is to 

provide background information when they are placed initially, and supplementary 

details when final: 

8 Built of cypress, brick and glass, the house exhibits many of Wright’s significant 

contributions to architecture. (-en participal clause) 

9 He sat and looked at her, not knowing what to say. (-ing participial clause) 

[BNC HOF 2512] 

10 The door may be locked, in which case go round to the back. (sentence relative) 


Finally, at the opposite end of the scale of dependency, we have coordinated and 

appositional clauses in which one clause is not subordinated to another, but has a relationship 

of equivalence and interdependency based on similarity of function and on 

relevance of content. 

We now discuss the structural relations between combinations of clauses and also 

the semantic relations which unite them. The latter are essential if we are to say anything 

of interest about the grammatical structure of any combination of clauses, since 

a mere enumeration of main and dependent elements reveals at best only the degree 

of complexity at sentence level, but not the semantic and pragmatic relations between 

the component clauses. 

Relationships between clauses, both semantic and syntactic, are most clear and 

explicit when a subordinator or coordinator are present. Where these are absent, and 

especially if the dependent clause is non-finite, the relationship is less explicit. The 

functional motivation for less explicit meanings is that, at the point at which they occur 

in discourse, greater explicitness is not necessary, and economy of expression is 

preferred: 

He has a summer job with a travel agency, guiding parties of tourists. 

It’s my new timetable – to help me finish my thesis. 

They advised me to emigrate – which is the last thing I’d do. 

276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP MODULE 32 

BETWEEN CLAUSES 

SUMMARY 

1 The clauses which comprise a complex sentence are related in two different 

ways: syntactically and semantically. 

2 Syntactic relationships are basically of equivalence, holding between clauses 

of equal status, or of non-equivalence, holding between clauses of unequal 

status. 

3 The semantic relations are grouped under the notion of expansion, by which 

one clause expands the meaning of another in some way. 


32.1 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS AND SEMANTIC 

RELATIONSHIPS 

There are two kinds of relationship between clauses that together form a sentence: 

syntactic and semantic. 

The syntactic relationship is one of interdependency. Clauses are related to 

each other basically in one of two ways: either the relationship is one of equivalence, 

both or all clauses having the same syntactic status, or the relationship is one of nonequivalence, 

the clauses having a different status, one being dependent on another. 

Coordination and apposition display relationships of equivalence, while dependency 

and subordination are based on non-equivalence. 

The semantic relations are very varied, as they represent the way the speaker 

or writer conceptualises the connection made between one clause and another, at one 

point in the discourse. Such connections do not simply link clauses within a sentence, 

however, but also clauses within a paragraph and paragraphs within discourse. These 

semantic relations can be grouped together under the heading of expansion, by which 

one clause expands another by clarifying or exemplifying (elaboration); by adding or 

contrasting some feature (extension), or by providing circumstantial information such 

as time, cause and condition (enhancement). 


Both types of relationship, the syntactic and the semantic, are present in all the clausal 

relationships described in this chapter. 

32.2 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF EQUIVALENCE: 

COORDINATION AND APPOSITION 

Coordination is the syntactic relationship between units of equal status and often of 

similar form. For this reason, a repeated part may be ellipted, as in 3. Semantically, the 

contents of the two clauses have to be seen as relevant to each other in some way. 

1 I don’t like it and I don’t want it. 

2 You can keep it or you can give it away. 

3 It’s a fine piece of furniture, but (it is) too large for this room. 

The linking relationship is made explicit by the coordinating conjunctions (‘coordinators’ 

for short) and, or and but. In listing a series of elements, the explicit links 

may be omitted, although the coordinator is typically retained between the last two 

items. The coordinator can also be replaced by a comma in short conjoined clauses as 

in This one’s yours, that one’s mine. 

It is not only independent clauses that can be coordinated. Dependent clauses may 

be coordinated as long as they have the same function: 

It’s much nicer here when the rain stops and (when) the sun comes out. (finite 

dependent circumstantial clauses as A) 


She sat there, watching television and eating chocolates. (non-finite -ing dependent 

supplementive clauses as A) 

When no explicit formal link is present, but the relationship is one of equivalence, 

we have apposition, as long as a relation of relevance can be inferred. This involves a 

kind of ‘bridging assumption’. For instance, example 1 below relies on the knowledge 

that a hallmark guarantees authenticity. The term ‘apposition’ is extended here from its 

usual application to nominal groups in order to account for this type of relationship 

between clauses, which is close to coordination, but without an explicit link, as seen by 

comparing 2 and 3: 

1 It must be genuine; it has the hallmark. (appositive clauses) 

2 Tom is an astrophysicist and works at the CERN in Geneva 

(coordinated clauses) 

3 Tom is an astrophysicist; he works at the CERN in Geneva. 

(appositive clauses) 

Semantically, as such clauses have equal status, the information presented in one clause 

is as important as that presented in the other or others. This does not mean that such 

combinations are necessarily reversible. 

278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Syntactic and pragmatic factors frequently intervene to make reversibility impossible. 

Three such factors are: 

• if the second clause contains a term which refers anaphorically to an antecedent in 

the first clause, as does them in 1 below; 

• if the second clause contains an item which makes it cohesive with the first, as does 

as a result in example 2; 

• if the order of the clauses is of pragmatic significance, as shown by 3 and 4, which 

suggest different pragmatic interpretations: 

1 I have bought some beautiful tapestries and I think you will like them. 

2 There was no moon that night; as a result, they took the wrong turning. 

3 She got married and moved to York. (She first married and then moved to York) 

4 She moved to York and got married. (Her move to York resulted in her marrying) 

See also section 28.13 for clauses as Themes. 

32.3 SYNTACTIC RELATIONSHIPS OF NON-EQUIVALENCE: 

DEPENDENCY AND SUBORDINATION 

When units of unequal status are related, the relationship is one of dependency. One 

clause is dependent on another or on a cluster of clauses, as seen in section 31.1. The 

relationship between the clauses is therefore not symmetrical, as with coordination and 

apposition, but hierarchical. Syntactically and semantically, the dependency relationship 

is most clearly signalled by subordinating conjunctions (‘subordinators’) such as because, 


although, if, as. However, when no subordinator is present, as often happens with nonfinite 

clauses, as in Clutching her umbrella, she hurried to a bus shelter, the non-finite 

form itself indicates dependency. We here use the terms ‘dependent’ and ‘dependency’ 

to include subordination. 

32.4 THE SEMANTICS OF CLAUSE COMBINING: TYPES 

OF EXPANSION 

Traditional grammar has no terms for the overall semantic relationships holding 

between clauses, although (as we shall see) the syntactic relations are traditionally 

established. Following the classification proposed by M. A. K. Halliday, we shall say 

that in coordinated and appositive clauses the second clause expands the first clause 

by (a) elaborating, (b) extending or (c) enhancing it. The same semantic relations 

hold between a main and a dependent subordinate clause, no matter what position the 

subordinate clause occupies. These combinations are shown below. 


Expansion (i) coordination or apposition (ii) dependency 

(a) Tom kept quiet; Tom kept quiet, 

elaboration he said nothing. which was unusual. 

(b) Tom kept quiet Tom kept quiet, 

extension but Ed spoke out. whereas Ed spoke out. 

(c) Tom was afraid Tom kept quiet, 

enhancement and so he kept quiet. because he was afraid. 

In clause combining by elaboration, one clause expands another by elaborating on 

it in greater detail – by clarifying it, in other words, as in (a). 

In clause combining by extension, one clause expands another by adding 

something new – giving an alternative or an exception, as in (b). 

In clause combining by enhancement, clauses of result, reason, and so on, expand 

the primary clause by contributing these circumstantial features, as in (c). 

In the following sections we pay particular attention to the semantic features which 

result from the combination of these two systems, and the connectives which reinforce 

them. 


280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ELABORATING THE MESSAGE MODULE 33 

SUMMARY 

1 Elaborating clauses are clauses that clarify or comment on a first clause. These 

secondary clauses can be finite or non-finite, and occur in a coordinating or a 

subordinating relationship with the first clause. Connective adjuncts 

(connectives) such as in other words, for instance, in fact, actually, can be 

used to reinforce the semantic relationship. 

2 Clauses in an appositional relationship have no coordinator. With finite clauses 

of equal status, the second clause provides a clarification of the first by restating 

or exemplifying it. Dependency with elaboration is manifested in non-defining 

sentential relative clauses which add extra, omissible information to the first 

clause. 


3 As in all clause combining, the semantic relationships are typically much less 

explicit when realised by non-finite clauses. 

33.1 APPOSITION AND ELABORATION IN FINITE 

CLAUSES 

Appositive clauses stand in a syntactic relation of equivalence but have no formal link. 

The ‘clarifying’ meaning of elaboration is important in establishing the semantic 

connection between them, as in it’s no good – it doesn’t work. We interpret them by 

inferring the semantic connection between them, based on our cultural knowledge. In 

the spoken language, intonation is a helpful guide, while in writing the symmetry of this 

type of clause relationship is reflected in punctuation by the use of the semi-colon, colon 

or dash: 

1 It’s like going out with a child; she stops dead and refuses to go any further. 

2 He had been drinking very hard – only I knew how hard. 

3 You must make up a better excuse: no-one will believe that. 


Evidently, the content must be appropriate. The secondary clause commonly ‘elaborates’ 

the meaning of the primary clause by ‘exemplifying’ it 1, or ‘clarifying’ it – as a 

whole, or in part 2. Causal relationships, such as reason 3, can also be inferred. 

Ultimately, it is the choice of the speaker or writer to present the relationships as s/he 

sees them, relying on the hearer’s ability to make the connection. 

33.1.1 Clarifying connectives: restating, exemplifying and 

upgrading 

Instead of relying on an implicit semantic connection between the clauses in apposition, 

the type of connection can be made explicit by the use of connectives that provide 

cohesive, not structural linking. The key concept is clarification, which is spelt out by 

connectives in three ways: restating, exemplifying or upgrading. 

A. Restating 

Here, the second clause restates the content of the first from another point of view, often 

making it more specific. Connectives include in other words, or rather, that is (to say), 

specifically, namely, as follows and i.e. (used only in writing). 

This picture is not an original; in other words, it’s a forgery. 

We became tourists; or rather, we became tramps. 

There is still another topic to be discussed; namely, the re-allocation of space in 

this building. 

We need someone to fix this machine, that is to say, we need a mechanic. 

Alcoholic drinks are sold only to adults, i.e. people over 18. 

Several countries have signed the pact; specifically, all the EC countries have 

done so. 


B. Exemplifying 

In this, the second clause develops the content of the first by means of an example. 

Typical connectives are for example and for instance. 

There are lots of things you might do – for example, you might learn to play a musical 

instrument. 

You can’t count on the trains being punctual here; for instance, the 10.55 left at 11.15 

yesterday. 

C. Upgrading 

In this case, the second clause clarifies the meaning of the first by presenting a stronger 

argument for the point made, which in the case of actually may be contrary to 

expectations. These connectives can be used to signal discrepant viewpoints in 

conversation: in fact, indeed, actually. 

282 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I was completely ignorant of women; in fact, I knew none except my own sisters. 

I didn’t mind their questions – indeed, I was glad to be able to answer them. 

We should get through this job fairly soon; actually, there is very little left to do. 

33.2 SENTENCE RELATIVE CLAUSES 

The syntax of dependency together with the clarifying meanings of elaboration provide 

the category of non-restrictive (or non-defining) sentence relative clauses. Nonrestrictive 

relative clauses of whatever type are treated as supplementives (see Module 

49 for defining and supplementive relative clauses in nominal groups). 

The sentential relative clause has as its antecedent the whole first clause, or its 

complement. The relative pronoun is which. Which is what is also used, especially in 

spoken English: 

They decided not to go, which turned out to be a mistake. 

We promised you the sun would shine, which it did. (tourism ad) 

His new novel is a bestseller, which is what everyone had expected. 

The sentential relative is characterised by the following features: 

• It is only loosely connected to its antecedent clause. Although its subordinate status 

is signalled by the relativiser which, it is a parenthetical supplementive that has 

considerable semantic independence. 

• Semantically, the sentence relative makes an independent statement, which is an 

extension of the already complete unit. It adds additional, omissible information to 


something that is already presented as identified. 

• These features have much to do with information flow, as explained below. 

• Intonationally, the supplementive clause constitutes an independent intonation 

unit which is signalled by a comma or, more informally, by a dash. It contributes 

new information to what has already been established or is assumed to be known, 

for instance, that we promised you the sun would shine. 

• The discourse function of non-restrictive clauses (whether sentential or nominal, 

as in Module 49) is to assert new information without making it the main point of 

the utterance. 

Sentential relative clauses are becoming versatile in English. It is now quite common 

to find them functioning as freestanding subordinate clauses after a pause. They may 

be uttered by the same speaker or added by the addressee as a collaborative response, 

usually of an evaluative nature: 

A. Perhaps she thinks it sounds better. B. Which it does really. 

[BNC KD8 44 447] 

A. He goes out playing squash, then [B No, I know] 

he’s not eating his main meal until 

eleven o’clock at night. Which is stupid [KBC 14.505] 


Many such clauses can be paraphrased by a coordinated clause (e.g. and it does). 

The relativiser which in a supplementive clause marks the closeness of the comment to 

the previous discourse. Which is sometimes considered as a one-word substitute for the 

coordinated or appositive structure. 

33.3 NON-FINITE SUPPLEMENTIVE CLAUSES: SPECIFYING 

AND COMMENTING 

The non-finite participal forms -ing and -en are used as supplementives to elaborate 

another clause by specifying or giving an explanatory comment on it, as in 1 and 2. The 

non-finite form may have its own explicit subject as in 3 and 4: 

1 At that moment Charles appeared in the hall, propelling himself in a wheelchair. 

2 The mountains were invisible, enveloped in a thick mist. 

3 That was the last time I saw him, his face all covered in bandages. 

4 The soldiers filled the coaches, the younger ones eating sandwiches and chocolate. 

For thematised supplementive clauses, see Chapter 6. 

Some of the elaborating types of clause combining occur in the following extract 

from an anthropologist’s account of life with the Dowayos, a people of Cameroon: 

Faced with the impossibility of eating off the land, 1 I decided to keep my own 

chickens. This, also, was not a success. Some I bought, some were given to me. 2 

Dowayo chickens, on the whole, are scrawny, wretched things; eating them is rather 

like eating an Airfix model of a Tiger Moth. 3 They responded to treatment, however. 

I fed them on rice and oatmeal, which Dowayos who never feed them at all found 

a huge extravagance. 4 One day, they began to lay. I had fantasies of being able to 

eat an egg every day. As I sat in my hut, gloating over my first day’s haul, 5 my 

assistant appeared in the doorway, an expression of bland self-satisfaction on his 

face. 6 ‘Patron,’ he exclaimed, ‘I just noticed the chickens were laying eggs so I killed 

them before they lost all their strength!’ 


(Nigel Barley, The Innocent Anthropologist) 

1 

non-finite -en supplementive clause; 2 two short coordinated clauses with the 

coordinator replaced by a comma; 3 two clauses in apposition; in the second, the 

meaning of ‘result’ can be inferred; 4 elaborating clause whose antecedent is the 

whole main clause; a further nondefining relative clause introduced by who, without 

punctuation, has ‘Dowayos’ as antecedent; 5 explanatory non-finite -ing clause 

elaborating on the previous finite clause; 6 verbless supplementive clause 

284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

EXTENDING THE MESSAGE MODULE 34 

SUMMARY 

1 Extension combines the syntax of coordination with the meanings of addition 

and contrast. The second clause extends the meaning of the first clause by such 

meanings as addition, variation, alternation, explanation and exception. As 

well as the coordinating conjunctions and, or and but which connect the clauses, 

cohesive connective adjuncts such as besides, in fact, actually and instead can 

be used to reinforce these meanings. 

2 Similar meanings of alternation and contrast can be expressed by finite clauses 

in a relationship of dependency, signalled by the connectives while, whereas 

and except that, among others. Non-finite clauses can be introduced by the 

conjunctive prepositions besides, without and instead of. 


34.1 THE SEMANTICS OF COORDINATION 

The combination of equal status and the meaning of extension is encoded as coordination 

between clauses. As we have seen, clauses can be conjoined when they share related 

meanings and fulfil the same function. Linking is carried out by the coordinators and, or, 

nor, but and yet. These have fixed positions at the clause boundary, unlike cohesive 

connectives such as instead and actually, which are more moveable. 

34.1.1 Addition – and, or, nor, but, yet 

Two situations are represented as adjoined in a relationship of equality that is positive, 

negative or adversative. The adversative expresses contrast: 

He doesn’t like bacon and also he’s better without it. (positive) 

I have no intention of going, nor in fact did I ever promise to. (negative) 

It’s an extremely simple device, but actually it’s very effective. (adversative) 


Additive connectives include also, furthermore, in addition, besides. 

Upgrading connectives include in fact, as a matter of fact, actually. The upgrading 

connectives that we have seen clarifying appositional clauses are equally appropriate 

with coordinated clauses, whether additive or adversative, since they add force to the 

argument. As can be seen from the previous examples, actually can indicate surprise; it 

also signals that what follows may be contrary to expectations. These features makes 

it especially useful with the adversative conjunction but, since contrast and surprise 

are compatible. Yet shares these features of surprise and contrast, and can be used as 

an alternative to but with surprisal and concessive meanings: 

A four-year-old child was buried for three days under rubble, yet survived. 

34.1.2 Variation – but instead; in fact; only 

This is replacive coordination, which can occur after a negative or a positive statement. 

The second clause is presented as replacing the first clause or contrasting with it. 

Variation connectives include instead, in fact and only. In fact is here not additive but 

replacive: 

He didn’t stay even an hour, but instead returned to London on the next train. 

Peaches are marvellous just now, only they are very expensive. 

She promised to keep in touch, but in fact she never wrote or phoned us. 

34.1.3 Alternation – either . . . or(else); neither ...nor 


Alternation is expressed by the coordinator or. The meaning can be reinforced by adding 

else (or else) and by the correlative coordinators either ...or. These make explicit 

the meaning of alternation (either we stay or we leave now), which excludes one 

alternative, while the negative correlates neither . . . nor exclude both: 

You should (either) accept his offer or (else) never see him again. 

Either we give the tickets back or (else) we drop everything and go. 

You should neither ask him for money nor accept it if he offers. 

Connectives associated with alternation include alternatively, conversely, on the other 

hand: 

We can arrange for a hotel room to be booked or, alternatively, self-catering facilities 

are available. 

You can add the wine to the water, or conversely, you can add the water to the wine. 

34.1.4 Explanation 

The second clause comments on or explains the first clause: 

There’s one thing you must realise and that is that I’m leaving. 

286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The following passage from Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited shows the use that can 

be made of apposition and coordination to present a situation as being composed of a 

number of related, though independent situations. It is noticeable that the author makes 

no use of explicit connectives to reinforce the meaning of the second clause; the 

semantic connection between the clauses is simply inferred, while the appositional 

relationships are signalled by means of punctuation: 

There were few left in the mess now of the batch of volunteers who trained together 

at the outbreak of war; one way or another they were nearly all gone 1 – some had 

been invalided out, 1a some promoted to other battalions, 1b some had volunteered 

for special service, 1c one had got himself killed on the field firing range, 1d one had 

been court-martialled 1e – and their places were taken by conscripts; 2 the wireless 

played incessantly in the ante-room nowadays 3 and much beer was drunk before 

dinner; 4 it was not as it had been. 5 

1 

elaboration (clarifying apposition); 1a–e elaboration (exemplifying apposition); 

2 

extension (resultative coordination); 3 elaboration (restating apposition); 

4 

extension (additive coordination); 5 elaboration (restating apposition) 

34.2 CONTRASTIVE DEPENDENCY – WHILE, WHEREAS, 

BUT FOR THE FACT THAT 


Meanings similar to those encoded by coordination seen in 34.1 can also be expressed 

by the combination of dependency and extension. The conjunctions whereas and while 

introduce finite subordinate clauses which contrast in some way with the main clause, 

especially when there is also some point of similarity between the two, as in: 

Jane already speaks two foreign languages, whereas her brother hasn’t yet learned 

any. 

Michelle, 24, works in an electronics factory, while Colette, 15, is still at school. 

[BNC A7P 409] 

Whereas is more formal than while. For the temporal meaning of while, see section 35.4.1. 

Except that, but that and but for the fact that express the meaning of exception: 

I would take you to the station, except that the car is being repaired. 

It would have been a disaster, but for the fact that everyone helped to save the 

situation. 

The forms containing subject–operator inversion (were it not for the fact that ...had 

it not been for the fact that . . .) can also be used, but are more formal and are stylistically 

marked forms to express hypothetical situations. 


The subordinator which expresses the meaning of alternation is if...not, and 

corresponds to either ...orin coordinating combinations: 

If your purse isn’t here, you must have left it somewhere. ( = Either your purse is 

here, or you must have left it somewhere) 

34.3 BESIDES, INSTEAD OF, WITHOUT + NON-FINITES 

Functioning conjunctively to introduce non-finite -ing forms, we have prepositions: 

• with an additive meaning: besides, as well as 

• with replacive, adversative and subtractive meanings: instead of, without, other 

than 

An alternative analysis to the conjunctive use of the prepositions is that of a prepositional 

phrase with a non-finite clause as its complement. 

Besides/as well as caring for her own family, Mary runs a kindergarten. (additive) 

Instead of turning down that side road, you should have kept straight on. (replacive) 

He has embarked on a huge project, without realising what is involved. (adversative) 

You won’t get any information from him other than by paying him. (subtractive) 

34.4 IMPLICIT MEANINGS OF -ING SUPPLEMENTIVES 


Without a preposition, the -ing form is indeterminate in meaning. We find it interpreted 

as having elaborative, extending and enhancing meanings, and we should not be 

surprised if in some cases it is difficult to determine the exact semantic nuance 

expressed. This is not to be considered as some sort of deficiency, but rather as an 

economical means of expressing relationships which are not required to be further 

specified, since hearers and readers infer the relevance of the relationship intended by 

the writer. With the -ing form and a main clause with a finite verb, the following implied 

meanings are typical: 

• an action (main clause) and a mental process (-ing clause) occurring 

simultaneously: 

They drove on, wondering how long their petrol would last. (additive = and 

wondered) 

• a mental process, with the -ing clause implying an adversative meaning + 

an action: 

Not realising the danger, she stumbled towards the edge of the cliff. (adversative 

= she stumbled . . . but she didn’t realise the danger/without realising the 

danger) 

• two or more actions occurring simultaneously: 

The dog leapt forward, baring its teeth. (additive) 

288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• two consecutive actions: 

Leaving the car unlocked, he walked quickly towards the group of people. 

(additive = He left the car unlocked and walked . . .) 

• the same, but replacive: 

He barely stayed to express his condolences, returning to London on the next 

train. (replacive = instead, he returned ...) 

• a mental process (-ing clause with an explanatory meaning) and an action: 

Hardly feeling the cold, she removed her coat and gloves. (because she hardly 

felt the cold ...) 

Note that the main-dependent order of the clauses may be reversed (see Chapter 6 

for the thematic significance of initial non-finites). 

The following extract from David Lodge’s Thinks . . . illustrates some of these 

meanings, as well as coordinated clauses and an -en supplementive clause (supervised 

by Carrie): 

My ‘lunch’ invitation had been stretched inordinately, and in the end we all left the 

house together at about seven o’clock. Suddenly the pace of life speeded up. 

Everybody bustled about, supervised by Carrie, picking up things and putting them 

away, resetting thermostats and turning off lights, drawing curtains and fastening 

shutters, making the house secure for another week. It was as if the curtains had 

come down on some dreamy pastoral idyll, and the company was suddenly 

galvanized into action, shedding their costumes and packing up their props before 

moving on to the next venue. We parted in the lane outside the house as we got into 

our respective cars. I said goodbye and thanked them sincerely. 



ENHANCING THE MESSAGE MODULE 35 

SUMMARY 

1 We use the term ‘enhancing’ for those dependent clauses which expand the 

meaning of the main clause by providing some circumstantial feature: time, 

place, manner, condition, purpose, cause, concession, etc. They correspond in 

general to the ‘adverbial clauses’ of traditional grammar. Their function is to 

add background information. 

2 Not all enhancing clauses are subordinate, however. So (of result) yet and then 

have a coordinating function when preceded by and, making the coordination 

explicit. 


3 A great variety of conjunctions and conjunctive expressions are available to 

express circumstantial meanings. Non-finite verb forms are also used, of which 

the to-infinitive is the most explicit. 

35.1 COORDINATION OR APPOSITION + CIRCUMSTANCE 

(COORDINATING ENHANCEMENT) 

The combination of coordination (or apposition) and circumstantial meaning gives a 

kind of coordination that is intermediate between that of the ‘pure’ coordinators – and, 

but and or – and subordination. The secondary clause is introduced by one of the 

following: 

• the connective adverbs then, so, yet, still and the conjunction for; 

• a conjunctive combination formed by and followed by another item: and then, and 

here, and this, and so, and yet; 

• and plus a connective such as at that time, soon afterwards, till then, in that case. 

290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Some of the circumstantial meanings expressed by these combinations are listed below: 

time: now; then 

The lights have gone out; now we won’t be able to do any more today. 

They spread the cloth on the grass and then began unpacking the picnic things. 

place: and there 

She turned the corner, and there stood Robin waiting for her. 

manner: 

either (a) means (and) (in) that way 

Put labels on everything, and (in) that way you’ll know what you’ve got in the freezer. 

or (b) comparison: (and) similarly; in the same way; likewise; and so . . . 

The Secretary of the Association should be informed of any change of address; 

similarly, the Treasurer should be notified of changes regarding the payment of 

subscriptions. 

The face of a small baby is different from that of every other baby; in the same way, 

the development of each child is different. 

He likes music, and so does she. 

cause/effect: and so 

We had left the tickets at home, and so there was nothing to do but go back for them. 

effect/cause: for (rather formal) 

We left in silence, for there was little we could say. 

condition (positive): and then; (and) in that case 


You might have an accident, and in that case who would rescue you? 

condition (negative): otherwise; or else 

Replace everything carefully in the drawers; otherwise something will get mislaid. 

concession: still; yet 

My age is against me; still, there’s no harm in trying. 

He criticises his colleagues, (and) yet relies on them for support. 

consequence: consequently; as a result 

He had not taken the precaution of being vaccinated and as a result he got malaria. 

35.1.1 Inferred meanings of ‘and’ 

Even without the help of connectives, the conjunction and is pragmatically interpreted, 

according to context, as expressing meanings of simultaneity, sequentiality, condition, 

cause–effect, result and concession: 

I made the sandwiches and Jill made the salad ...(simultaneity) 

He got dressed quickly and went out. (temporal sequence) 

He was found guilty of harassment and was dismissed from his post. (cause–effect) 

You give me your telephone number and I’ll give you mine. (condition) 

She came to my house and I was out. (inclusion: time ‘while’) 


35.1.2 Similar meanings expressed by coordinators 

and subordinators 

Certain meanings such as contrast and concession can be expressed by either 

coordinators or subordinators: 

He was the best of them all and (yet) didn’t come first. (coordinator) 

He was the best of them all but didn’t come first. (coordinator) 

Although he was the best of them all, he didn’t come first. (subordinator) 

35.2 FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES OF TIME, CONTINGENCY 

AND MANNER 

Dependency combined with enhancement is encoded as the traditional adverbial clauses 

of time, condition, purpose, concession, reason and manner. They are either finite or 

non-finite. When introduced by subordinators they are frequently termed ‘subordinate 

clauses’. 

35.2.1 Finite dependent clauses and subordinators 

Finite clauses are introduced by a subordinator, which serves to indicate the dependent 

status of the clause together with its circumstantial meaning. Formally, subordinating 

conjunctions can be grouped as follows: 


• simple conjunctions: when, whenever, where, wherever, because, if, unless, until, 

• conjunctive groups: as if, as though, even if, even though, even when, soon after, 

no sooner 

• complex conjunctions: there are three subclasses: 

(i) 

(ii) 

(iii) 

derived from verbs, usually from present or past participles, but occasionally 

from imperatives. All but the adverbial type have optional that: provided (that), 

granted (that), considering (that), seeing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), so 

(that) 

containing a noun: in case, in the event that, to the extent that, in spite of the fact 

that, the day, the way 

adverbial: so/as long as, as soon as, so/as far as, much as, now (that) 

Some of these conjunctions and the meanings they convey in finite dependent clauses 

are illustrated below. Certain meanings, such as time, have several subtypes: for instance, 

‘eventive’ refers to an event that really occurs or occurred, whereas ‘potential’ refers to 

an event that hasn’t yet occurred and perhaps won’t occur. Other terms for eventive 

and potential are ‘realis’ and ‘irrealis’, respectively. Most conjunctions of time can be 

used to introduce either meaning. 

292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Time 

As (simultaneous) 

After (anteriority) eventive 

Before (potential event) 

Since (starting point of duration) 

When (eventive) 

When (potential event) 

Whenever (potential/eventive) 

While (time – simultaneous) 

Now that (time–reason) 

As soon as (eventive) 

The day (eventive) 

The moment (potential) 

Until (duration + end point) 

The crowd roared as the ball went into the 

net. 

Soon after the war ended, the men returned. 

He got away before they could stop him. 

I haven’t seen him since we were at school 

together. 

When he saw me, he waved. 

When you reach the station, give me a ring. 

Come round whenever you like. He visits 

whenever he can. 

The burglar broke into the house while they 

were asleep. 

Now that the days are longer, it’s worth driving 

up to the Lakes. 

As soon as she got into bed, the telephone rang. 

We first met the day we went on a staff 

excursion. 

The moment you hear the car draw up, give 

me a shout. 

Stay in bed until the pain goes away. 

Contingency 

As far as (to the extent that . . .) As far as I know, no date has been fixed for 


the wedding. 

In so far as (to the degree In so far as their marketing policy is a policy at 

that...) 

all, it may reach its targets. 

If (open condition) 

If all goes well, we should finish by tomorrow 

at the latest. 

If (rhetorical condition) 

If you believe that, you’ll believe anything 

Unless (negative condition) You won’t be allowed in unless you are 

wearing a tie. 

As long as (condition) 

Go wherever you like, as long as you don’t get 

lost. 

Provided that (condition) Provided (that) you give me the order, I will 

deliver the goods in ten days’ time. 

Before (implied condition) Get out before I call the police! 

Although/though (concession) He’ll probably say no, though it’s worth trying. 

While (concession) 

While I admire his tenacity, I deplore his 

ruthlessness. 

Much as (concession) 

Much as I dislike driving in heavy traffic, I’ve 

got to put up with it or live somewhere else. 

As (reason) 

As he’s an only child, he gets a good deal of 

attention. 


Because (reason) 

Since (reason) 

So that (purpose) 

In order that (purpose) 

So that (result) 

We had to stay overnight, because the car 

broke down. 

Since he won’t answer the phone, we’d better 

leave a note. 

Fasten the sunshade securely, so that it won’t 

blow away. 

In order that no mistakes should be made, 

everyone was informed by letter. 

The oil tanker ran aground, so that the whole 

coastline was polluted. 

Manner 

As if/As though 

The way (manner) 

He talks as if/as though he owned the place. 

The way things are going, there’ll be more 

tourists than residents here. 

Note that, when referring to a potential future event or state, the verb in time clauses 

in English, unlike some languages, does not take will or a subjunctive, nor a future perfect 

form of the verb, but instead a normal present or past form, occasionally should + 

infinitive. This is illustrated by the examples with the moment and until, and is equally 

applicable to other time subordinators such as when and as soon as. 

Causal, concessive, conditional and resultative clauses depend on the hearer’s 

knowledge of the world, which provides an inferential link between the content of the 

main clause and that of the dependent clause. For instance, in the example of the 

oil tanker, the inferred proposition that links the cause to the effect is suggested as 

follows: 


The oil tanker ran aground 

so that the whole coast was polluted. 

(inferential link) 

[oil leaks from a damaged 

vessel] 

35.3 PRAGMATIC CONJUNCTION 

Conjunctions express the semantic relationship between the units they connect, 

reflecting the speaker’s view of the connection between states of affairs in the world. 

Pragmatic conjunction, on the other hand, has more to do with speech acts or with 

discourse moves than with experiential organisation as described above. Compare: 

1 If all goes well, we’ll reach Dover by four. (experiential) 

2 If you’re looking for Amy, she’s left. (pragmatic) 

294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In 1, reaching Dover by four is conditional on all going well. In 2, however, it is not 

possible to interpret the relationship experientially, as in 1. The fact that Amy has left 

is not conditioned by the possibility that you may be looking for her. Rather, in 2 the ifclause 

specifies a situation in which the main clause she’s left would be relevant. In other 

words, the if-speech act indicates the condition under which the following speech act 

counts. Now compare the following: 

3 Sam arrived late because he missed his train. 

4 Is there a fire somewhere? ’Cos I can smell smoke. 

In 3 the because-clause states the reason Sam arrived late – he missed his train. In 4, on 

the other hand, my smelling smoke is not the reason for the fire. Rather, the becauseclause 

– here in its abbreviated form ’cos – gives a reason for the performance of the 

speech act of enquiring whether there is a fire. 

Pragmatic clauses with ’cos, as in 4, have something in common with non-restrictive 

supplementive clauses: both are semantically and prosodically independent while 

syntactically marked as dependent (by a conjunction and by a wh- relative, respectively). 

These somewhat conflictive properties lead one to think that both pragmatic 

conjunctions and the wh- non-restrictor are taking on functions in discourse different 

from the traditional functions ascribed to them. 

Both 2 and 4 give reasons or justifications for the speech act expressed in the main 

clause. In a different sub-type of pragmatic conjunction, the conjunction itself implicitly 

signals the kind of speech act being performed. In 5 the contrastive meaning of but is 

pragmatic as well as semantic. It signals as inappropriate A’s request to know the time, 

since speaker A has a watch him/herself: the adversative meaning of but here takes on 

the force of a mild protest. 


5 A. Can you tell me the time? 

B. But you’re wearing a watch yourself! 

Pragmatic conjunctions occur sentence-initially and paragraph-initially, often at the 

beginning of a speaker’s turn in conversation, typically (though not necessarily) in direct 

relation to what the previous speaker has just said, as in 5 and 6. 

And is the most difficult to characterise. One possibility is that, whereas ordinary and 

connects units which make up a single category of knowledge, pragmatic and re-opens 

a concluded category, making it an explicit point of departure for a new unit, a new 

direction in spoken and written discourse. It is common at turn boundaries in 

conversation and also in radio and television presentations (7). 

So indicates that a conclusion has been drawn, while pragmatic or introduces a 

question. Both so and or elicit a response. For as a conjunction is always pragmatic, 

while since sometimes is – that is, when it gives a reason for the statement made in the 

main clause (10, 11). They are both rather formal. 

6a He stopped me and said ‘Where are you going?’ (experiential) 

6b And I said ‘Just down the road to the bank.’ (pragmatic) 

7 And now it’s nine o’clock and time for the news. 

8 So this is where you live. 


9 Can you give me a hand with this? Or don’t you want to have it fixed? 

10 We all fell silent, for there was nothing else to say. 

11 Since you’re here, you may as well sit down. 

35.4 NON-FINITE CLAUSES EXPRESSING CIRCUMSTANTIAL 

MEANINGS 

35.4.1 Explicit markers of circumstantial meanings 

Not all conjunctions and prepositions are able to function as introducers of non-finite 

dependent clauses. Those that can do so form a subset of the total class of each: 

subset of conjunctions 

when 

Take extra care when driving at night. 

while (time) 

While talking, he jotted everything down on a pad. 

while (concession) While agreeing basically with your proposal, we would 

nevertheless suggest certain amendments. 

though 

Though feeling unwell, she made an effort to appear 

cheerful. 

if 

If travelling abroad, watch out for pickpockets. 

rather than/sooner than Rather/sooner than wait for hours, she returned the 

(with bare infinitive) following day. 


subset of (conjunctive) prepositions 

before 

Look both ways before crossing the road. 

after 

After applying one coat of paint, leave to dry. 

since 

I have thought about it a great deal since receiving your 

letter. 

from 

From being a junior clerk, he rose to become General 

Manager. 

by 

By turning this handle, you can make ice-cubes come out. 

in 

In learning a foreign language, several skills are involved. 

on 

On entering the mosque, we were impressed by its 

spaciousness. 

with 

With redecorating the house, our funds are pretty low. 

without (concession) Without wishing to offend our hostess, I should like to 

leave now. 

without (reason) Without having read the book, I can’t give an opinion. 

296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

35.4.2 VERB FORMS AS CIRCUMSTANTIAL MARKERS 

Certain circumstantial meanings of enhancement are frequently expressed by the toinfinitive, 

the -ing and the -en participle forms alone. Of these, the to-infinitive form is 

the most explicit, since it usually signals purpose. Some examples follow of verb forms 

used in this way: 

to-infinitive clauses: 

-ing clauses: 

-en clauses: 

To relieve backache, apply liniment twice daily. 

Don’t do it just to please me. 

Living abroad, he rarely sees his relatives. 

(= because he lives abroad) 

Too excited to sleep, he paced up and down the room. 

(because he was too excited to sleep) 

There is one use of the to-infinitive in dependent clauses which is extending rather than 

enhancing in meaning; that is, it seems to replace coordination, as in: 

She arrived home to find the house empty. ( = and found the house empty) (Adjunct 

of ‘outcome’) 

Conventions of good English require that the implicit subject of a non-finite clause 

should be identical with the explicit subject of the main clause. Compare the acceptable 

(i) with the less acceptable (ii), which unintentionally suggests that the jellyfish was 

bathing in the sea: 


(i) Bathing in the sea, I got stung by a jellyfish. 

(ii) Bathing in the sea, a jellyfish stung me. 

That this norm is not always adhered to is illustrated by the following ‘editor’s comment’ 

from the BBC series Yes, Prime Minister: 

[Working funerals are the best sort of summit meeting. Ostensibly arranged for 

another purpose, statesmen and diplomats can mingle informally at receptions, 

churches and gravesides, and achieve more than at ten ‘official’ summits for which 

expectations have been aroused. This is presumably why Hacker immediately agreed 

to a state funeral for his late and unlamented predecessor – Ed.] 

(Jonathan Lynn and Anthony Jay, The Complete Yes Prime Minister) 


35.5 DISCOURSE CONNECTIVITY AND COHESION: 

INITIAL VS FINAL CIRCUMSTANTIAL CLAUSES 

These clauses are usually placed either before the main clause as in 1, or after it, as 

in 2: 

1 If you have a problem, call us immediately. 

2 Call us any time if you need advice. 

Position is related to the degree of integration of the two clauses. 

Semantically, a circumstantial clause in final position tends to have tight local 

connections to the main clause, to which it may be linked without a comma in writing 

or a pause in speech. In such cases it is closely integrated into the semantic structure 

of the main clause: 

3 The problem arises because there is nothing in our day-to-day life to provide us 

with sufficient exercise. [BNC AYK 199] 

From a discourse perspective, an initial circumstantial clause tends to have wider textual 

connections with what preceded it, often reaching back some distance. It also provides 

a frame for what follows, often for the whole clause or even more, as it can be not only 

sentence-initial but also paragraph-initial and episode-initial (see Chapter 6). It is likely 

to be followed by a comma or pause. Consequently an initial circumstantial clause is 

less integrated into the structure of the main clause. The following example illustrates 

the greater integration of the final to-infinitive clause compared with the framing function 

of the initial because clause. We consider both to have the syntactic status of adjunct, 

however, as both are embedded. 


4 Because tranquillisers simply mask symptoms rather than provide a cure, you 

may need to seek help to deal with the problem which caused you to need the tablets 

in the first place. [BNC AYK 183] 

Position is also related to information structure, discussed in Chapter 6. In a complex 

sentence, the initial clause is likely to contain given information, while the final clause 

tends to present the new. In 3 the main clause is initial, with ‘the problem’ referring 

to preceding discourse, while the clause of reason provides new information. In 4 we 

have the reverse: the reason clause presents as known the fact that tranquillisers mask 

symptoms, preparing the way for the main clause and the final purpose clause as new. 

An initial dependent clause, often with progressive aspect (see 43.4), can provide a 

background state or activity for an event in past tense: 

While all the other kids were pulling on their coats, the teacher found Harry sitting 

sobbing in the cloakroom. [BNC CHR 913] 

298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

REPORTING SPEECH AND MODULE 36 

THOUGHT 

SUMMARY 

1 Speakers report the utterances of other speakers, or their own, in one of two 

ways: either directly by ‘direct reported speech’ (also known as ‘quoted 

speech’), or indirectly by ‘indirect reported speech’. Thought processes can also 

be reported. Quoted speech supposedly repeats the exact words spoken, 

whereas indirect speech reporting gives the content or even only the gist of what 

was said. 

2 Verbs of saying and of thinking are used to introduce direct speech and thought, 

respectively. Idiomatic uses of the verbs go and be like are also used by some 

speakers as alternatives to verbs of saying. 


3 Indirect reporting of speech (traditionally known as ‘indirect speech’ ) reports 

the content of statements, questions and directives. A number of formal adjustments 

are made, referred to as ‘backshift’, which shift deictic elements away 

from the speech situation to the reported situation. 

4 In fictional dialogue, and to a lesser extent in conversation, a wide variety of 

reporting verbs occur, many not strictly verbs of speaking, which aim to convey 

such features as speaker’s stance, voice quality and speech-act force. 

5 In addition, and in order to give the reader the illusion of entering a character’s 

mind, writers of fiction combine features of quoted and reported speech to 

produce the varieties known as ‘free direct speech’ and ‘free indirect speech’. 

36.1 DIRECT AND INDIRECT REPORTING 

There are two main ways of reporting what someone said or what we ourselves said: 

directly 1, and indirectly 2: 

1 She said ‘I’ll wait for you’. 

2 She said she would wait for us. 


Direct (‘quoted’) speech reporting supposedly repeats the exact words that someone 

said or wrote, while indirect speech reporting gives the meaning, or the gist of the 

content. Depending on the verb used, a good deal of further information can also be 

provided – for instance, the type of speech act being carried out, such as asking, 

complaining, responding, or the voice quality of the speaker: 

‘I hear you’ve been having a tough time,’ he responded. 

‘You haven’t sent me the Sunday supplement,’ she complained. 

Between quoted and indirect reported speech, there is a difference of immediacy. In 

quoting, the quoted clause appears to have independent status; its effect, therefore, is 

more dramatic and life-like. Tenses, pronouns and other deictic elements are orientated 

towards the speech situation, while in reported speech they shift away from it. The 

formal modifications of this shift are explained in section 36.3. 

There is also a difference in referring back to something which has been quoted and 

something which has been reported. To refer to the actual words quoted, a reference 

word such as that is typically used, whereas to refer to an indirect report, a substitute 

form such as so or not is used: 

He said, ‘I’ll pay this time.’ 

He said he would pay that time. 

Did he really say that? 

Did he really say so? 

This is because the quoted words refer to a real event that can be referred back to, 

whereas the reported version is a representation of a representation, that is of what 

someone said. 


36.2 DIRECT REPORTING OF SPEECH AND THOUGHT 

Direct (‘quoted’) speech is a common feature of everyday conversation, of fictional 

dialogue and, to a lesser extent, news and other genres. In direct speech, the reporting 

clause contains a verb of saying, while the reported clause contains what is said. The 

reporting clause may be placed initially, finally or medially. If it is placed medially, the 

quoted speech is discontinuous as in (c).With a proper name, inversion of subject and 

verb is another option (d). However, with a pronoun (said she), inversion is archaic. 

(a) She said, ‘I’m a telly addict and I always have been’. 

(b) ‘I’m a telly addict and I always have been,’ she said. 

(c) ‘I’m a telly addict’, she said, ‘and I always have been.’ 

(d) ‘I’m a telly addict’, said Danielle, ‘and I always have been.’ 

As there is no linking or subordinating element in (a) between the reporting verb 

and the quoted speech, the structural relationship between them is indeterminate. In 

(b), (c) and (d) the reporting clause is clearly parenthetical. 

In spoken English, the reporting clause receives less prosodic prominence than what 

is reported, in whatever position it occurs. This reflects the fact that what is said is more 

important than the introductory clause of saying. 

300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

These two features – the mobility of the reporting clause and the importance of what 

is said – are sometimes interpreted as evidence that I think, he said, for example, in 

whatever position, are not main clauses at all, but are better analysed as epistemic, 

evidential or evaluative parentheticals, while what is traditionally classed as the 

complement clause is in fact the main proposition. 

A further view sees the relationship between the clauses as one of projection: the 

reporting clause ‘projects’ the projected clause as either a locution or an idea. 

Quoted speech in conversation and written dialogue 

Verbs used to introduce quoted speech in conversation and writing are summarised in 

the table below. 

Conversation 

say (and, less commonly, tell) 

go, be like 

not normally used 

Written dialogue 

Say is the basic verb 

Tell, write (the latter quoting written sources is 

used only to characterise a type of user) 

Verbs quoting statements: announce, explain, 

observe, point out, remark, report 

ask is used – the others not normally used Verbs quoting questions: ask, demand, query, 

enquire, and exclamations: exclaim 


Verbs indicating speech act force: affirm, 


answer, argue, beg, complain, object, 

protest, urge, warn, 

or verbs which refer to the circumstances 

of the speech act: interrupt, reply, 

respond 

normally only shout 


Verbs indicating manner of locution: bark, 

bleat, chirp, cry, drawl, grumble, hiss, 

holler, moan, mumble, murmur, mutter, 

scream, shout, shriek, snap, snarl, stutter, 

whisper, whine, yell 

Non-utterance emotive verbs accompanying 

speech: 

Laughter: chuckle, laugh, smile, grin, giggle, 

twinkle 

Weeping: sob, moan, wail 

Excitement, concern: breathe, pant 

Incredulity: gasp 

Pain, anger: bellow, choke, flash 


For the difference between say and tell, see Chapter 3. Basically, say is a two-place 

verb which does not take a core Recipient, not admitting, for example, *say me your 

name. Tell is a three-place verb with a core Recipient (tell me your name). Pragmatically, 

say is used to report a locution (what is said), while tell typically informs. 

Go and be like are becoming widely used as quotative alternatives to say, both in 

younger speakers’ conversation and in the popular media. Like says and said, go and be 

like signal that the speaker is moving into direct speech mode. Normal combinations of 

tense and aspect occur with go and be like; however, the present tense appears to 

predominate even for past time reference (I’m like, she’s like): 

. . . and I was going . . . I’ll have to take my stereo home and he goes yeah your 

stereo’s quite big isn’t it, and I went when have you seen my stereo and he goes oh 

I came up the other day to see if you were in. I went why why, he said I just came 

round to your room and you weren’t there but your music was on. 

[BNC KPH 1361–1362] 

‘It’s just happened so fast,’ says the former Shanna Jackson. ‘Some days people will 

call me “Paris” and I’m like, “Who?” My mother still refuses to call me Paris.’ 

[BNC HSJ 663–664] 

The range of verbs used as ‘quotatives’ is wider in written dialogue than in spoken 

because writers attempt to heighten interest by conveying not only the words said but 

also something of voice quality, attitude and manner of speaking of the character, 

whether fictional or real. All these are perceived by hearers in a speech situation but are 

absent from basic verbs of saying. Examples 1, 3, 5 are taken from Lightning in May, 2 

and 4 from Girls Out Late and 6 from The Peacemakers: 


1 ‘I’ll take the cases,’ he whispered. 

2 ‘I haven’t got any money,’ I hiss. 

3 ‘Come on, lads,’ Tommy yelled. 

4 ‘You’re mad at me, aren’t you?’ I mumble. 

5 ‘I said come in, Mrs. Friar!’ John barked at her 

6 Trumbic gasped. “You can’t be serious.” 

Direct reporting of thought 

Not only words may be quoted, but also thoughts. The first two examples below are 

often heard in the spoken language, the third would be typical in fiction: 

I think I’ll have a beer. 

I wonder what he’s doing. 

‘I’ll have to get a new bulb for this lamp,’ thought Peter. 

Mental process verbs which occur as quotatives are few in number in English, in 

comparison with the wide variety of verbs used in quoted speech. They include think, 

the basic verb, and other verbs of cognition which express some additional, often 

aspectual meaning: muse, ponder, reflect, wonder. 

302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In representing their characters’ thought, writers of fictional narrative often omit the 

prosodic signals of quoting (inverted commas or dashes), and make the clause of 

thinking parenthetical. The following extract from Virginia Woolf’s Mrs Dalloway 

illustrates this technique: 

He’s very well dressed, thought Clarissa, yet he always criticises me. 

Here she is mending her dress; mending her dress as usual, he thought; here she’s 

been sitting all the time I’ve been in India; mending her dress; running to the House 

and back and all that, he thought, growing more and more irritated, more and more 

agitated, for there’s nothing in the world so bad for some women as marriage, he 

thought; and politics; and having a Conservative husband, like the admirable 

Richard. So it is, so it is, he thought, shutting his knife with a snap. 

36.3 BACKSHIFT IN INDIRECT SPEECH AND THOUGHT 

REPORTING 

Indirect speech reporting is characterised by a series of formal features that distinguish 

it from quoted speech reporting. They have the effect of shifting all deictic elements 

(personal pronouns, demonstratives, tense and adverbs of time and place) away from 

direct reference to the speech situation, and instead to the reporting situation, as in the 

following example (we don’t give all the possible personal pronoun shifts, which depend 

on context): 


‘I want you to drink this juice.’ I/you/he/she said she wanted him/me to drink 

that juice. 

The shifts involved are as follows: 

• Personal pronouns in the 1st person, which refer to the speaker, are shifted to 

2nd or 3rd person, unless the speaker is reporting him/herself, as in 1 below. The 

2nd person pronoun, which refers to the listener, is shifted to 1st or 3rd, according 

to the identity of the listener, again as in 1. 

• Demonstratives and deictic adverbs which refer to the here and now (this, these, 

here, now) are replaced by more remote forms (that, those, there, then) 1 and 4. 

• Verb tenses are ‘back-shifted’ – that is, present forms are replaced by past forms 

1, 2, 4, 5. This shift is not obligatory if the described state still holds, as in 3. 

• Clause type is also affected. A quoted interrogative with say is replaced by a 

declarative introduced by ask in reported speech 7. Imperatives and verbless clauses 

have less clear correspondences, and are discussed later in this and other sections. 


Direct (quoted) speech 

Indirect speech 

1 ‘I want you to drink this juice.’ I/ you/ he/ she said I/she wanted him/ me 

to drink that juice. 

2 ‘I won’t be long,’ she said. She said she wouldn’t be long. 

3 He said ‘We are naked apes. They He said that we are/ were naked apes and 

are the same as us inside.’ 

that they are the same as us inside. 

4 ‘Can you leave this book here?’ He asked if I/ we/ she could leave that 

he said. 

book there. 

5 ‘It’s good!’ Magda says. Madga said that it was good. 

6 ‘Do it yourselves!’ I said. I told them to do it themselves. 

7 ‘Must you go so soon?’ she said. She asked whether we/ they had to go as 

soon as that. 

Verbs used in indirect statements and questions are essentially the same as those 

used in quoting. The main exceptions are shown in the table. 

Verbs used only in quoting 

Verbs used only in indirect reporting 

(a) 

verbs which express rhetorical 

processes: claim, deny, hypothesise, 

imply, insinuate, maintain, make out, 

pretend. 


(b) 

verbs of cognition, wishing and 

affection: believe, feel, hold (=believe), 

imagine, understand, fear, suspect, 

think, hope, wish, want, like. 

(c) Non-utterance verbs as in 36.2, Occasionally, these verbs are used in indirect 

such as laugh, smile, sob, moan, gasp: reporting, for instance: 

‘Thank you,’ she smiled. 

‘Yes,’ he sighed. 

She smiled her thanks. 

He sighed his consent. 

(a) Verbs such as claim, deny, insinuate represent an interpretation on the part of the 

reporter of the speech act force in the original situation, and can indicate a certain 

stance, for instance of reservation or disbelief: 

She claims her mother was related to a Polish aristocrat. 

He denies being involved in the incident. 

Are you insinuating that he knows something about it? 

304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(b) The combination of mental processes with a reporting clause is the normal way of 

representing what people think, believe, hope, want and like. These typically occur 

as reported states of wishing, wanting, and so on, since such mental states are rarely 

quoted; even the possible form with let as in ‘Let me be the first to speak to him’, Janet 

wished is relatively infrequent. Syntactically, they are no different from the 

complementation patterns described in Chapter 3: 

I hope that no damage has been done 

It is feared that many lives have been lost. 

She wishes she had never met him. 

(c) Conversely, verbs which are not intrinsically verbs of saying are not normally 

used in indirect reporting. These include verbs of laughing, weeping, and the like, 

as exemplified in section 36.2. A quoted locution such as ‘So what?’, he sneered would 

be difficult to report in a similar form, and even perhaps with a similar meaning. A 

paraphrase such as He asked with a sneer what it mattered might be considered 

acceptable within a certain context. 

36.4 REPORTED OFFERS, SUGGESTIONS AND COMMANDS 

So far we have considered quoted or reported statements and questions. We now turn 

to the reporting of directives – reported offers, suggestions and commands – which 

typically involves summary and paraphrase. Certain verbs are used in quoted directives 

but are not used for reporting. Conversely, there are many verbs used in reported 

directives that are not used in quoting. There is some overlap, however, as may be seen 

from the table below. 


Quoted directives 

the general verb say 

verbs specific to offers, suggestions and 

commands: call, suggest, offer, order, 

request, tell 

verbs embodying some circumstantial or 

other semantic feature: threaten, vow, 

promise, agree, beg, insist, plead, urge, 

warn 

verbs with a connotative meaning: bark, 

bleat, sob, gasp 

not used 

Reported directives 

the general verb tell 

some, but not all of those in quoted directives: 

suggest, order, command, request, tell 

the same as in quoted directives 

not used 

verbs expressing a wide range 

of complex rhetorical processes: encourage, 

forbid, persuade, recommend 


36.5 CLAUSE TYPE IN THE REPORTED CLAUSE 

When we quote an offer, order or suggestion directly, there is typically an imperative 

in the quoted clause: 

1 ‘Hurry up!’, she said (to us). 

2 ‘Do eat more slowly’, she begged the child. 

3 ‘Come in and sit down’, I suggested (to her). 

In reported directives, the imperative of the quoted type is replaced by one of four 

structures. The first two are: 

• an Object + to-infinitive after verbs such as tell, order, command, urge, beg as in 1, 2; 

and 

• a that-clause after verbs of recommending, insisting, proposing and suggesting as 

in 3 (see also Chapter 3). 

The examples 1–3 of quoted directives would be reported as follows: 

4 She told/ urged us to hurry up. 

5 She begged the child to eat more slowly. 

6 I suggested that she (should) come in and sit down. 

Say takes a that-clause containing an embedded directive expressed either by the semiauxiliary 

be to or by a modal of obligation (should, must, have to). See also Section 11.2 

for the complementation patterns of say and tell. 

Using say, example 1 could be reported as follows: 


7 She said (that) we were to hurry up. 

8 She said (that) we should/must hurry up. 

Say can also report a to-infinitive clause with no subject (9). In AmE a subject of the 

reported clause is here preceded by for (10). In both cases the use of say rather than tell 

suggests that the message is being relayed by a 3rd person. Compare these with 11: 

9 She said to hurry. 

10 She said for us to hurry. 

11 She told us to hurry. 

Of the verbs indicating manner of locution listed on page 301 and used in fictional 

narrative to introduce quoted speech, only a few can be used in reporting, and require 

an oblique Object. They are usually verbal processes with an emotive element 

predominating: 

(‘Turn off the gas!’, he yelled.) 

(‘Stay a little longer’, he whispered.) 

He yelled to me to turn off the gas. 

He whispered to her to stay a little longer. 

306 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Verbless clauses are quite common in quoted speech, especially in fictional narrative: 

‘Not a word!’, he whispered (to us). 

He whispered to us not to say/ breathe a word. 

The absence of a verb presents a problem in reporting. Frequently a verb can be 

provided, although again this involves an interpretation on the part of the reporter. 

Inevitably, therefore, more than one reported version is possible, some differing 

considerably from the quoted version: 

‘This way, please’, the usher said. 

The usher asked/ invited (us?) to accompany 

him. 

The usher showed (us?) the way. 

As can be seen from these examples, an additional problem in reporting verbless 

clauses is that not only a verb but also a receiver of the directive must be provided. 

Presumably, the context or the co-text would enable the Recipient of the offer, order or 

suggestion to be identified. The verbless clause, itself, however, does not provide this 

information. In effect, the two versions are different messages. 

36.6 FREE DIRECT SPEECH AND FREE INDIRECT SPEECH 

We have seen so far that speakers and writers make use of direct speech and indirect 

speech to report the statements, questions and directives of others. In their attempts to 

portray the stream of thought of their characters, writers have modified the paradigm 

of reporting as outlined in the preceding sections in certain ways. 


What we call ‘free direct speech or thought’ consists in omitting the inverted 

commas or dashes which conventionally signal quoting, as seen in the extract from Mrs 

Dalloway. More drastically, the reporting clause is omitted altogether. This is called ‘free 

indirect speech’ and also covers cognitive processes. In addition, certain structures 

of direct speech are retained, such as direct questions and exclamations, vocatives, 

utterance-time adverbs such as now and tag questions. Other features may belong to 

indirect speech, however: tense back-shift, and the temporal and spatial shifts of deictic 

words towards remoteness. 

Some of these features are present in the following extract from Joyce Carol Oates’ 

story Happy, which describes a girl’s journey home from the airport with her mother 

and her mother’s new husband. 

They stopped for dinner at a Polynesian restaurant ten miles up the Turnpike, her 

mother explaining that there wasn’t anything decent to eat at home, 1 also it was 

getting late, wasn’t it, tomorrow she’d be making a big dinner, 2 That’s okay honey 

isn’t it? 3 She and her new husband quarrelled about getting on the Turnpike then 

exiting right away, but at dinner they were in high spirits again, laughing a good 


deal, holding hands between courses, sipping from each other’s tall frosted brightcolored 

tropical drinks. Jesus I’m crazy about that woman, 4 her mother’s new 

husband told the girl when her mother was in the powder room, Your mother is a 

high-class lady, he said. 5 He shifted his cane chair closer, leaned moist and warm, 

meaty, against her, an arm across her shoulders. There’s nobody in the world 

precious to me as that lady, I want you to know that, he said, 6 and the girl said Yes 

I know it, 7 and her mother’s new husband said in a fierce voice close to tears, Damn 

right, sweetheart, you know it. 8 

1 

indirect speech; 2 free indirect speech; 3 free direct speech; 4–8 direct speech 

A variant of free indirect speech, illustrated in 2 above, is to retain the reporting clause, 

together with the features enumerated above. Here is an instance from Mrs Dalloway: 

And she opened her scissors, and said, did 1 he 2 mind her 3 just finishing what she 4 

was doing 5 to her dress, for they 6 had 7 a party that night? 8 

1 

direct interrogative + past form; 2–4, 6 pronominal shifts; 5–7 tense shifts; 8 temporal 

deictic shift 

36.7 FREE INDIRECT THOUGHT 


In the following passage from Lightning in May, John suspects for the first time that his 

wife may have tuberculosis. His reaction is expressed partly in direct speech introducd 

by verbs of manner (italicised) and partly in free indirect thought (underlined). By means 

of the latter, the writer or oral storyteller aims to represent the thoughts of a character. 

No reporting verb is used; indeed, there is no overt signal that the character’s, rather 

than the author’s, view or thought is being portrayed. What alerts us to the change of 

perspective is some ‘perspective-changing’ detail in the immediately preceding narrative 

– in this case ‘he opened the handkerchief’ and ‘he looked at her’: 

‘Ruth,’ he breathed, ‘how long have you had this cough?’ He stood up and she 

followed. He opened the handkerchief again. There was no mistake. Silently he 

cursed himself. He saw her now in a completely different light. ‘How long?’ he 

demanded. 

He looked at her then held her to him. It became bluntly clear to him now. The 

pale, tired face that was thinner; the droop of her body. All the symptoms that he 

had put down to her mental state had matured into a physical one. And now a cough. 

How could he have been so stupid? Yet he had to make sure. 

308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

‘Ruthy,’ he whispered. ‘Let’s get back to the surgery. I want Dr. Jenkins to see 

you.’ 

‘What is it, John?’ she queried. 

(Gordon Parker, Lightning in May) 


Coordination and subordination Quirk et al. (1985), Biber et al. (1999); on expansion, 

elaboration, extension, enhancement, projection, internal and external conjunction, 

Halliday (1994); on non-restrictive relative clauses: Huddleston and Pullum (2002), 

Bache and Jakobsen (1980); on circumstantial (adverbial) clauses, degrees of event 

integration and dependency, Givón (2001b), Matthiessen and Thompson (1988); on 

epistemic parentheticals, Thompson (2002), Kärkkäinen (2003); Pragmatic (internal) 

connectives, van Dijk (1979), Matras (1997), Stenström (1998), Smith and Jucker (2000). 


Expanding the message: Clause combinations 



1 Gather a number of advertisements, with short texts and a headline or title, and compare 

them for the amount of clausal and non-clausal material they use. Identify the types of unit 

used – a single clause, a combination of clauses, a nominal group, a word, etc. – relating 

them to a picture if there is one. Draw up a chart showing the range of units used and the 

distribution of these units between the headline and the short text. Next, sort them with 

regard to the product or service advertised (e.g. automobiles, cosmetics, insurance 

companies, foodstuffs, holiday packages). Do you find any significant differences according 

to these or other factors, such as the amount of space the advert covers? 

2 †Analyse the following news item in terms of its sequencing of coordination and 

subordination. Does the sequencing follow the chronological order of the real events? 

After hundreds of shrimps came gushing out of taps in Warrington, Cheshire, 

yesterday, householders collected teapots full of the creatures and were forced to 

filter the water before they could drink it. 

3 †In each of the following clause combinations, say which consist of clauses in a relationship 

of equivalence and which hold a relationship of non-equivalence: 


(1) To advertise in the Homes and Gardens section, please contact one of our sales teams 

for further information. 

(2) ‘Clean your arteries – it could save your life.’ 

(3) Heart disease is the UK’s number one killer – and one of the main causes is clogged 

arteries. 

(4) Scottish children receive the most pocket money in the UK, while those in East Anglia 

receive the least. 

(5) The ginkgo tree once flourished around the world but survived the last Ice Age only 

in remote eastern China. 

Module 33 

1 Using (i) punctuation signals and (ii) the clarifying connectives listed in 33.1.1, add further 

clauses to the following examples so as to make complex sentences which stand in an 

appositive relationship to each other: 

(1) with restating meanings (or rather, that is to say, in other words, namely, i.e.) 

(a) For ten days she ate nothing but yoghurt 

(b) At three in the morning the party was over 

(c) The bar is open only to members of the club 

(2) with exemplifying meanings (for example, for instance) 

(a) It’s not clear how much she understands 

(b) There are a hundred things you could do to get fit 

(c) He’s no good at mending things 


(3) with upgrading meanings (in fact, indeed, actually) 

(a) The week started badly 

(b) She looks marvellous in a sari 

(c) I was beginning to feel most embarrassed 

2 †Taking the clause as antecedent, add (i) finite and (ii) non-finite, non-restrictive relative 

clauses to each of the following primary clauses, so as to form complex sentences: 

(1) She blamed herself for the accident 

(2) Most party members were disheartened by the congress 

(3) A high-rise building collapsed in Ankara yesterday 

(4) Certain parts of the Pacific are notorious for typhoons 

(5) Several hostages were released by the plane hijackers today 

Module 34 

1 Using the conjunctions and connectives associated with coordination + extension, add a 

conjoined clause to the following examples: 

(1) A man carrying a new strain of AIDS virus has left the country 

(2) The job was quite attractive 

310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(3) Adventurous children like sleeping in caravans 

(4) Either you buy yourself a mobile phone 

(5) The dress suits you very well 

2 †We have in this chapter seen three meanings of but. One is adversative, in which case 

it is interchangeable with one use of yet as in It’s a very simple device but/ yet it’s very 

effective. Another is replacive, with the meaning except for or instead as in He didn’t stay 

even an hour, but returned to London on the next train. The third meaning is concessive, 

corresponding to the subordinator (al)though as in The story is certainly strange, but it’s 

not entirely unbelievable. 

Decide which of these three meanings corresponds to but in each of the complex 

sentences below, and replace it by an appropriate connective, adding a pronoun when 

necessary: 

(1) The city may be prosperous, but to claim that it is a tourist attraction is absurd. 

(2) Zoo officials are trying to find new homes for the animals, but it is difficult to re-house 

orang-utangs. 

(3) A degree in engineering should open many doors, but without business expertise 

many graduate engineers have difficulty in finding a job. 

(4) Lorne originally thought of doing social biology and chemistry, but has changed to 

the new BSc in Industrial and Business Systems. 

(5) He almost decided to work on an oil-rig, but turned down the offer at the last minute. 

3 Using the conjunctive prepositions besides, as well as, except that, but for the fact that and 

without, add clauses to the following examples. Identify the resulting meaning: 


(1) Gillian buys all her clothes in boutiques 

(2) The trip would have been most enjoyable 

(3) The singer has filed a lawsuit against her video company 

(4) It might have been a good idea to wait a little while 

(5) We sat there in silence 

Module 35 

1 Discuss the status of the combination of and and or with circumstantial elements such as 

then, there, so, in that way, consequently, as a result, otherwise. Are they coordinators or 

subordinators? 

2 Using these items, add further clauses to the following examples: 

(1) I opened the door 

(2) The new law came into force a year later 

(3) The milk is sure to have turned sour by now 

(4) Don’t forget to put a stamp on your letters 

(5) We left the casserole too long in the microwave 


3 †Say which of the following uses of conjunctions are pragmatic (internal) rather than entirely 

semantic (external). Give an explanation if pragmatic: 

(1) If you don’t mind my saying so, your hair looks much nicer short than long. 

(2) Did you see King Lear when it was on on the television? ’Cos I taped that as well. 

[BNC KDM 3696–3697] 

(3) I’ll lend it to you if you lend me your video of Hamlet. 

(4) Many birds lose the power of flight, for there are no longer predators to make it 

worthwhile. [BNC AMS 1356] 

(5) Since there is no means of changing the weather, there is no question of protest. 

[BNC AN 42791] 

(6) I’ve only seen Shirley once since she and her husband went to live in New York. 

(7) When you gonna find your way up around my way? But you know I’ve been terribly 

busy lately! Yeah [BNC KBO 2468–2470] 

4 †Analyse the following paragraph from Newsweek from the point of view of coordinating 

and subordinating enhancement: 

You can blow up a balloon so far, and then it bursts; 1 you can stretch a rubber band 

so far, and then it snaps; 2 you can bend a stick so far, and then it breaks. 3 How 

much longer can the human population go on damaging the world’s natural systems 

before they break down altogether? 4 


5 Check the list of subordinators and their meanings in Section 35.2.1. Use as many of these 

items as possible to add subordinate clauses in either initial or final position, in relation to 

the main clauses below. Here are a few suggested meanings: 

(1) We’ll have to leave very early (purpose, open condition, negative condition, timeeventive) 

(2) I had to leave what I was doing and rush upstairs (reason, purpose, time-eventive) 

(3) I would like to speak to you about the new time-table (time-potential) 

(4) The film is certainly watchable (concession, condition-rhetorical) 

6 †Analyse the following news item ‘A Robot for Granny’ from The Week in terms of complex 

sentences. Comment on the relative integration of the subordinate clauses and how their 

position affects their function: 

The Japanese are too hard-working these days to take care of elderly relatives – and 

so scientists have invented a robot to do the job for them, we discovered this 

February. 1 The Wakamaru robot trundles around the house, keeping an electronic 

‘eye’ out for trouble. 2 If the owner falls, it will send an alarm call to a friend or 

312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

elative; 3 it can recognise faces and will contact a security firm if a stranger enters 

the house. 4 It can be programmed to ask: ‘Are you all right?’ 5 If there is no reply, 

the robot will take action. 6 

Module 36 

1 †Give one or more possible reported forms for each of the following statements and 

questions taken from The Complete Yes Prime Minister. Replace say and ask by verbs with 

connotative meanings: 

(1) ‘I’m sorry to interrupt you in this vital discussion,’ said Annie. 

(2) ‘What exactly is your job?’ I said to the EEC official. 

(3) ‘Minister! You realise the press will be printing something that isn’t true?’ 

‘Really?’ I smiled at him. ‘How frightful!’ 

(4) ‘But what about Duncan?’ Annie asked. ‘You’d recommend him?’ 

‘No.’ Desmond was unequivocal. 

(5) ‘I mean, Prime Minister . . . you . . . you – lied,’ said Humphrey. 

2 †Give a possible reported form for each of the following quoted directives taken from the 

same script: 

(1) ‘Won’t you sit down for a minute?’ Annie said to the official. 

(2) ‘Why don’t you wear a sports jacket?’ Fiona said to Godfrey. 

(3) ‘Suppose I sort of put on my glasses and take them off while I give my speech,’ said 

the Prime Minister. 

(4) ‘My God,’ croaked Luke, a broken man, ‘You can’t send me to Israel. What about 

my career?’ 

(5) ‘Don’t be silly,’ I replied briskly, ‘It’s an honour. Promotion.’ 


4 Using information you have learned throughout this chapter, analyse the following extract 

from Pat Rushin’s story Speed of Light from the point of view of clausal and non-clausal 

material and of complex sentence. Identify types of reporting. 

Things go wrong. 

Take Constantine Muzhikovsky. He had everything going for him. Good law 

practice. Nice secluded house on the outskirts. Sweet little vegetable garden out back 

that brought him no end of pleasure come springtime. Handsome, devoted wife. Kids 

grown and gone. The way Muzhikovsky saw things, it was time to ease off and enjoy 

a tranquil, orderly life. 

Then zap. 

One night while they lay in bed watching Johnny Carson, Muzhikovsky’s wife 

told him it was over. Johnny’s last guest, a religious nut plugging a book, ranted on. 


‘Did you hear me?’ Muzhikovsky’s wife said. 

‘Yes,’ Muzhikovsky said. He stared at the glowing TV. ‘What,’ he said. 

A blind man could see it, Johnny’s guest assured him. The signs, the portents: all 

heralding the impending arrival of the blazing glory of our Lord and Saviour, you 

bet. Johnny nodded sagely; then, when his guest wasn’t looking, dropped his jaw, 

mugged dopey credulity. 

The audience roared. 

‘I said I want a divorce.’ 


314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

TALKING ABOUT EVENTS CHAPTER 8 

The Verbal Group 

Module 37: Expressing our experience of events 317 

37.1 Syntactic elements of structure of the Verbal Group 317 

37.2 Realisations of the elements: lexical verbs and auxiliaries 318 

37.3 Types of lexical auxiliary 319 

37.3.1 Be + lexical item + to-infinitive 319 

37.3.2 Have or Have got + to-infinitive 320 

37.3.3 Modal idioms: had better, would rather 320 

37.4 ‘Raised’ subjects 321 

37.5 Syntactic features of the operator element 321 

Module 38: Basic structures of the Verbal Group 323 

38.1 Experiential structure of the Verbal Group 323 


38.2 Simple structures of the Verbal Group 324 

38.3 Extended structures of the Verbal Group 325 

38.4 Structures with one auxiliary: o v 325 

38.5 Structures with two grammatical auxiliaries: o x v 326 

38.6 Structures with three grammatical auxiliaries: o x x v 327 

38.7 Telescoped order of elements of the Verbal Group 328 

38.8 Extended non-finite structures 328 

38.9 Relative frequency of complex Verbal Groups 329 

38.10 Discontinuous Verbal Groups 329 

Module 39: Organising our experience of events 331 

39.1 Sequencing and phasing events 331 

39.2 Types of phase 333 

39.2.1 The phase of initiation 333 

39.2.2 The phase of continuation 333 

39.2.3 The phase of termination 334 

39.2.4 The phase of appearing or becoming real 334 

39.2.5 The phase of attempting, succeeding, failing, helping 334 

39.2.6 The phase of manner or attitude 334 

39.2.7 The phase of chance and tendency 335

Module 40: The semantics of phrasal verbs 336 

40.1 Phrasal verbs 336 

40.1.1 Semantic cohesiveness and idiomaticity 337 

40.2 Non-idiomatic phrasal verbs: free combinations 337 

40.2.1 The Motion Event: Figure, Ground, Path and Manner 337 

40.2.2 Translating Motion, Manner and Path combinations 339 

40.2.3 Substituting Manner and Path elements 340 

40.3 Basic meanings of a particle: back 340 

40.4 Semi-idiomatic phrasal verbs 341 

40.5 Fully idiomatic phrasal verbs 342 


Exercises 343 


EXPRESSING OUR MODULE 37 

EXPERIENCE OF EVENTS 

SUMMARY 

1 Verbal Groups (VG) encode our experience of events. The term ‘event’ is used 

here in representation of all types of process, including events, states and 

activities. 

2 The VG consists of a lexical verb (v), either alone (takes) or preceded by one 

or more auxiliaries (is taking/has been taken). The first auxiliary, the operator, 

has a special status and is distinguished by certain syntactic features. 

3 The operator is of the utmost importance in English as it carries the four ‘NICE’ 

functions of Negation, Inversion, Code (substitution) and Emphasis. It is realised 

by various types of auxiliary: primary, modal and lexical auxiliaries, which help 

to build up the symbolic representation of the event and carry a wide range of 

modal and aspectual meanings. 


4 Certain of the lexical auxiliaries (e.g. be bound to) have ‘raised’ Subjects. 

37.1 SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE OF THE 

VERBAL GROUP 

The Verbal Group is the grammatical unit by means of which we most typically express 

our perception of events. ‘Event’ will be used in this chapter to cover all types of process, 

whether events, activities, states or acts of consciousness. These are described from the 

point of view of their place in the semantics of the clause in Chapter 4. 

The VG consists of a lexical verb (e.g. take) or a primary verb (a form of be, have or 

do) as main verb (v), either alone or preceded by one or more grammatical elements – 

the auxiliaries (x) as in has been and has taken. The lexical and grammatical elements 

are all integral parts of an analytical form. The first auxiliary has a special status and is 

usually called the ‘operator’ (o) (see 3.1.1), for reasons which are explained in section 

37.5. The constituent elements of the English VG can therefore be represented and 

exemplified as in the diagram.

VG 

(o) (x) (x) v 

v waited I waited an hour 

o v is waiting Everyone is waiting 

o x v have been waiting He has been waiting an hour 

o x x v will have been waiting He will have been waiting an hour 

37.2 REALISATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS: LEXICAL VERBS 

AND AUXILIARIES 

The elements of the VG are realised by the following classes and forms of verbs: 

• lexical verbs: wait, come, rain, bring, etc. 

• primary verbs: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, have, has, had, having; do, 

does, did 

• modal auxiliaries: shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to 

• semi-modals: need, dare, used to (modals in certain uses) 

• lexical auxiliaries: 

(1) be able to, be about to, be apt to, be bound to, be due to, be going to, be liable 

to, be likely to, be certain to, be sure to, be to, be unlikely to, be supposed to 

(2) have to, have got to 

(3) had better, would rather, would sooner 


The primary and modal verbs are limited in number, as this list shows, and form closed 

sets. Lexical verbs, the v or main element, constitute an open set; new ones can be 

coined and added to the lexicon at any time. 

The primary verbs carry grammatical meaning (tense, aspect, person, number), the 

modal auxiliaries express modal meanings (obligation, possibility, probability, necessity) 

(see Module 44) rather than lexical or grammatical meaning. On the other hand, the 

lexical element of the VG expresses both lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 

The primary verbs be, have, do can function both as auxiliary and as lexical elements 

of the VG (with the exception of doing and done, which function only as lexical elements). 

The syntactic function determines the type of meaning expressed, whether grammatical 

or lexical, as shown here. 

Functioning as auxiliary 

Elections are approaching. 

We didn’t do anything about it. 

He has had nothing to eat. 

Functioning as lexical (main) verb 

Elections are imminent. 

We did everything. 

He had nothing to eat. 

318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In addition to its function as a main verb, be therefore has three auxiliary functions: 

as an aspect auxiliary in the progressive: is taking; as a passive auxiliary: is taken (38.4); 

and as the basis of the lexical auxiliaries that take be. 

37.3 TYPES OF LEXICAL AUXILIARY 

Lexical auxiliary is the term used for a set of verbs of modal or aspectual meaning 

which form chain-like structures with the main verb of the VG. The majority are 

followed by a V-to-inf form, but a few take the infinitive without to. They can be divided 

into three types according to whether their first word is (1) be; (2) have; (3) a modal 

idiom. 

As with other to-infinitive uses (see 12.2), the lexical auxiliaries tend to point to 

a future event, though not invariably so. They express subjective estimations by the 

speaker as to the imminence of the event, the certainty, probability or usualness of the 

event taking place, or the speaker’s duty or ability (based on knowledge or skill) to do 

something. Some of these auxiliaries have undergone semantic change, so they are not 

what they seem at first sight. (See 41.6 for more on future time.) 

37.3.1 Be + Lexical item + to-infinitive 

Be + lexical item + V-to-inf meanings 

be going to We’re going to need more staff (prediction based on 

here. 

evidence) 

be about to The plane is about to take off. (imminence of event) 

be due to He’s due to arrive at any moment. (expectation of scheduled 

event) 

be to As a young girl, she little knew (planned event or destiny) 

she was to marry the heir to the 

throne. 

be bound to There’s bound to be some cheese 

in the fridge. 

be certain to She is certain to resign. 

(confident anticipation) 

be sure to He’s sure to be waiting outside. 

be likely to They’re likely to win by several (probability) 

goals. 

be apt to He’s apt to ask awkward 

questions. 

(tendency or usualness) 

be liable to This machine is liable to break 

down. 

be supposed to We’re not supposed to smoke in (duty, general belief) 

here. 

be able to I am not able to guarantee the (ability, possibility) 

results. 

Note that a few of the lexical words in this list can also function as adjectives: an able 

mechanic; an apt quotation; a certain/ sure winner; the likely winner of the elections. 


EVENTS: VERBAL GROUPS 319

37.3.2 Have or Have got + to-infinitive 

Have and have got + V-to-inf 

meanings 

have to I have to finish these letters. (obligation) 

There has to be a solution. 

(necessity) 

have got to I’ve got to go now. Oh, do you have to? (obligation) 

There’s got to be a solution. 

(necessity) 

Like must, these combinations have meanings of both obligation and necessity (see 44.5). 

In type 3, had better has the meaning of advisability and would rather/would sooner 

indicate preference. 

The Subject-Finite operator inversion characteristic of be, have and other auxiliaries 

in interrogative and negative clauses is explained in Module 23, together with the requirement 

of a do operator by lexical verbs. As a reminder here, we exemplify have to and 

have got to in interrogative clauses, showing that while have to can function either as a 

primary auxiliary or as a lexical verb, have got to functions only as an auxiliary: 

Have to Auxiliary Lexical verb 

Interrogative Have you to go? Do you have to go? Don’t you 

have to go? 

Negative declarative 

You don’t have to go. 

Have got to Auxiliary 

Interrogative Have you got to go? 

Haven’t you got to go? 

Negative declarative You haven’t got to go. 


Furthermore, have got + to-infinitive has no non-finite forms and does not combine with 

modals. None of the following structures are possible, therefore, all being used with 

have to: 

*To have got to live there must be To have to live there ... 

dreadful 

*I don’t like having got to get up I don’t like having to get up early. 

early. 

*We have had got to repaint the We have had to repaint ... 

kitchen. 

*You will have got to watch out for You will have to watch out for ... 

mosquitoes there. 

37.3.3 Modal idioms: had better, would rather 

Modal idioms with had and 

would + V-inf 

meanings 

had better You had better come back tomorrow. (I advise you to ...) 

would rather I would rather stay here with you. (I would prefer to ...) 

would sooner I would sooner pay in advance. (I would prefer to ...) 

320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

37.4 ‘RAISED’ SUBJECTS 

You may have noticed that in clauses such as They are likely to win, the NG at Subject 

does not appear to be the logical Subject of the Complement likely to win. In fact, the 

likelihood refers not to the subject they, but to the situation of winning. Syntactically, 

then, the NG (they) is the logical subject of a clause embedded at subject, as in (a) below 

(that they will win), which is then extraposed, as in (b). Finally the subject of the subordinate 

clause is raised to become subject of the main clause, as in (c): 

(a) That they will win is likely 

(b) It is likely that they will win 

(c) They are likely to win. 

This is known as subject-to-subject raising (see also section 30.5.1). Likely is used 

a great deal in this construction, perhaps because its apparent synonym probable does 

not admit raising (*He is probable to win). Other lexical auxiliaries that are the result of 

raising are be certain to, sure to and supposed to. 

Object-to-subject raising occurs when a NG Object of a clause embedded at 

subject (them in (a) below) is extraposed as in (b) and then is raised to subject of the 

main clause, as in (c): 

(a) To find them is hard 

(b) It is hard to find them 

(c) They are hard to find 

Raised subjects have the advantage of referring to persons or things by names, nouns 


or pronouns in a clause that is shorter and simpler than the corresponding that-clause 

or extraposed structures. They also provide a different Theme and Topic (28.4). 

37.5 SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF THE OPERATOR ELEMENT 

Any of the primary verbs or the modal auxiliaries can stand in initial position and so 

function as operator in a VG. 

The operator element has four major distinctive properties which are not shared 

by lexical verbs. They carry the ‘operations’ in what have been called the NICE 

constructions: Negation, Inversion, Code and Emphasis. Compare: 

operation operator aux. lexical vb 

1 Negation: contraction with I don’t eat meat *I eatn’t ... 

neg. particle 

2 Inversion with S in Will you sign? *Sign you? 

interrogatives 

3 ‘Code’, that is, substitute I’ll go, if Ed will I want to go if you do 

for the Predicator and 

(if you *want) 

predicate in a clause 

(cf. 29.5) 

4 Emphasis (by tonic stress) Yes, I will go I do want to go 


Four more features also distinguish the operator from a lexical verb: 

operation operator aux. lexical vb 

5 Position of frequency I can always go I always want to go 

adverb: follows operator 

*I want always to go 

but precedes lexical verb 

6 Postposition of quantifiers They have all/ *They went all/ both 

all and both both gone They all/ both went 

7 Verbal element in a tag You will come, ...*comen’t you? 

question 

won’t you? 

8 Independence of subject Ed will teach the Ed expects to teach the 

juniors 

juniors 

The juniors will The juniors expect 

be taught by to be taught by Ted 

Ted 

With verbs which have the active–passive contrast, operators usually show no change 

of meaning, whereas with some finite lexical verbs (e.g. expect) there is a change of 

meaning. 


322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

BASIC STRUCTURES OF MODULE 38 

THE VERBAL GROUP 

SUMMARY 

1 The experiential structure of the VG consists of Finite + Event + auxiliaries. The 

Finite expresses tense, person, number and modality (the latter when realised 

by a modal auxiliary). These relate the verbal process to the ‘speaker-now’ 

and establish the Verbal Group in relation to the speech exchange. The Event 

expresses lexical meaning, which provides the representational content. Finite 

and Event are fused in e.g. runs, asked; was, has (as primary auxiliaries). 

2 Verbal Groups can be marked for tense or modality but not both. 

3 Verbal Group structures can be simple, consisting of one element only (runs, 

asked), or extended, consisting of one or more auxiliaries + a main verb (may 

have been running). 

4 Up to four auxiliaries can occur, or five if a lexical auxiliary is included. 

5 The meanings expressed by the auxiliaries are: modal, perfect, progressive, 

passive, in this order. The structures which realise these meanings are 

telescoped in the VG. 

6 The longer combinations are more frequent in spoken than in written English. 

7 Non-finite VGs (having been seen) can express perfect, progressive and passive 

meanings, but not tense or modality. 

8 Verbal Groups are discontinuous in English when the sequence of elements 

is interrupted by other clause elements or by intensifiers. 


38.1 EXPERIENTIAL STRUCTURE OF THE VERBAL GROUP 

In finite clauses the experiential structure of the Verbal Group is Finite + Event. The 

Finite carries tense, number and, to a limited extent, person. A modal auxiliary provides 

an alternative to a tensed auxiliary, for instance is going/may go. A tensed form and a 


modal auxiliary do not occur together: *is may go. In one-word VGs, such as takes, has 

(she has long hair), the finiteness is realised on the lexical verb. In longer sequences the 

Finite is realised by an operator and may be followed by one or more auxiliaries: It has 

been snowing all day. 

There is a parallelism between the Nominal Group and the Verbal Group as regards 

their respective experiential structures. Both begin with an element which relates them 

to the ‘speaker-now’ of the speech situation. The NG does this by means of the deictic, 

or ‘pointing’ element, such as ‘this’ in this house, the VG by means of the operator, which 

carries tense, modality and person (is waiting/will wait), or the lexical verb alone (waits). 

The Verbal Group ends with the Event, which corresponds to the Entity in the Nominal 

Group, and provides the representational content. Both Event and Entity represent the 

nucleus of the lexical meaning. 

38.2 SIMPLE STRUCTURES OF THE VERBAL GROUP 

A simple Verbal Group structure consists of a single element, usually the lexical element, 

realised by a finite or non-finite form of a lexical verb, for example drive: 

Finite forms 

drive (pres. indic.) 

drives (pres. indic.) 

drove (past indic.) 

Non-finite forms 

(to) drive (inf.) 

bare infinitive 

driving (pres. part.) 

driven (past part.) 

They drive on the left in the UK. 

He drives to work every day. 

He drove out of the garage. 


It’s important to drive with care. 

They won’t let you drive without a licence. 

Driving to work this morning, I heard the 9 o’clock news. 

Driven away by night, the car was then abandoned. 

Simple VG structures are illustrated in the passage below: 

Rivers perhaps are the only physical feature of the world that appear at their best 

from the air. Mountain ranges, no longer seen in profile, dwarf to anthills; seas lose 

their horizons; lakes have no longer depth but look like bright pennies on the earth’s 

surface; forests become a thin impermanent film, a mass on the top of a wet stone, 

easily rubbed off. But rivers, which from the ground one usually sees in cross sections, 

like a small sample of ribbon – rivers stretch out serenely ahead as far as the eye 

reaches. 

(A. M. Lindbergh, North to the Orient) 

324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

38.3 EXTENDED STRUCTURES OF THE VERBAL GROUP 

An ‘extended’ Verbal Group structure consists of a lexical verb at the head, preceded 

by up to four auxiliaries, or five if we include the lexical auxiliaries. The order in which 

the auxiliaries occur is fixed and depends upon the grammatical meanings they convey. 

The features of grammatical meaning which can be expressed in an extended VG 

comprise the following pairs, marked and unmarked, respectively, in 3rd person singular: 

marked unmarked 

tense past, present went goes 

finiteness non-finite, finite going goes 

anteriority perfect, non-perfect has gone goes 

aspect progressive, non-progressive is going goes 

modality modal, non-modal will go goes 

polarity negative, positive doesn’t go goes 

emphasis contrastive, non-contrastive does go goes 

These major features of grammatical meaning represent sets of options between which 

speakers choose every time they combine elements to form a Verbal Group. The basic 

or unmarked options are: the present, finite, non-perfect, non-progressive, non-modal, 

positive, non-contrastive. Taking a 3rd person form of go, goes is the unmarked option 

in each case. 

The auxiliaries serve to build up the meanings expressed by the modal, perfect, 

progressive and passive combinations, operating not in isolation but each telescoping 

with the next, as is explained below. The meanings of these and the other pairs are 

described in this and subsequent chapters. In the following examples, we let has and is 

stand for any form of have and be, must for any of the modal auxiliaries and be about 

to for the set of lexical auxiliaries. 


38.4 STRUCTURES WITH ONE AUXILIARY: O V 

In the finite VG with only one auxiliary, this auxiliary is necessarily the operator and, 

according to its type, selects a corresponding form of the lexical verb. The o v structure 

can express the following features of grammatical meaning, in addition to the obligatory 

choices of tense, finiteness, polarity and contrastiveness: 

features realisations example 

A 1 modal modal aux.+ V-inf must drive 

B 2 perfect have + V-en has driven 

C 3 progressive be + V-ing is driving 

D 4 passive be + V-en is driven 

With a lexical auxiliary: 

5 be + about to + V-inf is about to drive 


The four basic combinations also combine with each other to make up more complex 

Verbal Groups, all of which function as one VG at Finite + Predicator in clause structure. 

The features modal, perfect, progressive, passive occur in ordered combinations, 

like the letters of the alphabet ABCD. Thus, for instance, B can follow A, or D can follow 

C, but not vice versa. A certain feature may be omitted, as in ACD, BD. Lexical auxiliaries 

can occur with any combination, as illustrated in the next section. 

The grammatical meanings listed above, which are realised by one auxiliary (the 

operator) + the lexical verb, are illustrated in the following passage. Forms of be occur 

as main verb, there is one main verb fell and also one ‘phased’ VG (see 39.2.7): 

One day, as you are washing 1 your hands, you happen to glance 2 into the mirror 

over the basin and a sudden doubt will flash 3 across your mind: ‘Is 4 that really me?’ 

‘What am I doing 5 here?’ ‘Who am 6 I?’ Each one of us is so completely cut off 7 from 

everyone else. How do you know 8 you are reading 9 a book? The whole thing may 

be 10 an illusion. How do you know 11 that red is 12 red? The colour could appear 13 

blue in everyone else’s eyes. A similar doubt, differently expressed, is 14 inherent in 

the well-known question: ‘A tree that has fallen 15 in the forest, far from the nearest 

man – when it fell, 16 did it make 17 any noise?’ 

(Magnus Pike, The Boundaries of Science) 

Be as main verb: 4 , 6 , 12 , 14 . Be as aux. progressive: 1 , 5 , 9 . Be as aux. passive: 7 . 

Have as aux. perfect: 15 . Do as aux. present: 8 , 11 . Do as aux. past: 17 . Modal aux: 

3 

, 10 , 13 . Phased VG with catenative happen to: 2 . 


This text illustrates the options listed as ABCD choices. It must be remembered, 

however, that all finite Verbal Groups also select obligatorily for tense, polarity and 

contrastiveness. This means that a full description of any one VG realisation would have 

to specify all these choices, as can be exemplified by 1 are washing: finite, present, 

positive, non-contrastive, non-modal, + progressive, non-perfect, non-passive. 

38.5 STRUCTURES WITH TWO GRAMMATICAL 

AUXILIARIES: O X V 

6 modal + perfect must have driven 

7 modal + progressive must be driving 

8 modal + passive must be driven 

9 perfect + progressive has been driving 

10 perfect + passive has been driven 

In combination with a lexical auxiliary: 

11 modal + lexical-aux must be about to drive 

12 perfect + lexical-aux has been about to drive 

326 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

13 lexical-aux + progressive is about to be driving 

14 lexical-aux + passive is about to be driven 

Structures with two auxiliaries occur widely in both spoken and written English. The 

following extract is adapted from a report about problems facing language-school 

students when they come to the UK to study English: 

It must be realised 1 that many students will be going 2 abroad for the first time and 

may well be likely to feel 3 anxious about the kind of reception they will be given, 4 

about the kind of work they are about to have to do 5 or about the host family to 

which they happen to have been assigned. 6 Many of these worries can easily be 

allayed 7 by giving them as much information as possible beforehand. In the past, 

some students have been apt to complain 8 that they have had to face 9 certain 

difficulties in the first weeks owing to lack of sufficient information. 

1 

modal + passive; 2 modal + progressive; 3 modal + lexical-aux; 4 modal + passive; 

5 

lexical-aux + lexical-aux; 6 catenative (happen to) + perfect + passive; 7 modal + 

passive; 8 perfect + lexical-aux; 9 perfect + lexical-aux 

38.6 STRUCTURES WITH THREE GRAMMATICAL 

AUXILIARIES: O X X V 


15 modal + perfect + progressive must have been driving 

16 modal + perfect + passive must have been driven 

17 modal + progessive + passive must be being driven 

18 perfect + progressive + passive has been being driven 

Verbal groups of three grammatical auxiliaries are more common in speech than in 

writing. With a modal or a lexical auxiliary, complex forms easily occur in spoken 

English, as in the following examples: 

. . . and (they) think the killer could be being protected locally [BNC KIE 23370] 

The matter could and should have been dealt with as set out above [BNC FD6 2851] 

Groups with the two forms been being are uncommon, but they can occur if they are 

needed. 

With a lexical auxiliary added there are now four auxiliaries: 

19 modal + perfect + lexical-aux must have been about to drive 

20 modal + lex.-aux + progressive must be about to be driving 

21 modal + lex.-aux + passive must be about to be driven 

22 perfect + lex.-aux + progressive has been about to be driving 

23 perfect + lex.-aux + passive has been about to be driven 

24 progressive + lex.-aux + passive is about to be being driven 


Then his application would have to have been made to the Commission by March. 

[BNC FBK 14.655] 

We will go no further with the structure of the finite extended VG, as no examples of 

five auxiliaries have been found in a large corpus. In principle, however, there is no 

grammatical constraint on their composition and the telescoped order of elements 

allows for their use if the context requires them. 

38.7 TELESCOPED ORDER OF ELEMENTS OF THE 

VERBAL GROUP 

It is important to note that each semantico-syntactic feature of a complex VG (tense 

and modality, perfect, progressive and passive) is expressed, not by one element only, 

but by each element telescoping into the following one: 

modality: 

perfect: 

progressive: 

passive: 

main verb: 

must + V-inf 

have + V-en 

been + V-ing 

being + V-en 

driven 

= Verbal Group: must have been being driven 

(4 grammatical auxiliaries) 


With respect to the other auxiliaries, lexical auxiliaries have a relatively free ordering, 

the basic requirement being that they are followed by an infinitive. This blocks such 

combinations as *is likely to can drive and *is bound to must drive. However the meaning 

of must can be expressed by the lexical auxiliary have + to-infinitive, and of can by be 

able to, giving the acceptable combinations is likely to be able to drive and is bound to have 

to drive, as illustrated in the following spoken example: 

If pain and other symptoms were being so badly managed these patients should 

have been referred promptly to other health care professionals who might have been 

able to provide a better quality of analgesia. [BNC FT2 31.588] 

Note that, as we mentioned in Module 37, forms of be participate in extended structures 

in various ways: as auxiliary of the progressive (is taking); as auxiliary of the passive 

(is taken); and in a lexical auxiliary combination (is bound to). These can be telescoped 

successively as in: is being taken (prog. + passive), is bound to be taken (lex. aux + passive). 

38.8 EXTENDED NON-FINITE STRUCTURES 

Non-finite VGs do not possess the full set of sequences that we find in finite groups 

because they do not express the grammatical meanings of tense, mood or modality. 

328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The perfect, progressive and passive meanings can, however, be expressed in the 

non-finite VG, giving the following possible combinations (the bracketed form is not 

common): 

Infinitive structures Participle structures 

25 to have driven having driven 

26 to have been driving having been driving 

27 to have been driven having been driven 

28 to be driving (being driving) 

29 to be driven being driven 

Lexical auxiliaries can of course also be incorporated into non-finite structures, making 

for even longer combinations, which can be produced spontaneously when they are 

needed, as in the example: 

Having been about to be operated on more than once, his operation was nevertheless 

postponed on each occasion. 

With an appropriate lexical verb and an appropriate context, such as someone who 

is teaching needing extended time to complete an essay on a course she is following, 

the participial sequence of being + V-ing is acceptable, as in the following example from 

Michael Halliday: 

You might get an extension on the grounds of being teaching. 


38.9 RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF COMPLEX VERBAL GROUPS 

It must be realised that extended VG structures have developed and become acceptable 

over time, and that this process has not yet been completed. Even short progressive + 

passive combinations such as are being killed were avoided by writers before the second 

half of the nineteenth century. (Macaulay is said to have written ‘Good soldiers are killing 

. . .’ because he could not bring himself to write ‘are being killed’.) There is still a similar 

reluctance to use the longer forms such as might have been being killed. The language’s 

resources, nevertheless, can generate them so that they are at the user’s disposal when 

they are needed. The reason that longer VGs occur more frequently in spoken English 

than in written lies partly in the on-line nature of spontaneous speech and the kind 

of meanings conveyed by the VG. Such meanings are related not simply to an objective 

point of time at which an event occurred, but also more subjectively and spontaneously, 

to evaluations, speculations and predictions made by the speaker as to what may happen 

in the future or to what could, should or might have happened in the past. 

38.10 DISCONTINUOUS VERBAL GROUPS 

The sequence of elements in VGs is often interrupted by other clause elements, such 

as subject, adjunct and intensifiers as in has not yet been completed. Such interruptions 


can be seen in the following exchange, in which A asks B about her father, who is a wine 

dealer: 

A. Did he import 1 from any particular place in France, or all over? 

B. Well, he used to sort of be 2 forever going 3 to Bordeaux, so I assumed from that that 

that was his main connection. 

(adapted from J. Svartvik and R. Quirk, A Corpus of English Conversation) 

1 

interrupted by Subject; 2 interrupted by intensifier; 3 interrupted by Adjunct 

As well as in interrogative structures, separation of the VG by the subject is produced 

in certain types of thematisation (Only then did he realise the harm he had done; Had 

we known your address, we would have got in touch with you). This is explained in 

section 28.10. 

Discontinuity of the VG is also produced by negative or semi-negative items (I would 

never have believed that of him; You can hardly expect them to wait all day). 


330 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

ORGANISING OUR EXPERIENCE MODULE 39 

OF EVENTS 

SUMMARY 

1 Verbal groups can be linked by coordination to express sequences of related 

events. 

2 VGs in a dependency relationship are described by the semantic notion of 

phase. They form chain-like sequences which symbolise a complex event 

consisting of two phases (try to win, end up winning). 

3 The first VG in a phased structure is often a catenative (start, happen) and can 

express the aspectual meanings of initiation, continuation, attempt, manner and 

usuality. 


4 These catenatives are mid-way between lexical verbs and auxiliaries. They are 

not able to function as operators, and so require the do-operator. 

5 The second VG is non-finite. The to-infinitive points to a beginning or end-point 

of the second phase, (start to cry) while the -ing form implies its duration (start 

crying). 

We now begin to examine some of the means used in English to express the internal 

nature or character of the event for which the verb is a linguistic symbol. 

39.1 SEQUENCING AND PHASING EVENTS 

Verbal groups can be joined, either by coordination or by dependency to express events 

which occur in sequence, or are ‘phased’, respectively. 

When linked by coordination, VGs are conjoined. They express two events with 

the same subject which occur in sequence and are semantically related (washed and 

dressed, but hardly washed and scolded). Just as with the conjoining of other types of 

grammatical unit, the VGs may be linked in three ways: by the linking words and, or and 

but; without any linking item; or by a combination of both when more than two events 

are related: 


She washed and dressed the child. 

Our last typist just left, disappeared without saying a word. 

He was born, lived and died in Bristol. 

In section 12.1 we considered verbs which can set up a chain of non-finite complements 

as catenatives, and the non-finite clauses themselves as catenative complements. Here 

we look at a largely different set of verbal groups e.g. happened to see, keep on running, 

which can in many cases be interpreted semantically as one complex or phased process, 

realised by two VGs, the second dependent on the first. The first VG is a catenative, 

which may be finite (such as happened) or non-finite (such as having kept on). Unlike the 

lexical auxiliaries, these verbs cannot themselves be operators. Instead they take the do 

operator, as in Did he happen to see it? 

The second VG is always non-finite, the form of the verb being controlled by the first. 

The infinitive form, usually with to, as in it started to rain, tends to draw attention to 

the initial or terminative stage of the phased event. The participial -ing form, as in it 

started raining tends to suggest the durative nature of the second phase. The -en form in 

the get-passive suggests termination, while get invokes partial responsibility, or bad luck/ 

good luck, for the action (see 30.3.5). Get can be used in the three types of phase: 

Initial: 

Terminating: 

Terminating + responsibility/bad luck: 

Let’s get moving. 

I got to know him well. 

He got run over by a bus. 

Verbs which can function as the first verb in the phased verbal groups include the 

following: 


• + to-infinitive: appear to, chance to, come to, fail to, get to, happen to, help to, 

hesitate to, manage to, prove to, regret to, seem to, tend to, try to, turn out to, 

venture to 

• + -ing: keep (on), go on, carry on 

• + to-infinitive or -ing: begin, start, get, cease, stop 

• get + V-en (the get-passive) 

• help + to-infinitive or bare infinitive 

The non-finite forms are illustrated as follows: 

to-infinitive 

-ing form 

to-inf./-ing 

To-inf./bare inf. 

-en 

He tried to kill the snakes. 

He went on killing the snakes. 

He began to kill the snakes. 

He helped kill/ to kill the snakes. 

He began killing the snakes. 

He got killed by a snake. 

These verbs have in common with the lexical auxiliaries the ability to form chained 

sequences of non-finite constructions as in Those pears don’t seem to be getting eaten and 

He always seems to be certain to pass his driving test, but in the end he keeps on managing to 

332 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

fail. Although they require the do-operator, many of them satisfy the ‘independence of 

the subject’ criterion which is characteristic of auxiliaries and illustrated below (see also 

37.5). When used as catenatives, then, the following verbs are midway between 

auxiliaries and full lexical verbs: 

Phil fails to 

appears to 

happens to 

tends to 

ceased to 

came to 

recognise the implications. 

appear to 

happen to 

The implications fail to be recognised by Phil. 

tend to 

ceased to 

came to 

39.2 TYPES OF PHASE 

Verbal Group complexes of this kind are said to be ‘phased’, because the process 

expressed by the VGs is interpreted as being realised by a single subject in two or more 

phases. The types of phase are classified notionally here in terms of the meaning of the 

first verb. 


39.2.1 The phase of initiation 

Some verbs admit the aspectual contrast of initial/ terminative as opposed to durative 

in the second: 

It began to rain. It began raining. 

She started to cry. She started crying. 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - Get moving! 

39.2.2 The phase of continuation 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - Why do you keep on complaining? 

He went on to talk about his future plans. He went on talking for hours. 

It continued to snow for a week. 

It continued snowing for a week. 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - Carry on working, please! 

There is a difference of meaning between go on + to inf. and go on + -ing. The infinitive 

form suggests movement to a different topic or activity, depending on the verb, while 

the -ing form encodes the continuation of the same activity. Compare: He went on 

(afterwards) to study Physics, and He went on (as usual) studying Physics. 


39.2.3 The phase of termination 

I have ceased to mind the harsh climate. I have ceased minding the constant 

noise. 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - He will end up resigning. 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - Have the children finished eating? 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - Can’t you stop making such a noise? 

I got to know him well 

I got working on the essay and finished 

it before dinner-time. (phase of 

initiation) 

The use of stop with a following to-infinitive indicates the end of one process and the 

beginning of another, rather than one phased process. Syntactically, the to-infinitive is 

analysed as adjunct. Compare: 

He stopped to think. He stopped thinking. 

39.2.4 The phase of appearing or becoming real 

The sky seemed to get darker. The patient appears to be improving. 

The job proved to be quite unsuitable. 

The stranger turned out to be a neighbour after all. 

39.2.5 The phase of attempting, succeeding, failing, helping 

The verbs used with these meanings include try, attempt, manage, be able, fail, neglect, 

omit, learn, which are followed by the to-infinitive form of the subordinate verb. Again, 

this form often draws attention to the initiation or completion of the process: 


He tried to learn Arabic. 

We managed to find the key. 

We had arranged to meet at 9, but he failed to turn up. 

You must learn to relax. 

I attempted to explain but they wouldn’t listen. 

She neglected to turn off the gas and there was an explosion. 

He helped feed the baby/ This herbal tea will help you to relax. (See also section 12.3.) 

39.2.6 The phase of manner or attitude 

The manner in which a person performs an action or an attitude of mind towards 

performing it are expressed by verbs such as regret, hesitate, hasten, pretend, decline, 

bother. All are followed by the to-infinitive form, except bother, which can also take an - 

ing form: 

I regret to inform you . . . = inform with regret 

I hesitate to ask you this favour. = ask reluctantly 

They hastened to reassure her. = reassure immediately 

He’s only pretending to be deaf. = acting as if deaf 

334 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

He declined to answer the question. = was not willing to answer 

I never bother to iron/ ironing sheets. = trouble myself to iron 

I happen to like her a lot, so shut up. = showing annoyance at something said 

39.2.7 The phase of chance and tendency 

An element of chance or usualness, in the performance of the action denoted by the 

second verb, is expressed by certain catenatives. Semantically, these verbs are similar 

to the lexical auxiliaries described in section 37.3, such as be apt to, be liable to, which 

express usualness. 

She happened to notice the number-plate. = noticed by chance 

I chanced to overhear their conversation. = heard by chance 

He tends to be nervous, doesn’t he? = often is 

Two phased verbs are illustrated in the following news item from The Sunday Times 

of India: 

Project to save Pisa tower 

Workers have started removing soil from under the base of the leaning tower of 

Pisa, Italy, the second phase of a project meant to keep the monument from toppling 

over. 

The digging that started on Friday was carried out through 12 tubes, inserted to 

a depth of six metres to remove some soil. Experts hope the tower will then settle 

better into the ground and lean less. It now leans 6 degrees, four metres off the 

perpendicular. 


An illustration of the occurrence of complex and phased VGs (together with lexical 

auxiliaries and phrasal verbs) in spoken English is provided by the following short extract 

from a recorded conversation: 

Rachel: 

Harry: 

Rachel: 

Harry: 

Rachel: 

Harry: 

We got locked out 1 of the flat yesterday. 

How did you get back 2 in? 

We had to borrow 3 a long ladder and climb up 4 to the first floor balcony. 

I thought that with the kind of security lock you’ve got, you’re not supposed 

to be able to lock yourself out. 5 

That’s true. But if you happen to bang 6 the door a bit too hard, it locks itself. 

It’s better to have to lock 7 it from the outside. 

1 

get-passive, phrasal verb; 2 phrasal verb; 3 lexical aux; 4 phrasal verb; 5 lexical aux. 

+ lexical-aux. + phrasal verb; 6 phased VG; 7 lexical-aux 


THE SEMANTICS OF MODULE 40 

PHRASAL VERBS 

SUMMARY 

1 Phrasal verbs consist of a lexical verb + an adverb-like particle (She walked 

out). The syntax of these verbs, as of other multi-word combinations, is described 

in Chapter 2. 

2 The function of many of the particles is to modify the nature of the activity 

expressed by the verb. The result is an extended meaning which is often quite 

different from the meaning(s) of the verb when it functions alone. 

3 The more transparent combinations combine the meaning of the verb and the 

particle, and these allow substitution (go out/run out/hurry out: go away/run 

away/hurry away. 


4 In a Motion Event analysis the lexical verb in such combinations expresses 

Motion, while the particle expresses the Path taken by the moving Figure with 

respect to the Ground. 

5 The notions of Manner and also Cause are typically incorporated, together with 

Motion, in English verbs. 

6 Phrasal verb particles can also draw attention to the beginning or end of an 

activity, to its continuation, slow completion, increased or decreased intensity 

and many other meanings. 

40.1 PHRASAL VERBS 

No student of English can fail to notice that phrasal verbs are one of the most distinctive 

features of present-day informal English, both in their abundance and in their 

productivity. New combinations are constantly being coined. A phrasal verb is a 

combination of a lexical verb and an adverb-like particle such as run in, fly away, get off, 

walk back, drive past, come over. The syntactic behaviour of phrasal verbs is compared 

with that of prepositional verbs in Chapter 2. 

336 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In this section we turn our attention to the combinations of meanings provided by 

the lexical verb together with its particle. We will try to show how the concept of Motion 

Event offers a cognitive explanation for these combinations in English that should help 

to dispel the opaqueness often ascribed to phrasal verbs. (We present here only a small 

part of what is a far-reaching model, which provides a typology of motion events across 

languages.) 

The function of many of the particles is to modify the nature of the activity expressed 

by the verb. The result is an extended meaning which is often different from the 

meaning(s) of the verb when it functions alone. 

40.1.1 Semantic cohesiveness and idiomaticity 

Phrasal verbs are semantically highly cohesive. The verb and particle function as a 

whole, and the more idiomatic combinations frequently have a unique, idiomatic 

meaning which is not merely the sum of the two parts. 

Other verb + particle combinations, however, present varying degrees of cohesiveness 

and little or no idiomaticity. For practical purposes, the following three degrees 

will be recognised: non-idiomatic, semi-idiomatic and fully idiomatic. We shall 

deal with each type separately. 

40.2 NON-IDIOMATIC PHRASAL VERBS: FREE COMBINATIONS 

The lexical verb and the adverbial particle each keep their own meaning, the sum of the 

meanings being one of movement + direction. The particle encodes the direction of 

the movement, while the lexical verb encodes the movement, as in: 


The children went down to the beach 

40.2.1 The Motion Event: Figure, Ground, Path and Manner 

It is here that the concept of Motion Event is revealing. The components in the Motion 

Event are Figure, Ground, Motion, and optionally, Path and Manner. Figure is the salient 

moving or stationary object in a motion event (we centre here on moving objects). In 

our previous example the children functions as Figure, while the beach serves as a point 

of reference or Ground with respect to which the Figure’s Path is conceptualised. Path 

refers to the one or more paths occupied by the Figure. In our example Path is fully 

expressed by the adverb-like particle down plus the preposition to. The lexical verb went 

expresses Motion. 

Figure Motion Path Ground 

The children went down to the beach 

ran 

walked 

In English the notion of Manner is easily incorporated together with Motion in the lexical 

verb, giving combinations such as ran down and walked down, which encode the different 


ways in which the movement is carried out. In this way, the manner of movement is 

integrated into the verbal group without the need to add an adverbial phrase or clause 

of manner. 

Both Path and Manner are important components of phrasal verbs. In many clauses 

which express motion in English, the particle expressing Path can stand alone without 

the preposition, and also without the rest of the Ground, as in The children went down/ 

walked down. When the information in the Ground can be inferred from the context, it 

is conventionally omitted, as is the bracketed part in 1 and 2. In 3 the whole of the 

Ground is retained (back on the shelf): 

1 The bus stopped and we got on/got off (it, the bus). 

2 We turned off (the main road) down a side-road. 

3 Put all the books back on the shelf. 

Non-literal uses of Path combinations may not admit this reduction of the Path 

component. Compare the literal use of into as in go into the house with the non-literal 

use as in go into the matter: They went into the house/They went in. They went into the 

matter/ *They went in. 

While many adverb-particles have the same form as prepositions (get on/off the bus 

– get on/ off), the two categories are distinguished by certain features: 

• A preposition is unstressed or lightly stressed; a particle receives heavy stress, even 

when they have the same form: compare come to class vs come TO (= recover 

consciousness). 

• A preposition is followed by a nominal element (noun, pronoun, -ing clause), a 

particle does not need to be followed by anything cf. climb up the cliff vs climb up. 

• The category of particle includes words that don’t function as simple prepositions: 

apart, together. Conversely, from and at are always prepositions, never particles; 

consequently, apart from and together with are complex prepositions (see Chapter 

12). 


English admits multiple expressions of Path, which include both particles and a 

preposition, as in: 

Paul ran back down into the garage. 

In this very ordinary English sentence, a great deal of information has been packed in: 

that the manner of motion was by running (ran); that Paul was returning to the place 

where he had been before (back); that his starting-point was higher than the garage, so 

that he had to descend (down), and that he went inside the garage, which was an 

enclosed place (into). Note that, in a semantic roles analysis, the preposition (in)to is a 

marker of Goal, the final location after the movement (see 59.2). 

A further (optional) component of the Motion Event is Cause. This is incorporated 

into English verb roots such as blow and knock, while the particle encodes Path as 

usual: 

338 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The paper blew off the table. = The Figure (the paper) moves from the 

Ground (the table) (due to the air blowing 

on it) 

I blew the crumbs off the table. = The Figure (the crumbs) moves from the 

Ground (the table) (due to my blowing 

on it) 

He knocked the lamp over. = The Figure (the lamp) moves from a 

vertical position (on an unspecified Ground) 

to a horizontal one (due to his giving it a 

blow) 

The causer is not necessarily expressed, and when it is, the cause may be deliberate or 

accidental. 

40.2.2 TRANSLATING MOTION, MANNER AND PATH 

COMBINATIONS 

It is characteristic of everyday colloquial English, and of a number of other languages, 

to express Path by particles (+ preposition) and to combine Manner with Motion in the 

verb. 

This is not so in the Romance languages, however. Spanish and French, for instance, 

have a different pattern. Let us take the sentence Paul ran back up into the attic. 

Spanish can combine Motion in the lexical verb with just one of the above components, 

either Manner alone (corrió=ran), or just one of the Path notions (subir=go up; entrar=go 

in, volver=go back, followed by a participle expressing Manner). The literal equivalents 

of these are not idiomatic English and should be avoided: 


Pablo corrió al ático. 

Pablo volvió al ático corriendo. 

Pablo subió al ático corriendo. 

Pablo entró en el ático corriendo. 

(‘Paul ran to the attic’) 

(‘Paul went back to the attic running’) 

(‘Paul went up to the attic running’) 

(‘Paul went into the attic running’) 

To attempt to put in more would be awkward and stylistically unacceptable. For this 

reason, translators working from English to Spanish are obliged to under-translate, usually 

omitting Path or Manner meanings. Conversely, in translations from Spanish into 

English over-translation is common through the addition of Path or Manner meanings. 

In both cases the aim is to provide a natural text in the target language. 

English phrasal and prepositional verbs often require to be translated into other 

languages by transposing the meanings of the verb and particle in the target language. 

For example, row across the lake can be translated into Spanish as cruzar el lago remando 

[literally cross the lake rowing]. The English particle across is translated as the main verb, 

cruzar, while the verb row is translated as a participle, remando. This process has been 

called cross transposition. In this case the transposition was complete, since both 

verb and adverb were translated. In other cases, either the verb or the particle is better 

not expressed, being inferred, as in: A bird flew in: Entró un pájaro. The transposition is 

then ‘incomplete’ since the notion of flying has been omitted as not salient. 


40.2.3 Substituting Manner and Path elements 

The lexical verbs in non-idiomatic combinations are among the most frequently used 

English verbs, denoting basic movement, either with the whole body (go, carry, come, 

walk, etc.) or, more specifically, with part of the body (kick, hand, head, elbow, etc.), 

whereas others have very general or directional meanings (get, put, bring, take). 

They combine with a wide variety of adverb-particles. Since they allow substitution, 

we can start from each lexical verb such as those below and make combinations with 

various particles. Obviously, other lexical verbs and other particles can be used. Not 

every lexical verb can combine with every particle. Here is a small selection: 

up up up Take it up 

down down down Take it down 

in in in Take it in 

take out go out carry out Take it out 

off off off Take it off 

away away away Take it away 

back back back Take it back 

Alternatively, you can replace the basic lexical verb by a more specific verb of 

movement, while retaining the same adverbial particle. Instead of the basic go out, for 

instance, we can specify the manner of movement more exactly: walk out, run out, hurry 


out, rush out. With the notion of Cause added (= make come out), we have bring out, print 

out, squeeze out (You squeeze the toothpaste out like this). Such combinations have 

frequently developed a non-literal meaning, as in the following business news item: 

More supermarkets opening in-store chemists could squeeze out High Street 

pharmacies. 

40.3 BASIC MEANINGS OF A PARTICLE: BACK 

A great deal of the opaqueness that learners find in phrasal verbs can be dispelled by 

acquiring a grasp of the basic meaning of each adverb-particle, together with some of 

the derived meanings. Take back, for instance. Back has two basic Path meanings. 

First, back can represent a circular path in which the Figure ends up where it 

started. This is the one expressed by Come back tomorrow, Put the books back on the 

shelves. The person or thing comes to be in the place or position where they were before, 

so that I’ll be back at 4.30 means ‘I’ll be again in this place where I am now’. 

Close to the basic meaning is give back and pay back as in I’ll give/ pay you back 

the money tomorrow (that is, I’ll return the money to you tomorrow). By a short extension, 

we have the meaning of reciprocity ‘in return, in reply’ as in I’ll ring you back this 

340 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

evening. A metaphorical extension of pay back occurs as a threat in I’ll pay you back 

for this! 

Second, back can have the meaning ‘in the opposite direction to the one a person 

is facing’ as in: 

stand back: 

keep back: 

Stand back from the edge of the platform! 

The police kept the crowd back as the royal car drew near. 

This meaning is given a figurative extension in His illness has kept him back all this term. 

With this second meaning, the end-point is not the same as the initial point. 

40.4 SEMI-IDIOMATIC PHRASAL VERBS 

In semi-idiomatic combinations the lexical verb, generally speaking, keeps its literal 

or metaphorical meaning, while the particle is used as an aspectual marker of various 

kinds. By this we refer here to the way a particle with a verb in English can express the 

completion, beginning-point, end-point or high intensity of an event. Continuation, a kind 

of non-completion, can also be expressed. These notions are explained and discussed in 

Chapter 9 under the concepts of perfectivity and imperfectivity, respectively. 

Aspect is seen here as the pattern of distribution through time of an action or state, 

and relates to such questions as its completion, beginning-point, end-point or high 

intensity, all kinds of perfectivity. Non-completion, which is a type of imperfectivity, can 

also be expressed. 


The following connotations of particles have been suggested: 

1 beginning of an activity: doze off, switch on, start out 

He sat in an armchair in front of the television and soon dozed off. 

2 momentary character of an activity: cry out, sit down, wake up, stand up 

Everyone cried out in fear when the boat capsized. 

3 the bringing of an activity to an end or getting to a certain limit: eat up, catch up, 

drink up, fill up, heat up, mix up, use up, sweep up; count out, hear out, knock out, 

sort out, throw out, wear out; break off, call off, cut off, sell off, switch off 

Heat up the milk but don’t let it boil over. 

He hit the burglar so hard that he knocked him out. 

The two countries have broken off diplomatic relations. 

4 the slow completion of an activity: melt down, wind down, die away, fade away, 

melt away, pine away, waste away; chill out, peter out. 

The sound of thunder gradually died away/faded away. 

We are all stressed out. Let’s go and have a drink to wind down/chill out. 


5 the completion of an activity from beginning to end: read through, rush through, 

think through 

I don’t think they have really thought the problem through. 

6 reach a different, non-integral or denatured state: break up, burn up, tear up 

Their marriage broke up. 

She tore up the letter and threw the bits of paper into the fire. 

7 the continuation or resumption of an activity: carry on, go on, keep on, work on, 

stay on, walk on. 

George carried on the family business. 

The orchestra went on/kept on playing as the Titanic sank. 

We stopped for a ten-minute break and then worked on until 7 o’clock. 

8 the continuation of an activity with dedication or abandon: work away, chat away 

They’ll sit gossiping away/chatting away happily for hours. 

9 end of motion: settle down 

Isn’t it time he got a job and settled down? 

10 distribution: give out, share out 

What are those leaflets that are being given out? 

11 decreased intensity: slow down, die down 

Slow down before you reach the crossing. 


The clamour finally died down. 

12 mass character of an activity in progressive sequence: die off, kill off 

All the rabbits have died off in this area. Flies die off as soon as winter comes. 

13 reciprocity of an activity: hit back 

Tom hit Bill and he hit him back. 

In phrasal verbs the notion of completion or bringing to an end is most clear in those 

cases in which there is a contrast with a single verb, as in use vs use up, eat vs eat up, 

drink vs drink up, knock vs knock out and so on. Compare I’ve used this detergent (i.e. some 

of this detergent) with I’ve used up this detergent ( = there is none left); He knocked the 

burglar down the stairs with He knocked him out (= left him unconscious). 

40.5 FULLY IDIOMATIC PHRASAL VERBS 

Fully idiomatic combinations are those in which the meaning of the whole is not easily 

deduced from the parts, although it may well be deduced from the context: 

342 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The conversation petered out after about ten mintues. (gradually came to an end) 

Someone tipped off the police that a robbery was being planned. (warn, give secret 

information) 

The government has decided to crack down on antisocial behaviour. (impose 

sanctions). 

The nonsense song caught on and was soon being heard everywhere. (become 

popular) 

Please stop butting in. We are trying to balance the accounts. (interrupt) 

The illustrations given in these sections show that it is by no means easy to establish 

boundaries between what is idiomatic and what is not. Many verbs, both one-word and 

multi-word, have a number of related meanings according to their collocation with 

different nouns and depending on the contexts in which they are used. Particularly 

characteristic of phrasal verbs are their metaphorical extensions of meaning, from 

concrete to abstract or abstract to concrete; and from one context to another less typical 

one. A simple phrasal verb such as put up offers the following examples, among others: 

The boys have put up the tent. (erect) 

They’re putting up a new block of flats. (build) 

They’ve put the bus fares up. (raise) 

I can put two of you up for a couple of nights. (provide a bed for) 

The others will have to put up at a hotel. (lodge) 

The project has been approved, but someone will have to put up the necessary 

funds. (provide) 

Our neighbours have put their house up for sale. (announce, offer) 



For structure of the VG and phase, similarity to the NG, Halliday (1994); Multi-word 

verbs, Quirk et al. (1985); aspectual meanings of phrasal verbs, Slobin (1996); Spasov 

(1978); Motion Event, Talmy (2002), Goldberg (1995). Collins Cobuild English Dictionary 

(1987); Cambridge International Dictionary of English (1995); Shorter Oxford English 

Dictionary (2002). 


Talking about events: The Verbal Group 

Module 37 

1 Discussion: Discuss the importance of the operator in English by examining its various 

syntactic features. Taking your own or another language as a basis of comparison, discuss 

how in that language each of the functions of the English operator would be realised. 


2 †Read the following extract and identify the functions of be, have (got) to and get as 

primary verb, as part of a lexical auxiliary or as a lexical verb: 

Imagine that you’re out, 1 you’re in Wolverhampton, 2 and you’re about to cross the street, 3 

and round the corner comes a big lorry. What happens? Your sense organs have told 

you there’s a big lorry. You’ve got to deal with it, 4 you can’t fight it. You’ve got to 5 get 

across that road quickly. 6 All these things happen to you, all those hormones, particularly 

adrenaline, have got into your bloodstream 7 because you need this sudden burst of energy 

to get you across the road. 8 [BNC JJH 8026] 

3 †Underline the Verbal Groups in the sentences below and then answer the questions: 

(1) A bicycle whizzed past me as I was crossing the road. 

(2) It startled me. 

(3) It also startled the elderly woman just ahead of me. She was clutching a bag or bundle 

or something, and almost fell. 

(4) ‘Can’t you be more careful?’ I shouted after the cyclist. 

(5) He just turned his head a little, but said nothing. 

(6) He was pedalling fast and was soon lost in the traffic. 

(7) He could have injured us both. 

(8) The elderly woman’s bundle had fallen open into the middle of the road. A strange 

collection of objects was rolling everywhere. 

(9) ‘Are you all right?’ I asked, as we scrambled to pick up the things before the lights 

changed. 


In sentences 1–9 above: 

1 List the Verbal Groups of one element (v). 

2 List the Verbal Groups of two elements (o v) 

3 Are there any Verbal Groups of three elements (o x v)? 

4 What is the syntactic status of are in sentence 9? 

5 Write the elderly woman’s answer to the question in sentence 9. 

6 Continue with another sentence starting: We might have ... 

7 Now give the speaker’s opinion of the cyclist, starting He was ... 

8 Conclude with a general comment starting People should ... 

4 †Using the lexical auxiliaries and modal idioms listed in section 37.2, fill in the blanks in 

the sentences below with a form of be or have and the lexical auxiliary you consider most 

appropriate in each case: 

(1) Wheat-germ - - - - - - - - - - - - good for you, isn’t it? 

(2) We - - - - - - - - - - - - have finished exams by the second week in July. 

(3) At what time - - - - - - - - - - - - the concert - - - - - - - - - - - - start? 

(4) Don’t you think we - - - - - - - - - - - - enquire at the Information desk? 

344 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(5) Will you - - - - - - - - - - - - pick us up at the station tomorrow evening? 

(6) I - - - - - - - - - - - - say something tactless, but I stopped myself in time. 

(7) The storms are so severe in this part of the world that basements - - - - - - - - - - - - flooded 

after ten minutes’ rain. 

(8) Do you feel you really - - - - - - - - - - - - work in the library on a day like this? 

5 Rewrite the following sentences, which contain that-clauses, so that they have a raised 

subject with the same lexical auxiliary: 

(1) It’s likely that the main markets will be France, Germany and Spain. 

(2) It was virtually certain that Diana and Charles would divorce. 

(3) It is sure that you will be among the first three. 

(4) It is supposed that he is her boyfriend. 

(5) It’s not likely that you’ll get a question like that. 

Module 38 

1 †What is the function of be in the following examples: lexical verb, progressive auxiliary, 

passive auxiliary or lexical auxiliary? 

(1) It’s getting late. 

(2) I have never been here before. 

(3) Has he been invited to the reception? 

(4) There is sure to be some delay at airports this summer. 

2a †Give the syntactic structure of the Verbal Groups in the sentences below, and analyse 


them for the tense and ABCD features they contain. Do you see any discontinuous VGs? 

(1) Someone should be telling the present administration about Kenya. 

(2) Kenya was about to take off economically. 

(3) Our population has been greatly increased. 

(4) That increase should have been expected. 

(5) It was realised that modern medicine was cutting back the death rate dramatically. 

(6) But numerous mistakes were being made in the allocation of scarce national resources. 

(7) Our exports were earning less in real terms than they had been earning a decade 

ago. 

(8) Many developing nations are gradually shifting their economic policies towards free 

enterprise. 

(9) We feel that the country has not yet been able to achieve its potential. 

(10) But that potential should at least be receiving recognition. 

2b Now, re-write each sentence in 2a with a different combination of features but maintaining 

the lexical verb. For instance, for 1: should have told or may have told. 

3 †Complete the sentences below (which make up a text) with Verbal Groups containing 

two, three or four auxiliaries, using the verbs indicated. Example 1 is done for you: 


(1) The last photograph - - - - - - - - - - - - (prog. + pass.+ take) when I arrived. (was being 

taken) 

(2) Pete - - - - - - - - - - - - (past + perf. + prog. + pass.+ instruct) on how to use a wide-angle 

lens. 

(3) He - - - - - - - - - - - - (must + perf. + prog. + use) a filter. 

(4) He - - - - - - - - - - - - (can’t + perf. + prog.+ use) a filter. 

(5) She - - - - - - - - - - - - (must + perf.+ move) when the photograph - - - - - - - - - - - - (take + 

prog. + pass.) 

(6) The film - - - - - - - - - - - - (will + prog. + pass. + develop) by my brother. 

(7) More colour films - - - - - - - - - - - - (be likely + pass. + sell) than ever this year. 

(8) And more cameras - - - - - - - - - - - - (be sure + perf. + pass. + buy) in the holiday period. 

(9) Look! Some kind of television film - - - - - - - - - - - - (prog. + pass. + shoot) over there. 

(10) I should say it - - - - - - - - - - - - (shoot + must + perf. + prog. + pass. + shoot), rather. 

They seem to have finished. 

Text for modules 37 and 38 combined 

5 † Underline the Verbal Groups in the following passage and then answer the questions 

below: 

A car with a trailer coming our way is passing and having trouble getting back into 

his lane. I flash my headlight to make sure he sees us. He sees us but he can’t get 

back in. The shoulder is narrow and bumpy. It’ll spill us if we take it. I’m braking, 

honking, flashing. Christ Almighty, he panics and heads for our shoulder! I hold 

steady to the edge of the road. Here he COMES! At the last moment he goes back 

and misses us by inches. 

(Robert M. Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance) 


(1) Which are more important to this text – actions or states? 

(2) Identify the finite VGs in the text. List separately the VGs in which finiteness is realised 

on the verb (the Finite is fused with the Event), and those in which the Finite is realised 

by an operator. 

(3) Are there any non-finite Verbal Groups in this extract? 

(4) What tense choice has been made in this text? 

(5) What aspectual (progressive) choices have been made? 

(6) What modality choices have been made? 

(7) What positive–negative polarity choices have been made? 

(8) What choices of contrastiveness have been made? 

(9) Can you explain how the sum of these choices helps to give the impression of 

movement and excitement and danger in this text? 

346 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 39 

1 †Discuss the different behaviour of the italicised verbs in (a) their use as an ordinary lexical 

verb and (b) as a catenative in phased verbal groups. Apply constituency tests (2.2), 

consider ‘raised subjects’ (37.3), and take into account possible lexical alternatives: 

(1) (a) What has happened? I pressed the switch but nothing happened. 

(b) We all happened to be away when the burglar broke in. 

(2) (a) A strange figure appeared in the doorway. 

(b) He appears to have misunderstood your explanation. 

(3) (a) Pete has failed the driving test again. 

(b) He fails to realise how important it is to practise. 

2 †Using the VGs listed in 39.2, complete the phased Verbal Groups in the sentences below. 

The first one is done for you: 

(1) The supposedly quiet fishing village turned out to be/proved to be quite different from 

what the travel agency had led us to expect. 

(2) Did you go all the way to the other side of town to take part in the demonstration? – 

No, I just - - - - - - - - - - - - there. 

(3) Some years ago we - - - - - - - - - - - - to enquire whether a visa was necessary and were 

held up at the frontier for two days. 

(4) After - - - - - - - - - - - - unsuccessfully on several occasions to pass the seamanship test, 

he eventually - - - - - - - - - - - - do so at the fourth attempt. 

(5) Isn’t there any washing-up liquid anywhere? – Well, there - - - - - - - - - - - - a little left 

at the bottom of the container. 

(6) The shop assistant - - - - - - - - - - - - reassure the child that her mother would come soon. 

(7) Even old black-and-white films - - - - - - - - - - - - coloured these days. 

(8) He - - - - - - - - - - - - convince the Customs official that he was not smuggling anything, 

but it - - - - - - - - - - - - be impossible. 


3 Read the following letter, taking note of the variety of Verbal Group structures used. Then 

write a reply to it, telling your own experiences in any environment you like. 

Dear Angela, 

Sorry I’ve taken so long to answer your very welcome letter. I meant to do so ages 

ago but then it got left to the half-term break. I must say, holidays do suit me much 

better. 

School is insane because of the new exam. No-one knows what rules we’re 

supposed to be following for criteria assessment. Someone high-up issues a decree 

and then disappears while the opposite is decreed. If parents really knew what a 

mess it was, they’d be frantic. I’ve stopped worrying about my candidates as I feel 

it’s out of my control. We’re also secretly planning another reorganisation in Liverpool. 

I haven’t been hit or sworn at yet. 


Philip is doing teaching practice in a hilarious school in Leicester where there is 

no ‘confrontational discipline’, i.e. some were arm-wrestling, some talking, some 

listening to walkmans and some working. I hesitate to think about exam results. 

They’ve a 90% attendance record, which implies that our arm-wrestlers are just shoplifting 

somewhere, so perhaps they’ve hit on the right idea. They’re all on individual 

programmes. Here am I intending to try Romeo and Juliet on my low ability fourth 

year. I’ve told them it’s not fair to deprive them. 

Claire’s brother seems to have worked out a good arrangement. He lectures in 

Manchester, has three months on sabbatical leave and goes digging in Turkey or 

Greece. Funding doesn’t seem to be a problem because the relevant countries or 

international groups give him grants, because his wife, who’s a botanist, also comes 

up with information about plant types and soil, etc., that have succeeded or failed 

in the past. They have three children and all go camping, the baby being two weeks 

old on the last trip. 

I have talked about my family all the time. How are all of you? Keep me in the 

picture. 

Much love, Jean 

Module 40 

1 †Underline the Figure and Path(s) in the following examples. Decide whether the verb 

expresses (a) just Motion, (b) Motion + Manner or (c) Motion + Cause. 


(1) The president and his wife drove in an open carriage through the Place de la 

Concorde and on up the Champs-Élysées to their residence. 

(2) The ship slid out of the New York dock past the Statue of Liberty to the Atlantic. 

(3) She accidentally knocked a book off the bedside table. 

(4) Several trees were blown down. 

(5) He gulped down his beer. 

(6) We cycled back home. 

2 With the help of a good monolingual dictionary, list the Path meanings of up and out, with 

examples. 

3 †Suggest an aspectual meaning for the italicised words in each of the following examples: 

(1) Fill up the tank, please. 

(2) He was kept on by his firm. 

(3) A lot of this scrap metal can be melted down and used again. 

(4) His vocation urged him on. 

(5) She woke up suddenly when the alarm went off. 

4 With the help of a good dictionary, try to work out the Path meaning(s) of over from the 

following examples (see also 59.2.3). 

348 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(1) The travel agency is just over the road. 

(2) You can walk over the cliffs to Robin Hood’s Bay. 

(3) Why don’t you come over for a drink this evening? Fine! We’ll drive over about 

seven. 

(4) The milk has boiled over. 

(5) Many smaller firms have been taken over by larger ones. 

5 †In the passage preceding the one below in the novel, the ‘three men in a boat’ have tried 

unavailingly to open a tin of pineapple without a tin-opener (see 6.4.3, p. 63). 

Then we all got mad. We took the tin out on the bank, and Harris went up into a 

field and got a big, sharp stone, and I went back into the boat and brought out the 

mast, and George held the tin and Harris held the sharp end of the stone against the 

top of it, and I took the mast and poised it high in the air, and gathered up all my 

strength and brought it down. 

It was George’s straw hat that saved his life that day, while Harris got off with 

merely a flesh wound. 

After that I took the tin off by myself, and hammered at it with the mast till I was 

worn out and sick at heart, whereupon Harris took it in hand. 

We beat it out flat; we beat it back square; we battered it into every form known 

to geometry, but we could not make a hole in it . . . Harris rushed at the thing, and 

caught it up, and flung it far into the middle of the river, and as it sank we hurled 

out curses at it, and we got into the boat and rowed away from the spot, and never 

paused till we reached Maidenhead. 

(Jerome K. Jerome, Three Men in a Boat) 


(1) Identify the phrasal verbs in this passage. 

(2) Discuss whether the particles in the first paragraph have (a) a Path function, (b) an 

aspectual function. Suggest a meaning associated with each one. 

6 Read again the section on translation at the end of 40.2.2. Then translate the following 

into your own or another language and indicate whether the translation is complete or 

incomplete: 

(1) He got on his bike and rode off. 

(2) The orders were sent out yesterday. 

(3) The cracks in the wall have been plastered over. 

(4) Now that all the kids have left we end up back where we started – just the two of us. 

(5) He was sent out to get some stamps. 

(6) He walked on away from the Real Madrid stadium entrance and the crowds towards 

the bus-stop on the Castellana. 


VIEWPOINTS ON EVENTS CHAPTER 9 

Tense, aspect and modality 

Module 41: Expressing location in time through the 

verb: tense 352 

41.1 The meaning of tense 352 

41.1.1 Present tense, Past tense and future time 353 

41.1.2 Stative and dynamic uses of verbs 354 

41.2 Basic meanings of the Present tense 355 

41.2.1 The Instantaneous Present 355 

41.2.2 The State Present 355 

41.2.3 The Habitual Present 356 

41.3 Secondary meanings of the Present tense: reference to past events 356 

41.4 Basic meanings of the Past tense 358 

41.5 Secondary meanings of the Past tense: present and future reference 358 

41.6 Referring to future events 359 


41.6.1 ‘Safe’ predictions 359 

41.6.2 Programmed events 359 

41.6.3 Intended events 360 

41.6.4 Imminent events 360 

41.6.5 Future anterior events 360 

Module 42: Past events and present time connected: 

Present Perfect and Past Perfect 361 

42.1 Present Perfect aspect and Past tense compared: anteriority vs definite time 361 

42.2 Time adjuncts and the Present Perfect aspect 363 

42.3 Current relevance 364 

42.4 Functions and discourse interpretations of the Present Perfect 364 

42.4.1 The experiential Perfect 364 

42.4.2 The continuous Perfect 365 

42.4.3 Implied meanings of the Present Perfect 365 

42.5 Expressing more distanced events: the Past Perfect 366 

42.6 Non-finite Perfect forms 368

Module 43: Situation types and the Progressive aspect 369 

43.1 The meaning of aspect 369 

43.2 Lexical aspect of English verbs 370 

43.3 Grammatical aspects in English 372 

43.4 The meaning of the Progressive 373 

43.5 Lexical aspect and the Progressive 373 

43.5.1 States and the Progressive 373 

43.5.2 Punctual occurrences and the Progressive 374 

43.5.3 Verbs with no end-point and the Progressive 374 

43.5.4 End-point-completion verbs and the Progressive 375 

43.6 The discourse functions of the Progressive 375 

43.7 Present Perfect and Progressive aspects combined 376 

43.8 Habituality: past habit or state 377 

Module 44: Expressing attitudes towards the event: 

modality 379 

44.1 The meaning and functions of modality 379 

44.2 Realisations of modal meanings 380 

44.3 Extrinsic modality: modal certainty, probability and possibility 381 

44.3.1 Modal certainty: will, must, be bound to 381 

44.3.2 Probability or ‘reasonable inference’: should, ought 383 

44.3.3 Extrinsic possibility: may, might, could 383 

44.4 Structural features of extrinsic modality 385 

44.4.1 Summary of extrinsic modal and lexical-modal auxiliaries 


and their meanings 385 

44.5 Features of intrinsic modality: volition, obligation, necessity, permission 385 

44.5.1 Volition: willingness and intention: will, shall, ‘ll 386 

44.5.2 Inescapable obligation and necessity: must, have to, have got to, 

gotta, shall 387 

44.5.3 Negation of the modals must and may 388 

44.5.4 Non-binding obligation: should, ought 390 

44.6 Dynamic modality: Possibility, ability, permission, propensity: can, be able, 

could, will, would, may 390 

44.7 Hypothetical uses of the modals 393 

44.7.1 Summary of intrinsic modals and modal meanings 393 


Exercises 394

EXPRESSING LOCATION IN MODULE 41 

TIME THROUGH THE VERB 

Tense 

SUMMARY 

1 Tense is the grammatical expression of the location of events in time. It anchors 

an event to the speaker’s experience of the world by relating the event time to 

a point of reference. The universal, unmarked reference point is the moment of 

speaking – speech time. In narrative, a point in past time is usually taken as the 

reference point. 

2 English has two tenses, the present and the past, the past being the marked 

form, both morphologically and semantically. 


3 The basic meaning of the present tense is to locate a situation holding at the 

present moment. This may be an instantaneous event (I promise to wait), a state 

which holds over time (Jupiter is the largest planet), or a habitual occurrence 

(He works in an office). Secondary meanings of the Present include reference 

to past and future events, ‘historic present’ (This man comes up to me . . .) and 

the quotative (and she goes/she’s like ‘I don’t believe it’). 

4 The past tense primarily refers to a definite event or state that is prior to utterance 

time. Its secondary uses refer to a present event or state as hypothetical (If 

I were you). 

5 English has no verbal inflection to mark a future tense. Instead, English makes 

use of a number of forms to refer to future events. 

Finite clauses in English can be marked for either tense or modality but not 

both. Verbs marked for tense are said to be ‘tensed’. Non-finite clauses are 

not tensed. 

41.1 THE MEANING OF TENSE 

Tense is the grammatical expression of the location of events in time. It anchors (or 

‘grounds’) an event to the speaker’s experience of the world by relating the event time 

352 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

to a point of reference. The normal, universal and therefore unmarked point of reference 

is the moment of speaking – speech time, what has been called ‘the inescapable and 

constantly changing now in which all verbal interaction takes place’. Past events take 

place before the ‘now’, while future events are thought of as taking place after it. 

The location of the speaker, the moment of speaking and the speaker her/himself 

make up ‘the I, the here and the now’- the ‘deictic centre’ – which serves as the point 

of reference for definiteness and proximity (see Chapter 10). Tense, therefore, has a 

deictic function; it distinguishes a ‘proximal’ event expressed by the present tense from 

a ‘distal’ event expressed by the Past tense. The ‘now’ can be diagrammed as shown. 

past time now future time 

speech 

time 

the present 

moment 


41.1.1 Present tense, Past tense and future time 

Tense is a grammatical category that is realised in English morphologically on the verb. 

In accordance with this criterion, English has just two tenses: the Present and the Past, 

as in goes/ went, respectively. English has no verbal inflection to mark a future tense. 

The forms shall and will are not verbal inflections but modal auxiliaries which, when 

reduced, are attached to pronouns, not to the verb root (I’ll wait outside). Also important 

are the form–meaning relationships. Shall and will belong to a set of modal auxiliaries 

and can express meanings other than reference to future time, as we shall see later in 

this chapter (see 44.1). Instead of a future tense, English makes use of a number of 

combinations such as be going to to refer to future events (see 41.6) Compare: 

They do the shopping on Saturdays. (present tense) 

They did the shopping on Saturday. (past tense) 

They are going to do/ will do the shopping on Saturday. (lexical auxiliary/ modal) 

In general, as these examples illustrate, past and present events are taken to have 

the status of real events, while references to the future are to potential, that is unreal, 

events. 

In English, therefore, the three-term semantic distinction into past, present and future 

time is grammaticalised as a two-term tense distinction between Past tense and Present 

tense. 

VIEW POINTS: TENSE, ASPECT AND MODALITY 353

Besides tensed forms of verbs, other linguistic forms, particularly adverbs of time 

such as now, then, tomorrow, PPs such as in 1066 and lexico-grammatical expressions 

such as ten minutes after the plane took off can make reference to time. English, in fact, 

relies to a considerable extent on such units to make the temporal reference clear. 

The Past tense in English is the marked form. Cognitively, the situations conceptualised 

by the speaker as past have the status of known, but not immediate, reality; 

they are not currently observed. Morphologically, the vast majority of verbs in English 

have a distinctive past form, (played, saw) and, semantically, the past tense basically 

refers to a situation that is prior to the present, as in Yesterday was fine. (See 41.5 for 

secondary meanings.) 

The Present tense is the unmarked tense. Cognitively, it expresses situations which 

have immediate reality, that is, what is currently observed. Morphologically, it is marked 

only on the 3rd person singular (with the exception of be, which has three forms (am, 

are and is). Semantically, it covers a wider range of temporal references than the Past 

tense, including reference to future time (Tomorrow is a holiday). 

Even in our everyday use, ‘at present’ and ‘at the present time’ have a wider application 

than simply to the present moment of speech time. Thus, Birds have wings represents a 

situation which holds not only at the present time but has also held in the past, and will 

conceivably continue to hold in the future. It can be diagrammed as shown here. 

past time now future time 


Birds have wings 

present 

41.1.2 Stative and dynamic uses of verbs 

The meaning expressed by a verb in present or past tense depends to a great extent on 

whether the verb refers to a single constant state, as in I know her address, or to a dynamic 

occurrence, as in He goes to work by train. 

More exactly, the meaning depends on whether the verb is being used statively or 

dynamically, since many verbs lend themselves to both interpretations. ‘Have’ usually 

refers to a state, as in birds have wings, but it also has dynamic uses as in have breakfast. 

In general, dynamic but not stative senses can occur with the imperative and 

progressive, and after do in wh-cleft sentences: 

Have breakfast! We are having breakfast. What we did was have breakfast. 

*Have wings! *Birds are having wings. *What birds do is have wings. 

354 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

It is important to realise that, in the following sections, the Present tense is what is 

sometimes referred to as the ‘simple’ Present, more exactly as the ‘non-progressive 

Present’. The Progressive, consisting of a form of be + -ing, is a verbal aspect which 

combines with tense. It is discussed in Module 43 as encoding a single event observed 

in the process of happening. There is a meaningful distinction – and an obligatory choice 

in English – between expressing a situation by means of the Present tense alone and 

expressing it by the Present Progressive. Compare: 

The sun doesn’t shine everyday in Brussels, (non-Progressive Present) 

but it is shining today. (Progessive Present) 

41.2 BASIC MEANINGS OF THE PRESENT TENSE 

The basic meaning of the Present tense is to locate a situation holding at the present 

moment. The tense itself does not say whether that same situation continues beyond 

the present moment and whether it also held in the past. These are implications which 

we derive from our knowledge of the world and from the type of situation encoded in 

the clause. 

In fact it is relatively rare for a situation to coincide exactly with the present moment, 

that is, to occupy a single point in time, literally or conceptually. Situations of this nature 

do occur, however and can be classed together as types of the Instantaneous Present. 

41.2.1 The Instantaneous Present 

These are events which coincide, or are presented as coinciding, with speech time and 

have no duration beyond speech time: 


Performatives: I promise I’ll be careful. (see 25.1) 

Exclamations with initial directional adverb: Off they go! (at the start of a race) 

In you get! (helping someone to get in a car, etc.) 

Commentaries: Jones passes and Raul kicks the ball into the net. 

Demonstrations: I place the fruit in the blender, press gently, and then pour out the 

liquid. 

More characteristically, the Present is used to refer to situations which occupy a longer 

period of time than the moment of speaking, but which nonetheless include speech time. 

Traditionally these situations are classed according to the verb as stative uses and 

habitual uses of the Present. 

41.2.2 The State Present 

Used with stative verb senses, the Present refers to a single uninterrupted state, which 

began before the moment of speaking and may well continue after it. They include 

timeless statements, that is, statements which apply to all time, including speech time: 

Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. 


They also include states whose time span is not endless, e.g. know, think, believe, belong, 

stand for. They are nevertheless states in which no change or limitation into the past or 

future is implied. Here too the temporal reference includes speech time. 

I think you are right. 

MP stands for Member of Parliament. 

41.2.3 The Habitual Present 

This is used with dynamic verbs to encode situations that occur habitually over time, 

even if the action is not being carried out at the moment of speaking. For instance, 

referring to the following examples, Tim may not actually be working, nor the leaves 

falling at the moment of speaking. Nevertheless, the recurrent situation holds as the 

normal course of things and is appropriately referred to by the Present tense. 

Tim works in an insurance company. 

Many trees lose their leaves in autumn. 

Again, it must be pointed out that the plain Present tense used for habitual and other 

meanings contrasts with the Present Progressive, which encodes an actual occurrence 

of a dynamic action observed in the process of happening, as in Tim is working late today, 

The trees are already losing their leaves (see 43.4–43.7). 

41.3 SECONDARY MEANINGS OF THE PRESENT TENSE: 


REFERENCE TO PAST EVENTS 

The Present can be used to refer to past events in certain limited ways. 

In newspaper headlines and captions to photographs 

Thousands flee persecution. 

Demonstrators clash with armed police as violence increases. 

In relating incidents in informal, casual speech: the historic present 

and the quotative 

He was only an average athlete, and then suddenly he wins two Olympic medals. 

I had just left the bank when this guy comes up to me and asks for money. 

The Present tense in headlines and the sudden switch from Past to Present in speech 

have the effect of dramatising the event, bringing it before the reader’s eyes as if it were 

an instance of the instantaneous Present. However, the headline stands apart from the 

text, while the ‘historic present’ switch occurs within the discourse at a key point in 

the narrative, and is frequently paralleled by a switch to a proximal demonstrative (this), 

as in the example: this guy comes up. 

356 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Go and be like are used by young speakers talking among themselves, as quotative 

verbs like say, to introduce direct speech as in: ‘and she goes “What’s he like?” and I’m 

like “Gorgeous”.’ They usually occur in the Present tense. These verbs are not used in 

this way by all speakers. 

In reporting information 

With verbs of communicating (say, tell) and of perception (see, hear, understand) the use 

of the Present implies that the reported information is still valid, even though the 

communicative process took place in the past. With a Past tense, the validity is not 

implied: 

The weather forecast says that rain is on the way. 

I understand that you would like to move to London. 

Some of the uses of the Present tense are illustrated in this feature article from The 

Week: 

Pete earns his living by breaking into other people’s homes. He rises early, dresses 

smartly – ‘jeans, loafers, shirt, good coat; everthing ironed and clean’ – and tucks 

surgical gloves (his anti-fingerprint protection) up his sleeves. He picks ‘nice’ – by 

which he means moderately affluent – houses within five minutes of an underground 

or railway station in case he needs an emergency getaway. He targets houses 

screened from the street by a hedge or fence, and rings the bell. ‘If someone comes, 

I’ve got a set of car keys in my hand. “Minicab? No? Oh, sorry. Wrong house, Third 

time that’s happened this week”.’ 

Once he’s certain no one’s at home, he goes down the side of the house, vaulting 

gates. ‘Boof – over the top. I’m only ten stone and I’m fit. I’ve gone up plastic 

drainpipes and got through toilet windows this size,’ he indicates a tiny square with 

his hands. He either forces or smashes a small window, leans in and breaks the main 

window locks. ‘They do feel solid, but you can snap ’em.’ His aim is to be in and out 

in three minutes. He double locks the front door to forestall unwelcome interruption. 

– ‘I’m on my toes now . . . running for the stairs . . . I’m doing like four steps at a 

time’ – and identifies the master bedroom. ‘Your jewellery is either on your bedside 

chest, or in the top two drawers. Not there? Your wardrobe or the drawers in your 

bed – I’ve got it.’ He leaps up and claps his hands, reliving the adrenaline rush. ‘I 

pull your pillow out – everything goes wrapped up in a pillowcase, then inside my 

jacket and boof! – I’m off. I don’t bother with the other rooms.’ He leaves by the 

front door or through a neighbouring garden. If he’s spotted he brazens it out. ‘I 

walk past ’em. All right mate?’ I do six, seven, maybe ten burglaries in a day’s work” 

(Pete uses the words ‘work’ and ‘earning’ without irony.) He steals only jewellery, 

netting thousands of pounds. But the money – spent on drugs, clubbing, clothes, his 

daughters – slips through his hands like wet soap. 



41.4 BASIC MEANINGS OF THE PAST TENSE 

We have seen that the basic meaning of the Past tense in English is to locate an event 

or state in the past. It situates the event at a ‘temporal distance’ from the moment of 

speaking, whether in time, towards the past, or with regard to potential or hypothetical 

events which have not yet occurred in the present or the future. 

When used to refer to a definite past event or state, the Past in English contains two 

semantic features: 

• The speaker conceptualises the event as having occurred at some specific time in 

the past. 

• The event is presented as wholly located in the past, in a time-frame that is 

separated from the present. 

These features are illustrated in the following examples: 

James Joyce was born in Dublin in 1882. 

He lived in Ireland until 1904 and spent the rest of his life abroad. 

The Past tense in English says nothing about whether the event occupied a point in 

time or a longer extent. These additional meanings are understood from the lexical verb 

used and from the whole situation represented by the clause. In the examples above 

referring to one single person, was born is interpreted as referring to a point in time, 

while lived and spent are interpreted as being of longer duration. With a plural subject, 

the Past tense were born is interpreted here as referring not to one single point in time 

but to many: 


Generations of writers were born who imitated Joyce’s style of writing. 

In using the Past tense, speakers do not need to specify a past occurrence by means of 

an Adjunct, however. As long as the speaker has a specific time in mind and can assume 

that the hearer infers this from the situational context, the Past tense is used, as in: 

Did you see that flash of lightning? 

[Who said that?] It wasn’t me. 

I spoke to a dancer from the Bolshoi ballet. 

41.5 SECONDARY MEANINGS OF THE PAST TENSE: 

PRESENT AND FUTURE REFERENCE 

The Past tense can refer to time-frames other than the past in the following three ways: 

• In ‘closed conditionals’ and other hypothetical subordinate clauses 

which express a counterfactual belief or presupposition on the part of the speaker. 

The reference is to present time. The past in such expressions was originally a 

subjunctive whose only relic remains in the form were for all persons of be. 

358 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

If we had enough time . . . 

He talks as if he owned the place. 

I often wish I were somewhere else. 

presupposes we haven’t enough time 

presupposes he doesn’t own the place 

presupposes I am not somewhere else 

• In reported speech or thought: after a reporting verb in the Past tense, the 

reported verbs in the dependent clauses are also in the Past. This phenomenon is 

known as ‘backshift’ (see 36.3). Present tense forms are optional, as in She said she 

prefers/ preferred vanilla ice cream, as long as the situation is still valid. 

• In polite requests and enquiries, the past form ‘distances’ the proposed action, 

so making the imposition on the hearer less direct: 

Did you want to speak to me now? 

I wondered whether you needed anything. 

41.6 REFERRING TO FUTURE EVENTS 

We cannot refer to future events as facts, as we can to past and present situations, since 

future events are not open to observation or memory. We can predict with more or less 

confidence what will happen, we can plan for events to take place, express our intentions 

and promises with regard to future events. These are modalised rather than factual 

statements, and are treated in 44.3. Here we simply outline the main syntactic means 

of referring to future events as seen from the standpoint of present time. 


41.6.1 ‘Safe’ predictions 

These are predictions which do not involve the subject’s volition, and include cyclical 

events and general truths. Will + infinitive is used, shall by some speakers for ‘I’ and ‘we’: 

Susie will be nineteen tomorrow. 

You’ll find petrol more expensive in France. 

Will/shall + progressive combine the meaning of futurity with that of focusing on the 

internal process, in this way avoiding the implication of promise associated with will 

when the subject is ‘I’ or ‘we’. Compare: 

I will (I’ll) speak to him about your application tomorrow. 

We shall (we’ll) be studying your application shortly. 

41.6.2 Programmed events 

Future events seen as certain because they are unalterable 1 or programmed 2, 3 and 

4 can be expressed by the Present tense + time adjunct, by will or by the lexical 

auxiliaries be due to + infinitive and be to (simple forms only): 

1 The sun sets at 20.15 hours tomorrow. 

2 Next year’s conference will be held in Milan. 


3 He is due to retire in two months’ time. 

4 She is to marry the future heir to the throne. 

41.6.3 Intended events 

Intended events can be expressed by be + going to + infinitive 1 and by the Progressive 

(be + -ing) 2. These forms can be marked for tense. The past forms refer to an event 

intended at some time in the past to occur in some future time 3. As with all intended 

events, they may or may not actually take place. (See also modal will, 44.6.) 

1 I am going to try to get more information about this. 

2 Pete is thinking of changing his job. 

3 I was going to leave a note but there was no-one at Reception. [BNC BMR 625] 

41.6.4 Imminent events 

An event seen as occurring in the immediate future is expressed by be + going to or by 

combinations such as: be about to + infinitive, be on the point of/ be on the verge of + -ing. 

There is usually some external or internal sign of the imminence of the happening. 

It looks as if there’s going to be a storm. 

This company is about to be/on the verge of being taken over by a multinational. 

An expectation orientated to past time is expressed by the corresponding forms in the 

past: 


It’s not what I thought it was going to be. 

. . . the territory which was later to be part of Lithuania. 

41.6.5 Future anterior events 

A future event anterior to another event is expressed by the Future Perfect: 

The programme will have ended long before we get back. 

By the time he is twenty-two, he’ll have taken his degree. 

Otherwise, the Future Perfect expresses the duration or repetition of an event in the 

future. The addition of the Progressive emphasises the incompletion of the sequence 

(see 43.4): 

We’ll have lived here for ten years by next July. 

We’ll have been living here for ten years by next July. 

360 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PAST EVENTS AND PRESENT MODULE 42 

TIME CONNECTED 

Present Perfect and Past Perfect 

SUMMARY 

1 Both tense and aspect have to do with time relations expressed by the verb, but 

from different perspectives. While tense basically situates an event or state in 

present or past time, aspect is concerned with such notions as duration and 

completion or incompletion of the process expressed by the verb. English has 

two aspects, the Perfect and the Progressive. We first consider the Perfect 

aspect, noticing how it differs from the simple tenses. In Module 43, we go 

on to consider the Progressive aspect. 

2 The Present Perfect is a retrospective aspect which views a state or event as 

occurring at some indefinite time within a time-frame that leads up to speech 

time. 


3 The event is viewed as psychologically relevant to the present. By contrast, an 

event encoded in the Past tense is viewed as disconnected from the present. 

4 Consequently, the Perfect is not normally interchangeable in English with the 

Past tense. For the same reason, the time adjuncts accompanying them are 

normally different. 

5 Implications of recency, completion and result, derived from the combination 

of Present Perfect and verb type, are all manifestations of current relevance. 

6 The Past Perfect is used to refer to events previous to those expressed by a past 

tense or by a Present Perfect. 

42.1 PRESENT PERFECT ASPECT AND PAST TENSE 

COMPARED: ANTERIORITY VS DEFINITE TIME 

The Perfect construction in English relates a state or event to a relevance time (R). This 

is speech time for the Present Perfect, some point in time prior to speech time for the 

Past Perfect and some point in time after speech time for the Future Perfect. 


The Present Perfect is a subtle retrospective aspect which views states or events as 

occurring in a time-frame leading up to speech time. Expressed by have + past participle, 

the have element is present, the participle is past. The event is psychologically connected 

to the present as in the following example, which is diagrammed to show relevance 

time: 

R 

His marriage has broken down and he has gone to live in another part of England 

speech 

time 

These and other features contrast with those of the Past tense: 

Present Perfect 

Past Tense 

a. Its time-frame is the extended now, Its time-frame is the past, which is 

a period of time which extends up to viewed as a separate time-frame from 

speech time. 

that of the present. 

b. The event occurs at some indefinite The event is located at a specific and 

and unspecified time within the definite time in the past. 

extended now. The Perfect is nondeictic 

– it doesn’t ‘point’ to a specific The Past tense is deictic – it points to a 

time but relates to a relevant time. specific time in the past. 


c. The event has ‘current relevance’, The event is seen as psychologically 

that is, it is viewed as psychologically disconnected from the moment of 

connected to the moment of speaking. speaking. 

Within the extended now, the Present Perfect is used in English when the speaker 

does not wish to refer to a definite moment of occurence of the event, but simply to the 

anteriority of the event. This is in marked contrast with the definite time use of the 

Past tense. Compare: 

They have left for New York. 

They left for New York an hour ago. 

Similarly, the Present Perfect is not normally used in main clauses with interrogative 

adverbs, which imply definite time and require the Past tense. 

We can say Have they started? Have they finished? (Present Perfect) 

Or When did they start? At what time did they finish? 

(Past tense) 

But not *When have they started? *At what time have they finished? 

When a definite time is not implied by the verb the Present Perfect is possible: 

362 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Where have you most enjoyed working? [BNC BNA 28496] 

In subordinate clauses, with future reference, the Present Perfect can follow when, since 

this use refers to an unspecified time: When I have finished, I’ll call you. 

Furthermore, the Present Perfect operates in a time-frame that is still open, blocking 

examples such as 1a and 2a. By contrast the b examples are grammatical, as are 

3 and 4: 

1a *James Joyce has been born in Dublin. 1b James Joyce was born in Dublin. 

2a *He has lived in Ireland until 1904. 2b He lived in Ireland until 1904. 

3 Michael has lived in Ireland all his life (implying that he still lives there). 

4 Generations of writers have been influenced by Joyce (and are still influenced). 

In 1a and 2a the Perfect is blocked because Joyce’s life-span is over. In 3 this is not the 

case. In 4 the plural subject ‘generations of writers’ allows for a time-frame that is open. 

The perspective of the ‘extended now’ time-frame in contrast with that of the Past 

tense is illustrated in this passage from Penelope Lively’s Moon Tiger: 

I’ve grown old with the century; there’s not much left of either of us. The century of 

war. All history, of course, is the history of wars, but this hundred years has excelled 

itself. How many million shot, maimed, burned, frozen, starved, drowned? God only 

knows. I trust He does; He should have kept a record, if only for His own purposes. 

I’ve been on the fringes of two wars; I shan’t see the next. The first preoccupied me 

not at all; this thing called War summoned Father and took him away for ever. I saw 

it as some inevitable climactic effect: thunderstorm or blizzard. The second lapped 

me up but spat me out intact. Technically intact. I have seen war; in that sense I have 

been present at wars, I have heard bombs and guns and observed their effects. 


42.2 TIME ADJUNCTS AND THE PRESENT PERFECT 

ASPECT 

The Present Perfect aspect is frequently accompanied by time Adjuncts that refer to a 

period of time that is still open at the moment of speaking, e.g. this week, this month, this 

year, etc. Adjuncts which refer to a period of past time that is now over (e.g. last month, 

last year, yesterday) are incompatible with the Perfect. Compare: 

Have you seen any good films this month? 

*Have you seen any good films last month 

A period of time expressed by an adjunct such as in July is either open or closed 

depending on the speaker’s vantage-point. If closed, the verb is in the Past tense: 

Temperatures have reached an all-time high in July. (July is not yet over) 

Temperatures reached an all-time high in July. (July is over) 


Adjuncts of indefinite or unspecified 

time used with the Perfect, such as: 

sometimes, often, always, never, at times 

twice, three times 

in the last ten years 

Adjuncts of definite or specific time 

used with past tense, such as: 

yesterday 

last week, last year, last month 

an hour ago, two years ago 

lately, recently, now last June, in 1066 

at 4 o’clock, at Christmas, at Easter 

42.3 CURRENT RELEVANCE 

By ‘current relevance’ we mean that the event referred to by means of the Present Perfect 

is psychologically connected to speech time, and has some (implicit) relevance to it. 

This meaning is quoted in all accounts of the present perfect and is considered by 

some to be the main one. It is undoubtedly of the utmost importance. Nevertheless, 

we prefer to consider current relevance as a pragmatic implication deriving from 

the combination of time-frame, perfect aspect and verb type. This will become clear as 

we turn to the interpretations of the perfect in discourse. 

At this point we simply illustrate the notion of current relevance as follows: They have 

been out implies that they have now come back, whereas They went out has no such 

implication. It would not be normal to say *They have been out a moment ago (since an 

adjunct such as ‘a moment ago’ visualises a definite time in the past, no matter how 

recent). 

Occasional occurrences in spoken English of forms which appear to combine the two 

can be explained as mental switches from an indefinite to a definite time-frame produced 

as speakers modify their messages as they go along. Regional variation may also be a 

factor. 


42.4 FUNCTIONS AND DISCOURSE INTERPRETATIONS 

OF THE PRESENT PERFECT 

Interpretations of the functions of the Perfect are described under certain well-known 

labels, as follows. 

42.4.1 The experiential Perfect 

This refers to the fact that there have been one or more experiences of the event in 

the recent history 1 and 2, or in the life-span 3 of a certain person up to the present 

time, as in: 

364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1 I’ve been ill. 

2 We’ve been away. 

3 You’ve lived in Brighton, and you’ve lived in Kingston and now you live in 

Lewes. [BNC KRG 1188] 

Included in this type is the first-time experience use, as in It’s the first time I’ve been 

here, for which certain languages use a Present tense. 

Another is the contrast between the one-way have gone to and the cyclic have 

been to, as in: 

Peter’s gone to England = he’s still there 

Peter’s been to England = he has returned after a visit to England 

This explains the anomalous *I’ve gone to England, and the fact that I’ve been to England 

several times is normal, whereas *I’ve gone to England several times is odd. 

42.4.2 The continuous Perfect 

This is a state, duration or repeated occurrence of a process such as walk, lasting up to 

speech time. An adjunct of extent is virtually necessary to complete the meaning. 

I have known Bill since we were at school together. (i.e. and I still know him) 

We have walked for hours. (up to the present moment) 

For the last ten years he has lived and worked in Brussels. (i.e. He still does) 

Over the last three years the pressure group has staged a number of hunger strikes. 


For and over + a unit of time (for hours, over the last three years) express the duration 

of the event from the vantage point of speech time, and this form is retrospective. Since 

+ a point of time expresses extent viewed from the initiation of the event, and is 

prospective. 

42.4.3 Implied meanings of the Present Perfect 

Deriving from the features and main uses of the present perfect, certain implications 

are associated with it, especially in BrE. These are recency, completion and resulting 

state. 

Recency 

The Present Perfect lends itself to a ‘hot news’ interpretation, which can be reinforced 

by just. In AmE, at least with some verbs, the Past + just is used. 

The Prime Minister has resigned. 

He’s done it! (played the winning ball in a golf tournament) (sports commentary) 

We’ve just eaten/had lunch. (BrE) We just ate. (AmE) 


Completion 

This is the pragmatic implication arising from the combination of the Perfect with 

processes having an end-point (see 43.2), as in grow up, tape something: 

Hundreds of people have been evacuated from their homes, which have been burnt to 

rubble. (news) 

His brothers have grown up and have left home. 

You can listen to what you’ve taped. Oh yeah, you can play it back. [BNC KCL7] 

Resulting state 

Such situations with the Perfect are in many cases interpreted as having a visible result 

as in: 

You’ve squashed my shoe! [BNC KPO 838] 

(The shoe is in a squashed state) 

I’ve baked a cake. (the cake is visibly made) 

The result may be resulting knowledge or know-how, as implied in He has learned to 

drive. These are all forms of current relevance. 

In certain types of discourse such as news items a topic is presented as ‘hot news’ 

by a clause with the Present Perfect and an indefinite NG. Once the topic has been 

introduced, the narrative continues in the Past tense, and the NGs are treated as definite, 

as in the following short news item from The Week. 


A polar bear has become the star attraction at a zoo in Argentina. But the extraordinary 

spectacle only happened by accident. When Pelarus, a 14-year-old bear, 

developed a stubborn case of dermatitis, zookeepers at Mendoza zoo tried every 

medicine under the sun, but to no avail. As a last resort, they gave the bear an 

experimental medication which had a bizarre side effect – it turned Pelarus purple. 

Officials aren’t complaining: not only is the bear on the road to recovery, but visitor 

numbers are up by 50%. 

42.5 EXPRESSING MORE DISTANCED EVENTS: THE PAST 

PERFECT 

To refer to an event that is previous to another event in the past, the Past Perfect is used 

(had + past participle). It can represent a distanced event of three different types: 

(a) the past of the Past tense as in the 1a examples. When the time relation is unambiguous, 

the past tense can replace the Past Perfect in English as in 1b: 

1a We had heard nothing from Tony before he returned. 

She didn’t mention that she had seen you at the match. 

366 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1b We heard nothing from Tony before he returned. 

She didn’t mention that she saw you at the match. 

(b) the past of the Present Perfect: 

She had lived in the north since she changed her job. 

corresponding to: 

She has lived in the north since she changed her job. 

(c) the ‘unreal’ past in counterfactual conditions: 

If I had known he was in trouble, I would have helped him. 

As the Past Perfect refers to a time previous to a time signalled somewhere else in 

the context, it is not always easy to determine its time reference. For this reason, the 

Past Perfect often occurs in subordinate clauses accompanied by time Adjuncts, both 

of which help to establish the temporal links between events. Furthermore, as English 

has only this one tense to refer to any time previous to the past, it is used to express a 

series of events each preceding the other. 

The role of the Past Perfect in orientating the reader in tracking events is illustrated 

in this extract from William Boyd’s The New Confessions. The Past tense described marks 

a switch from one space-time unit to another in the story: 

Duric Ludokian was 1 a huge wealthy Armenian who had fled 2 from his native country 

to Russia in 1896 shortly after the first Turkish massacres and pogroms against the 

Armenian people had begun. 3 He had fled 4 again in 1918 after the Russian 

Revolution and was among the first of the thousands of Russian emigrés who found 5 

sanctuary in Berlin. Ludokian had made 6 his fortune in nuts. He described himself 

as a ‘nut importer’. 


The sequence of events in time would be as follows, reading from right to left: 

Massacres 

had begun 

had fled 

in 1896 

had fled 

in 1918 

found 

sanctuary 

had made 

was 

3 2 4 5 6 1 

X X X 

events previous to relevance 

time 

speech 

time 


42.6 NON-FINITE PERFECT FORMS 

The time-frame of the Perfect is also reflected in non-finite Perfect forms to have + 

participle and having + participle: 

To have made such a statement in public was rather unwise. 

Having satisfied himself that everything was in order, he locked the safe. 


368 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

SITUATION TYPES AND THE MODULE 43 

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT 

SUMMARY 

1 Important aspectual contrasts include perfectivity (viewing the event as a 

whole) vs imperfectivity (viewing the event as incomplete). These distinctions 

remain indeterminate in English in the simple Past and Present tense forms. 

Perfectivity then must be interpreted from the whole clause. 

2 The only grammaticalised aspectual contrasts in English are the Progressive vs 

non-progressive and the Perfect vs non-perfect. (The Perfect is not identical to 

perfectivity!) 


3 Progressiveness is a type of imperfectivity which focuses on the continuousness 

of the internal part of the event. Another type, that of past habituality, is 

expressed by the lexical auxiliary used to + inf. 

4 Situations (and verbs) can be classed according to their inherent aspectual 

meaning as states (with no internal change: It’s hot), as punctual occurrences 

(the cable snapped), as durative occurrences without an end-point: we walked 

along (activities) and as durative with an end-point: we walked home 

(accomplishments). 

5 The Progressive and Perfect aspects add their communicative perspectives to 

the inherent aspectual meaning of the verb. Other factors to be taken into 

account, in order to understand the aspectuality of a particular verbalised 

situation, are the single or multiple nature of the subject and object, and the 

presence of Adjuncts. 

43.1 THE MEANING OF ASPECT 

While tense is used to locate events in time, aspect is concerned with the way in 

which the event is viewed with regard to such considerations as duration and completion 


when encoded by a verb. This is sometimes defined as the internal temporal contour 

of the event. Compare, for instance, the following representations of a situation: 

1a He locked the safe. 1b He was locking the safe. 

As regards tense, both are the same – the Past. They both locate the situation in past 

time. The difference is one of aspect, expressed by the verbal form was locking as 

opposed to the ordinary past locked. What we have is a difference of viewpoint and of 

focus of attention. 

A basic aspectual distinction is that of perfectivity vs imperfectivity: 

• Perfective: the situation is presented as a complete whole, as if viewed externally, 

with sharp boundaries, as in 1a. (Note that perfectivity is not the Perfect aspect!) 

• Imperfective: the situation is viewed as an internal stage, without boundaries and 

is conceptualised as ongoing and incomplete; the beginning and end aren’t included 

in this viewpoint – we see only the internal part, as in 1b. The Progressive is thus 

a kind of imperfectivity. 

In many languages the perfective/ imperfective pairs are related morphologically. 

Having fewer aspectual inflections, English has fewer grammaticalised aspectual choices 

than some languages. Take for instance the following examples containing the verb 

speak, together with their Spanish counterparts: 

2a He stopped and spoke to me in English. 

2b He spoke English with a Welsh accent. 

(Spanish habló) 

(Spanish hablaba) 


The Past tense in English does not distinguish formally between the single event 

represented in 2a, whose counterpart in Spanish is marked as perfective (habló), and 

the habitual event represented in 2b, which is marked as imperfective in Spanish 

(hablaba). 

In other words, the Past tense in English is indeterminate between a perfective 

and an imperfective interpretation. This distinction is captured inferentially by speakers 

according to the relevance of one meaning or other within a context, but is not 

grammaticalised. 

43.2 LEXICAL ASPECT OF ENGLISH VERBS 

Before examining the second grammatical aspect available to speakers of English, the 

Progressive, we turn for a moment to lexical aspect. All verbs (and predicates) have an 

inherent lexical aspect. We have touched on this concept in outlining the stative vs 

dynamic distinction, phased verbal groups and the behaviour of particles in phrasal 

verbs. 

Lexical aspect proves to be an invaluable tool for understanding the functioning of 

the Progressive and the Perfect aspects. In fact, it is not easy to grasp the contribution 

made by the grammatical aspects without realising how they interact with the lexical 

370 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

aspect of the verb. In taking a little further the stative–dynamic distinction, we will now 

be considering whole situations to which the verb brings its own inherent aspectuality, 

in terms of two factors: 

• temporal boundaries: whether the situation is bounded (i.e. has an end-point) or 

unbounded (has no end-point) 

• duration or non-duration (through time) 

The diagram illustrates the main situation types. 

Situations 

States Jane is their eldest daughter 

Occurrences 

Processes 

(dynamic, durative) 

Unbounded (no end-point) 

(Activities) 

we walked slowly along 

he swam in the pool 

Bounded (+end-point) 

(Accomplishments) 

we walked home 

he swam 70 lengths in an hour 

the sun went down 

Punctual occurrences the cable snapped 

Reading from left to right in the diagram, situations can be classified as follows: 


1 States vs Occurrences. States have relatively long duration but do not have 

boundaries: they are unbounded, as with verbs such as be, stand (The house stands 

on a hill). Occurrences are dynamic and more complex. They are subdivided 

according to duration into: 

2 Processes vs punctual occurrences. Processes are durative, they last through 

time, while punctual occurrences occupy little or no appreciable time and have 

sharp boundaries, e.g. the cable snapped. (Note that ‘process’ is used here differently 

from its use as a general term for the semantic structure of clauses, as discussed in 

Chapter 5.) 

3 Durative processes are divided into those that have no end-point (unbounded 

Activities), as in He walked slowly along, and those that have a sharp end-point 

(bounded Accomplishments), as in he walked home. The latter consist of two phases, 

a durative phase, the walking, and a terminative phase, the arrival home. The 

durative phase is usually not in focus unless combined with progressiveness (see 

43.5.4). 

Note that although the traditional terms, Activities and Accomplishments, suggest 

human agency, it is not the case that all processes are agentive. It rained heavily, for 

instance, is a non-agentive activity. The key concept here is boundedness, that is, 

whether or not there is an end-point. 


The way in which a situation is viewed can be modified in various ways: 

• By adding an adjunct or an adverbial particle such as up, which establishes an endpoint: 

In this way an unbounded situation can be made bounded. Compare: 

unbounded process 

It rained heavily. 

The children have grown in your 

absence. 

He read the book for an hour. 

bounded process 

It rained heavily until six o’clock. 

The children have grown up in your 

absence. 

He read the book in an hour. 

• By including a multiple subject or object instead of a single element, a situation is 

presented as repeated or ‘serial’. This effect can also be achieved by adjuncts. 

He rang his agent last week. 

They rang their agents every day last week. 

• By grammatical aspect, which we deal with next. 

Verbs corresponding to each of the four groups include: 

1 Stative verbs: be, belong, seem, stand, lie, have, want, know, understand, see, 

hear, feel, like, dislike, hate, love. 

2 Punctual or momentary verbs: cough, blink, flash, hit, tap, slam, slap, 

kick, shoot. 

3a Unbounded-process verbs: bend, dance, drive, read, sleep, write, walk, work. 

3d Bounded-completion verbs: be born, die, fall, drop, arrive, sit down, 

stand up. 


43.3 GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS IN ENGLISH 

English has two clearly grammaticalised aspectual distinctions: the Progressive, as in 

was locking vs the non-progressive in locked; and the Perfect, as in has locked vs the 

non-perfect locked. We have seen that the Perfect is a subtle aspect which is not to 

be confused with perfectivity. Perfect and Progressive may combine in one VG and are 

marked for present or past tense: 

Present + progressive 

Past + progressive 

Present perfect 

Past perfect 

Present perfect + progressive 

Past perfect + progressive 

is locking 

was locking 

has locked 

had locked 

has been locking 

had been locking 

As we saw in Chapter 8, progressive and perfect aspects also combine with modals, 

lexical auxiliaries and the passive. 

372 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

43.4 THE MEANING OF THE PROGRESSIVE 

The basic function of the English progressive aspect is to indicate a dynamic action in 

the process of happening. Attention is focused on some internal stage of the process, 

which cognitively, is viewed as something directly observed, unfolding before our eyes. 

English makes a grammatical contrast between the progressive and the non-progressive. 

That is to say, there is an obligatory choice between viewing the situation as in the 

process of happening and viewing it as a complete whole: 

What was he doing? 

(Past + progressive) 

What did he do? 

(Past, non-progressive) 

There is more to grammatical aspect than obligatory choice, however. The best way to 

understand grammatical aspect is to see it working in conjunction with the lexical aspect 

of verbs. The Progressive (and, in a different way, the Perfect) add a communicative 

perspective to events and states that is different from their lexical aspect. 

43.5 LEXICAL ASPECT AND THE PROGRESSIVE 

As the Progressive is essentially dynamic in character, it lends a dynamic interpretation 

to whatever verbal action it is applied to. For this reason, not all types of verbal situation 

admit the Progressive, as in 1a, and those that do admit it are affected in different ways. 


43.5.1 States and the Progressive 

Most stative situations are in general incompatible with the progressive. Permanent 

qualities such as be tall, be red and relations expressed by such verbs as own, belong, seem 

are conceptualised in English as invariable and therefore non-dynamic. When normally 

stative verbs are used with the Progressive the situation is viewed as a temporary state, 

often with the implication of a type of behaviour or stance, as in 1b. Compare: 

1a *You are being tall, George. 

1b You are being far too optimistic, George. 

The stative meanings of verbs such as see, hear (involuntary perception), like, love, hate 

(affection) and know, believe, understand, wonder (cognition) are in general incompatible 

with the progressive. However, many such verbs have taken on dynamic uses and these 

admit the progressive, as in the following examples: 

I’m seeing the doctor tomorrow. (= consulting) (programmed event) 

Janet is seeing her friends off. (= taking leave of) 

They were seeing so much of each other, he was almost one of the family. 

How are you liking your visit to Disneyland? (= enjoying) 

Pat: Oh, I’m just loving it./ I’m enjoying it. Ben: Frankly, I’m hating it. 


43.5.2 Punctual occurrences and the Progressive 

With punctual verbs such as tap, kick, fire, sneeze, bounce, flash, hit and the progressive, 

the situation is interpreted as iterative, that is, repeated: 

Someone is tapping on the wall next door. 

The rain is hitting the windows harder now. [BNC FP6 296] 

These categories are approximate, rather than absolute. Some processes appear to 

be more punctual than others. Some end-points appear to be more final than others. 

It would, for instance, be unusual to hear He’s slamming the door for it is not possible to 

keep on slamming the same door unless you keep on opening it. He kept slamming 

the door would imply this process, but would nonetheless be unusual. A multiple situation 

in which several doors slammed can be expressed by the Past tense, as in the 

following: 

Behind the swing door, cupboards opened and slammed shut. Pots cracked against 

work tops. 

Punctual verbs are frequently used metaphorically with the progressive, in which case 

the resulting situation may perhaps be considered durative: 

The recession is hitting the stores hard. (=affecting adversely) [BNC ABE 1784] 

43.5.3 Verbs with no end-point and the Progressive 


With those durative verbs that have no end-point (play, sing, work, talk, dance, rain, snow, 

etc.), including verbs of bodily sensation (ache, hurt, itch, feel cold), the Progressive has 

the effect of perspectivising the process as seen in progress by an observer (the 

speaker when the reference point is speech time, the relevant participant when it is in 

the past): 

Something very strange is going on here. 

That’s what we were talking about. 

The contrast between the temporary, ongoing nature of the progressive as seen by an 

observer and unbounded duration expressed by the simple Past or Present is noticeable: 

Observed ongoing process 

Lamps were glowing in the dark. 

Snow was falling gently. 

My back is aching. 

Unbounded duration 

Lamps glowed in the dark. 

Snow fell gently. 

My back aches. 

Similarly, habitual events, when combined with the progressive, have limited duration. 

The use of the progressive implies a temporary situation, whereas the ordinary Present 

tense suggests greater permanence. Compare: 

374 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

She is running a fringe theatre group (over the summer holidays). 

She runs a fringe theatre group (as her permanent job). 

43.5.4 End-point-completion verbs and the Progressive 

With these bounded processes (e.g. die, heat up, recover) the effect of the progressive is 

to bring into our focus of attention the durative phase of the process before the endpoint: 

He is dying from AIDS. [BNC AH2 12366] 

The atmosphere is heating up and the seas are rising. [BNC CER 55] 

Last night the 53-year-old father-of-two was recovering in intensive care. 

[BNC CH2 9805] 

Plurality can lead to an interpretation of multiple accomplishments. Arrive, with a 

singular subject, will be interpreted as a single event, the Progressive stretching 

the stage previous to the endpoint, as in Hurry! The taxi is arriving. With a plural subject 

and the progressive, arrive will be interpreted as a series of arrivals: The guests are 

arriving. 

This effect is illustrated in the following passage about an autumn game of rugby: 

Autumn has come early in the north. The leaves are turning, 1 the nights are drawing 

in 2 and the lustre has faded from the lakeside boathouses. On the playing-fields, 

smallish boys in red shirts are bending and hooking 3 in a scrum, before straightening 

up again to run, pass and tackle, try and kick, urged on by men with large knees 

and piercing whistles. Rain is starting to fall 4 as the last whistle of the day shrills out 

over the darkening field. 


1 

stretching out the process before the end-point (multiple Activities); 2 serial 

Accomplishments; 3 serial Activities; 4 stretching the phase of initiation of an Activity 

(this is a phased verbal group (see 39.2.1) in which start to marks ingressive aspect) 

43.6 THE DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS OF THE PROGRESSIVE 

The Progressive presents an ongoing event as something directly observed in relation 

to some point in time. This is either explicitly mentioned, as in 1 and 2 or else inferred 

as coinciding with speech time, 3: 

1 By the end of January 1919 the main outlines of the peace settlement were 

emerging. (The Peacemakers) 

2 At half-past five, crowds were pouring into the subways. 

3 What are you doing? I’m switching on the answer-phone (coincides with speech 

time) 


Progressive aspect provides a frame within which another event takes place. That is 

to say, the time-frame of the progressive event includes the bounded event: 

We finally reach the supermarket and they are just closing the doors. 

What was she wearing when she came to your house for her music lesson? 

(temporary state framing bounded event in simple past ‘came’) 

She was wearing her school uniform. She always wore it. (Elizabeth George) 

(temporary behavioural state contrasted with habitual (‘wore’) 

Two simple forms, by contrast, are normally interpreted as a sequence: 

We finally reach the supermarket and they close the doors. 

Crowds poured into the subways and boarded the trains. 

In the following text about a boat trip down the River Amazon, the Progressive is used 

to provide a frame for the details of the party related in the non-progressive past form. 

On the first evening of a 7-day-trip, I was sitting in the bow enjoying the cooling 

breeze and watching the sun go down. Soon a small crowd of Peruvian and Brazilian 

passengers and crew gathered, and a rum bottle and a guitar appeared. Within 

minutes we had a first-rate party going with singing, dancing, hand-clapping and 

an incredible impromptu orchestra. One of the crew bent a metal rod into a rough 

triangle which he pounded rhythmically, someone else threw a handful of beans into 

a can and started shaking, a couple of pieces of polished wood were clapped 

together to interweave yet another rhythm, a mouth harp was produced, I blew bass 

notes across the top of my beer bottle and everyone had a great time. A couple of 

hours of rhythmic music as the sun went down became a standard part of the ship’s 

routine and gave me some of my most unforgettable moments of South American 

travel. 

(Rob Rachowiecki, Peru: A travel survival kit) 


43.7 PRESENT PERFECT AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS 

COMBINED 

When these two aspects combine in one VG, the progressive brings into focus the 

continuous nature of the situation, whereas the Perfect leads the situation from an indefinite 

time in the past up to the present, usually to speech time. The possible situations 

include: 

a. continuous state lasting up to the present 

I have been wanting to meet him for ages. 

He has been hearing better since he got the hearing-aid. 

376 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

. continuous habitual process 

The government has been spending beyond its means. [BNC AAK 416] 

She has been going to therapy since she was about two. [BNC CAS 1200] 

c. iterative ocurrence lasting up to the present 

You have been coughing since you got up. 

d. unbounded situations lasting up to the present 

We have been waiting here for some time. 

e. normally bounded situations become unbounded 

I have been fixing the lamp. 

So people have been taping this talk? 

The non-progressive forms would remain bounded: I have fixed the lamp, So people have 

taped this talk? 

The Past Perfect Progressive combines the anteriority of the Past Perfect with the 

features of the Progressive: 

He had been seeing her quite a lot at that time. 

The unbounded result does not necessarily mean that the event was not completed; 

simply that the Perfect Progressive concentrates on the internal phase of the process. 

43.8 HABITUALITY: PAST HABIT OR STATE 


Progressiveness is considered here as a type of imperfectivity, or incompletion. Other 

types of imperfectivity include habituality and iterativity. Habituality is, as we have 

seen, expressed by both present and past tenses in English. Present tense uses are almost 

invariably imperfective, the only perfective uses being performatives (e.g. I promise not 

to be late) and the others classed as ‘instantaneous present’. Past habit or state is 

expressed by the lexical auxiliary used to + infinitive as in the following examples. There 

is a strong pragmatic implication that the state or event no longer holds: 

He knew he used to speak too fast. 

We used to see each other quite often. 

There used to be trees all round this square. 

Used to avoids the temporal indeterminacy of the past tense (e.g. visited = on one 

occasion or on many occasions) by making clear the habitual. Compare: 

She visited us. (perfective or imperfective) 

She used to visit us. (imperfective only) 

Furthermore, although a time expression such as not any longer may be added, the 

implicit meaning of discontinued habit is so strong that an additional expression is 

unnecessary. 


‘You’re the ball player,’ Danny said. ‘The big-leaguer. You played with the 

Washington Senators.’ 

‘Used to. Don’t play anymore.’ 

(William Kennedy, Billy Phelan’s Greatest Game) 

Used to + infinitive is not to be confused with be used to + -ing ‘be accustomed to’ + -ing 

as in: He is not used to working late hours. 

Iterativity is interpreted from the progressive with punctual verbs, and also from 

keep on/ continue+ -ing (kept on shouting) and from the phrasal verb particle away (he 

hammered away, As regards perfectivity, ingressive aspect focuses on the initial point of 

a situation and egressive aspect on the end-point. These are not expressed by inflections 

in English, but by combinations such as phased VGs (start to rain/raining) and phrasal 

verb particles (e.g. She came to, We ended up exhausted). 

Summary of certain aspectual distinctions realised in English 

in the lexico-grammar 

Prospective: I am going to write a note 

Immediate prospective: I am about to write a note 

Ingressive: I started to write a note 

Progressive: I am/was writing a note 

Iterative: I kept writing notes 

Habitual in the past: I used to write notes 

Egressive: Finish writing the note 

Retrospective, Recent Perfect: I have just written a note 

Retrospective, Perfect: I have written a note 


378 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

EXPRESSING ATTITUDES MODULE 44 

TOWARDS THE EVENT 

Modality 

SUMMARY 

1 Modality is the semantic category by which speakers express two different kinds 

of attitude towards the event. 

2 One attitude is that of assessing the truth of the proposition or the potential 

occurrence of the event in terms of modal certainty, probability or possibility. 

This is epistemic (or extrinsic) modality as in The key must be here somewhere. 

It may be in your pocket. 

3 A different kind of attitude is expressed when speakers intervene in the speech 

event, by laying down obligations or giving permission. This is deontic (or 

intrinsic) modality as in You must go now; the others may stay. 


4 The modal auxiliaries (except can) in English express both types of modal 

meanings, which have in common the fact that they express the speaker’s attitude 

to a potential event. Closely related to these meanings are those of ability 

and intrinsic possibility as in We can take the early train. This is known as 

dynamic modality. In addition, a number of other forms are available for the 

expression of particular modal meanings. 

5 All modal expressions are less categorical than a plain declarative. For this 

reason modality is said to express a relation to reality, whereas an 

unmodalised declarative treats the process as reality. 

44.1 THE MEANING AND FUNCTIONS OF MODALITY 

From a semantic point of view, in making an assertion such as It’s raining, speakers 

express a proposition and at the same time commit themselves to the factuality of that 

proposition. In ordinary subjective terms, we should say that speakers know that their 

assertion is a fact. 


If, on the other hand, speakers say It must be raining, or It may be raining, they are not 

making a categorical assertion, but are rather modifying their commitment in some 

degree by expressing certainty or possibility based on evidence or inference. It is 

paradoxical that as speakers we only express certainty when we are not sure about 

something. Compare: 

That’s the First Lady over there. (categorical assertion) 

That must/may/can’t be the First Lady over there. (modalised assertion) 

A different kind of modification is made when the speaker intervenes directly in the 

speech event itself, by saying, for example, I must leave now. You’d better come too. The 

rest of you may/ can stay. Here the issue is not about factuality but has to do with the 

actualising of a potential event. The speaker brings about an action, using modal expressions 

to lay down an obligation or give permission regarding the event. Basically, both 

types of modality are subjective: the speaker is involved. And by means of modality 

speakers are enabled to carry out two important communicative functions: 

• to comment on and evaluate an interpretation of reality; 

• to intervene in, and bring about changes in events. 

Modality is to be understood as a semantic category which covers such notions as possibility, 

probability, necessity, volition, obligation and permission. These are the basic 

modalities. Certain other types of modality, not all speaker-based, will be mentioned 

in the following sections. In very general terms, modality may be taken to express a 

relation with reality, while a non-modal utterance treats the process as reality. 


44.2 REALISATIONS OF MODAL MEANINGS 

Modality covers a broad semantic area and can be expressed by many forms. In English 

the syntactic class of modal auxiliaries (37.2) is the most central, and these will be 

our main concern in this chapter. Other modal realisations include the following: 

• Other verbs expressing modal meanings: 

(a) The lexical-modal auxiliaries listed in 37.3 composed of be or have, usually 

another element + infinitive (have got to, be bound to, be likely to, etc.). 

(b) The semi-modals need and dare. 

(c) Lexical verbs such as allow, beg, command, forbid, guarantee, guess, promise, 

suggest, warn (discussed in 25.1 as performatives). 

(d) The verbs wonder and wish, which relate to non-factual meanings. 

• Other means of expressing modality: 

(e) Modal adverbs such as probably, possibly, certainly, hopefully, thankfully, 

obviously. 

(f) Modal adjectives such as possible, probable, likely, used in impersonal constructions 

such as He is likely to win or as part of a nominal group, as in a likely 

winner of this afternoon’s race or the most probable outcome of this trial. 

380 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(g) Modal nouns such as possibility, probability, chance, likelihood, as in There’s just 

a chance that he may win. 

(h) The use of the past tense to indicate remoteness from reality, as in I thought I’d 

go along with you, if you don’t mind. Similarly, the past form in the closed 

conditional, as in ‘If you went, I would go too.’ 

(i) Parentheticals such as I think, I guess. 

These other diverse forms and uses serve to provide a contextual frame for the 

more central meanings and exponents of modality. Here we take modality to be basically 

the expression of possibilities, probabilities, certainty, obligations and permission, 

as expressed by modal auxiliaries. These, together with the lexical-modal auxiliaries, 

are the most basic exponents of modality in English. 

The other modal elements tend to reinforce the modal meaning, as in the example: 

I’m sure she couldn’t possibly have said that. This is called modal harmony and illustrates 

the way in which modality can be expressed not simply at one point in an utterance, by 

a modal auxiliary, but at different points right throughout the clause. 

Modal harmony is exemplified in this short extract from a novel by Richard Gordon, 

in which George expresses his doubts about his future as a doctor. 

‘Dad –’ George shifted his feet. ‘I wonder 1 if I’m really suited 2 for medicine.’ ‘Of 

course you are,’ his father told him briefly. ‘We’ve had medical men in this family 

since the days of Gladstone bags and leeches. I wish you’d 3 follow the example of 

your sister. She will 4 certainly be 5 studying upstairs with her usual diligence. And 

what, might 6 I ask, would 7 you intend 8 to do instead?’ 

‘I’ve thought of the – er, drama.’ 


1 

lexical modal verb; 2 conditional clause expressing doubt; 3 lexical modal verb + 

hypothetical would; 4 will of prediction; 5 modal adverb, 6 ironical use of might = 

requesting permission; 7 hypothetical would; 8 lexical verb of intention 

44.3 EXTRINSIC MODALITY: MODAL CERTAINTY, 

PROBABILITY AND POSSIBILITY 

These three options represent the three degrees of confidence, or lack of it, that the 

speaker feels towards the factuality of the proposition expressed. 

44.3.1 Modal certainty: will, must, be bound to 

What we call modal certainty is not the hundred per cent certainty of a categorical 

assertion. An unmodalised declarative constitutes a stronger statement of fact than any 

additional expression of certainty can. If, for instance, George’s father had said ‘Your 

sister is studying upstairs’, this is a stronger statement of fact than ‘Your sister will 


certainly be studying upstairs’, in which he expresses a strong assumption, reinforced 

by certainly. 

Modal certainty is, therefore, diminished certainty, chosen either because the speaker’s 

state of knowledge has not permitted a plain assertion or because the speaker does not 

want to express strong commitment at a given moment in a particular interpersonal 

interaction, perhaps for reasons of politeness (see Chapter 5). 

With modal certainty expressed by will and must, the speaker does not accept any 

possibility of the proposition not being true. For this reason adding but it may not be to 

1 and 2 would result in a contradiction. 

1 The concert will be over by now. 

2 The concert must be over. 

Assumption or prediction: will 

Will expresses a confident assumption by the speaker as observer, based on experience, 

known facts or what is usually the case. It can be glossed by ‘I assume that . . .’, as in 3. 

3 Her mother will know her age. (I assume that her mother knows her age.) 

When the orientation frame is past time, as in a narrative, would is used, as in 4. It is 

not limited to future occurrences, but can refer to present time. 

4 He would be about sixty when I first met him. (I assume that he was about sixty) 


Will can also be used to refer to future time, expressing a modal judgement or prediction, 

as in 5 and 6. (See also 27.5 and 44.7 for will and must as committing the speaker to a 

future action. See 41.6 for other means of referring to future events.) 

Predictive shall is much less common than will. It is used by some speakers for the 

1st person singular and plural, as in 7, and is usually contracted to ’ll (I’ll, we’ll), negative 

shan’t in spoken English: 

5 It won’t work. (I predict that it won’t work) 

6 Scotland will be dry tomorrow with a fair amount of cloud. 

7 I must have an early night, otherwise I shall (I’ll) be worn out tomorrow. 

Logical necessity: must 

The second type of modal certainty is that of ‘logical necessity’ meaning ‘it is necessarily 

the case that x is true’. Must is the modal most used in BrE and is usually subjective, 

expressing strong conviction based on deduction or inference from evidence, which 

may or may not be stated. The concert must be over might be said, for instance, if the 

speaker sees that the lights are off or the concert hall is closed. The lexical-modal have 

to 2 is relatively uncommon in BrE with the epistemic meaning of logical necessity, but 

it is now used by some speakers as an alterntive to epistemic must 1. In AmE, have to 

or have got to is generally preferred to must in the meaning of logical necessity. A strict 

382 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

meaning of logical necessity (‘this is the only possibility there is’) is objective in 4. There 

is little difference in meaning between the modal and the non-modalised declarative in 

4, while this is not the case in the subjective uses. 

1 The key must be in your pocket. 

2 The key has to be in your pocket. 

3 The key is bound to be/is sure to be in your pocket. 

4 If Jane is Pat’s sister and Jill is Jane’s daughter, Pat must be Jill’s aunt. 

44.3.2 Probability or ‘reasonable inference’: should, ought 

A medium degree of conviction is expressed by should and the less common ought. A 

driver might say, studying a map ‘It should be easy to reach York from here’, glossed 

as ‘I assume it is easy’ or ‘it is probably easy’. Here we have the notion of probability, 

or what is reasonable to expect, based on deduction from facts known to the speaker. 

The main semantic feature distinguishing these modals from must is that they implicitly 

admit non-fulfilment of the predicated event, whereas must and will do not. We can say 

It should be easy to reach York, but of course it may not be, but not *It must be easy to 

reach York, but of course it may not be. Should and ought are said to be ‘non-factive’, that 

is not binding, as opposed to will and must which are ‘factive’ or binding. They can be 

illustrated as follows: 

Dinner should be ready. You must be hungry after such a long journey. 


Similarly, with past time reference, made by have + -en, should and ought imply 

probability, but can be contradicted. Will and must, because of their strong epistemic 

commitment, do not make this implication and can’t be contradicted by the speaker. 

Compare: 

He should have reached York by now (but Pat has rung to say he hasn’t). 

He will/ must have reached York by now (*but Pat has rung to say he hasn’t). 

The probability meaning of should and ought is often merged with that of nonbinding 

obligation (see 44.5.4), as in The hotel should be good for this price, i.e. one 

would expect it to be good/it has the obligation to be good. Likely and likelihood, with 

the corresponding negative forms unlikely and unlikelihood, unambiguously express 

probability: 

All flights are likely to be delayed. 

There’s no likelihood of frost tonight. 

44.3.3 Extrinsic possibility: may, might, could 

Weaker conviction is expressed as the possibility of an event occurring or being true. 

English speakers make use of the modal auxiliaries may, might and could, the latter 


particularly in the media. These are all stressed and can be glossed by ‘it is possible 

that x’: 

They may be real pearls, you know. 

They might be real pearls, you know. 

They could be real pearls, you know. 

All three expressions mean ‘It is possible that they are real pearls’. We can see that might 

and could, although historically past forms, don’t in such cases refer to past time, but to 

present states of affairs. They can also be used to refer to future events: 

It may/ might/ could snow tonight. (= it is possible that it will snow tonight) 

Can is not used in positive declarative clauses that express extrinsic (‘epistemic’) 

possibility. We do not say *They can be real pearls *It can snow tonight. 

Degrees of confidence 

It is not easy to claim with certainty that may, might and could represent points on a 

scale of confidence or, in other words, that one or other of these modals expresses either 

a stronger or a more remote possibility. They can all be intensified by (very) well, which 

heightens the possibility, and by just, which lowers it: 

They may/might/could very well be real pearls. 

They just may/might/could be real pearls. 


The following examples, 1 from spoken English, 2 from written, illustrate how the three 

can be used in one utterance: 

1 I may be a few minutes late; it might be seven o’clock before I can get away; it 

could even be half-past. 

2 The provision might be deleted altogether; it may remain as it stands; or it could 

emerge considerably strengthened and broadened. 

In these examples the three modals are interchangeable, with little difference to the 

message. Factors such as speakers’ age and social dialect, and the degree of formality 

or informality of the situation, undoubtedly influence the choice of modal. We suggest 

that may is more formal and indicates reserve, might being now the more neutral form, 

especially with younger speakers, while could expresses tentative possibility. 

384 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

44.4 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF EXTRINSIC MODALITY 

Modal auxiliaries expressing extrinsic meanings correlate with the following features: 

existential Subject 

be + -ing 

stative main verb 

dynamic main verb 

lexical auxiliary 

past reference by have + -en 

There may be trouble ahead 

She might be waiting 

It might be cold 

I might leave early 

It might have to be abandoned 

He might have left by now 

When we refer to past events by the extrinsic modals, the modal meaning of prediction, 

certainty, possibility or probability is not itself past; the speaker carries out the act of 

predicting, or whatever in present time. Pastness is realised by the have + -en perfect 

form attached to the main verb, as in I may have made a mistake. It must have got lost. 

They will have finished. 

44.4.1 Summary of extrinsic modal and lexical-modal auxiliaries 

and their meanings 

He will be there by now. 

(assumption/prediction based on 

experience or common sense) 

I shall probably be back before you (prediction) 

He must be there by now. 

(logical necessity, deduction based on 

evidence) 

He can’t be there yet. (logical necessity negated) (see 44.5.3) 

He’s bound to be there. 

(modal certainty + inevitability) 

He has to be there by now. (logical necessity, objective) 

He’s likely to be there by now. (probability) 

He should be there by now. (reasonable inference based on deduction) 

He could be there by now. 

(tentative possibility) 

He might be there by now. 

(neutral possibility) 

He may be there by now. 

(weak possibility) 

He may be intelligent, but he’s a bit (concessive meaning of may) 

of a prat. 


For lexical auxiliaries, modal idioms and modal auxiliaries in VG sequences, see Chapter 

8. For backshifted modals in reported speech, see 36.3. 

44.5 FEATURES OF INTRINSIC MODALITY: VOLITION, 

OBLIGATION, NECESSITY, PERMISSION 

Functionally, these modal meanings are used to establish and maintain social relations 

and interaction. Through them, speakers influence and control others, and commit themselves 

to certain courses of action. They may bring about changes in their surroundings 

by obligations which are met, permissions given, promises kept and so on. 


Semantically, the modal utterance forms part of the linguistic event, and the speaker 

intervenes in the action. 

Syntactically, we find the following correlates: 

(a) Unstressed ‘there’ is rare as Subject, which is typically a human Agent controlling 

the main verb. 

(b) The main verb is usually dynamic. 

(c) With past time reference, must and may express obligation/ permission that 

took place in past time and is expressed, not by have + -en, but by forms of other 

verbs. 

Present 

I must go. 

They may go. 

Past 

I had to go. 

They were allowed to go. 

44.5.1 Volition: willingness and intention will, shall, ’ll 

The concept of volition covers the meanings of willingness as in Will you sign this for 

me? and intention as in I’ll bring it back tomorrow. The negative form is will not/won’t. 

Willingness 

This can be paraphrased by be willing to. The action predicated by the main verb can 

coincide with speech time, or refer to repeated or future events: 


Will you give a donation to the Wildlife Society? – Yes, I will. 

The key won’t go in the lock. (speaker attributes unwillingness to an inanimate thing) 

As in these examples, will is used for all persons. The reduced form ’ll occurs in the 

affirmative, except when stressed to express insistence, which requires the full form, as 

in I WILL do it. 

The meaning of willingness, realised by will, readily lends itself to various pragmatic 

uses. For instance, will would be interpreted as a directive in Will you listen to 

me and stop interrupting? and as a polite offer in Will you have another slice of melon? (See 

Chapter 5.) 

In interrogatives shall is used with a 1st person subject to consult the addressee’s 

wishes or ask for advice. This is the most widespread use of shall in present-day 

English. 

Shall we go back home now? (= Do you want us to ...?) 

Intention 

This can be glossed by intend to. When a speaker expresses an intention, the intention 

is, naturally, coincident with speech time, but the intended action is in the future: 

386 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I’ll ring you sometime next week. 

I think I’ll just tape this bit of opera. 

Will is used for all persons, shall by some speakers for the 1st person singular and 

plural. 

The speaker’s commitment in using these modals is as strong as in the extrinsic 

meanings. For this reason the will of intention can have the force of either a promise or 

a threat, according to whether the intended action is beneficial to the addressee or 

otherwise. These interpretations are reinforced by the addition of such verbs as promise 

and warn: 

I’ll bring you something back from Paris, I promise. 

I warn you that if you keep talking this way I shall hang up. 

The full form shall is also used with a 2nd or 3rd person subject with the meaning of 

speaker’s guarantee, as in you/they shall be paid tomorrow. 

44.5.2 Inescapable obligation: must, have to, have got to/ 

gotta, shall 

In English, obligation and necessity can be thought of as an inescapable duty or 

requirement, realised by must, have (got) to and, in a lesser degree, by shall; or else, simply 

as an advisable course of action, realised by should and ought. Must can have the force 

of a command. 


Must as a modal of obligation 

When realised by must, obligation can have the force of a direct command, as in 1 and 

2, although modal lexical verbs are more explicit. Compare You must go with I order you 

to go, I urge you to go. 

1 You must try harder. 

2 You must copy this out again. 

This force derives from the fact that (a) in certain cultural contexts such as school, family, 

the Armed Forces, the speaker has authority over the addressee, who is the subject 

‘you’; (b) the speaker takes the responsibility for the action being carried out; and 

(c) the verb is agentive and in active voice. 

The force of must is diminished if one or more of these factors is modified, providing 

useful strategies to mitigate the directness of the obligation, although not its 

inescapability: 

I must catch the last bus without fail. (subject is I, the obligation is internal) 

Drug-traffickers must be punished. (3rd person subject; authority does not reside 

in the speaker; passive voice) 

Applications must be in by May 1st. (non-agentive verb; passive; 3rd person subject) 


When no human control is implied, the meaning is that of intrinsic necessity, as in: 

Lizards must hibernate if they are to survive the winter. (= it is necessarily the case 

that.) 

The following news item ‘Killing with a Kiss’ from The Sunday Times of India illustrates 

the inescapable obligation of intrinsic must: 

Medics were on standby as 53 couples locked their lips on Saturday at the start of 

a bid to set a new world record for the longest kiss. 

The couples will need to kiss non-stop for more than 29 hours and 57 minutes to 

make it into the Guinness Book of Records. The Valentine weekend attempt was 

organised by a local radio station, which advertised for participants to take part in 

the competition at Newcastle, Sydney. 

To break the record, participants must follow strict rules, station spokeswoman 

Tricia Morris said. “Their lips must be touching at all times, they must be standing, 

they must not fall asleep, must not leave the venue, mustn’t wear any incontinence 

pads or adult nappies and there are no toilet breaks,” Morris said. 

Shall, have to, have got to, gotta as modals of obligation 

Of all the modals of obligation shall is the most imperious, direct and subjective, and 

for this reason is little used in the spoken language. It occurs in legal language and other 

formal contexts, as in the regulations of the Olympic Games 1. 

Of the lexical-modals, have to is objective (the obligation is external) and have got 

to/gotta subjective (the obligation is internal). Compare 2 and 3. 

Syntactically, have to, unlike must and have got to, has non-finite forms having to, to 

have to. Both have to and have got to have a past form had (got) to. Only have to can 

combine with the modal auxiliaries (may have to, *may have got to). 

Must has no past form as it is, historically, itself a past form. Forms of have to are 

therefore brought in to express past and future obligation 4. 


1 All competitors in the Games shall wear a number. 

2 I’ve got to go now. (I gotta go now) (the obligation is internal) 

3 I have to go and see the Dean. (the obligation is external) 

4 We had to pay in advance. We’ll have to pay in advance. (external) 

44.5.3 Negation of the modals must and may 

Negation of the modal verbs must and may is complex because either the modal concept 

(in the ‘a’ examples) or the lexical concept (in the ‘b’ examples) can be negated. 

388 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1. obligation and permission (intrinsic meanings) 

positive negative meaning 

You must go now a 1 

You needn’t go now = you are not obliged to go 

a 2 

You don’t have to go now = you are not obliged to go 

b You must not (mustn’t) go = you are obliged not to go 

You may go now a You may not/ can’t go = you have not permission to go 

b You may/ can not go = you have permission not to go 

2. necessity and possibility (extrinsic meanings) 

positive negative meaning 

It must be true a It can’t be true = It is not possible that it is true 

b 1 

It needn’t be true = It is not necessarily true 

b 2 

It doesn’t have to be true = It’s not necessarily true 

It may be true (a) It can’t be true = It is not possible that it is true 

(b) It may not be true 

= It is possible that it is not true 


When might and could express possibility, they negate in the same way as may, with 

replacement by can’t for modal negation and not to negate the lexical verb. 

Need not (needn’t) is often replaced by the objective form doesn’t/don’t have to in both 

kinds of modal meaning, the extrinsic and the intrinsic. Have to is also used by many 

speakers in the interrogative: Do you have to go now? for Need you go now?, especially in 

the meaning of obligation. Questioning is less common with meanings of possibility and 

necessity, for example: Does it have to be true? 

Mustn’t is usually reserved for the obligation meaning of must, for example, We mustn’t 

forget to ask Sue to water the plants (= obligation not to forget). 

May in its meaning of permission does not have a full set of unambiguous forms: you 

may not go serves for both modal and lexical negation. The meaning ‘you have permision 

not to go’ can be conveyed by stressing the negative particle not – You may not go, if 

you like. 

Can and can’t have replaced may/may not in the expression of permission except in 

the most formal contexts. 

Can’t, needn’t and don’t have to negate and question the modal concept. When the 

lexical concept is negated, this is achieved by not, which can be attached as n’t to must 

(mayn’t is not normally used). 

Can’t is the usual form used to negate must (necessity) and may (possibility). 


44.5.4 Non-binding obligation: should, ought 

Should and ought express a medium obligation, which is not binding and may be 

unfulfilled: 

People should drive more carefully. 

You really ought to cut down on smoking. 

These modals are used instead of the stronger must when the speaker lacks authority 

to impose the obligation. Tact, politeness or a lack of conviction of the absolute necessity 

of the predicated action are further motivations. The following invented advertisement 

clearly distinguishes the necessary from the merely desirable: 

Candidates must be university graduates. 

Candidates must be between 21 and 35. 

Candidates should have a knowledge of two foreign languages. 

Candidates should have at least three years’ experience. 

Referring to a past event, with should and ought + have + -en, the speaker implies that 

the obligation was not fulfilled. Ought is less common than should nowadays. Be supposed 

to is similar to should and ought in being contrary to fact: 

He ought to have been more careful. 

The Government should have taken a decision earlier. 

They were supposed to be here by eight, but most people turned up at half-past. 


44.6 DYNAMIC MODALITY: POSSIBILITY, ABILITY, 

PERMISSION, PROPENSITY CAN, BE ABLE, COULD, WILL, 

WOULD, MAY 

A. Can, could 

Dynamic modality expresses properties or dispositions of the subject referent. The three 

related meanings are expressed by can, negative cannot, can’t: 

This paint can be applied with a 

spray. 

Can you reach the top shelf? 

You can’t park here 

(= It is possible to apply this paint . . ./for 

this paint to be applied . . .) (dynamic 

possibility) 

(= Are you able to reach . . .?) (ability) 

(= You are not allowed to park here) 

(intrinsic permission) 

It is important to distinguish dynamic possibility, which is expressed by can and is 

paraphrased by ‘It is possible to . . .’or ‘It is possible for . . . to . . ., from extrinsic 

possibility, which is expressed by may, might or could, and is paraphrased by ‘It is 

possible that . . .’. Compare: 

390 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I can be there by 10 o’clock. 

I may/might be there by 10 o’clock. 

(= It is possible for me to be there by 

10 o’clock) 

(= It is possible that I’ll be there by 

10 o’clock) 

B. Will and would: propensity 

This is a dynamic meaning which involves a property or a propensity of the subject 

referent. From our knowledge of how the world is structured, we are able to predict not 

only single instances (see p. 382) but regular occurrences, using will. Would is used in 

a past time-frame: 

Ice will melt at room temperature. (Ice has the property to melt ...) 

They’ll gossip for hours. 

(They have a tendency to gossip for hours) 

They would gossip for hours, sitting in the park. (They tended to gossip ...) 

Heavy stress on will and would is emotive and can suggest that the propensity is not 

welcome to the speaker: 

He WILL ring up late at night asking silly questions. 

Dynamic would in narrative is illustrated in the following passage by James Thurber: 

With the lexical-modal be apt to, propensity shades into usuality, since it is based on the 

natural habits or tendency of the subject. It refers to repeated states or happenings, as 

in He’s apt to turn up for dinner without warning. 


When Grandpa got to his office, he would put his hat on his desk. . . . It was a device 

of his to get away from bores or talkative friends. As the door opened, he would 

automatically reach for his derby, and if it was somebody he didn’t want to see, he 

would rise and say, ‘I’m sorry, but I was just about to leave.’ He would then walk 

to the street with his visitor, find out which way the man was going, and set off in 

the opposite direction, walking around the block and entering the store by the back 

door. 

C. The core meaning of can – You can’t do that 

The meanings expressed by can all correspond to a basic pattern, which in its positive 

form can be expressed as ‘nothing prevents x from occurring’ and in its negative form 

as ‘something prevents x from occurring’. That ‘something’ in each case represents a 

set of laws, whether natural laws, moral laws, laws of physics, of good manners, and 

perhaps many more. For this reason, an utterance such as You can’t do that will be 

interpreted in different ways according to the context in which it occurs, and depending 

on which set of laws applies in a particular case: 


You can’t do that = It’s not possible for you to do that, e.g. walk from Genoa 

to Tangier. 

You can’t do that = You are not able to do that, e.g. lift such a heavy box. 

You can’t do that = You are not allowed to do that, e.g. park your car in the 

square. 

You can’t do that = social norms prevail against doing that, e.g. infringe local 

customs. 

As the possibility and ability to carry out an action is a necessary requirement for a 

person to perform that action, can lends itself to various pragmatic interpretations by 

implication: 

willingness 

command 

request 

existential 

I can get the copies for you, if you like. 

If you won’t keep quiet, you can get out. 

Can you help me lift this sofa? 

It can be very cold in Edinburgh in winter. 

D. May (negative may not) – You may go now 

May is a more formal alternative to can in the meanings of permission and dynamic 

possibility, and is extended to such meanings as polite offer. 

May I come in? Yes, you may. (request for permission and giving permission) 

In spring, wild orchids may be found in the woods. (possibility = it is possible to 

find...) 

May I help you with the luggage? (polite offer) 


Might is sometimes used for an indirect request: 

You might fetch me a bottle of tonic water and a bag of crisps. 

E. The past of can is could or was/were able + to-infinitive 

depending on whether an imperfective or perfective meaning is intended. With be able 

a single, predicated action is achieved, that is to say, it is seen as holistic, perfective; 

with could, the action is viewed as extended in the past, that is, as imperfective: 

From the top of the hill we could see for miles. 

He was able to escape in time. (not *He could escape in time) 

This distinction is obligatory only in the affirmative and the interrogative. In the negative, 

could and be able to are interpreted as having the same result and are therefore 

interchangeable: 

He wasn’t able to escape. He couldn’t escape. 

392 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

44.7 HYPOTHETICAL USES OF THE MODALS 

Apart from their other meanings, the past tense modals could, might, would can be used 

in a ‘remote’ or hypothetical sense in both main and subordinate clauses. Compare: 

I will help you if I can. 

She may pass if she works hard. 

I would help you if I could. 

She might pass if she worked harder. 

To refer to a past event have + -en is used. The event is understood to be contrary to 

fact: 

I would have helped you if I had been able to. 

She would/ might have passed if she had worked harder. 

Should is also used, especially in BrE, as the replacement of a subjunctive in referring 

to states of affairs that may exist or come into existence (see also Chapter 3): 

It is only natural that they should want a holiday. 

I am amazed that he should think it’s worth trying. 

44.7.1 Summary of intrinsic modals and modal meanings 

Will you sign here? 

(willingness) 

Shall we go to the theatre? 

(suggestion/consulting addressee) 

I’ll let you know tomorrow 

(intention) 

You must try harder 

(inescapable obligation, subjective) 

You have to try harder 

(inescapable obligation, objective) 

We must go; we’ve got to/ gotta go (inescapable obligation, self-imposed) 

You needn’t go; you don’t have to go (absence of obligation) 

All competitors shall wear a number (inescapable obligation, formal) 

You should drive more carefully (medium obligation, not necessarily fulfilled) 

You can do it 

(ability, possibility, or informal permission) 

It can be cold in Edinburgh (existential) 

You may go now 

(permission, formal) 

You can go now 

(permission, informal) 

I would help you if I could 

(hypothetical) 


The following extract from a novel by David Lodge illustrates some of the realisations 

of modal meanings in English. It is noticeable that the dialogue, in which members of a 

family debate possible courses of action, contains more modals than the narrative part: 

Their Dad would be coming 1 home the next day and they would 2 have to 3 look after 

him until he was too ill to stay out of hospital. The question was, should 4 he be told? 

‘How long . . .?’ somebody wondered. 5 The doctor hadn’t been specific. A matter 


of months rather than weeks. One could 6 never be sure. ‘Who would 7 tell him?’ ‘I 

couldn’t. I just couldn’t,’ 8 said their mother and wept. ‘I would, 9 said Angela, ‘if we 

agreed that was the right thing to do.’ ‘Why tell him?’ said the youngest sister. ‘It 

would 10 just be cruel.’ ‘But if he asks . . .’ said another. ‘Are you going to 11 lie to 

your own Dad?’ 

Tom lit a cigarette and blew smoke from his nostrils. A grey haze from previous 

cigarettes hung in the air. All the men in the family were heavy smokers, perhaps 

because cigarettes had always been readily available. No reference was made by 

anyone to this as the likely 12 cause of their father’s disease. 

‘I see no reason to tell Dad yet,’ Tom said at length. ‘We should 13 try to keep him 

as cheerful as possible.’ 

Their mother looked at Tom gratefully, but fearfully. ‘But he must 14 have time to 

. . . receive the last . . . sacraments and everything,’ she faltered. 

‘Of course, Mum, but there’s no need 15 to rush these things. Let’s make him as 

happy as we can for the rest of his days.’ 

1 

past time prediction; 2 past time prediction; 3 obligation; 4 advisability; 5 doubt; 

6 

intrinsic possibility; 7 

willingness; 8 

incapability; 9 10 

willingness; hypothetical; 

11 

intention; 12 probability; 13 advisability; 14 inescapable obligation; 15 lack of necessity/ 

obligation 



On tense Brazil (1995), Comrie (1985); and aspect Comrie (1976), Givón (2001a), 

Kravchenko (2002), Langacker (1991); on situation types Huddleston and Pullum (2002), 

Mourelatos (1981); on Perfect aspect McCoard (1978); Stoevsky (2000); on modality 

Coates (1983); Palmer (1988); Huddleston and Pullum (2002). 


Viewpoints on events: Tense, aspect and modality 

Module 41 

1 Discussion: To what extent do the Present and Past tenses of English correspond to present 

and past time? 

2 †Identify the Present tense verb in each sentence as a state or an event. If an event, is it 

instantaneous, habitual, ‘historic’, past referring, reporting or quotative? 

(1) They cycle to work on a tandem most days. 

(2) Ignorance is bliss. 

(3) I had just got off the bus when up comes this guy and asks me for a light. 

394 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(4) And he’s like ‘But she looks just like a little kid.’ 

(5) Finally, I plug in and press the button. 

(6) Wounded tell of terror march. 

(7) Many believe that violence on television is partly the cause of violence in real life. 

(8) Clinical tests prove conclusively that untreated gum disease leads to tooth loss. 

3 Turn to the article on Pete the burglar on p. 357. Discuss the function type of the Present 

tense in: (a) the writer’s narrative and (b) Pete’s quoted words. 

4 Write a description, using the Present tense, of some piece of equipment that you find 

useful, for instance an answer-phone, a mobile phone, or a personal computer. 

5 †Decide which is more meaningful, the Past or the Perfect, in the sentences below and 

write the correct form of the verb (given in brackets) below. Give reasons for your choice: 

(1) We - - - - - - - - - - - - (set off) early and - - - - - - - - - - - - (leave) the car by the bridge. 

(2) ‘I - - - - - - - - - - - - (get) it,’ he shouted, ‘I think I really - - - - - - - - - - - - (get) it.’ 

(3) During his short lifetime, he - - - - - - - - - - - - (compose) some of the most beautiful 

organ music of his time. 

(4) How many plays - - - - - - - - - - - - Shakespeare (write)? 

(5) I (wake up) late this morning and - - - - - - - - - - - - (have) any breakfast yet. 

(6) What- - - - - - - - - - - - you (say) your name - - - - - - - - - - - - (be)? 

(7) - - - - - - - - - - - - you (come) for a work permit, or for something else? 

(8) When - - - - - - - - - - - - your son (qualify) as a doctor? 

(9) - - - - - - - - - - - - the children (like) the circus? 

(10) I’m afraid there - - - - - - - - - - - - (be) a mistake. You - - - - - - - - - - - - (put, passive) in 

the wrong group. 


Module 42 

1 Discussion: Compare the uses and implications of the Present Perfect in English with those 

of its counterpart in any other language you know. 

2 †Discuss the difference in meaning between the use of Past tense and Perfect aspect in 

the following sentences. What pragmatic inferences would be made to establish the 

psychological link between past and present time in the case of the Perfect uses? 

(1) (a) His last film set a new standard in horror and violence. 

(b) His latest film has set a new standard in horror and violence. 

(2) (a) I was a colleague of hers, working in the same Department, for several years. 

(b) I have been a colleague of hers, working in the same Department, for several 

years. 

(3) (a) How far did you get? 

(b) How far have you got? 

(4) (a) Where did you go? 

(b) Where have you been? 


(5) (a) What did you do? 

(b) What have you done? 

(6) (a) She made a fool of herself in public. 

(b) She has made a fool of herself in public. 

(7) (a) Mobile phones suddenly became popular. 

(b) Mobile phones have suddenly become popular. 

(8) (a) That report that I gave you has a couple of serious errors. 

(b) That report that I’ve just given you has a couple of serious errors. 

3 †Turn to the William Boyd text on p. 367. You will see that the dates make explicit the 

exact relationships in some cases of the Past Perfect. Change the first was to is and examine 

carefully the effect on the rest of the verb forms. Justify your decision to make or not to 

make changes in the verb forms. 

4 †In each numbered section from the following short news item from The Week, identify the 

verb forms as Past, Present or Present Perfect (there is also one modal). Do you find any 

of the following types or uses: habitual, reported, quotative? 

Padma Lakshmi feels she is famous for all the wrong things 1 . . . She has always 

wanted to be an actress 2 but she gets distracted by alternative careers: first as a 

model, then as a presenter on Italian television and next as a celebrity chef in 

America. 3 In Britain, she’s most famous as the girlfriend of novelist Salman Rushdie. 4 

This, in particular, drives her mad. 5 “I would like to be known for myself,” she says. 6 

“Like today, in the paper I read something that said, ‘Rushdie’s girlfriend Padma 

Lakshmi,’ 7 and I thought 8 ‘Oh, when is this going to end?’ 9 It’s terrible because, of 

course, I love him, so of course I’m proud of him, 10 and he’s achieved so much 11 and 

blah, blah, blah, but I’m like, 12 ‘When is it my turn?’ 13 


Module 43 

1 †Discussion: Comment on the aspectual meaning of the past tense in: His rubber-soled 

shoes squeaked on the vinyl floor. Does it refer to one occurrence or more? 

2 †Decide whether the situation expressed in each sentence below is bounded (with an 

end-point) or unbounded (without an end-point). 

(1) They dumped their bags on the floor. 

(2) They are negotiating with the Chinese to buy a panda. 

(3) The west wind blows constantly across the beaches of Almería. 

(4) The cat pounced on the unwary mouse. 

(5) Snow fell gently on the city streets. 

(6) He dragged himself along the road. 

(7) A man in a pin-striped suit stepped off the bus. 

(8) He slipped the pen into his pocket. 

396 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(9) The sofa cast a shadow on the wall. 

(10) She handed me the paper bag containing the mushrooms. 

3 †Put the main verb in each of the sentences below into the Progressive, and say what kind 

of meaning ensues: 

(1) Paul drove us home. 

(2) Sue crossed the street when she saw us. 

(3) The children jumped up and down with excitement. 

(4) I have tried to trace an old friend who lives in an unfamiliar town. 

(5) Peter sees the Health Officer tomorrow. 

(6) A big fire crackled in the grate. 

(7) They photographed the trail of footprints around the pool. 

(8) I shiver and cough. 

(9) The police car pulled up in front of the hotel. 

(10) The doctor bent over the man who lay on the ground. 

Module 44 

1 Discussion: Modals in context: Do the modals in the following three short texts have intrinsic 

or extrinsic meanings? Give a gloss of each to help you decide. 

(a) ‘He surrounds himself with people that want to win. He taught me to win at all costs. 

Quite simple. Must win. No secret to it. But you have to manage your way because 

if you fail, it’s you that’s done it.’ [He refers to Sir Alex Ferguson, the manager of 

Manchester United] 


(b) Motorists who use their mobile phones at the wheel are to face fines of up to a 

thousand pounds from this December. But the real question may be whether these 

fines can or could be enforced. 

(c) 

You could be exceptionally bright and super-competent so far as brain work and 

the thought processes are concerned. The trouble could be that you put all this 

mental efficiency into unimportant, instead of worthwhile, issues. (Horoscope) 

2 †Supply the modal verb which corresponds to the paraphrase in each case. In some cases 

more than one form is acceptable: 

(1) I - - - - - - - - - - - - let you know as soon as 1 have any news. (intention, promise) 

(2) We - - - - - - - - - - - - get away until the end of August. (It will not be possible for us 

to get away.) 

(3) There - - - - - - - - - - - - be something burning. I can smell it. (It is necessarily the case 

that . . . ) 

(4) The banks - - - - - - - - - - - - be closed at this time of day. (prediction) 

(5) You - - - - - - - - - - - - have forgotten your house keys! (It’s not possible that you have 

forgotten.) 

(6) This 12-can pack of beer - - - - - - - - - - - - be enough. (probability, reasonable 

inference) 


(7) Because of his wide experience, he - - - - - - - - - - - - to find an acceptable solution. 

(ability, past) 

(8) That young man - - - - - - - - - - - - be our next Prime Minister. (It is possible that . . .) 

(9) You - - - - - - - - - - - - not feed the animals at the zoo. (You are under the obligation 

not to . . .) 

(10) You - - - - - - - - - - - - (not) tip the waiter. (It is not necessary that you tip the waiter.) 

3 †Change the modalised verb form in each sentence below to the past. Make any 

adjustments necessary to tenses or adverbs, for instance, in the rest of the sentence. 

(1) They will not wait for us more than ten minutes. 

(2) He must be mistaken about his daughter’s age. 

(3) You can’t be listening to what I’m saying. 

(4) Ben should take two tablets every day this week. 

(5) Lying in our tent, we can hear the wind howling down from the heights. 

(6) With their fast patrol-boats, the police can capture drug-traffickers operating in the 

Strait. 

(7) There may be a hold-up on the motorway this afternoon. 

(8) I must have the baby vaccinated. 

(9) He will telephone us immediately if he can. 

(10) They oughtn’t to be talking while the pianist is playing. 

4 Study the following extract from an article by Angela Carter in Nothing Sacred, about her 

memories of her parents. The occasion is a visit to her father’s new home, after her mother’s 

death: 


My father had lined the walls of his new home with pictures of my mother when she 

was young and beautiful; and beautiful she certainly was, with a broad, Slavonic 

jaw and high cheekbones like Anna Karenina, she took a striking photograph and 

had the talent for histrionics her pictures imply. They used to row dreadfully and pelt 

one another with household utensils, whilst shrieking with rage. Then my mother 

would finally break down and cry, possibly tears of sheer frustration that he was 

bigger than she, and my father, in an ecstasy of remorse – we’ve always been very 

good at remorse and its manifestations in action, emotional blackmail and irrational 

guilt – my father would go out and buy her chocolates. 

Analyse the tenses and aspects used by the writer in this lively evocation of her parents. 

For instance, which tense does the author use to describe her mother? Do the verbs in this 

part of the article refer to states, repeated actions or events in the past? 

Which forms does the writer make use of to describe her parents’ life together? With 

which tense-aspect form does the author establish a psychological link between past and 

present time, with regard to certain family characteristics? 

398 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

TALKING ABOUT PEOPLE CHAPTER 10 

AND THINGS 

The Nominal Group 

Module 45: Expressing our experience of people and things 401 

45.1 Classes of entities 401 

45.2 Overview: The structure of the nominal group 403 

45.3 The head element 1: common nouns 405 

45.4 Regular and irregular plurals 405 

45.5 Countability: Count and non-count nouns 405 

45.5.1 Grammatical features of countability 406 

45.5.2 Selected classes of non-count nouns 407 

45.5.3 Countability markers of non-count referents 409 

45.6 The head element 2: proper nouns 410 

45.7 The head element 3: pronouns 411 


45.7.1 Personal pronouns and reflexive pronouns 411 

45.7.2 The pronouns this and that 414 

45.7.3 The discourse function of pronouns 415 

45.7.4 Substitute one/ones 416 

Module 46: Referring to people and things as definite, 

indefinite, generic 417 

46.1 Definite and indefinite reference 417 

46.2 Indefinite reference: specific and non-specific 418 

46.3 Indefinite proper nouns 419 

46.4 Definite reference 419 

46.5 Discourse functions of definite and indefinite nominal groups 420 

46.6 Generic reference 421 

Module 47: Selecting and particularising the referent: the 

determiner 423 

47.1 The determiner function 423 

47.2 Demonstrative and possessive determinatives 424 

47.2.1 Functions of the ’s phrase 425 

47.2.2 Possessives as nominal group heads 426 

47.3 Wh-determinatives: which, whose, what 426 

47.4 Quantifiers 427

47.4.1 Indefinite quantifiers 427 

47.4.2 Distributors: all, both, either, neither, each, every 429 

47.5 The semi-determinatives: such, what, certain, same, (an)other, former, latter 431 

47.6 Summary of determinative features 432 

47.7 Ordering of determinatives 434 

Module 48: Describing and classifying the referent: the 

pre-modifier 435 

48.1 The pre-modifier functions: epithet and classifier 436 

48.2 Adjectives as epithet: descriptive and attitudinal uses 437 

48.3 Ordering of multiple epithets 439 

48.4 Functions and properties of the classifier 440 

48.5 Adjectives, participles and nouns as classifiers 440 

48.6 Words functioning as both epithet and classifier 442 

48.7 Multiple classifiers 443 

48.8 Mixed pre-modifiers and their ordering 444 

Module 49: Identifying and elaborating the referent: the 

post-modifier 446 

49.1 Communicative functions of the post-modifier elements 447 

49.2 Restrictive and non-restrictive realisations of the post-modifier 447 

49.3 Finite relative clauses as post-modifiers 449 

49.3.1 The relativisers 449 

49.3.2 Features of the restrictive relative clause 450 

49.3.3 Features of the non-restrictive relative clause 451 


49.4 Non-finite relative clauses as post-modifiers 452 

49.5 Other types of unit as post-modifiers 452 

49.5.1 Prepositional phrases 452 

49.5.2 Adjectival groups 453 

49.5.3 Adverbial groups 454 

49.5.4 Appositive nominal groups 455 

49.6 Mixed realisations of the post-modifier 455 

Module 50: Noun complement clauses 457 

50.1 Features of the that-complement clause 457 

50.2 To-infinitive complement clauses 459 

50.3 of + -ing complement clauses 459 

50.4 Wh-complement clauses 459 

50.5 Prepositional complements of nouns 460 

50.6 Functions of the nominal group 460 

50.7 Nominalisation 461 


Exercises 462

EXPRESSING OUR EXPERIENCE MODULE 45 

OF PEOPLE AND THINGS 

SUMMARY 

1 Nouns refer to classes of entities: persons, objects, places, institutions, 

actions, abstract ideas, qualities, phenomena, emotions, etc. 

2 How we experience entities: experiential features: countability, definiteness, 

quantity, description, classification, identification. 

3 Structural elements that realise experiential features: the head, the 

determiner, the pre-modifier, the post-modifier. 

4 Noun heads 

1. Common nouns. Countability. The notion of ‘count’ and ‘non-count’ (or 

‘mass’). 

2. Proper nouns. 

3. Pronouns. Personal pronouns: I, we, he/she it, one. Demonstrative 

pronouns: this, that, these, those. Interrogative pronouns: who, which, what. 

Substitute words: one/ones. 


45.1 CLASSES OF ENTITIES 

Nominal Groups refer semantically to those aspects of our experience that we perceive 

as entities. The term ‘entity’ refers here not only to concrete entities such as persons, 

objects, places, institutions and other ‘collectives’, but also to the names of actions 

(swimming, laughter), abstractions (thought, experience), qualities (beauty, speed), emotions 

(anger, excitement) and phenomena (thunder, success), among others. Prototypical entities 

are those which are concrete, with well-defined outlines and relatively stable in time 

(‘person’, rather than ‘weather’). The following description of the sale of the painting 

known as L’Absinthe includes a number of nominal groups, which represent several 

classes of entities. (The article appeared under the ironic title ‘Fairy Liquid’ in The Times 

Weekend Review). 

PEOPLE AND THINGS: THE NOMINAL GROUP 401

One Saturday morning in February 1893, a sale was in progress at the smart new 

rooms of a London art dealer in a street leading to the flower market in Covent 

Garden. Smartly dressed wealthy art lovers had come from all over the country to 

bid for pictures from the estate of Henry Hill. 

Lot 209, showing a man and a woman in a Paris café, was brought in by staff 

and placed on the easel. Instead of quiet appraisal, a hush fell on the gallery, 

followed by low groans of disgust, then the sibilant sound of hissing anger. Bizarrely, 

a group of well-off English art lovers was jeering a painting by the acknowledged 

master Edgar Dégas. 

When we name an entity, we usually add some information about it which shows 

how we ‘experience’ or perceive it. In expressing this ‘experiential’ information about 

an entity, some of it is placed before the noun and some after it, as we can see in some 

of the groups contained in the example text: 

Pre-head Head Post-head 

1 one Saturday morning in February 1893 

2 a sale 

3 the smart new rooms of a London art dealer 


4 a street leading to the flower 

5 smartly dressed wealthy art lovers 

6 pictures from the estate of Henry 

Hill 

7 lot 209 showing a man and a 

woman in a Paris café 

8 staff 

9 quiet appraisal 

10 a hush 

11 the gallery 

low groans of disgust 

12 the sibilant sounds of hissing anger 

13 a group of well-off English art 

lovers 

14 a painting by the acknowledged 

master Edgar Dégas 

In this text, we see that the post-head information, given on the right about the head 

nouns in the middle column, also contains nouns with their own pre-head and posthead 

information. 

402 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

45.2 OVERVIEW: THE STRUCTURE OF THE NOMINAL GROUP 

The nominal group has four primary elements or structural functions: the head, which 

is the central element, the determiner and the pre-modifier functions in the prehead 

position, and the post-modifier function in post-head position. Of all these 

elements, the pre- and post-modifiers can usually be omitted, while the head together 

with the determiner, when present, may realise the NG (a sale, staff), as illustrated in the 


NG 

determiner pre-modifier head post-modifier 

(d) (m) (h) (m) 

dmhm 

one 

Saturday morning in February 1893 

dh a 

sale 

h 

staff 


The head 

The head is typically realised by a noun or pronoun (book, it). Instead of a noun we may 

find a substitute head, realised most commonly by one/ ones (a good one/ good ones). 

Adjectival heads are limited in English, for example: the poor, the unemployed, the 

supernatural. 

The determiner 

The determiner function particularises the noun referent in different ways: by 

establishing its reference as definite or indefinite, by means of the articles (a book, an 

actor, the actor/the book), or relating the entity to the context by means of the demonstratives 

this, that, these, those (which are deictics or ‘pointing words’), signalling that 

the referent is near or not near the speaker in space or time (this book, that occasion). 

The possessives signal the person to whom the referent belongs (my book, the Minister’s 

reasons) and are sometimes reinforced by own (my own book). 

Other particularising words are the wh-words (which book? whatever reason) and 

the distributives (each, every, all, either, neither). Quantifiers are also included in the 

determiner function. Quantification may be exact (one, seven, a hundred, the first, the next) 


or inexact (many, a lot, a few, some). All these classes of item that realise the determiner 

function are called determinatives. 

With regard to their position in the NG, determinatives fall into three broad groups: 

• central determinatives: the articles, the demonstratives, the possessives, 

including the ’s possessive, the quantifiers each, every, either, neither, some, any, 

enough, no. 

• pre-determinatives: all, both, half and once, twice, double, three times, such, what. 

• post-determinatives: the ordinal numerals (first, second, etc.) and the semideterminatives 

same, other, former, latter, last, next, certain, own. 

The central determinatives are mutually exclusive, that is, each NG has only one. They 

can combine with the pre- and post-determinatives, however, as we shall see shortly. 

The pre-head modifier 

After the defining, particularising and quantifying items of information, which select 

the noun referent from others in the surrounding context, the pre-head modifier 

function (pre-modifier for short) describes or classifies the referent. Within this function, 

the epithet characterises the referent by attributing qualities to it, realised by 

adjectives (smart, new rooms, a young man). The classifier restricts the referent to a 

sub-class (art lovers) and is realised by nouns (one Saturday morning, art lovers, top ten) 

or certain types of adjectives and participles (a political broadcast, general elections, 

leading articles). 


The post-head modifier (post-modifier for short) 

includes all the experiential post-head items that are placed after the head noun and 

which, like the pre-head items, help to define and identify the noun referent still further. 

The post-modifier, for which one can also use the term qualifier, is realised by finite 

and non-finite clauses, (the film we saw, a man reading a newspaper), PPs (in February 

1893) and, to a lesser extent, by other groups: NGs (shoes that size) and adverbial groups 

(the car outside). 

Supplementive (or ‘non-defining’) post-head elements are parentheticals. They 

don’t define the noun referent, which is already defined, but instead contribute additional 

information. Compare the integrated relative clause which helps to define the noun 

referent 1 with the supplementive 2: 

1 I picked up the umbrella that was lying on the floor. (= the one on the floor) 

2 I picked up the umbrella, which was lying on the floor. (= the only umbrella) 

Different from the post-modifier is the complement, realised for instance by content 

clauses (the fact that he left, the belief that peace is round the corner . . .). 

Nominal groups can also function in apposition to the head noun (the acknowledged 

master Edgar Dégas). 

As we have seen in chapters 2, 3 and 4, nominal groups function in clause structure 

as Subject, Object and Complement, realising the principal participants in the situation 

404 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

described by the clause: Agent, Affected and Recipient in material processes, and the 

corresponding participants in mental and relational processes. To a lesser extent the 

nominal group occurs as Adjunct (They left last Saturday). The NG also functions as 

complement of a preposition (in progress). 

45.3 THE HEAD ELEMENT 1: COMMON NOUNS 

Nominal heads fall into three main categories: common nouns, proper nouns and 

pronouns. Common nouns are characterised by having number contrast (i.e. having 

both singular and plural forms) and by being countable or non-countable, as described 

shortly. 

45.4 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR PLURALS 

Regular plurals are formed by the addition of a suffix:/iz/ after a sibilant, as in kiss – 

kisses, church – churches (with the spelling -es); /s/ after a voiceless consonant as in books, 

cakes; or /z/ after a voiced consonant, as in pole – poles, streams – streams, or a vowel 

eye – eyes, cry – cries (the spelling is -s, with y becoming i after a consonant, but not after 

a vowel: day – days). A number of words of classical origin retain their original plurals, 

for example: phenomenon – phenomena; criterion – criteria. 

Most common irregular plurals are formed by a change of vowel (or of two vowels): 

woman – women, man – men, tooth – teeth. Child – children has developed a ‘double’ plural, 

having both a vowel change and a suffix. Another group marks the plural by a consonant 

change: half – halves; calf – calves; loaf – loaves. A third group of nouns have the same 

form for both singular and plural. This is known as ‘zero plural’: trout, salmon, sheep, 

deer, series, species, aircraft. 


45.5 COUNTABILITY: COUNT AND NON-COUNT 

NOUNS 

English obliges us to make a distinction with regard to how a referent is cognitively 

perceived: whether as a discrete, countable entity, such as cow, or as an indivisible, noncountable 

‘mass’ entity, such as beef. This difference constitutes a feature which is salient 

in speakers’ experience of ‘things’. 

Other languages make a count–mass distinction, but we must never assume that 

particular items are conceptualised and lexicalised in the same way in different 

languages. News, for instance, is a singular mass noun in English (the news is good); *one 

news, *a news, *many news are ungrammatical. In Spanish, by contrast, noticia is a normal 

count noun: una noticia, dos noticias, muchas noticias (=one/a, two, many news, 

respectively). 

Note that we use the terms ‘non-count’ and ‘mass’ without distinction, as both are in 

common use. 

A count noun is basically one whose referent can be counted, as in one cow, two 

cows, but not *one beef, *two beefs. The referents of these nouns are viewed as 


individuated things or persons. The following count nouns include both regular plurals 

in -s and invariable or ‘zero’ plurals: 

ten cyclists two trout a dozen eggs three new television 

series 

five minutes five salmon one grapefruit four crossroads 

two and a half kilos a hundred sheep two US aircraft two spacecraft 

A non-count noun is one whose referent is cognitively perceived as not countable. 

We don’t say, for example *three furnitures, *one luggage. Both furniture and luggage, 

as well as news can be individuated by a preceding ‘counter’ – ‘a piece of’ – as explained 

shortly. 

45.5.1 Grammatical features of countability 

Although individuation by cardinal numerals is a useful guide to countability, to get a 

more accurate description we have to consider the range of determiners that a noun 

admits. 

Grammatical features of count nouns 

• the cardinal numerals one, two, three, etc. (four miles) 

• other quantifiers which imply numerals: both, a dozen, etc. (both hands, a dozen eggs) 

• the article a(n) taking a singular form: 

I’m looking for a new job. 

• the determiners each, every, either, neither, which precede singular heads. 

Each day is different. We go there every year. 

• the plural (including ‘zero’) form of the noun preceded by a plural determiner: many, 

several, few, these, those. 

many choices, few opportunities; these aircraft, those sheep, several series. 

• the plural with number contrast marked on the noun: lion/lions; child/children; 

mouse/mice; stimulus/stimuli. 

• plural number concord with verb or pronoun: People want to be happy, don’t they? 


Grammatical features of non-count (mass) nouns 

The following grammatical forms and structures mark a NG typically as ‘mass’: 

• the singular form of the noun with zero determiner: 

Water is necessary for animal and plant life. 

• the singular form of the noun preceded by all: 

I say this in all sincerity. All equipment must be regularly inspected. 

406 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

• the singular form of the noun, quantified by much, little, a little: 

There isn’t much room in our apartment so we have little furniture. 

Nominal Groups that are not marked for countability 

The determiners the, this, that, my, your, his, her, its, our, their are neutral to the mass–count 

distinction and can be used with both types of reference: this house, this bread; our friend, 

our friendship. 

45.5.2 Selected classes of non-count nouns 

As non-count nouns are usually the most problematic for students of English, we group 

them into various types, starting with singular only or plural only. The selection of items 

is not intended to be exhaustive. 

1. Non-count singular nouns – The news is good 

(a) Nouns which end in -ics and appear to be plural, but are in fact singular: 

linguistics logistics aerobics athletics mathematics 

ethics statistics phonetics physics politics 

These are areas of study or activities. They take all the grammatical markers of 

mass nouns. Ethic and statistic are sometimes used as count nouns: an ethic, a statistic. 


(b) Nouns which refer to a number of items conceptualised as an aggregate: 

baggage luggage cutlery crockery jewellery furniture 

The referents of these nouns consist of different objects: cutlery includes knives, 

forks and spoons, among other items. We can add or remove an item without 

affecting the concept expressed by the noun. They take all the grammatical markers 

of mass nouns. 

(c) Names of certain illnesses, diseases and of certain games: 

measles mumps rickets AIDS draughts darts skittles 

Darts and skittles take their names from the objects used, which are count nouns: 

one dart, two skittles. 

(d) Substances: natural phenomena, food 

rain snow hail sand water soil 

bread butter coffee meat fruit spaghetti 

The notion of substance is useful and may be extended to oxygen, heat, light and 

so on. 


(e) Abstractions 

(f) 

sleep luck advice anger disgust love fun 

peace magic silence information courage justice time 

safety knowledge health music childhood youth age 

Activities 

research work homework housework travel 

(g) Miscellaneous 

money progress environment weather electricity machinery 

Researches and works in works of art occur as plural, but homework and housework do not 

pluralise. Travel can be compared with the count noun journey. Travel is used for generic 

reference (see 46.6): air travel, sea travel in the singular, and in expressions such as on 

your travels in the plural. Journey is a regular count noun. Compare: 

*We went on a travel. 

Travel broadens the mind. 

We went on a journey. 

*Journey broadens the mind. 

2. Non-count plural nouns – pyjamas and shorts 

These nouns have a plural morpheme but do not combine with numerals. They have 

no singular form. These ‘things’ may be lexicalised in other languages as regular count 

nouns, (for example un pantalón, un pijama in Spanish: ‘a pair of trousers/pyjamas’). In 

English such items consisting of two equal parts are individuated by a pair of (a pair of 

trousers, shorts, etc.) to refer to one item of clothing. 


1 trousers shorts pyjamas scissors specs sunglasses 

binoculars 

2 manners thanks belongings surroundings means clothes 

goods 

More problematic are the nouns people, police and cattle. All three are singular in 

form but plural in meaning, taking plural concord with verbs. In other ways, however, 

they differ from each other. People and police can be enumerated (two or three people, 

six police). People generally replaces the use of persons with definite reference. Police is 

a collective (the police, police) and can be individuated by a noun compound (policeman/ 

policewoman/police officer/police constable), all count nouns. Cattle is individuated by 

‘head’ (a/two head of cattle), used in specific registers. 

These nouns are only partially count in that they are not compatible with all the 

markers of countability. They take plural concord on the verb. Typical collocations with 

neutral quantifiers (a lot of, lots of) and plural quantifiers many, few, several are as follows: 

A lot of police/people/cattle/clothes. 

Lots of police/people/cattle/clothes. 

408 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(Not) many/ few police officers/ people/ cattle/ clothes. 

Several policewomen/ police constables. 

3. Nouns with count and non-count uses – (some) coffee; two coffees 

Many mass nouns can be interpreted as count when they refer to instances of the mass 

referent, conceptualised as conventional quantities of food or drink. Compare: 

Mass: 

Count: 

Coffee and tea help to keep you awake. 

Two coffees, please, and three teas. 

In the context of restaurants or in-flight meals, even nouns such as beef and chicken may 

be interpreted as portions or choices, and countabilised: One beef and two chickens, please. 

In other cases the shape matters. Eatable entities visualised as having a definite shape 

are count (a cheese, a ham, a cake, a potato, an egg, a chicken, a fish) while the substance 

or flesh is conceptualised as mass: (some) cheese, (some) ham, (some) cake, (some) tomato, 

(some) mashed potato, (some) egg, (some) chicken, (some) fish. 

You’ve got egg on your tie. 

Susie prefers chicken to veal. 

The same happens with edible fishes. The animal itself is count, the flesh mass: He caught 

a salmon. We had salmon for dinner. Shellfish, however, is always non-count. The noncount 

is lexicalised differently in pairs such as cow (count) versus beef (mass), pig – pork, 

sheep – mutton, calf – veal, deer – venison. 


4. Abstract nouns – health, wealth and love 

Many, but not all, abstract nouns can be re-conceptualised as concrete instances of the 

mass meaning. Some, but by no means all, can be pluralised: 

Everyone needs sleep. 

Silence in court! 

They’re making a lot of noise. 

Time is on your side. 

Business is improving. 

One can never be sure of success. 

Health is more important than 

wealth. 

She fell into a deep sleep. 

His remark was followed by a long 

silence. 

I hear many strange noises at night. 

How many times have you seen that film? 

His several businesses are doing well. 

As an actor, he had more successes than 

failures. 

*Healths are more important than 

*wealths. 

45.5.3 Countability markers of non-count referents 

There are a number of nouns which evoke smallness or shape and which are used to 

suggest a minimal quantity of a substance or of something not concrete. They are 


followed by of and the non-count word, and tend to have particular collocations. Here 

are some of the most common ones, preceded by the indefinite article: 

A bit of 

A piece of 

A clove of 

A drop of 

A game of 

A loaf of 

A pinch of 

A ray of 

A scrap of 

A slice of 

A speck of 

A spoonful 

paper, cheese, ham, cloth, wood, information, fun, advice, news 

paper, cheese, meat, chocolate, bread, toast, wood, advice, news 

garlic (vs a head of garlic) 

milk, whisk(e)y, sherry, water, blood 

cards, tennis, monopoly, golf 

bread 

salt 

sunshine, light, hope 

paper, cloth, evidence 

bread, ham, cheese, turkey 

dust, dirt (often used in the negative not a speck of dust/dirt, etc.) 

of sugar 

Note that toast meaning ‘toasted bread’ is always non-count and requires ‘a piece of’ in 

order to refer to an individuated piece (a piece, two pieces of toast). The count use as in 

a toast is only found in the sense of ‘act of proposing a celebratory drink to someone’. 

Let’s drink a toast to the happy pair’. A piece/a bit of news can be contrasted with a news 

item, used in the media. 

As well as these, various types of container are used to quantify both mass and count 

referents: 


A bottle of 

A cup/ mug of 

A can of 

A carton of 

A pack of 

A packet of 

A tablet of 

A tin of 

wine, beer, whisk(e)y, water 

tea, coffee 

beer, petrol 

yogurt, cream, custard 

cards, milk, fruit juice, yoghurts 

detergent, tea, coffee, cigarettes, biscuits 

soap, chocolate 

tomatoes, soup, sardines, biscuits 

45.6 THE HEAD ELEMENT 2: PROPER NOUNS 

Traditionally a distinction is made between proper nouns and proper names. Proper 

nouns such as Hilary, Madrid are nouns that have no definable meaning in the language. 

They are arbitrary. That is, we can’t specify characteristics of entities called Hilary or 

Madrid as we can for the entities referred to by the common noun horse. Proper names 

potentially have a more complex structure. They may consist of a proper noun such 

as Coca-Cola or include a proper noun as in Real Madrid, the University of Oxford. 

This is not necessarily the case, however, as can be seen from the titles of films and 

TV comedies with names such as The Office, Sex and the City, The Golden Globe. These 

and others, such as the names of universities, hospitals and other institutions, are – or 

started out as – descriptive labels. 

410 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

All are definite (see 46.1) and many contain a definite article as part of the name. 

Proper nouns such as Washington, Moscow, Brussels are used metonymically to stand for 

the administrative centre of the state or entity of which they are the capital. 

Artefacts such as cars, designer clothes and paintings are commonly referred to by 

their owners by proper nouns functioning as common nouns: a Volvo, an early Picasso, 

your Reeboks. 

45.7 THE HEAD ELEMENT 3: PRONOUNS 

45.7.1 Personal pronouns and reflexive pronouns 

The personal prounons I, we (1st person), you (2nd singular and plural), he, she, it and 

they (3rd person) derive their functions directly from their relation to the speaker in the 

speech event They are therefore a type of ‘pointing’ element in that some of their 

meaning is derived from the context. (Other deictics include the demonstrative and 

possessive pronouns and determiners, which we deal with later on in this chapter). 

I and you refer directly to the participants engaged in the discourse exchange. I is the 

current speaker and you the addressee(s). The 3rd person pronouns he, she, it and they 

refer to persons and things who are not, at the moment of speaking, addressees. They 

may be either physically present or completely outside the discourse event. 

One is an impersonal singular pronoun which is sometimes used in formal styles to 

make general statements, often of (the speaker’s own) opinion, or simply to avoid using 

I, as in examples 1 and 2, quoting the actor Edward Fox in The Times. 

The pronoun you, as in 3, can refer informally to people in general to describe 

a common kind of happening or experience. These are non-deictic (non-pointing) 

uses: 


1 ‘One thinks about life a lot more as time goes by.’ 

2 ‘My two years there [at RADA, the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art] were an 

utter waste of time but I did meet one’s first wife and had one’s first child.’ 

3 It’s embarrassing when you can’t remember someone’s name. 

I and we 

Whereas I refers to the current speaker, we is not the plural of I, but rather I plus one 

or more other persons. The pronouns we/us either include or exclude the addressee: 

inclusive we: Shall we sit together over there? 

inclusive us: Let’s go! Let us pray. (formal) 

exclusive we We wanted to ask you a favour. 

exclusive us: Let us go! (see 24.2.3) 

Strong stress (marking information focus) on we can disambiguate a potentially 

ambiguous reference. Otherwise, the addressee has to work out the meaning from the 

context: 


A. How are we going to get there? (ambiguous: speaker’s intended meaning 

was probably inclusive) 

B. Well, WE’re going in Tom’s car. (exclusive) 

We/ us can refer to ‘everybody in general’: 

We don’t seem to be near world peace yet. 

The following letter, which appeared as a question (Q) in the Dear Doctor section of 

the Guardian, illustrates how context enables us to identify the referents of personal 

pronouns. For instance, who is the referent of the pronoun ‘I’ (in Q) and ‘you’ (in the 

answer A)? And of ‘he/she’ in Q, and ‘they’, ‘themselves’ in A? Are the references to 

‘we’ and ‘our’ inclusive or exclusive? 

Q. I live on the outskirts of London and have noticed a very tame fox that seems to 

be getting increasingly bold and is coming near the house. Last week, he (she?) 

even stuck his nose into the kitchen and we spotted him playing on the kids’ 

swings and eating leftovers on the picnic table in the garden. He looks wary 

when he sees us but doesn’t exactly run away. My wife is concerned about the 

potential health risk to us and to our young children. Should we get rid of him, 

and if so, how? 


A. He’s not a health risk unless you’re a hen or a rabbit, in which case you’re in 

mortal danger. Urban foxes never attack humans unless they’re cornered and 

under attack themselves. Rabid foxes sometimes do, but there is officially no 

rabies in the UK. Apparently, at this time of year, parent foxes turf out their 

young to fend for themselves, which is why they can be spotted wandering 

disconsolately round the garden, playing on swings and scavenging for food. 

He, she and they as gender-neutral pronouns 

Until fairly recently the pronouns he and his (in both pronominal and determiner 

function) were regularly used, not only to refer to a male referent, but also as a 

supposedly gender-neutral pronoun to include a female referent, as in 1 below. Such a 

discriminatory use in favour of males has become increasingly unacceptable to many 

speakers, particularly with reference to occupations, jobs and roles. One alternative, to 

use she as the unmarked form, has not caught on extensively, presumably because it 

discriminates in favour of females, as in 2, so it does not solve the problem, which is 

essentially the fact that English does not have a sex-neutral 3rd person singular pronoun. 

In writing, the combination s/he is becoming common, but it is not transferable to 

the spoken language. The disjunctive he or she becomes cumbersome if repeated too 

often. A further alternative, the use of they with both singular and plural verb forms, is 

becoming more extensive as in 2: 

412 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1 Every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine 

what shall be done with his own body. [BNC ASK 1476] 

2 . . . the non-distressed parent may choose to make explicit to the friend her own 

thinking, such as ‘well, the children do usually obey us and every parent gets 

wound up from time to time with their child.’ [BNC ALN 778] 

The pronoun it 

The pronoun it, besides referring to specific objects and animals, can refer to a situation 

1 or a fact 2. It is also used to refer to babies and infants, especially if the sex is 

undetermined by the speaker 3 or the reference is generic 4. In addition, it is often nonreferring 

as in 3, its presence responding to the need, in English, for an overt syntactic 

subject (except in the imperative) (see 24.2). 

1 They were all shouting and fighting; it was terrible. 

2 She was very scared, but she tried not to show it. 

3 Olga’s baby is due in October. – Oh, is it a boy or a girl? 

4 After the child is born, it needs constant care. 

5 It won’t be easy to pass the driving test first time. 

The pronouns he and she are often used to refer to animals, especially when they are in 

contact with humans. Otherwise they are referred to as it. 

The reflexive pronouns 

These pronouns – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves – 

have three functions: co-reference with the subject 1; an emphatic use, in which the 

pronoun is either appositive to the subject or postponed 2; and where they are required 

by the verb 3: 


1 They learned to take care of themselves. 

2 Susan herself told me so. Susan told me so herself. 

3 She knows how to fend for herself. One should avail oneself of such opportunities. 

Interrogative and indefinite pronouns 

The interrogative pronouns – who, whose, which, what – are described and illustrated 

in their pronominal and determinative functions in Chapter 5, devoted to interpersonal 

meaning. 

Rather different are the indefinite pronouns compounded from some, any, no and 

every 

somebody, someone, something 

everybody, everyone, everything 

anybody, anyone, anything 

nobody, no-one, nothing 

These pronouns refer directly to an indefinite person or thing, or a broad class or persons 

or things, not to a referent already present in the discourse. In this respect they behave 


more like nouns than like pronouns, and are often post-modified, as in nothing new, 

someone like you. 

45.7.2 The pronouns this and that 

The deictics this and that can function as NG heads to refer to a whole proposition or 

situation or something inferred from it, a use which we classify here as pronominal. (For 

their function as determiners, see 47.2). These pronominal references may be anaphoric 

(to a previous part of the discourse), cataphoric (to a later part of the discourse) or 

exophoric (to something outside the discourse): 

Anaphoric reference: 

Cataphoric reference: 

Exophoric reference: 

Hilda was making a Dutch Delft cake at the oven. This was 

her speciality and she made it on every occasion. 

[BNC ATE 1180–1181] 

This is a security announcement: Would those 

passengers who have left bags on their seats please 

remove them. 

I never thought things would come to this. 

(= to this extreme) 

We can see that all the referents in these examples are inanimate and general, and some 

of them refer to pieces of extended discourse. 

Reference to persons by the pronouns this and that is limited in English to the 

following uses: 


1. This is (+ one’s own name) for identifying oneself in a non-face-to-face situation, 

illustrated by 1a; as compared with self-introduction when face-to-face 1b, where 

we can use I am/I’m (+ one’s own name). 

2. This is...for introducing one person to another 2 (less formal than May I introduce 

you to X?). 

3. That ...for asking or giving the identification of a more distant 3rd person, using 

that 3. 

1a This is Sally Jones speaking (non-face-to-face self-identification, 

(not *I am Sally Jones) 

for instance, on the telephone) 

1b I am Sally Jones (not *This is (face-to-face self-identification) 

Sally Jones) 

2 This is my friend June. (introducing one person to another) 

3 Who is that? That’s my friend (identification of a 3rd person 

June. 

at some distance away from the speaker, 

or looking at a photograph) 

So far we have seen this indicating proximity to the speaker and that distance. However, 

these terms are often interpreted subjectively. For instance, an event distant in time 

may be referred to as this if it has just been mentioned: 

414 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Columbus discovered the Bahamas in 1492 and this changed the course of history. 

Conversely, events near in time may be referred to by that when an effect of 

psychological distancing is required. In many cases, however, the choice is open: 

If the Opposition wins the motion of ‘No Confidence’ today, that/ this will mean the 

end of the present government. 

45.7.3 The discourse function of pronouns 

The principal function of personal pronouns is to help establish major referents in the 

discourse by setting up referential (or identity) chains by means of anaphora (Chapter 

6). This is an important part of referential coherence, of making important referents 

continuous and salient enough to be perceived and remembered by listeners and 

readers. In conversation, interlocutors participate in the joint construction of referential 

chains, as can be seen in our next illustration. 

A new referent is likely to be introduced first by a proper noun such as Vera or Mother, 

when the speaker expects the addressee to be able to identify the referent. Otherwise, 

a full nominal group containing descriptive information is used (a/ the girl I met this 

morning at the Post Office). Subsequent mentions can be carried out by pronouns, which 

are ‘lighter’ than nouns and much lighter than extended nominal groups. Finally, zero 

anaphora (She came in and (0) sat down) is even lighter than the pronoun. From time to 

time, especially if ambiguity might arise through two referents having the same gender 

(‘Vera’ and ‘Mother’, she . . . she), the pronoun is replaced by the proper noun. Anaphoric 

reference has also been described as a device of cohesion. 

In the following extract from Just Between Ourselves, by Alan Ayckbourn, Dennis is 

telling his friend Neil about the bad relations that exist between his mother and his wife 

Vera. The italicised pronouns function in referential chains: 


Neil: Vera’s looking better. 

Dennis: Oh, she is. She’s a lot better. She’s getting better every day. Once she 

and mother can bury the hatchet, we’ll be laughing. 

Neil: Are they still . . .? 

Dennis: Not talking at all. 

Neil: Really. 

Dennis: Well, actually, it’s Vera who’s not talking to mother. Mother comes in one 

door, Vera goes out the other. Ridiculous. Been going on for weeks. I said 

to them – look, girls, just sit down and have a laugh about it. There’s only 

one life, you know. That’s all you’ve got. One life. Laugh and enjoy it while 

you can. We’ll probably all be dead tomorrow so what’s the difference? 

Do they listen to me? Do they hell! 

When two referents share identifying properties, naming may not be sufficient to avoid 

ambiguity in the use of a pronoun. In the following example, inference based on the 


interpretation of concession in ‘though’, and of reason in ‘because’ enables the hearer 

or reader to correctly assign the reference of he in the subordinate clauses: 

Tom jumped in the river to save Bill though he couldn’t swim. (he = Tom) 

Tom jumped in the river to save Bill because he couldn’t swim. (he = Bill) 

45.7.4 Substitute one/ ones 

An object that has already been mentioned or is visible in the discourse can be referred 

to by the head-word one, plural ones. These words have no semantic identity of their 

own, but only the grammatical function of substituting for a noun or NG in order to 

avoid repetition. When used in this way, these items are classed as ‘substitute heads’, 

to distinguish them from the classes of ‘pronominal heads’ of NGs. 

It is important to note that one/ ones can replace either a whole antecedent NG or 

only part of it. Compare 1 and 2 with 3. In 4, the elliptical plural some, not ones is the 

plural of one: 

1 I knew Mavis wanted a blue scarf, so I bought her one. (one = whole NG a blue 

scarf) 

2 I knew Mavis wanted a blue scarf, so I bought her a lovely one. (= blue scarf ). 

3 I couldn’t find a blue scarf for Mavis, so I bought her a green one. (= scarf ) 

4 I know Mavis likes scarves, so I bought her some lovely ones. (= scarves) 

The substitute item one/ones may be accompanied by a determiner, a pre-modifier or 

a post-modifer, thus producing NGs of varying structures: 


dh: 

dmh: 

dhm: 

dmhm: 

this one, each one, either one, which ones, any ones. 

that big one, a small red one, a few ripe ones. 

that one over there, any one you like. 

some fresh ones from the country. 

Possessive determinatives are rarely used before one/ ones in standard English. Possible 

uses are ?my one, Peter’s one, my friend’s ones, although those ones is becoming standard. 

For other comments on substitution and ellipsis in the NG, see also 29.6. 

416 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

REFERRING TO PEOPLE AND MODULE 46 

THINGS AS DEFINITE, INDEFINITE, 

GENERIC 

SUMMARY 

1 Definiteness is marked by the definite article the and by the determinatives this, 

that, these, those or by the possessives my, your, etc. + noun. 

2 Indefiniteness is marked by a(n), some, any and zero. Indefinite nouns are 

specific or non-specific. 

3 Generic reference by zero (+ singular mass, plural count nouns); by a(n) and 

by the. 

46.1 DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE REFERENCE 


In English, the grammar obliges us to refer to people and things as definite, indefinite, 

or generic. This is done syntactically by the use of determinatives, and among these, in 

particular, by the definite, indefinite and zero articles, which are traditionally treated 

separately as a subsystem of the system of determination. 

Definite reference is made by the or a deictic determinative (this, that, these, those) or 

a possessive (my, your, etc.). Indefinite reference is made by a(n), unstressed some, any 

or the absence of a marker, which, since its absence is grammatically significant, is called 

the ‘zero article’. ‘Zero’ doesn’t mean that an article has been omitted, as may occur in 

a newspaper headline, such as Plane crashes on village, but is a category in its own right. 

The three articles are distributed as follows with mass and count nouns: 

Mass Singular count Plural count 

definite the butter the woman the women 

indefinite – (zero) butter a woman – (zero) women 

(unstressed) some butter – (unstressed) some 

women 


An entity is considered as ‘indefinite’ if there is nothing in the discourse or the 

situation or our general knowledge of the world that identifies it for us. This is the case 

with a tiger, a child of six, a show and a school in the news item from The Sunday Times 

below. 

A tiger attacked a child of six during a show at a school in California after its handler 

lost control of the 200lb animal. The head teacher wrestled the boy from the animal’s 

jaws and he was flown to hospital. 

Once the entity has already been mentioned it can be considered as ‘definite’: the 200lb 

animal, the boy, the animal’s jaws. Definiteness is inferred if there is sufficient information 

to identify it, either in the text (its handler, the head teacher) or in the non-linguistic 

situation (Don’t forget to lock the door) or in general knowledge (The Olympic Games). 

Note that neither the handler nor the head teacher in this text had been previously 

mentioned. We identify them in relation to ‘tiger’ and ‘school’, respectively through 

general knowledge and inference: animals on show have a handler and schools have a 

head teacher. This is known as indirect anaphoric reference. 

46.2 INDEFINITE REFERENCE: SPECIFIC AND NON-SPECIFIC 

Although the term ‘indefinite’ might appear to be synonymous with ‘non-specific’, it can 


in fact be applied to both non-specific and specific entities, whether these are count or 

singular: I’ve bought a new car. (indef. specific) 

I need a new car. 

(indef. non-specific) 

plural: I’ve got some friends in London. (indef. specific) 

I’ve got friends in London. (indef. non-specific) 

mass: I managed to find some work. (indef. specific) 

I managed to find work. (indef. non-specific) 

The examples show that with singular count nouns (a car), the article a(n) refers to both 

specific and non-specific entities, the different interpretations being deduced pragmatically 

from shared knowledge and also from the different predicates. When we need 

a car, it is obviously not yet specific, but potentially any car. When we have bought a 

car, it is obviously a specific one. The article a(n) can be indeterminate, however, 

between specific and non-specific interpretations: 

Ted wants to buy a house in Sussex. (= any house, as long as it’s in Sussex) 

Ted wants to buy a house in Sussex. 

It’s number 2, Farm Road, Brighton. (= a specific house) 

418 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

As an indefinite determinative, some (unstressed) is used mainly with mass and plural 

count nouns, but the stressed form is sometimes used with mass or count nouns with 

the meaning of indefinite specific as in: There is still some hope of recovery, or non-specific 

as in I’ll need some book or other to read on the beach. Either would be meaningful here. 

46.3 INDEFINITE PROPER NOUNS 

Since proper nouns (Albert Einstein, William Shakespeare) refer to unique entities, they 

are already definite and cannot logically be conceived of as indefinite. On the other 

hand, since it is often possible for several entities to be denoted by the same name, such 

as persons or days of the week, they can be treated sometimes as classes composed of 

individual members. This allows expressions such as the following: 

Is there a John Smith in this class? 

It would be better to meet on a Monday. 

We had a very hot June last year. 

(indef. specific) 

(indef. non-specific) 

(indef. specific) 

Indefinite reference can be made to proper nouns used as common nouns: 

I’d like a Martini. 

46.4 DEFINITE REFERENCE 


The definiteness of a common noun is indicated by the article the. This does not by itself 

identify the referent, but indicates that it can be identified within the text, or outside the 

text in the situation or from general knowledge. Within the text, the reference may 

be anaphoric (backwards) or cataphoric (forwards). The anaphor often expresses the 

antecedent in different words, as in the following news item: 

Ten lionesses at the city zoo are to be put on a contraceptive pill to prevent a 

population explosion. For 20 years the lions 1 have prided themselves on their 

breeding capabilities. Now, the treatment 2 will make them infertile for 3 years and 

so stop the increase. 3 

1 

= ten lionesses; 2 = a contraceptive pill; 3 = a population explosion 

The referent of a definite head noun can be identified cataphorically by the information 

contained in the post-modifer, as in: the bus coming now, the journey home, the Ministry of 

Health; or by a determiner or pre-modifier: this bus, the first bus, the red bus. 

Reference to shared knowledge immediately identifies the referent of, for example, 

the sun, the sky, the rain, the government, the political situation, the television. 


Clearly dependent upon inference for their interpretation, but totally normal in certain 

professional registers of English are metonymic uses, where the thing stands for the 

person, as in the following examples: 

The ham sandwich has left without paying. 

The kidney transplant in 104 is asking for a glass of water. 

When a personal noun, such as secretary, queen, director, head, functions as Subject 

Complement in a clause and refers to a unique social role, definiteness can be marked 

either by the or by zero, with certain lexico-grammatical constraints: 

He soon became director/ the director of the firm. 

When the noun functions as Complement in a verbless clause introduced by when, while, 

if, although, definiteness can be marked by zero: 

While Minister of Health, he introduced many reforms. 

Although not party leader, he greatly influenced the party’s policies. 

46.5 DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS OF DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE 

NOMINAL GROUPS 

The semantic function of the articles is to present the referents of NG heads as definite, 

indefinite or generic. 

The first two meanings are basically discourse functions, associated with the information 

packaging of the content of a clause, sentence or extended discourse into Given 


and New information; that is, what is taken by the speaker as known to the hearer, and 

what is taken as not known, respectively (see Chapter 6). The following paragraph, also 

from Alan Ayckbourn, giving the stage directions for the play, illustrates these functions. 

‘New’ is marked by a/ an or zero, and ‘Given’ by the: 

February. A garage attached to a medium price executive house on a private estate 

belonging to DENNIS and VERA. Down one wall of the garage a workbench littered 

untidily with tools, etc. In fact the whole place is filled with the usual garage junk, 

boxes, coils of rope, garden chairs, etc. In the midst of this, a small popular car, at 

least seven years old, stands neglected. Over the work bench a grimy window which 

looks out over a small paved ‘sitting area’. On the other wall a door, leading across 

a small dustbin yard to the backdoor of the house. There is also a paved walkway 

round the side of the garage, nearest us, leading to the ‘sitting area’. 

The text begins naturally with New items (a garage, a house and a private estate); followed 

by a second mention of the garage, which is now known or ‘Given’; then a ‘New’ item, 

a workbench, with indefinite ‘New’ tools, and a second mention, by inference, to the whole 

420 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

place. The text continues to build up a description of the stage cohesively, bit by bit, in 

a straightforward, coherent way. This is a normal way of introducing Given and New 

information in a text of this kind. 

Quite commonly in fiction, however, a writer introduces a new referent at the 

beginning of a story as if it were already known. This happens in the novel Watership 

Down, where the first sentence is ‘The primroses were over’. The use of the definite 

article here perspectivises the story from a particular viewpoint: that of the rabbits, the 

protagonists of the story, as readers soon discover. 

46.6 GENERIC REFERENCE 

Each of the articles can also be used when we wish to refer to a whole class of entities, 

usually with regard to their typical characteristics or habitual activities: 

the + singular count noun: 

a(n) + singular count noun: 

zero + plural count noun: 

zero + mass noun: 

They say the elephant never forgets. 

They say an elephant never forgets. 

They say elephants never forget. 

They say exercise keeps you healthy. 

In the everyday use of English, the zero form with plural count nouns (elephants) is most 

applicable, while with mass nouns (e.g. love) the zero form is obligatory. The three 

articles express genericity from different points of view, which we will gloss as follows: 


• the represents the referent of the noun as a single undifferentiated whole class of 

entities; 

• a(n) represents any individual member of a class of entity as typical of the whole 

class; 

• zero implies that all or most members of the class of entity possess the characteristic 

that is predicated of it. 

The four structures mentioned above are not freely interchangeable in all generic 

statements. The generic use of a(n) is restricted, in that it can’t be used in attributing 

properties which belong to the class as a whole. For example, the but not a is acceptable 

in the following, since an individual kangaroo does not constitute a species, whether 

near extinction or not, whereas the class as a whole, represented by the, does: 

The kangaroo is far from being extinct. 

*A kangaroo is far from being extinct. 

Both the and a(n) are acceptable with a characterising predicate, as in our next example, 

since carrying its young in a pouch is characteristic of each and every female kangaroo: 

The female kangaroo carries its young in its pouch. 

A female kangaroo carries its young in its pouch. 


The article the tends to generalise more readily than a(n), which refers essentially to a 

singular indefinite member as representative of its class. The + singular count noun may 

have a generalising value, even when not used in a generic statement: 

Do you play the piano? 

Some people sit for hours in front of the television. 

The definite article is also used: 

• with certain adjectival or participial heads of NGs referring to abstract qualities (the 

unknown); 

• for groups of people named by a nominalised Attribute, the underprivileged, the 

vulnerable; 

• with nouns derived from PPs (the under-fives, the over-forties); 

• for nationalities (the Dutch, the Swiss). 

All but abstract qualities have plural concord with the verb: 

Science proceeds from the known to the unknown. 

Nursery schools for the under-fives are desperately needed in this area. 

Not all adjectives and PPs can function in these ways and the non-native speaker should 

be cautious in choosing them. 

The loosest and therefore most frequent type of generic statement is that expressed 

by the zero article with plural count nouns or with mass nouns: 


Kangaroos are common in Australia. 

Wine is one of this country’s major exports. 

Zero article with plural count nouns may have generic or indefinite reference according 

to the predication: 

Frogs have long hind legs. 

He catches frogs. 

(generic = all frogs) 

(indefinite = an indefinite number of frogs) 

A mass noun with zero article can be considered generic even if it is modified: 

Colombian coffee is said to be the best. It is definite, however, if preceded by the. Contrast, 

for example: 

generic: 

definite: 

Nitrogen forms 78% of the earth’s atmosphere. 

The nitrogen in the earth’s atmosphere is circulated by living 

organisms. 

422 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

SELECTING AND MODULE 47 

PARTICULARISING THE REFERENT 

The determiner 

SUMMARY 

1 The determiner 

The first element of the nominal group, the determiner, particularises by 

‘selection’. Four main types of selection: demonstrative and possessive, 

quantification and distribution. 

2 Demonstrative and possessive determinatives 

Demonstrative: this week, that day, these events, those ideas 

Possessive: my coat, Tom’s house, their university, our bus, the moon’s 

orbit . . . 

3 Wh- determinatives: which, what, whose, whichever, etc. 


4 Quantifying determinatives 

Exact quantifiers (numeratives): cardinal and ordinal numerals 

Non-exact: some, any, no, much, many, little, few, several 

5 Distributors: all, both, each, every, either, neither, 

6 The semi-determinatives: such, same, certain, another, other, former, latter, last, 

next 

7 Summary of determinative elements 

8 Multiple realisations of the determiner 

47.1 THE DETERMINER FUNCTION 

Common nouns in the dictionary refer to classes of things, but when they are used in 

discourse they need to be particularised. This is done by the first element of the nominal 

group, called the determiner. The basic function of this element is to particularise and 

so help to identify the NG referent in the context of the speech situation. 


As in other areas of the grammar, we distinguish between a function, in this case the 

determiner, and the classes of units, here called determinatives, which realise the 

function. The determiner is an element in the syntactic or ‘logical’structure of the NG. 

(Module 50); the various classes of determinatives contribute to the ‘experiential structure’ 

of the NG (see 45.2); that is, their functions are semantic, and express the different 

features the speaker chooses in order to select and particularise the noun referent within 

the context of discourse. 

Determiners identify a nominal group referent by telling us which or what or whose 

it is, how much, how many, what part or degree of it we are referring to, how big or 

frequent it is, how it is distributed in space or time. In the following short passage about 

the problem of waste disposal, the writer refers to the entities: rubbish, day, year, goods, 

amount, plants, factories, fuel, snags, risk, damage, degrees centigrade, and specifies them 

in respect to the questions given below: 

Three quarters of the rubbish 1 we generate every 2 day could be recycled, and more 

of it 3 could be, if the production of biodegradable goods were encouraged. At present 

the same 4 amount is wasted every 5 day because of the notorious lack of incineration 

plants. Such 6 plants could be installed in all 7 factories so that each 8 company could 

burn its own 9 rubbish and save a great deal of 10 fuel. The only 11 snag about waste 

burners is that they emit certain 12 kinds of highly contaminating gases, but it is 

calculated that in a few 13 years rubbish will be burned without causing any 14 damage 

to the environment. A further argument is that, although nuclear fusion has none of 15 

the risk of fission, so far, no 16 scientist has yet found a system which can function at 

temperatures lower than millions of 17 degrees centigrade. 

(Speak Up, no. 66) 


1 

how much? 2 how often? 3 how much? 4 which amount? 5 how often? 6 which kind? 

7 

which ones? 8 how many? or which? 9 whose? 10 how much? 11 which? 12 which? 

13 

how many? 14 how much? 15 how much? 16 which? 17 how many? 

47.2 DEMONSTRATIVE AND POSSESSIVE DETERMINATIVES 

Demonstratives: this, that, these, those 

These items particularise the NG referent by indicating whether it is near (this, these) or 

not near (that, those) the speaker, in space or time or psychologically, as explained in 

45.7.2 for demonstrative pronouns. They can refer to both human and non-human 

entities in both singular and plural (this century, these girls, that cat, those brakes). 

Like the demonstrative pronouns, the determinatives are used with anaphoric, 

cataphoric and situational reference (see 45.7.2). 

The determinatives this and these are also used to introduce a new topic entity into 

the discourse. This use is particularly common in anecdotes, stories and jokes: 

I’m walking along the street when this man comes up to me and says . . . 

424 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Possessive determinatives 

These include not just the possessive determinatives my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their, 

but also the inflected’s genitive form. 

The ’s determinative must be understood in a broader sense than that of the traditional 

term ‘possessive’. The following selection, each with a corresponding paraphrase 

does not pretend to be exhaustive: 

Example Paraphrase Function 

My daughter’s car My daughter has a car possessive 

Napoleon’s army N. commanded the army. subjective 

Napoleon’s mistake N. made a mistake. subjective 

Napoleon’s defeat N. was defeated by X. objective 

Europe’s chief cities The chief cities in Europe. locative 

Today’s paper The paper published today. temporal 

A month’s holiday The holiday lasted a month. extent 

The dog’s tail The dog has a tail. metonymy 

(part–whole relation) 

The car’s brakes The car has brakes metonymy 

The sun’s rays The rays come from the sun. source 

These varied functional relationships also exist between a noun head and the determinatives 

my, your, his, her, its, our, their, someone’s, everyone’s, nobody’s and the like: 


His mistake He made a mistake. subjective 

Our friendship We became friends. reciprocal 

Their love They love each other. reciprocal 

Its collapse It collapsed. subjective 

The ’s determinative is formally a NG plus an inflected genitive morpheme. By convention, 

the apostrophe is placed before the s with a singular noun, but after it with 

a regular plural noun in s. Compare: the boy’s bicycle, the boys’ bicycles. With a name 

of three syllables or more ending in -s, the apostrophe tends to be placed after the s: 

Socrates’ wisdom. With a name of two syllables, the placement of the s is optional: Dr. 

Davies’ surgery, Dr. Davies’s surgery, the latter case reflecting the additional syllable in 

speech/deivisiz/. 

The inflection is added not merely to the head noun but to the group as a whole: 

My supervisor’s advice; my mother and father’s wishes. 

I liked those other children’s paintings very much. 

That young Japanese pianist’s performance was wonderful. 

47.2.1 Functions of the ’s phrase 

The examples seen so far have all illustrated the central function of the ’s phrase: to 

specify the nominal group referent, as in that girl’s name. 


Some ’s NGs may also function as classifiers, as in girls’ names. With the article a(n) the 

NG may have two interpretations. The NG a lady’s bicycle may refer to the bicycle of a 

particular lady, or to the class of bicycle designed for ladies, not for men. The context 

of discourse normally clarifies the interpretation. Other examples of this type include: 

a lion’s mane, a bird’s nest, a child’s toothbrush, and also: 

I need a specialist’s opinion, not a journalist’s. 

Classifying genitives are typically used with plural personal nouns: children’s clothing, a 

men’s club, boys’ names. 

47.2.2 Possessives as nominal group heads 

The possessive pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, (its), ours, theirs function not as determinatives 

but as pronominal heads. (Its is not used to realise this function.) 

This suitcase is yours. Where is mine? It’s over there with Tom’s. 

The ’s phrase stands alone as an ellipted head of the NG when the noun head is 

recoverable, either because it has already been mentioned, or by convention. In the 

latter case the ’s element often refers to people’s homes or establishments such as 

restaurants and shops, as well as to individuals: 

Let’s have dinner at Archy’s. These gloves aren’t mine, they’re Daniel’s. 


I have to go to the cleaner’s (dry cleaner’s), the butcher’s, the florist’s. 

A friend of mine, a friend of my sister’s 

The post-modifying possessive phrase of mine, of yours etc. is equivalent to the ‘double 

possessive’ as in a friend of my sister’s. They have the meaning of ‘one among several’ 

as opposed to the more exclusive meaning of ‘my friend’, ‘my sister’s friend’. An exclusive 

meaning, which may also express an attitude on the part of the speaker, is found, 

however, when the phrase occurs together with another determinative (this, that, a, the, 

other, etc.), a combination that is not possible otherwise: 

That motorcycle of your brother’s 

47.3 WH- DETERMINATIVES: WHICH, WHOSE, WHAT 

Which, whose express specific selection among a known number; what asks about the 

identity or kind of thing something is. Whatever, whichever express non-specific selection, 

meaning ‘it doesn’t matter what’, ‘it doesn’t matter which’, respectively, when the 

speaker is not able to specify a particular type. What can also be used as an equivalent 

to whatever or stressed any (see 47.4.1): 

426 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Which bus do you take? 

Whose car did you come in? 

What plans have they made for the summer? 

You’ll have to rely on whatever transport is available. 

You’ll find plenty of traffic whichever road you take. 

What hopes we had are now fading. (= whatever hopes, any hopes) 

47.4 QUANTIFIERS 

A speaker may select or particularise a referent by referring to its quantity, which may 

be exact (three friends), non-exact (many friends), ordinal (the first friend), or partitive (three 

of my friends). 

Exact numeratives 

These include the cardinal numerals one, two, three ...twenty-one, twenty-two ... 

a hundred and five ...one thousand, two hundred and ten, and so on. These function 

directly as determinatives. 

The ordinal numbers – first, second, third, fourth, fifth . . . twenty-first . . . hundredth 

. . . hundred and fifth and so on – specify the noun referent in terms of order. They follow 

a determinative, as in: the first time, a second attempt, every fifth step, and in this respect 

are more like the semi-determinatives, including the next, the last. 

Non-exact quantifiers 

The two types select referents by referring to: 


• their indefiniteness: some, any, no, much, many, little, few (a(n) is treated in 46.1). 

• their distribution: all, both, either, neither, each, every, another, other. 

47.4.1 Indefinite quantifiers 

Some, any, no, (none) 

Some specifies a quantity (with mass nouns) or a number above two (with count nouns) 

as in some money, some time, some friends, some details. Other quantifiers are used to 

express very small or very large amounts. The word some is pronounced in two ways, 

according to its function. It has a weak form when used non-selectively as an indefinite 

determiner (see 46.1), but it is strong when used as a selective quantifier: 

non-selective /sɘm/ We’re spending some days by the sea. 

selective /sm/ Some days it’s hot, other days it’s cold. 

Stressed some can also be used with various types of evaluative force: 

quantifying: I haven’t seen you for some time. (= a long time) 

appreciative: That really was some meal! (= a wonderful meal) 


Any has two meanings, as illustrated in the following examples (see also 3.3): 

1 Have you any money/any coins? I haven’t any money/any coins. 

2 Any information would be useful. 

In 1, any specifies an indeterminate amount or number of something. It occurs in nonaffirmative 

clauses, that is, in negative and interrogative clauses mainly (see nonassertion, 

3.4). It is typically unstressed. 

In 2, any is equivalent to ‘no matter which or what’. It occurs typically in affirmative 

clauses and is stressed. Compare this use of any with anything and either: 

You can choose any of the main courses on the menu. 

You can choose anything on the menu. 

You can choose either meat or fish. 

(it doesn’t matter which) 

(it doesn’t matter what) 

(one or the other, not 

both) 

The negative determinative no has mass, count, singular and plural references: no 

time, no change, no changes. 

There is no need to worry. No changes will be made. None (pronoun) will be made. 

Some and any – but not no – can function as elliptical heads of the NG. Instead of no, 

the pronoun none is used, as in the previous example, and also for the partitive (‘none 

of the men’). 


Have you any change? Yes, I have some. No, I haven’t any. I have none. 

Did you have any problem in parking? 

No, none. (= no problem) 

Did you have any difficulties with your papers? No, none. (= no difficulties) 

Note that not is a negative particle, and does not function as a determinative or a 

pronoun. It can precede the quantifiers much and many in ellipted responses. 

Isn’t there anything to eat? 

Haven’t you any friends? 

Not much. 

Not many. 

Much, little, a little, many, few, a few 

These quantifiers are used with both indefinite and definite NGs. With definite reference 

they are followed by of and have partitive reference: they represent a sub-set of an 

already selected class. 

Indefinite reference – non-partitive 

Definite reference – partitive 

much time, much food (+ mass n.) Much of the time, much of the food 

little time, little food (+ mass n.) little of the time, little of the food 

many pubs, many people (+ count n.) many of the pubs, many of the people 

few seats, few people (+ count n.) few of the seats, few of the people 

a few seats, a few people (+ count n.) a few of the seats, a few of the people 

428 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

These quantifiers can function as ellipted heads. Much and many are used mainly in 

negative and interrogative clauses. Much and little are commonly modified by very or 

replaced by a lot, not very much, respectively. 

Is there much food? There’s very little. There’s a lot. *There’s much. There isn’t 

much. There aren’t (very) many people. 

A lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a number of a lot of/lots of 

These quantifiers are determinatives with noun heads followed by a PP complement. 

They range from the informal (a lot/ lots of ) to the formal (a great deal/ number of). Some 

of them admit both mass and count nouns, others do not: 

Singular mass and a lot of, lots of, plenty of a lot of/lots of/ plenty of 

plural count: 

money 

a lot of/lots of/plenty of 

friends 

Singular mass only a great deal of a great deal of money 

Plural count only: a number of a number of policemen 

More informal combinations of this type which function like a lot/ lots of include loads 

of, heaps of, masses of. 

These phrasal quantifiers are not partitives even though they contain the preposition 

of. Partitives have definite reference and represent subsets from already selected sets. 

Here is a selection of examples of non-partitive quantifiers, as well as cardinal and 

ordinal numbers, together with their partitive counterparts: 


Non-partitive quantifiers 

Partitive quantifiers 

A lot of money was wasted 

No money was wasted 

They spent a great deal of time in pubs 

Some books were damaged in the fire 

Few seats were vacant 

Three people were injured 

Their first child was born in Wales 

A lot of the money was wasted 

None of the money was wasted 

They spent a great deal of the time in pubs 

Some of the books were damaged in the 

fire 

A few of the seats were vacant 

Three of the people were injured 

The first of their children was born in Wales 

47.4.2 Distributors: All, both, either, neither, each, every 

Of the distributive determinatives, all refers to a totality; it can be used with mass nouns 

(all power corrupts), plural nouns in a generic sense (all men are mortal) and certain 

temporal and locative nouns (all day, all night, all America). When the reference is not 

generic, all is optionally followed by of + noun (all the pie/ all of the pie; all the pages/ all 

of the pages). 


Both refers to two entities together. Either and the negative form neither refer to two 

entities as alternatives. Each and every refer to one of a group or series, but while each 

emphasises the separateness of the entity, every highlights the individual within the 

group. Each can refer to two entities separately (each hand, each foot) but every is applicable 

only to groups of three or more. Both, either, neither and each (but not every) can 

take optional of before the noun (the partitive use). Here are some examples: 

All birds have feathers, but not all birds can fly. (generic) 

All the bedrooms/All of the bedrooms have a balcony and telephone, and some take 

a third and fourth bed. [BNC AMD 1724] 

Keep hold of the wheel with both hands. 

Both children/both the children/both of the children had measles at the same time. 

He can write with either hand/with either of his hands. 

Neither twin/neither of the twins is very good at maths. 

Each player/Each of the players was given a premium. 

This applies to each of us – men as well as women. [BNC AT9 192] 

Two out of every five people catch more than one cold a year. 

Every known criminal of New York was there. [BNC ATE 1753] 

They went to visit her, as they did nearly every Sunday. 

All, both and each following pronouns 

These distributors can follow pronouns, whether subjective or objective, for emphasis: 

They all/both/each carried backpacks. 


We’ve bought them all/both bicycles. We’ve bought them each a bicycle. 

All of them have bicycles. Both of them have bicycles. Each of them has a bicycle. 

All, everything, everyone/everybody 

All is marginally used in formal styles as an alternative to everything to refer to a situation, 

ideas, objects, actions in general terms. 

All went well. Everything went well. 

All is ready. Everything is ready. 

All is much less common than everything and everyone in everyday English, however. 

Furthermore, it is not used as an elliptical head in Object and Complement functions, 

where it can be used with a pronoun. Compare: 

*I liked all. I liked everything. I liked it all. 

Everyone and everybody refer to all the people in a particular group. The notion of 

generality can be extended to wider groups and even everyone everywhere: 

Everyone enjoyed the show. 

He poured drinks for everybody. 

430 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Everyone condemned the terrorist attack. 

Everyone has their own opinion. 

All is not normally used in this way, without a head or modifier. Compare: 

*All enjoyed the show. 

*He poured drinks for all. 

All those present enjoyed the show. 

He poured drinks for all present/ for us all/ for them 

all 

All people is not an acceptable alternative to everyone/ everybody. All the people there 

would refer to definite people on a specific occasion, rather than the more general 

meaning of totality expressed by everyone. 

The following horoscope illustrates some of these quantifiers: 

Libra (Sep 24 – Oct 23) 

None of it matters quite as much as we think. All of it is a journey, a dream. 

Of course, it seems real. Dreams always do while we are dreaming them. This does 

not make life any the less precious. To the contrary. We should treasure every 

moment because we never know how many more moments we will have left. 

Yet sometimes, we cannot properly treasure each moment because we are too 

worried about making the most of our every moment. This weekend brings magic. 

Enjoy it. 


47.5 THE SEMI-DETERMINATIVES: SUCH, WHAT, CERTAIN, 

SAME, (AN)OTHER, FORMER, LATTER 

These words (except such) are sometimes classed as adjectives. However, they do not 

describe the referent and appear to have a specifying function. They precede either a 

definite or an indefinite determiner. 

Such and exclamatory what are among the few elements of this kind which precede 

the indefinite article. They require a(n) before a singular count noun, zero before noncount 

and plural nouns. 

Such classifies an entity by kind or intensifies it by degree. It usually relates to 

something already mentioned in the discourse. 

Classifying: (= of that kind) 

I’ve never heard of such an animal. 

Such cruelty is incomprehensible. 

Such people are dangerous 

Intensifying: 

Don’t be such a fool! They are such idiots! ( = of that degree) 


Certain, by contrast, follows a(n) or is followed by zero. It helps to pick out a specific, 

but as yet not identified, person or thing: 

There is a certain opposition to the Government’s proposals. 

A certain person in this room might disagree with you. 

Same indicates that the person or thing referred to is exactly like one previously 

mentioned. 

He always asks the same two questions. 

Another (+ singular count noun) has two meanings: it indicates that the entity referred 

to is different from one already mentioned; and it refers to a subsequent entity of the 

same kind as the one already mentioned in the discourse. The indefinite plural other 

(+ plural count noun) is used mainly in the first sense. 

Couldn’t you choose another title? (= a different title) 

Would you like another beer? (= of the same kind, not of a different kind) 

I saw him the other day. We talked about other things. 

Former and latter refer back to the first and the second respectively of two entities 

already mentioned. They are preceded by the definite article and can occur together 

with the ’s possessive determinative. 

Bill and Steve both made proposals. The former’s was rejected, the latter’s approved. 


Former is also used adjectivally with the meaning of ‘previous’ when referring to jobs, 

positions or roles. In this function it may be preceded by a possessive determinative 

such as my, your. 

A former President of the Royal Society. 

His former partner has set up business on his own. 

Note that such and the same can function as substitute heads (see 45.7.4), as in: 

Is this a dangerous area? I wouldn’t consider it as such (= a dangerous area) 

Alice had a cola and Sue had the same (= a cola) 

In Spanish, for instance, instead of el mismo (‘the same’), the pronoun otro (‘another’) is 

used. 

47.6 SUMMARY OF DETERMINATIVE FEATURES 

The following table summarises the four broad experiential types of determination by 

which referent things can be particularised in English, together with their subtypes and 

principal exponent. 

432 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1 Defining and 2 Quantifying and 3 Numbering and 4 Semi- 

Particularising Distributing Ordering determinatives 

Definite Fractional (± of) Cardinal such, certain, 

the half, (a) quarter, one, two, ten, two former, latter; 

two-thirds, hundred, etc. same, other, 

four-fifths, etc. 

last, next, own 

a dozen, a thousand 

Indefinite 

a(n), some 

zero (0) 

Demonstrative 

This, that, these, 

those 

Multiplying (*of) 

double, treble, twice, 

hundreds of, 

thousands of, 

millions of 

three times, 

Possessive Non-exact Ordinal 

my, your, his, her, some, any, no first, second, 

their much, (a) little, third . . . 

Sam’s, my friend’s (a) few, 

etc. 

many, several, 

enough 


Interrogative/ Other quantifiers 

relative 

what, whose, A lot of, lots of, 

which, whichever plenty of, 

a great deal of, 

a number of 

Exclamative 

what (a) . . . 

Distributives 

all, both, either, 

neither, 

each, every, 

none (of) 


47.7 ORDERING OF DETERMINATIVES 

The governing principle of placement of multiple determinatives is the same as that of 

a whole NG, that is, a gradual process of dependency selection from right to left, as in: 

Pre-determinatives Central Post- HEAD 

and partitives determinatives determinatives 

half his last sixty dollars 

a few of my many other friends 

some of the doctor’s former patients 

none of those several options 

such an experience 

their own house 

the same day 

that certain feeling 

What an idea! 

Here, from all dollars, we first select sixty; these are particularised as his last sixty dollars 

and of these we select half and say: ‘He paid only half his last sixty dollars for his seat’. 


434 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

DESCRIBING AND CLASSIFYING MODULE 48 

THE REFERENT 

The pre-modifier 

SUMMARY 

1 The epithet and the classifier functions, realised by descriptors and classifiers, 

respectively. 

2 The epithet function is realised by adjectives and participles whose reference 

may be: descriptive: a popular disco, a sunny day, a galloping horse, an 

abandoned car 

evaluative: a princely meal, a vile crime 

either of the above: absolute zero, absolute rubbish 

3 The classifier function limits the entity to a subclass in relation to: 


affiliations: Indian art, French window, a Buddhist monk 

quality: a poisonous snake, a non-alcoholic drink 

norms: average age, standard size, top ten 

process: the rising tide, a growing population 

society and institutions: metropolitan police, a football club; social status 

technology: a nuclear power-station, electric light, solar energy 

4 Some words can function as either epithets or classifiers: civil: a civil manner 

(epithet); civil rights (classifier). 

5 The elements of a NG are organised in a relationship of successive dependency 

and selection, from the head leftwards to the classifier, the epithet and the 

determiner, and rightwards to the postmodifier, as indicated by the arrows in 

the following example: 

d← e← clas. ←h→ fin. cl. 

that short summer course we attended 

6 The order of epithets is semantic and partly conventional, rather than 

grammatical. 


48.1 THE PRE-MODIFIER FUNCTIONS: EPITHET AND 

CLASSIFIER 

The pre-modifier (experientially the epithet and the classifier) is different from the 

determiner in certain ways. While the determiner function is realised by closed class 

items which define and select the referent, the pre-modifier function describes or classifies 

the referent by means of open-class items, mainly adjectives and nouns. Unlike 

the determiner, these are optional. Furthermore, and again unlike determinatives, there 

is no grammatical constraint on the number of modifiers placed before a noun. The 

main types of structural element that either describe or classify are illustrated by 

examples from the art sale text (‘Fairy Liquid’) in Section 45.1, among others: 

Descriptor and classifier elements 

(a) adjectives 

(b) en-participle 

smart rooms, low groans, a tall building, good weather (epithet); 

new rooms, digital camera (classifier) 

well-dressed art-lovers (epithet), the acknowledged master, 

worn-out machinery, fallen leaves (classifiers) 

(c) ing-participle a disappointing exam result/ finish (to a match), breathtaking 

speed (epithet); running water, a leading article, coming events 

(classifier) 

(d) noun 

the flower market, a Paris café (classifier) 

In addition, the following are also used, though less commonly, as modifiers: 


(e) nominal group a no-frills airline 

(f) adverb the then President 

(g) coordinated clauses 

a take-it-or-leave-it attitude 

The true -en participial epithet derived from a verb, such as broken in a broken cup, 

must be distinguished from ‘pseudo-participials’, which are derived from nouns, 

as in: 

A dark-green, big-leaved, long-stemmed plant with orange flowers. 

Such pseudo-participials are often modified, as the modification represents some nonessential 

feature. We don’t say *a leaved plant, *a haired girl, because plants normally 

have leaves and girls have hair. Not all leaves are big and not all girls’ hair is dark, 

however, allowing the formation of big-leaved and dark-haired: a dark-haired girl. In a 

camera’ed bystander, by contrast, no modifier is needed because carrying a camera is 

not an essential feature of a bystander. 

436 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

48.2 ADJECTIVES AS EPITHET: DESCRIPTORS AND 

ATTITUDINAL USES 

In the epithet function the adjective is used to ascribe a quality (big, old, red, etc.) to the 

referent. This may be an objective quality (e.g. a square box, a round table, a blue truck, 

old magazines) while others are subjective and represent the speaker’s or writer’s 

attitude towards the referent (good, bad, nice, stupid, lovely, horrible, etc.). 

The subjective–objective distinction is not as clear as we might think, however. The 

act of appreciation is bound to be subjective, because the quality is inevitably presented 

through the eyes of the speaker, and yet the appreciation is objectivised because it 

is related to some cultural norm. Some ‘objective’ qualities are culture-specific. What 

counts as a tall man or a narrow street in one culture may not appear to be so to 

members of another. 

Adjectival epithets expressing objective qualities may simply ‘describe’ an entity (I 

bought a small bottle) or ‘define’ it (I bought the small bottle). The meaning in both is clearly 

‘experiential’ in that it denotes a quality experienced by everyone in the culture and 

denoted by the word ‘small’. The two semantic functions of describing and defining are 

reflected in the grammar by the a/ the contrast. That is to say, the terms ‘descriptive’ 

and ‘defining’ don’t refer to two subclasses of adjectives, but to two potential functions 

of most objective adjectives. 

The defining function of an epithet is different from the classifying function, as 

illustrated in the following extract from Paul Gallico’s The Silent Hostages: 


The car carrying the two escaped 1 killers, Rickman and Hoser, nosed carefully into 

the unidentified2 desert town. It was that darkest3 hour before dawn of a moonless, 4 

starlit 5 night. Rickman, the more vicious 6 man, driving, with cold, 7 snake-like 8 eyes 

and bloodless 9 mouth. 

Since they had murdered their three hostages, they had been attempting to find their 

way towards the Mexican 10 border, driving without lights on back roads and wagon 

trails. 

1–3 

defining; 4–5 descriptive; 6 defining; 7–9 descriptive; 10 classifying 

The attitudinal epithet expresses the speaker’s or writer’s subjective evaluation of the 

referent, and is interpersonal, rather than experiential. There are two broad kinds of 

evaluation: 

appreciative: good, wonderful, heavenly (a good film, an intelligent remark) 

pejorative: bad, idiotic, monstrous, appalling (a horrible film, a foolish remark) 

Certain adjectives can be used both to describe objectively and to express attitude: 

Descriptive 

a poor part of the city 

a huge piece of machinery 

Attitudinal 

Poor you! Poor little boy! 

The show was a huge success. 


Epithets used attitudinally don’t usually have the potential to define the referent of the 

noun, as is usual with the objective use of adjectives. The superlative preceded by the, 

with attitudinal adjectives, for instance, simply intensifies the effect but does not define. 

Compare: We saw the sweetest little girl/the most horrible film (attitudinal) with we saw the 

poorest part of the city (objective). 

Attitudinal adjectives are usually placed before descriptive ones: a marvellous sunny 

day; a sickly greenish yellow. They also tend to be preceded or followed by others which 

express similar or related meanings and so reinforce or intensify the attitude or emotion 

in question: 

a lumbering great lorry 

that splendid, delicious meal 

a whopping big lie 

a sweet little girl 

So although these two uses of certain adjectives have different communicative effects, 

they are not always easy to distinguish, and we should not think of epithets as divided 

into two rigid sets called ‘descriptive’ and ‘attitudinal’. 

We will use the symbol e for both attitudinal and descriptive uses, distinguishing 

these from the classifier (clas). 

If we divide the determinative features of a referent entity into the two broad types 

– defining/ deictic (d d ) and numerative/quantifying (d q ) – we can now give some idea, 

in the following tree, of the experiential structure of the NG as we have described it so 

far, and without including the post-modifier described in Module 49: 

NG 


determiner modifier head 

d d 

d q 

e sub e obj clas n 

those 

two 

lovely 

tall 

sailing 

ships 

Strictly speaking, it is not an adjective but an adjectival group that can modify the 

head noun. This will be considered again in Chapter 11. For the present we simply point 

out that many adjectives can be pre-modified by an intensifier, as in a very tall building, 

and post-modified, as in a very exciting thing to do. 

Multiple epithets 

Sequences of two epithets (mainly adjectives and participles) are found in many types 

of speech and writing. Strings of three, four or five epithets can have a rather marked 

effect. They are common in certain genres, such as advertisements, especially personal 

classified ads, as the second and fourth below, from The Times [square brackets enclose 

other elements]: 

438 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Two items: long, winding roads; hard, stale cheese 

Three items: exotic, exciting, focused female [seeks professional male, 38+, to 

live life to the max with] 

Four items: [what an] absurd, cruel, strange, mad thing [to do] 

Five items: educated, kind, slightly mad, solvent, good-looking gent, [53, 

seeks partner for long-term relationship] 

Adjectives functioning as multiple epithets may be coordinated or subordinated. 

Coordinated epithets (without a coordinator) were illustrated in the previous 

examples. Below are examples of coordinated adjectives (with a coordinator: and, or, 

either . . . or, but, yet) and subordinated ones: 

Co-ordinated: and good and bad camping-sites 

or 

hot or cold meals 

either ...or either white or light blue shirts 

but a long but interesting trip 

yet a strange yet friendly person 

Subordinated: 

an enlightening if heated discussion 

a disappointing though not unexpected result 

Epithets, like classifiers, can be sub-modified: slightly mad, very good-looking. 

48.3 ORDERING OF MULTIPLE EPITHETS 


Epithets are not necessarily ordered in a relation of dependency, as classifiers are (see 

48.5). Neverthless, their order of occurrence is not totally free, and various suggestions 

have been offered of preferred orderings: 

• attributes of size, age, shape and colour usually occur in that order: a large, 

rectangular, black box. 

• de-verbal adjectives (i.e. derived from verbs) before denominal ones (derived 

from nouns; see 51.2), as in: an attractive, ambitious woman. 

• short adjectives before long ones, as in: a small, pretty, well-kept garden. 

• well-known words before less common ones: a strange, antediluvian monster. 

• the most forceful or ‘dynamic’ adjective tends to be placed at the end: a sudden, 

loud, ear-splitting crash; such sequences are also felt to be more satisfying 

rhythmically, compared with an ear-splitting, loud, sudden crash. 

We shall return to the ordering of pre-modifiers in the following section, since many 

sequences are mixed, consisting of both epithets and classifiers. 


48.4 FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF THE CLASSIFIER 

The function of the classifier is to sub-classify the noun referent; for instance, dental 

treatment is a subclassification of medical treatment, dental contrasting with other 

sub-domains of medicine. Although certain words can function as both epithets and 

classifiers, these functions can normally be distinguished by the following criteria: 

(a) Classifiers are not gradable, as descriptive adjectives are; that is, they don’t admit 

degrees of comparison or intensity; we can’t say *more dental treatment’, *very dental 

treatment, as we can with descriptors: more effective treatment, very effective 

treatment. 

(b) Classifiers tend to be organised into mutually exclusive sets, as in presidential 

election, the presidential airplane (AmE), which contrast with other elections and 

airplanes (BrE aircraft) not relative to a president or a presidency. Another set in a 

different domain, that of ways of cooking eggs, includes fried, boiled, poached, 

scrambled [eggs]. 

(c) The classifier function is realised by adjectives, nouns, participles, ordinal numbers 

and, to a lesser extent, adverbs, phrases and clauses. We shall illustrate these in 

turn. 

48.5 ADJECTIVES, PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS AS CLASSIFIERS 

Adjectives as classifiers are frequently derived from nouns and restrict the noun head 

in relation to another referent. There is a wide variety of relations expressed, including: 


(a) affiliations to national, political or religious groups, such as: African, American, British, 

Buddhist, Canadian, Chinese, Christian, Conservative, Dutch, French, German, 

Indian, Liberal, Muslim, Norwegian, Russian, Socialist, Swiss (all written with a 

capital letter); 

(b) related to norms, sequences, sizes, ratings, scales, for example: average, chief, main, 

standard, regular, top; previous, following, initial, final; personal, particular, external, 

internal; 

(c) related to areas of study, art, science and institutions, as in the following examples: 

affiliations: 

norms, ratings: 

time, place: 

periods: 

institutions: 

professions: 

devices: 

processes: 

African politics, Swedish voters, the Conservative party; 

average age, regular doctor, standard size, top ten, main 

road, personal contribution, particular occasion; 

former boss; old friend; previous page; left leg; right hand; 

prehistoric remains, modern times, classical music; 

municipal authorities, industrial unrest, metropolitan 

police; 

medical student, social worker, agricultural expert; 

atomic energy, digital watch, mobile phone (BrE)/ 

(AmE cell phone). 

Both -ing and -en participles classify an entity by a process: 

coming events, sun-dried tomatoes 

440 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Here too, a participle + noun may be a compound: guided missile, leading article. The 

-ing classifiers mentioned here are different from de-verbal nouns such as boxing as in 

boxing-gloves, snorkling gear, reading materials, which belong to the noun class. 

When the adjective and noun are written as one word, as in software, hardware, they 

are compounds, referring to a single class referent, not to a subtype of a class. The same 

may happen with separate or hyphenated words: fancy dress, fast-food, first-aid. 

A noun as classifier functions in a similar way to an adjective, delimiting the 

referent according to membership of a mutually exclusive set (e.g. ham sandwich, bacon 

sandwich). 

Types of noun classifier 

simple (apple blossom) 

genitive (a girls’ school) 

compound (farmyard animals) 

short NGs (Social Security contributions) 

The classifying function of a genitive noun or NG, as in The Minister gave a typical Minister 

of Labour’s reply, must be distinguished from its determiner function as in the Minister of 

Labour’s reply. 

Nouns as classifiers are not usually pluralised: trouser belt, car production, rebel 

forces, but certain plural nouns are regularly used, including women drivers; sales 

campaign. Plural forms are also used when the referent of the classifier has come to be 

regarded as a collective noun, as in arms race, sports field, Olympic Games medal, the Arts 

Council. 

When the semantic relation between a classifier and a noun is very cohesive, they 

frequently become fused as a noun compound denoting a single referent, rather than 


a subclass of a larger class of referents. The dividing line between a noun modifier + 

noun and a noun compound is not entirely clear. Punctuation, as we have seen, provides 

only a rough guideline to the degree of integration achieved by the two nouns. 

When the combination is written as separate words, it is likely to be a noun with a 

noun modifier (head waiter); if written as a single word it is more likely to be a noun compound 

(headache, headrest). Hyphenation signals those elements which form a compound 

(walkie-talkie) and which otherwise would appear to be separate pre-modifiers. This is 

a useful guide with units occurring within a larger unit (high-rise block, high-speed bullet 

train). 

Stress-patterning is not always reliable. Compounds are said to have the tonic stress 

on the first noun. However, many compounds do not follow this pattern (cotton wool, 

zebra crossing), while some classifiers do (steam vehicles, rose-bush). 

The factor that best distinguishes noun classifiers from noun compounds is that 

classifiers can enter into relations of coordination and modification. Compare: 

Coordinated classifiers 

new and second-hand stereos 

European and local councils 

Lunch and dinner menus 

plane or coach trips 

Modified classifier 

brand-new stereos 

various agricultural colleges 

early Chinese pottery 

modern sculpture techniques 


silk and cotton shirt 

bus and coach stations 

pure silk shirt 

inter-city coach station 

Compound nouns do not admit coordination or modification of their component 

elements: 

*soft and hardware 

*pain and insect killers 

*silk and earth worms 

*extremely software 

*persistent painkiller 

*pure silkworm 

Classification by other classes of units 

Certain institutionalised word, group and clausal expressions are sometimes used: 

morpheme: 

adverb: 

PP: 

NG: 

VG: 

AdjG: 

clause: 

pro- and anti-abortionists 

an only child, an away match 

over-the-counter sales, on-line editing 

a New Year’s Eve party 

a stop-and-go policy, a live-and-let-live philosophy 

a bored-with-life attitude 

a couldn’t-care-less attitude. 

Phrasal modifiers are used daily in many practical registers of English. The following 

short example occurred in the report of a meeting called to prepare an English language 

examination of the Royal Society of Arts: 


It was decided that section 1 of the examination would involve no-choice shortanswer 

questions, and section 2 an essay-style question on language systems. The 

group felt that the candidates should also be required to submit six non-exam-type 

pieces of work done at home. 

48.6 WORDS FUNCTIONING AS BOTH EPITHET 

AND CLASSIFIER 

Many words can function as both epithets and classifiers. Some classifiers can be 

modified and then lose their classifier function: a very French lady. 

Epithet 

fresh bread (= freshly made) 

a sick person 

new houses (= recently built) 

to do that would be criminal 

a medieval state of sanitation 

a provincial attitude 

Classifier 

fresh water (i.e. not salty, not sea-water) 

sick pay, sick leave 

new rooms (new to the occupier) 

the criminal court 

a medieval castle 

a provincial town 

442 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

48.7 MULTIPLE CLASSIFIERS 

Classifiers are related by coordination or dependency. A lot is left implicit in classifier 

+ noun combinations, and with more than two elements the complexity increases. 

Related by coordination 

The History and Geography Faculty 

The Management and Finance Committee 

Apple and blackberry tart 

A plane and coach trip 

The singular head noun indicates that there is only one Faculty, committee, tart and 

trip, each of a dual kind. Ambiguity may arise if the head noun is plural. For example, 

plane and coach trips could refer to several trips of a plane + coach type, or to plane 

trips separate from coach trips, analysed as : [[plane and coach] trips] or [[plane] and 

[coach] trips]], respectively. 

Related by dependency 

Sequences of two classifiers can occur before a noun head, as in the following: 

chrome bathroom fittings 

Madrid terrorist bombings 


In these examples the semantic relations can be inferred directly as increasing 

dependency from the head noun towards the left. That is, chrome modifies bathroom 

fittings, not bathroom, and Madrid, in the actual sense used, modified the terrorist 

bombings. This combination is ambiguous, however, as another reading could be 

‘bombings by Madrid terrorists’. 

It is common, then, to find combinations in which either the classifier or the head is 

itself sub-modified, or rather, sub-classified, as in the following examples: 

Sub-modified classifier 

dining-car service 

state school pupils 

two-litre plastic jug 

hard-boiled eggs 

Sub-modified head 

pocket address book 

The Observer book reviews 

Italian graduate students 

Australian ostrich eggs 

In fact, both head and classifier may be sub-modified: Human Rights Select Committee; 

two hard-boiled Australian ostrich eggs. 

Such combinations reflect cultural realities. In everyday contexts as well as in more 

specialised areas of knowledge and activity, there is a tendency in English to ‘encapsulate’ 

experiences, devices and phenomena of all kinds into short but complex NGs. 

The ‘telescoped’ effect of such ordered sequences means that, on a first encounter, not 

only non-native speakers but also natives sometimes have to put in some inferencing 

to work out the semantic relations. 


In medical, political and other institutionalised contexts, the NG is often represented 

as an acronym, that is, initial letters which themselves are pronounced as a word, or, if 

that is not possible, as initials: 

NATO: 

AIDS: 

TEFL 

VIP: 

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

Teaching English as a Foreign Language 

Very Important Person 

Note that with reference to the AIDS sequence, ‘Acquired’ does not modify ‘Immune’ 

but ‘Immune Deficiency’. 

48.8 MIXED PRE-MODIFIERS AND THEIR ORDERING 

Between the head of a NG and the other elements, there is one basic logical relationship, 

that of successive dependency: leftwards from the head to the pre-head elements and 

rightwards in the case of the post-head elements, as indicated by the arrows in the 

following example: 

NG 

d e clas. h 

post-head 

those beautiful Persian RUGS we saw 


Within this logical framework, speakers seem to use semantic criteria, based on 

degrees of permanence and objectivity, to decide the order of pre-modifiers. Those 

properties perceived as permanent, intrinsic and undisputed are placed nearest the head 

of the nominal group. Those that are more variable, subjective or attitudinal are placed 

further from the head. 

Immediately to the left of the head is the classifier, since this is the closest relationship, 

as in Persian rugs, radio programme, park entrance, leather suitcases. 

Where there is more than one classifier, affiliation precedes substance as in German 

leather suitcases, Indian lamb curry. If there is no affiliation, substance precedes other 

classifiers (steel medical instrument, cotton gardening gloves). 

The next place, moving to the left, is occupied by colour adjectives, and before 

them come any participial modifiers (battered brown German leather suitcases, stained 

blue plumbers’ overalls). Preceding these are the most central adjectives, such as 

tall, young, long, hot (for ordering of these, see 48.3). At the start of the list are the 

attitudinal adjectives – such as beautiful, ugly, marvellous, horrible, nice, nasty – after any 

determinatives. This is the unmarked order, which causes us to say: 

a large oil tanker 

increased income tax rebates 

and not *an oil large tanker 

and not *income increased tax rebates 

444 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

a beautiful blue silk scarf 

a nice hot Indian curry 

and not *a silk beautiful blue scarf 

and not *a hot Indian nice curry 

Participial modifiers can occupy various positions. Those that are verbal nouns, such 

as gardening in gardening gloves, always stay close to the head noun, whereas those that 

have become gradable adjectives, such as interested, bored, exciting, may occur nearer 

the determinative, if there is one. If the participial seems to have an evaluative tinge, it 

is even more likely to precede other adjectives: 

interested foreign spectators 

an exciting new adventure story 

a battered old leather suitcase 



IDENTIFYING AND MODULE 49 

ELABORATING THE REFERENT 

The post-modifier 

SUMMARY 

1 The post-modifier elements of the nominal group either provide information that 

helps to identify the referent of the nominal group, or else they add 

supplementary information not essential for identifying it. 

2 Most of the units (clauses, phrases, groups) which occur in post-head position 

of the NG can be either restrictive (integrated) or non-restrictive (supplementive). 

Restrictive post-modifier units are embedded in the structure of 

the NG and have the function of helping to identify the referent of the NG 

among other possible referents. Non-restrictive units are not embedded in the 

NG structure. Their function is to add supplementary information to a referent 

which is already defined. These units are classed as supplementives. 


3 The post-modifier is realised by a wide variety of units, including the following, 

which are here used restrictively: 

PPs 

finite relative clauses 

non-finite relative clauses 

adj or adjG 

adverb 

apposition NG 

reflexive pronoun 

the house on the corner, a new album by a 

top musician 

the man who is standing in the corridor 

the man standing in the corridor (-ing cl.) 

the man to consult is Jones (to-inf. cl.) 

the fax sent this morning (-en cl.) 

a room full of furniture; the best hotel available 

the flat upstairs 

my friend the doctor 

the doctor himself 

4 Complements of nouns are a different type of post-modifier element. 

446 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

49.1 COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE POST-MODIFIER 

ELEMENTS 

The post-modifier elements have two basic communicative functions: 

(a) to supply information enabling the hearer/reader to specify and identify the person 

or thing referred to by the NG, as in: 

1 This is the house where the Prime Minister lives. 

(b) to add supplementary information about the referent when it has already been 

identified, as in: 

2 This is Number 10 Downing Street, where the Prime Minister lives. 

These two roles or functions are encoded as restrictive (or defining) and non-restrictive 

(or non-defining) units, respectively. In 1, the restrictive type, the clause where the Prime 

Minister lives is integrated (embedded) within the nominal group structure. Its function 

is to identify the house where the Prime Minister lives from all other possible houses. 

When the referent is already identified or assumed to be known, as in 2, the nonrestrictive 

unit is subordinate but not embedded. Its function is to add descriptive, 

supplementary information. Thus the same clause where the Prime Minister lives does not 

identify the house where the Prime Minister lives in 2, because Number 10, Downing 

Street is already identified or assumed to be known. Rather, it makes a linked, but 

separate assertion and has the status of a supplementive. 

The difference between the two types of unit is marked both prosodically and in 

writing. Restrictive units such as 1 are not separated from their antecedent by either 

pauses or punctuation. By contrast, non-restrictive units are usually written between 


commas, dashes or brackets and pronounced between short pauses as separate 

information units (33.2). Punctuation is not a hundred per cent reliable, however and 

it is possible that prosodic features such as pauses are not generalised either. We shall 

see further distinguishing characteristics in the section on relative clauses (49.3) 

49.2 RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE REALISATIONS 

OF THE POST-MODIFIER 

Most of the various units that occur as post-modifiers or as complements of the noun 

(see p. 348 and Module 50) can be either restrictive or non-restrictive. We shall look at 

each type in turn, starting with the restrictive. 

Restrictive (embedded) realisations of the post-modifier 

The post-modifier is realised by a wide range of units, including clauses, phrases and 

groups. 

Type of unit 

Example 

1 finite relative clause Perhaps the people who were waiting are 

still there. 


2 non-finite clauses 

to-infinitive clauses It’s time to say good night; there’s nothing to eat 

-ing clause 

an envelope containing a white powdery substance 

-en clause 

spring water bottled in the Malvern hills 

3 prepositional phrase a policeman on a motor-cycle; a new album by a 

top musician 

4 adjectival group a box full of screwdrivers and spanners 

5 adverbial group the Prime Minister’s speech yesterday 

6 appositive NG our son Barney; the explorer Marco Polo 

7 reflexive pronoun the Americans themselves 

8 noun complement clause expectations that we’ll win the Cup; their plans to 

go on strike 

9 PP complement reliance on public transport; a threat to our 

security 

Non-restrictive (supplementive) realisations of the post-head element 

1 finite relative clause A meeting was arranged with the gypsies, who 

were allowed to stay until the 24th of July 

[BNC BPK 1301] 

2 non-finite clauses 

-ing clause 

. . . and the taps, gleaming as gold, were 

surrounded by a platoon of little bottles and 

cases, all matching [BNC ECU 2433] 

the enormous volume, dedicated to his wife, lay on 

the desk 

-en clause 


3 prepositional phrase The departure time, at 5 a.m., was uncomfortably 

early. 

4 adjectival group and he opened out the big, blue toolbox, full of 

screwdrivers and spanners 

5 circumstantial clause We were all just trying to get through high school 

so we could hurry up and get to college, where, 

we’d heard, things were better 

(All American Girl) 

6 appositive NG our youngest son, Barney; Marco Polo, the explorer 

7 verbless clause and the Minister, himself a Quaker, made no 

objection 

8 complement clause her life-long wish, to own a horse, was at last 

fulfilled 

Complements of nouns, whether restrictive or non-restrictive, differ from post-modifiers 

in being controlled by the noun and are dealt with separately in Module 50. 

448 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

49.3 FINITE RELATIVE CLAUSES AS POST-MODIFIERS 

49.3.1 The relativisers 

Finite relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun or adverb (called a 

relativiser). English uses several different relativisers: who, whom, whose, which, that, 

where, when, why and zero (0). The relativiser refers back to the head of the nominal 

group, which is termed the antecedent, for example, ‘people’ in the people who were 

waiting. 

Who (objective whom) is used after an animate, particularly a human, head noun. 

The relativiser who is not omitted when it functions as subject in the relative clause: 

Perhaps the people who were waiting are still there. (perhaps *the people were waiting 

are still there) 

The only exceptions are introduced by unstressed there or by a cleft. They are on the 

borderline between dialectal and very colloquial speech, and are not obligatory uses: 

There’s a man outside (0) wants to speak to you. 

It was John (0) told me about you. 

Whom is always used when it directly precedes a preposition, as in 1. This is a formal 

use. In less formal speech and writing whom is commonly avoided by ‘stranding’ the 

preposition (see 6.3.3) and replacing whom by who, that or zero, as in 2. Compare: 

1 the students with whom I share a flat. 


2 the students who I share a flat with/that I share a flat with/(0) I share a flat with 

Which is used with inanimate heads in both subject and object functions in the relative 

clause, and before a preposition. The same alternatives are open for which as for whom: 

the matter which concerns us at present (subject) 

there is one matter which I must bring up (object) 

Their life was one for which she was unprepared. (following a preposition) 

Their life was one that/which/(0) she was unprepared for. 

That is used in both subject and object functions and for both animate and inanimate 

heads in integrated relative clauses. It is a useful alternative to who(m) and which when 

the speaker prefers to avoid the animate–inanimate distinction: 

The large Alsatian that lives next door is rather fierce. 

However, that is not normally used after a personal proper name, as such a use is 

typically non-restrictive (see below). Neither is that used following a preposition. 

As a relative pronoun, that is more common than which in spoken and in much written 

English, but which is said to be more common than that in academic writing. When the 

antecedent is a demonstrative pronoun, that tends to be avoided (What’s that [that] you 


have there?), zero being preferred over both that and which (What’s that [0] you have there?). 

When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, that is more common than which in subject 

function (Anything that might happen . . .) whereas zero is common in object function 

(Everything [0] we know . . .). 

Zero (that is, the non-use of the relative pronouns whom, which or that) is common 

practice when these pronouns function as object in the relative clause. Compare the 

various options, ranging from most formal to informal, in the following example: 

the girl to whom I lent my coat 

the girl whom I lent my coat to 

the girl that I lent my coat to 

the girl (0) I lent my coat to 

When and where as relativisers introduce circumstantial information, of time and place 

respectively: the place where he was born; the time when he’s sure to be at home. 

Why occurs as a relative only after the noun ‘reason’ and the like – cause, explanation, 

excuse: There’s no reason why we shouldn’t be friends. 

Whose is the possessive form and is used not only to refer to animate head nouns 

but also to inanimates, as a shorter alternative to of which + determiner: 

children whose parents both go out to work 

the houses whose roofs were in need of repair. 

49.3.2 Features of the restrictive relative clause 

The restrictive relative integrates with the head noun together with its pre-modifiers to 

form a larger unit, syntactically, prosodically and semantically. 


• Syntactically it is embedded in the NG matrix structure. 

• Prosodically, it shares the intonation contour of its antecedent, as the two together 

constitute one information unit: 

They admitted the immigrants who had their papers in order. (= only the immigrants 

who had their papers in order) 

• Semantically, the restrictive relative is an integral part of the meaning of the whole 

nominal group. It helps to establish what (or whom) the speaker is talking about. It 

picks out the referent(s) from other possible referents by some distinguishing 

property; in this case, that only the immigrants who had their papers in order were 

admitted. 

• The larger NG unit with its relative clause can be expanded by a further relative 

clause: 

The umbrella 1 we bought 2 that has a duck’s head handle made a good present. 

Restrictive relatives are not common after proper names, as their referents are normally 

already identified. However, they can serve to distinguish between two referents with 

the same name (by treating them as common nouns), as in: 

Do you mean the Toledo which is in Spain or the Toledo in the United States? 

450 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

49.3.3 Features of the non-restrictive relative clause 

Unlike restrictive (integrated) relative clauses, non-restrictive relative clauses are not 

embedded in the matrix nominal group. Although they are marked as subordinate by a 

relativiser, they are parentheticals which have considerable semantic independence. 

Prosodically, they don’t share the intonation contour of the matrix clause. Instead, 

they have their own intonation contour, which constitutes an independent information 

unit: 

They admitted the immigrants, who had their papers in order. 

They don’t identify one referent from other possible referents. The antecedent is already 

restricted and the clause is complete. The immigrants is a delimited subset of immigrants. 

Consequently, unlike integrated relatives, non-restrictive relatives can have as 

antecedent a proper noun or name which identifies a particular person or persons, 

object(s) or institution(s). The pronouns used are who, whom, whose and which, rarely 

that: 

I’ll give the CD to Ben, who likes music. (*that likes music) 

The injured child was taken to Alderhey Children’s Hospital, which is in Wavertree. 

Semantically, the non-restrictive clause is not an integral part of the NG. As the 

antecedent is already defined, the supplementive provides additional new information 

which is not essential, but may explain or elaborate on the content of the previous clause. 

When placed medially, the non-restrictive relative is enclosed: 


Plans for the new airport, which will cope with ten times the present air traffic, are now 

under way. 

You would think that my dad, who is an international economist with the World Bank, 

would understand this. 


It makes an independent statement, which is an extension of the already complete unit. 

As such, non-restrictive relatives are increasingly found functioning as freestanding 

subordinate clauses, which may initiate a new paragraph in written discourse. (See also 

33.2 for spoken examples of ‘sentential’ relatives, whose antecedent is the whole clause.) 

And into the room walked David, the President’s son. 

Who also happened to be David from my drawing class with Susan Boone. 



49.4 NON-FINITE RELATIVE CLAUSES AS POST-MODIFIERS 

-ing clauses and -en clauses 

He wrote a book containing his reminiscences of five U.S. Presidents. 

The book also described his own life as a press officer serving them in the White 

House. 

(Libra, journal of Foyle’s Ltd) 

The value of these restrictive -ing clauses is similar to that of a finite relative clause: a 

book that contained ...a press officer who had served them. However, in such cases, the 

participle is not to be interpreted as an abbreviated progressive, as is proved by the fact 

that contain is a state verb and does not combine with the progressive: *the book was 

containing. As we saw in Chapter 7, the -ing form is, in many constructions, an economical 

resource for expressing relationships where tense or aspect do not need to be further 

specified. 

This property of the -ing, as also the -en clauses, which are always passive, is 

particularly evident in their non-restrictive function as supplementives. 

-ing clauses 

He was sent several letters, all containing a white, powdery substance. 

The stained-glass windows, illustrating biblical scenes, are splendid. 

-ed-clauses The enormous volume, dedicated to his wife, lay on the desk. 

to-infinitive clauses – nothing to fear 


As post-modifiers, to-infinitive clauses can correspond to full relative clauses in which 

the relative pronoun is S, Od or C: 

S 

Od 

C 

The next train to arrive at Platform 5 is the express train to York 

(= the train which/that will arrive) 

They have nothing to eat. (= nothing which they can eat) 

The man to consult is Jones. (= the man whom/that you should consult is 

Jones) 

The commonest kind of worker to become nowadays is an unemployed one. 

(= The commonest kind of worker that one can become) 

49.5 OTHER TYPES OF UNIT AS POST-MODIFIERS 

49.5.1 Prepositional phrases 

This is by far the commonest class of circumstantial post-modifier used in English NGs. 

It is also the most economical. The listed examples are all restrictive, except the last, 

which is non-restrictive (supplementive): 

452 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

the concert on Monday a clown with a red nose 

the plane from Oslo a job for the experts 

a ticket to Paris the man in the dark suit 

the end of the story the back wheels of the car 

The departure time, at 5 o’clock in the morning, was uncomfortably early for most 

passengers. (non-restrictive) 

Multiple PP post-modifiers can be either coordinated or embedded: 

The path over the cliffs and down to the beach. (coordinated) 

Those books [on the top shelf [of the bookcase [in my bedroom]]]. (embedded) 

49.5.2 Adjectival groups 

Single adjectives are rarely used as post-modifiers and are limited to the following types: 

• a small number of fixed expressions, the relic of a French structure: a court martial, 

the devil incarnate, from time immemorial; 

• after certain pronominal heads: those present, something nice, nobody interesting; 

• adjectives placed after a modified noun head, but which modify the modifier, not 

the head: the worst time possible = the worst possible, not *the time possible. The 

close relationship between worst and possible is shown by the possibility of placing 

them together as an epithet: the worst possible time. 

Adjectival group post-modifiers usually contain their own modifier elements: 

We chose the solution most likely to succeed. 


He always wore socks full of holes. 

In supplementive verbless clauses, coordinated or post-modified adjectives are said 

to be more acceptable than single ones. Thus, the single adjective in 1 is less likely than 

the longer, coordinated structure in 2: 

1 The other candidates, confident, all passed the test. 

2 The other candidates, confident and well-prepared, all passed the test. 

But see the following extract from an article by Jeremy Clarkson in The Sunday 

Times, which illustrates the use of various supplementive units. Adjectival groups are 

underlined: 

Here’s a game you might like to try next time you’re in America. Go into a Denny’s 

restaurant and see if you can order breakfast in such a way that the waitress can 

ask no supplementary questions. 

It’s very hard. Denny’s offers a vast range of everything, all of which can be 

cooked in ways you haven’t even dreamed of. Take eggs: they can be soft-boiled, 


hard-boiled, scrambled, sunny-side up, sunny-side down, easy over, over easy, easy 

easy, over there or poached. So you have to be specific. 

‘Hello, I’d like a table, wooden preferably, for two, in the smoking section, and I 

would like to eat four rashers of bacon, crispy, two eggs, sunny-side up, rye bread, 

sausages, no grits, no water, no hash browns, and coffee, with milk, semi-skimmed, 

and two level teaspoons of sugar, not sweetener.’ 

You’ll sit back, confident that you’ve covered all the bases. But you haven’t, have 

you? You didn’t say whether you wanted sausage links or sausage patties, and the 

waitress is going to pounce on that. So you lose. 

49.5.3 Adverbial groups 

Adverbial group heads used to post-modify nouns express notions such as space, time 

and reason. In many cases they may be analysed as ellipted adverbial groups or clauses: 

place: 

time: 

reason: 

Is this the way out? 

He came, and left the week after. 

She fell out with her sister, but I never knew the reason why. 

Relative adverbial clauses as post-modifiers 

The relative adverbs where, when and why introduce clauses which post-modify nouns 

denoting places, times or reasons. Where and when have corresponding supplementive 

uses. The examples with why, however, do not correspond in function. In 3b why is a 

supplementive headless relative in apposition with ‘the mystery’. 


Restrictive 

1a She took her degree at the university 

where she was studying. 

2a The week when the exams take 

place, I intend to be ill. 

3a The reason why I ask is very simple. 

Supplementive 

1b She took her degree at London 

University, where she was studying. 

2b The week after, when the exams took 

place, I was ill. 

3b And the mystery, why the numbers 

were changed, was never solved. 

The relative adverbs when and why, but rarely where, can be replaced by that or zero 

in restrictive clauses: 

In the week (that) the exams take place ... 

The reason (that) I ask you ... 

The town where I was born but not *The town that I was born. 

Zero is also common after the head noun way: That’s not the way (0) we do it here. 

454 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

49.5.4 Appositive nominal groups 

The closest post-modifying relationship is that between the head of a NG and an 

appositive unit, that is, a nominal unit that has the same referent. The relation between 

them and the head noun may be integrated (my friend the doctor . . .) or supplementive 

(my friend, the doctor I told you about . . .). 

The following are some of the appositive relationships these may express: 

definition: 

naming: 

role: 

description: 

particularisation: 

identity: 

My friend the doctor. 

The explorer Marco Polo. 

Thierry Henry, Arsenal’s leading goal-scorer. 

Chivalry, the dominant idea of the medieval ruling classes, 

was symbolised by the Round Table, nature’s perfect shape. 

The members voted for a change in the statutes: the election 

of the chairman by popular vote. 

We British; Me Tarzan, you Jane. 

49.6 MIXED REALISATIONS OF THE POST-MODIFIER 

Post-modification of the noun head can be realised by a wide variety of units, including 

clauses. Futhermore, the units can freely expanded. When units of different types are 

used, a common-sense criterion is to avoid ambiguous or incongruent sequences. 

The following is an example of a pronominal head (‘something’) which has as postmodifier 

a single finite relative clause, some of whose elements are realised more than 

once. Embedding is indicated here by a bracket, and coordination by ‘+’: 


The other night, on television, I saw SOMETHING [which reminded me of the 

Spaniards [going into South America + and advancing over the mountains + and 

terrifying the population with terrible new weapons, + cannon + and the horse 

[which nobody [in their world] had ever seen]]]. 

A different organisation of successive post-modification is used in the following sentence 

which describes a system of grants which, sadly, no longer holds in the UK. In the 

sentence each of the two NGs, EVERY STUDENT and A GRANT, is post-modified by 

three coordinated units: AdjG + PP + non-restrictive relative clause in the case of the 

first, and PP + two relative clauses in the case of the second. Three of these six modifiers 

contain embedded units of their own: 

Virtually every STUDENT 

[normally resident in England or Wales], 

[with specified minimum qualifications], 

[who is admitted to a full-time degree, [at a university [in the UK]]] 

is entitled to a GRANT 

[from his/ her Local Education Authority], 

[which is intended to cover his/ her TUITION FEES AND MAINTENANCE 

[for the duration [of the course] 

[and which also includes AN ELEMENT [towards his/ her vacation 

maintenance.]] 


Ambiguity 

The relation between two post-modifying units may be potentially ambiguous in NGs 

such as Those books on the table which you bought, which can represent two different 

structures: 

coordinated 

embedded 

Those books [on the table] [which you bought.] 

Those books on the table [which you bought]. 

In reverse order – Those books which you bought on the table – the meaning can only be 

guessed. 

In writing, the solution is to punctuate the parenthesis: 

Those books, that you bought, on the table ... 

In spoken English, the most likely form is: 

Those BOOKS you bought | on the table | ... 

This would be understood as 

[Those books [that] you bought, [the ones] on the table, . . . 


456 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

NOUN COMPLEMENT CLAUSES MODULE 50 

SUMMARY 

1 A different type of post-head element is the complement clause, which is 

controlled by head nouns. 

2 The two main types of noun complement clause are that-clauses and to-infinitive 

clauses. Less common types are of + -ing clauses and wh- complement clauses. 

Adjectives which control clausal and prepositional complements are dealt with 

in Module 53. 

50.1 FEATURES OF THE THAT-COMPLEMENT CLAUSE 


Although they look superficially similar to relative clauses, they are in fact quite different. 

The that-clause which complements the noun is a content clause, not a relative clause. 

That is not normally omitted from complement clauses. Compare: 

The news (that) we received was worse than expected. (relative clause, admits zero) 

The news that the President had fled the country was expected. (complement 

clause) 

?The news (0) the President had fled the country was expected. (zero not common) 

While relative clauses can modify all types of nouns, complement clauses are dependent 

on a relatively small number of abstract nouns, such as fact, belief, suggestion, hope, idea, 

expectation, wish. These can take a content clause as dependent, whereas general nouns 

such as house, bicycle, institution take only relative clauses. 

The content clause expresses the whole content of the head noun, as in: the news 

that the President had fled the country, his belief that he was always right. 

The nominal groups taking noun complements tend to be definite and singular, as 

illustrated in the present examples. 

Head nouns that take complement clauses are mainly nominalisations which have 

corresponding verbs or adjectives, though a few are simple. Here is a sample: 


with a corresponding verb: 

with a corresponding adjective: 

simple: 

knowledge, belief, assumption, claim, 

thought, report, hope, reply, wish, proof, 

guess, expectation, suggestion, intuition, 

hypothesis 

awareness, confidence, probability, 

eagerness, possibility, likelihood 

fact, story, idea, news, message, rumour 

The fact that inflation is going down is a sign that our economy is improving. 

The possibility that they might be beaten never crossed their minds. 

His suggestion that the meeting be postponed was accepted. (cf. He suggested 

that...) 

The function of the that-complement clause is to report a proposition (that inflation is 

going down, that they might be beaten) derived from the previous discourse. The head 

noun represents the proposition in a particular light, which conveys different types of 

stance, depending on the noun used: nouns of cognition and reasoning: knowledge, belief, 

idea, assumption, hypothesis, conclusion; speech-act nouns, such as suggestion, proposal, 

claim; personal assessment: possibility, doubt, fact, fear, hope, chance, or the source of 

knowledge (evidence, rumour) (see 8.2.5 for epistemic, evidential and evaluative stance). 

Stance in complement clauses is much less direct than in that-clauses following a 

verb, such as ‘he believes that . . . etc.’ (see 11.1). Furthermore, as the head noun often 

takes the form of a nominalisation and is typically definite, it presents the following 

proposition as Given information and therefore beyond dispute. These factors make the 

complement clause a useful tool in argumentation. 

Noun complement clauses occur mainly in formal written and spoken English. They 


are not at all common in conversation. 

The following lines from The Sunday Times about social systems in the Pacific Islands 

illustrate this type of complement: 

No culture has failed to seize upon the conspicuous facts of sex and age in some 

way, whether it be the convention of one Philippine tribe that no man can keep a 

secret, the Manus’ assumption that only men enjoy playing with babies, or the Toda 

belief that almost all domestic work is too sacred for women. 

Noun complement clauses can also be used non-restrictively following a relative clause 

that post-modifies the same noun: 

The rumour that was circulating, that the Chancellor was about to resign, proved to be 

false. 

458 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

50.2 TO-INFINITIVE COMPLEMENT CLAUSES 

Head nouns which take to-infinitive complement clauses are likewise often related to a 

verb or an adjective and include the following: 

de-verbal: 

de-adjectival: 

simple: 

attempt, decision, desire, failure, plan, tendency, permission 

ability, inability, right, capacity 

chance, effort, opportunity 

The function of to-infinitive complements is to point to human acts or goals, as in: 

attempts to trump up facts and evidence 

failure to warn the students in advance 

plans to build a new underpass 

To-infinitive complements must be distinguished from PP complements with the 

preposition to. The following quotation illustrates the difference: 

The global threat to our security was (PP complement = x threatened our 

clear. 

security) 

So was our duty to act to eliminate it. (to-infinitive complement) 

(PM Tony Blair’s speech on the threat of international terrorism, 

5 March 2004) 

50.3 OF + -ING COMPLEMENT CLAUSES 


Head nouns which take -ing followed by of complement clauses include: thought, habit, 

importance, way, effect, danger, risk 

There is overlap with the to-infinitive construction in that some nouns (idea, way, 

possibility, thought, hope) can take either of these constructions as complement, besides 

taking a relative clause with that as post-modifier: 

The risk of losing your way in the forest/that you might lose your way. (comp.) 

The possibility of not being rescued/that you might not be rescued. (comp.) 

The risk/possibility that you told us about was very real. (restrictive relative clause) 

50.4 WH-COMPLEMENT CLAUSES 

A further type of post-head complement is the wh-clause. It is most common when 

following the preposition of or about. Both finite clauses and non-finite to-infinitive 

clauses can occur: 

The question (of) how much we should spend on our holidays ... 

He has strong doubts (about) whether he should accept the post. 


The question (of) how much to spend on our holidays . . . 

He has strong doubts (about) whether to accept the post. 

50.5 PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENTS OF NOUNS 

These are typically controlled by nouns which have corresponding verbs: 

A desire for fame 

Reliance on public transport 

A lack of knowledge 

x desires fame 

x relies on public transport 

x lacks knowledge 

The preposition of, however, is controlled by many nouns which are not related to verbs: 

advantage, danger, effect, importance, means, method, problem, purpose, task, way. 

The following extract from David Lodge’s novel The British Museum is Falling Down 

illustrates the use of certain types of post-modifier and complement: 

. . . the Department did not have the resources to mount a proper graduate 

programme, 1 and in any case espoused the traditional belief that research was a 

lonely and eremitic occupation, 2 a test of 3 character rather than learning, which 

might be vitiated by excessive human contact. 4 As if they sensed this, the new 

postgraduates, particularly those from overseas, 5 roamed the floor accosting the 

senior guests. As he left the bar with his first sherry, Adam was snapped up by a 

cruising Indian: 

‘How do you do’, said Mr Alibai. 

‘How do you do’, said Adam, who knew what was expected of him. 6 


1 

inf. cl. modifier; 2 that-cl. complement; 3 prep of complement; 4 non-restrictive relative 

clause; 5 supp. appositive, narrowing down the referent to a smaller group; 6 nonrestrictive 

relative clause 

50.6 FUNCTIONS OF THE NOMINAL GROUP 

In clauses, NGs can realise any structural element except the Predicator. At group rank 

they can be embedded in PPs as complements of the preposition and in NGs as pre- or 

post-modifiers, or as supplementives, of the head element. Here are examples of the 

functions that can be realised by a simple NG such as the best player available. 

NGs as clause elements 

The best player available was a Brazilian. 

The committee engaged the best player available. 

S 

Od 

460 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

They offered the best player available a high salary. 

Ronaldo seemed to be the best player available. 

Everybody considered him the best player available. 

He signed the contract last week. 

Oi 

Cs 

Co 

A 

NGs as group elements 

They paid a high price for the best player available. 

The best player-available topic was not discussed 

Ronaldo, the best player available, earns a high salary. 

c 

pre-modifier 

Appos. sup. 

50.7 NOMINALISATION 

In many professional registers, above all in written genres, the use of nominalisation 

has become extremely common. Superficially, it consists of the use of a nominal form, 

such as ‘starvation’ in the following text, instead of the corresponding verb ‘starve’, from 

which the nominal is derived. Other examples from the text are: 

accuracy 

explanation 

increase 

speed 

derived from the adjective ‘accurate’ 

derived from ‘explain’ 

has the same form as the verb ‘increase’ 

has the same form as the verb ‘speed’ 


It has been known for nearly a century that starvation for about two weeks 1 increases 

the speed and accuracy of mental processes, 2 especially mental arithmetic. 3 This is 

probably the explanation of the huge increase in self-starvation among young 

women doing academic work. 4 An extreme form of this condition known as 

‘anorexia nervosa’ 5 is now common and our studies 6 have shown that in 75% of 

cases 7 they start crash-dieting 8 in the year in which they are working for a major 

examination. 9 

It is clear that nominalisation is no mere substitute for a verb or adjective, however. 

Instead, the use of a nominalised expression requires an entirely different organisation 

of the whole sentence, and indeed a completely different semantic conceptualisation. 

(This is discussed in Chapter 5.) In this way, a great deal of information, which would 

otherwise be expressed as verbs, adjectives and PPs, is packed into the nominal groups. 

The result is very long, dense NGs, which tend to be abstractions, instead of referring 

to concrete persons who act as Agents. In fact, personal participant subjects in heavily 

nominalised styles tend to be no longer the head of the NG. 

A non-nominalised equivalent of the first four NGs in the extract above might look 

something like this: 


1 If you/people starve for about two weeks, 2 you/they think faster and more 

accurately, 3 especially when doing arithmetic; 4 This probably explains why 

young women who are doing academic work starve themselves. 

One reason for the use of nominalisation is that it is shorter than the non-nominalised 

form. More important, the nominalised form encapsulates a whole situation in one 

word, such as ‘self-starvation’, ‘crash-dieting’. Because density and brevity prevail over 

clarity, heavy nominalisation can become difficult to understand in unfamiliar contexts. 

For those familiar with the subject-matter, on the other hand, nominalisation provides 

them with a kind of shorthand by which complex concepts and processes are easily 

handled without further explanation. All adult speakers of English handle at least some 

specialised registers such as education, business, football, etc. and pick up nominalised 

expressions such as ‘infant primary schools’ or ‘mixed comprehensive schools’. Such 

expressions become relatively fixed until new cultural developments give rise to new 

combinations – something which is happening in all areas of life. 


Some of the ideas presented in the revised version of this chapter are indebted to 

the following publications: for ordering of pre-modifiers, Quirk et al. (1985); for supplementive 

units and noun clause complements, Biber et al. (1999), Huddleston and 

Pullum (2000); for experiential and interpersonal meanings, subjective and objective 

epithet, Halliday (1994); for frequencies of occurrence, see Biber et al. (1999). 



Talking about people and things: The Nominal Group 

Module 45 

1 †Identify all the nominal groups in the following examples. Remember that NGs may have 

other units embedded in their structure, especially in post-head position. Identify the head 

of each NG: 

(1) Everyone in the library was concentrating on what they were doing. 

(2) There were old men reading newspapers and there were high-school boys and girls 

doing research. 

(3) The outcome of the current crisis would determine the pattern of international 

relations for the next generation. 

(4) Someone here once told me a story about the most notorious of the dictators who 

ruled this country at the turn of the century. [BNC BMR 1298] 

462 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(5) The seat on my left was occupied by a fat lady who was busy peeling an orange. 

On my right was a thin-faced man with a moustache and a blotchy skin. He was 

the one who gave a friendly smile and a cheery ‘Good evening!’ I nodded amiably 

[BNC BN3 1700–1703] 

(6) The violent attacks on the police by the counter-demonstrators who used bottles, 

bricks, and other assorted missiles resulted in a large number of casualties. 

[BNC BNE 191] 

2 †Underline the nominal groups marked in the following text based on an advert, and then 

write each one out in three parts as for the description of the art sale in 45.1: 

Fit, fun, funky, single parent seeks gorgeous, good-humoured, intelligent, Londonbased 

man interested in a loving and lasting relationship 

3 Complete the following advertisement for an ‘au pair’ in the country where you live, using 

NGs different from those in task 2: 

Young married couple need - - - - - - - - - - - - - - with - - - - - - - - - - - - - - and - - - - - - - - - 

- - - - - Applicant must have - - - - - - - - - - - - - - as well as - - - - - - - - - - - - - - The family 

consists of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . 

4 In the form of full NGs, write the continuation of this advertisement for your college notice 

board beginning as follows: Penniless student offers the following articles for urgent sale: 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

5 †In the following conversation, Neil is telling his friend Dennis about the bad relations 


existing between him and his wife Pamela. Dennis is having some difficulty in following 

him. After reading the passage, answer the questions on the numbered pronouns: 

NEIL: . . . You see, my trouble – Pam’s trouble – is this. 1 I think we 2 both expect 

things from each other. 3 Things that the other one 4 is not prepared to give 

– to the other one. 4 Do you get me? 

DENNIS: Uh – huh. 

NEIL: I suppose it’s 5 nature really, isn’t it? 

DENNIS: Ah. 

NEIL: You 6 have your opposites – like this 7 (he holds up his hands). This 8 is me 9 

– that’s 10 her. 11 And they 12 attract – like a magnet. Only with people, as 

opposed to magnets, the trouble is with people – they 13 get demagnetised 

after a bit. I honestly think Pam and me 14 have reached the end of the 

road. 

(1) Explain the type of reference carried out by each of the numbered pronouns. 

(2) Comment on the use of the objective pronouns me, 9 her 11 and me. 14 


6 †Read the following news item and then answer the questions: 

Health workers in two Birmingham hospitals went on strike yesterday after one of 

their members had been dismissed. About 300 laundry staff and kitchen staff walked 

out, and within a few hours, their colleagues at the city’s main maternity and children’s 

units had stopped work in sympathy. This has caused disruption to all areas of health 

care and forced the cancellation of operations. 

(1) If somebody asked you: This what? what would you answer? 

(2) How would you analyse This? 

Module 46 

1a †Are the NGs in the following examples interpreted as mass or count? 

(1) I haven’t time 1 to go to the gym 2 these days. But I’m really keen on gym. 3 

(2) The only things my sister likes are fashion 4 and shopping. 5 

(3) I’ll see you in class 6 on Tuesday – unless, of course, I’m moved to a different class. 7 

(4) My agent will be handling my appearance 8 in the show next week. 

(5) Cynthia and I are going over to Jean’s this evening to do our homework 9 together. 

(6) My sister’s boy-friend is really good at football. 10 

1b †Say which of these NGs (apart from those in sentences 2 and 3 could be used in the 


other sense. Make sentences to illustrate your answer. 

2 †Read the following passage by Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, and say 

whether you interpret each NG as count or mass: 

It is deep in one’s nature to expect or not to expect material comfort and it starts as 

a habit in childhood. That is why I did not find the cosmonaut’s denial of terrestrial 

comforts difficult. 

The space flight was like being born again – not only the satisfaction of the scientific 

achievement, but also the impact of seeing how fragile our planet looks from outer 

space. It is so beautiful. I wish I could be a painter. The sight convinced me that we 

must treat it kindly and that humanity must have the common sense never to let atomic 

flames engulf it. All cosmonauts feel like members of one family but my space 

experience inspired me to see the people who live on our planet also as one family. 

3 †The article the indicates that the referent of a noun is being presented as definite, and 

can be identified either somewhere in the text or from our general knowledge. Read the 

following short paragraph from Mario Puzzi’s The Godfather and then do the exercise 

given below. 

464 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The Don was a real man at the age of twelve. Short, dark, slender, living in the 

strange Moorish-looking village of Corleone in Sicily, he had been born Vito Andolini, 

but when strange men came to kill the son of the man they had murdered, his mother 

sent the young boy to America to stay with friends. And in the new land he changed 

his name to Corleone to preserve some tie with his native village. It was one of the 

few gestures of sentiment he was ever to make. 

(1) Write out the definite nouns in the text and say how each one is identified, within 

the text or outside it. 

(2) Write out the indefinite nouns in the text, and say how their indefiniteness is marked, 

e.g. The Don: The article forms part of a proper noun and proper nouns are 

inherently definite. 

the age: Identified by the qualifying information of twelve. 

a real man: Marked by a as an indefinite-specific count noun. 

4 †In this first paragraph of a short story by Philip Smith, The Wedding Jug, all the ‘things’ 

mentioned are presented as definite. How does the reader identify them? 

I stood at the backdoor and looked up at the moon. Its brightness from over the dark 

hump of the hillside made clear the pale drifting smoke from somebody’s garden. 

The wood-smoke and the moon made me restless, eager to be moving in the sharp 

October night. 


Read the paragraph aloud, replacing the and its by a. Is it possible to do so? If so, how 

does it change our interpretation of the scene? 

5 †The following are generic statements in which the first noun is preceded by a definite or 

indefinite or zero article. Test each noun for its use with the other two articles, and say 

whether either of them can also be used to express generic reference. 

(1) A liquid has no shape. 

(2) Gases have no mass. 

(3) A human being needs the company of others. 

(4) War is politics carried out by violent means. 

(5) Animals that live in captivity play with their food as if it were a living animal. 

(6) Television is a mixed blessing. 

(7) The bicycle is a cheap form of private transport. 

(8) The computer has revolutionised business methods. 


6 †Which of the following statements do you interpret as indefinite and which as generic, 

according to the definition of genericity given in 46.6? 

(1) Bicycles are very useful during a holiday. 

(2) We always hire bicycles during our holidays. 

(3) I have official information for you. 

(4) Official information is usually difficult to obtain. 

7 †What are the two possible interpretations of the final noun in the following sentence? 

My sister wants to marry a Frenchman. 

Module 47 

1 †What type of semantic function is realised by the ’s phrase in each of the following 

expressions (see 47.2.1)? 

(1) the firm’s success 

(2) our team’s defeat (by our rivals) 

(3) America’s film industry 

(4) today’s news 

(5) a stone’s throw 

(6) the BBC’s director 

(7) the director’s orders 

(8) nobody’s responsibility 

(9) my bus 

(10) cow’s milk 


2 †Express the following sentences differently, using ’s determinatives if you think this structure 

is acceptable: 

(1) I should like the opinion of another doctor. 

(2) Have you read the report of the chairman of the examination committee? 

(3) The failure of the Regional Training Scheme was inevitable. 

(4) The dog belonging to my next-door neighbour barks all night. 

(5) The grandmother of one of the girls in my class has died. 

(6) Here’s the address of the only person I know in London. 

3 †Complete each sentence with a suitable determinative of the class indicated on the left: 

(1) (Non-specific): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - – member of our family has a car. 

(2) (Non-exact cardinal): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - My young brother has collected – of 

butterflies. 

(3) (Non-specific): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I had – very good news today. 

(4) (Specific) (indef): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - – people wouldn’t agree with that opinion. 

(5) (Partitive): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - – of the people in this office have a car. 

466 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(6) (Negative): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - – of this work will be wasted. 

(7) (Specific comparative): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - You will never have – opportunity again. 

(8) (Fractional): - - - - - - - - - - - - - - my friends have given up smoking. 

4 †Complete the following sentences with one of the following: each, every, both, either, 

neither, all, any, none, no (In some cases more than one determinative is possible): 

(1) She tells me she plays golf almost - - - - - - - - - - - - - - weekend. 

(2) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of the brothers applied for the job but - - - - - - - - - - - - - - was 

successful. 

(3) Draw a line between - - - - - - - - - - - - - - item and the next. 

(4) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - child should spend some of its leisure time with - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

parent. 

(5) There are two good films on the television this evening, but I have seen them - - - - 

- - - - - - - - - - 

(6) Ah, in fact there are three and I haven’t seen - - - - - - - - - - - - - - of them/ I have seen 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(7) He has passed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - exam so far. 

(8) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - type of coffee except the soluble kind will do. 

5 †Complete the following sentences with either all or everything: 

(1) If that happened, she would lose her job. It would be the end of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) You need a sports bag to carry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - your things in. 

(3) But how much would - - - - - - - - - - - - - - this cost? 

(4) My father paid for - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) They did - - - - - - - - - - - - - - together and people thought they were twins. 


Module 48 

1 †Read the following passage from The Sunday Times and discuss with another student 

which NG heads are modified by epithets and which by classifiers. Is any of the post-head 

information of a classifying type? Test this by the effect on the meaning when the information 

is omitted. 

MORE THAN 200 young Europeans will assemble in Lisbon’s national assembly 

building this weekend to debate issues ranging from the need for a common defence 

policy to nuclear power and pollution. 

The students, aged between 17 and 19 and chosen after competitions between 

schools throughout the Community, make up the European Youth Parliament. How 

they vote over the coming week of activities will reveal much about young people’s 

attitudes to major European questions. 


2 †The following newspaper advertisement of a job vacancy consists of twelve NGs, in which 

each head noun is modified by an epithet or a classifier. Identify these and comment on 

their distribution between the ‘essential qualifications’ and the ‘outstanding benefits’. Can 

you explain the difference which you will observe? 

Essential qualifications 

(1) A good examination record at school 

(2) Effective self-presentation 

(3) Persuasive rapport with others 

(4) An optimistic commitment to hard work 

(5) Sound judgement 

(6) Mental agility 

Outstanding benefits offered 

(7) A competitive salary 

(8) Excellent leave entitlement 

(9) Non-contributory pension scheme 

(10) Personal home loans 

(11) A company car 

(12) Career development and training 

3 Write a letter to a business firm or a public organisation in which you would like to work. 

Present it in two parts, describing, in the form of Nominal Groups, (a) your qualifications 

for the job and (b) the working conditions and benefits you would like to receive. Do not 

use the phrases contained in the example. 


4 Choose some of the following nouns and mention three or four subclasses of each general 

class. Use any form of classifier you wish. 

train machine department officer tree 

club shop affairs problems life 

e.g. passenger train, goods train, express train, etc. 

5 †Which of the adjectives in the following NGs function as epithets and which as classifiers? 

Remember that classifiers are non-gradable. 

(1) cultural activities popular activities 

(2) a professional attitude a professional opinion 

(3) medical treatment a medical student 

(4) a mechanical engineer a clever engineer 

(5) quick agreement international agreement 

(6) efficient workers mining workers 

(7) electric light bright light 

468 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6 †Consider the order of the epithets and classifiers in the following sentences. Change the 

order if you think it is necessary, and say why. Insert a coordinator or subordinator where 

you think it is required, and insert commas where needed (see 48.1). 

(1) It was an unforgettable, heart-breaking sad sight. 

(2) We heard a tinkling, mysterious, faint sound. 

(3) Her artistic, slender, long hands fluttered in the air. 

(4) She had a pair of designer, exotic-looking, smart sunglasses. 

(5) The lavatory was a wooden, brown, smallish box inserted in the floor. 

(6) We drove through the granite, wooded, threatening, dark mountains. 

Module 49 

1 †In the following sentences. Which NG post-modifiers are integrated (restrictive) and which 

are supplementive (non-restrictive)? 

(1) The morning we were supposed to leave my car broke down. 

(2) I didn’t like certain strange noises coming from the engine. 

(3) These noises, which I had never heard before, worried me. 

(4) We went to Greece, a country which I didn’t know. 

(5) An archaeologist, an American from Yale, was in the party. 

(6) Excursions with a well-informed guide are more interesting. 

(7) I finally achieved my ambition, to see the Parthenon. 

(8) It was the main reason we went to Greece. 

(9) The narrow streets, full of chaotic traffic, made progress slow. 

(10) We gazed up at the night sky, studded with stars. 


2 †Identify the type of post-modifier in the following sentences: 

(1) My sister Jessica lives in Milan. 

(2) The new Youth Training Scheme, a failure by any standard, has been abandoned. 

(3) Inflation, the curse of twentieth-century democracy, is once again out of control. 

3 Complete the following sentences with the classes of NG post-modifier given on the left: 

(1) PP: There should be a law - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) PP: The countryside - - - - - - - - - - - - is lovely. 

(3) PP: Have you any experience - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) That-clause: The discovery - - - - - - - - - - - - was fundamental for scientific 

advance. 

(5) Wh-adv clause: The day - - - - - - - - - - - - has not arrived yet. 

(6) Rel. clause: She had a voice - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(7) V-ing clause: We went up a rickety old staircase - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(8) V-en clause: All my postcards - - - - - - - - - - - - got lost in the post. 

(9) V. Inf clause: Have you got a licence - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(10) AdjG: I would like something - - - - - - - - - - - - 


4 †Give the symbol for each element of the following NGs, repeating the symbol if an element 

is realised more than once, e.g. (2) eeh. 

(1) university students 

(2) clear, cool water 

(3) our first day in London 

(4) that new colour magazine about photography that I bought 

(5) six beautiful old Chinese Ming vases 

(6) somebody more knowledgeable with teaching experience 

5a Give a paraphrase of the following NGs. 

(1) television aerial repair service 

(2) Manchester University Research Fellowship Appointments 

(3) daytime telephone calls price reduction 

(4) adult education reform proposals alarm 

(5) university athletics teams gold medals award 

5b †Express the following as single NGs. 

(1) missiles based on land and carrying multiple warheads 

(2) weapons of a nuclear type having an intermediate range 

(3) an exhibition of robots designed for use in the home and now available all over 

Europe 

(4) a lady’s suit for wearing in the evening made of velvet and having the blue colour 

of the night in a classic style 

(5) a farmhouse made of stone having the colour of honey and built two years ago in 

Malta 


6 †In the following sentence from a novel we have changed the positions of four postmodifying 

units. Can you say why these positions are not appropriate and how they should 

be rearranged? 

A clear fire burned in a tall fireplace and an elderly man with a chain round his neck 

in evening dress and standing with his back to it, glanced up from the newspaper 

he was holding before his calm and severe face spread out in both hands. 

7 Each of the following NGs is post-modified by two units of different classes. Decide whether 

it is possible to re-order each sequence without resulting in a change of meaning, 

incongruity or ambiguity. 

1 to-inf. cl. + relative cl: (I have) something//to tell you//that you won’t like// 

2 Relative cl. + to-inf. cl: the decision//(which) they took//to organise a demo// 

3 AdjG + relative cl: something/very odd//that may surprise you// 

470 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4 PP + relative cl: the woman/in hospital//whose life you saved// 

5 AdjG + AdvG: nobody/intelligent/there (would believe that) 

6 AdvG + relative cl: the journey/back//which was quite short// . . . 

7 Relative cl. + -en cl: the officer//that came,//sent by the general// 

8 Write a short description of one of the following groups of persons or things. Include a 

sufficient number of epithets, classifiers and post-modifiers to make the description 

interesting. Write it in the form of a letter to a friend: 

(1) the members of your family 

(2) columns of people you have seen on television, fleeing from a war zone 

(3) people and things at the scene of an earthquake (seen on TV) 

(4) some new clothes that you have seen in shops and which you would like to 

buy 

Module 50 

1 Identify the extent of the NGs in the following sentence from The Times. Then consider 

whether the numbered sections have a post-modifier or complement function. Give evidence 

for your decision. 

The annual celebration of a pagan Spanish ritual 1 honouring the coming of spring 2 

is always an expression of unity and fun. 3 


2 †Read the following short paragraph and identify the extent of each numbered NG; then 

indicate the syntactic function of each one in a clause or group: 

In describing his taste in women, 1 the famous baby doctor, 2 Benjamin Spock 3 

said: ‘I have always been fascinated by rather severe 4 women, women I then could 

charm despite their severity. 5 The model for these women 6 – as Dr. Spock was well 

aware – was his own mother. 7 And if, in his early eighties, 8 he is indeed a most 

exceptionally charming man, 9 the wish to win over his mother 10 may help explain 

why. 

3 Rewrite the following sentence from The Guardian in simpler, less abstract terms. Instead 

of de-verbal nouns like introduction, approach, increase, insistence, and the de-adjectival 

noun truth use the corresponding verbs: introduce, insist, etc. and adjectives true and 

independent. Even better, use some simpler English verbs such as grow and use instead 

of the more formal words. Avoid other abstractions. 

Begin: If we introduced classes of no more than 15 children in infant primary schools, this 

would allow . . . 


The introduction of a maximum class size of 15 in infant primary schools, combined 

with a child-centred approach, would permit the increase of class sizes as children 

progress, utilising their learning skills and expanding their independence. We already 

acknowledge the underlying truth of this approach in nursery education by insistence 

on low teacher–children ratios which increase dramatically and illogically in the first 

year of compulsory education. 

4 Rewrite the following sentence in a more abstract way, by nominalising some of the verbal 

predications: 

Most archaeologists think that men and women began to become civilised in the 

Middle East, where natural conditions helped them to change the way they lived 

from constantly moving around and hunting animals to settling down in one place 

and cultivating the land. 


472 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

DESCRIBING PERSONS, CHAPTER 11 

THINGS AND CIRCUMSTANCES 

Adjectival and Adverbial Groups 

Module 51: Adjectives and the adjectival group 475 

51.1 Structure and characteristic uses of the adjectival group 476 

51.2 Simple, derived and compound adjectives 477 

51.3 Participles and participial adjectives 478 

51.4 Semantic classes of adjectives 480 

51.4.1 Descriptors 480 

51.4.2 Classifiers 480 

51.4.3 Degree emphasisers 481 

51.4.4 Non-adjectival words used as modifiers 481 

51.5 Syntactic functions of the adjectival group 481 

51.6 Central and peripheral adjectives 482 


Module 52: Degrees of comparison and intensification 484 

52.1 Comparative and superlative degrees 484 

52.1.1 Functions of comparatives and superlatives 486 

52.1.2 The -er and -er construction 487 

52.1.3 The nice and construction 487 

52.1.4 The degree of sufficiency 487 

52.2 Intensifying the attribute 488 

52.2.1 High intensification 488 

52.2.2 Medium intensification 489 

52.2.3 Attenuation 490 

52.3 Quantifying modifiers 491 

52.4 Descriptive modifiers 492 

52.5 Submodifying the adjective 492 

Module 53: Complementation of the adjective 494 

53.1 Adjectival complements 494 

53.1.1 Complementation by finite clauses 495 

53.1.2 Complementation by non-finite clauses 496

53.1.3 Prepositional phrase complements 497 

53.2 Degree complements 499 

53.2.1 Discontinuous degree complements 500 

Module 54: Adverbs and the adverbial group 502 

54.1 Structure and general characteristics of the adverbial group 502 

54.2 Forms of adverbs 503 

54.3 Types of meanings expressed by adverbial groups 505 

Module 55: Syntactic functions of adverbs and adverbial 

groups 508 

55.1 Summary of the syntactic functions of adverbs and adverbial groups 508 

55.2 Positions of adverbs in the clause: initial, middle and final 509 

55.2.1 Adverbs in initial position 510 

55.2.2 Scope of reference of adverbs as adjuncts 510 

55.2.3 Adverbs of place, time and manner 511 

55.2.4 Adverbs of modality, evidence and degree 512 

55.2.5 Function and type 514 

Module 56: Modification and complementation in the 

adverbial group 515 


56.1 Comparative and superlative uses 515 

56.2 Intensifying the adverbial meaning 516 

56.3 Complementation of adverbs 518 

56.3.1 Complements of comparison and excess 519 

56.3.2 Adverbs taking direct complements 520 


Exercises 521

ADJECTIVES AND THE MODULE 51 

ADJECTIVAL GROUP 

SUMMARY 

1 AdjGs and typical AdvGs have potentially the same structure: head (clear, 

clearly), pre-modifier (very clear, very clearly) and post-modifier (very clear 

indeed, very clearly indeed). 

2 Both AdjGs and AdvGs are frequently realised by the head element alone (a 

fast train; drive fast). 

3 Their main functions and uses, however, are different. The AdjG typically 

provides information about people, places and things, while the adverb typically 

characterises the process expressed by the verb. For this reason we deal first 

with adjectives and the adjectival group, and later with adverbs and the 

adverbial group. 


4 Formally, adjectives may be simple (tall, brilliant), prefixed (un-, im-, dis-, ab-), 

suffixed (-ful, -able, -ous, -ive), participial (-ing, -en) or compound (home-made, 

duty-free, sunburnt). 

5 Syntactically, AdjGs typically function attributively as pre-modifier (in NG) (hot 

water) and predicatively as Complement of the Subject in clauses (the water is 

hot). In addition they can function as Complement of the Object (I like it hot) in 

clauses, and less commonly, in various other functions in groups and clauses. 

6 Semantically, AdjGs can express a state (lonely), a quality (narrow), a sub-class 

(northern) or a property (creative). They can indicate an attitude (lovely, odious) 

or a judgement (true). 

7 Many adjectives may take a complement in post-head position which completes 

their meaning (good at chess, glad (that) you came). 

DESCRIBING: PERSONS, THINGS AND CIRCUMSTANCES 475

51.1 STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTIC USES OF THE 

ADJECTIVAL GROUP 

The adjectival group is composed potentially of three structural elements: a head (h), 

a modifier (m) and a post-head element, which will be either a modifier (m) or a 

complement (c). Post-modifier and complement can occur together in the same AdjG. 

The basic structures are as follows: 

AdjG 

m h m c 

1 

h 

good 

2 

hc 

good 

at chess 

3 

mh 

very 

good 

4 

mhm 

very 

good 

indeed 

5 

mhmc 

very 

good 

indeed 

at chess 

Other examples of full AdjG structures are: 


extremely hot for this time of the year (mhm) 

very glad that you won the match (mhc) 

quite fond of music (mhc) 

The difference between a post-modifier and a complement is that the complement is 

controlled by the adjectival head (good at . . ., fond of . . ., glad that . . ., glad to . . . etc.), 

whereas the post-modifier is not. 

The head of an AdjG is always realised by an adjective, which may function alone in 

representation of a whole AdjG. The following sentence contains four coordinated 

AdjGs: 

You couldn’t call it a bang or a roar or a smash; it was a fearful, tearing, shattering, 

enormous sound like the end of the world. 

(G. B. Shaw, The Emperor and the Little Girl) 

In the following blurb of a novel from The Review, four of the adjectives are modified (5, 

8, 10, 17) and one has a complement (14). The rest are single (1, 2, 3, 4) or coordinated 

(6–7–8, 11–12–13, and 14–15). 

476 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Ben and Olly are ten. For as long as they can remember they have been best 1 friends 

and close 2 neighbours in a quiet 3 Northern suburb. Then Carl moves into their street, 

Carl is bad. 4 Carl is very bad. 5 His games are rough, 6 dangerous 7 and strangely 

exciting. 8 But soon Ben begins to wonder where their new 9 friend is leading them. 

Why is Carl so fearless? 10 Why are they never allowed into his house? And why is 

it that Carl seems to want Olly all to himself? In a funny, 11 heartfelt 12 and ultimately 

shocking 13 story, Sutcliffe reveals how childhood friendships can be as consuming 14 

and intense 15 as any love affair, and how, when jilted, children are capable 16 of 

taking the most extraordinary 17 steps. 

These short examples illustrate the descriptive use of adjectives: they characterise NG 

referents in evaluative and emotive terms. By contrast, the classifying use is illustrated 

in Northern suburb and best friends. Classifying adjectives are more commonly found in 

the media and academic prose. 

51.2 SIMPLE, DERIVED AND COMPOUND ADJECTIVES 

The most frequently used adjectives in English are monosyllabic or bisyllabic words of 

native origin such as good, bad, big, small, little, tall, short, black, white, easy, hard which 

have no distinctive form to mark them as adjectives. 

Many adjectives are derived from nouns, other adjectives and verbs by the addition 

of certain characteristic suffixes. Some of these are of native origin, as in greenish, 

hopeful, handsome, handy, foremost, while others are formed on Greek or Latin bases, 


as in central, secondary, apparent, civic, creative, and yet others via French such as 

marvellous and readable. 

Most adjectival prefixes are added to words which are already adjectives: unhappy, 

insecure, discourteous, abnormal, irrelevant. Some adjectives are formed by adding the 

prefix a- to a verb or adjective (asleep, awake, ablaze, alone). 

Many adjectives have compound forms composed of various classes of words, for 

example: 

noun + adjective: 

determinative + noun: 

number + noun 

adverb + participle 

adverb + adverb 

tax-free (goods) 

all-American (girl) 

four-wheel (drive) 

well-balanced (character) 

well-off (people) 

Adjectives in English are invariable in form. They are not marked for gender or number. 

A fair-haired girl – fair-haired girls; a tough character – tough characters 


51.3 PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES 

Many present and past participles of verbs perform grammatical functions which are 

typical of those realised by adjectives, and for this reason are recognised as adjectives 

having the same form as participles, or as being derived from participles. We indicate 

them here by the symbols -ing and -en, and recognise the following classes: 

Participial adjectives seldom used in VGs 

This is a small set of forms which are never or very rarely used as part of a Verbal Group, 

but only as modifiers in NGs or as Complements (Cs and Co) in a clause, for example: 

-ing: interesting, amazing, charming, disappointing, pleasing 

-en: animated, ashamed, assorted, sophisticated 

Pseudo-participial adjectives 

An increasing number of adjectives are coined by adding -ing or -ed not to verbs but to 

nouns. These are termed pseudo-participial adjectives, such as: 

-ing: 

-en: 

enterprising, neighbouring, appetising 

talented, skilled, gifted, bearded, detailed 

Participial adjectives commonly used as VGs 


A large number of participial adjectives derived from transitive verbs can be used as 

modifiers in a NG and as Complements in a clause, while also retaining their ability to 

function as part of a VG: A confusing remark (m); That is confusing (Cs); You are confusing 

me (part of VG). Forms which can carry out these functions include the following: 

-ing: annoying, exciting, frightening, surprising, boring, distressing, satisfying, 

tiring 

-en: annoyed, excited, frightened, surprised, bored, distressed, satisfied, tired 

In both their attributive and predicative functions, these participial adjectives can be 

graded and intensified (see 52.1 and 52.2): 

Attributive 

Predicative 

-ing: very distressing news the news is most distressing 

-en: rather frightened tourists the tourists seemed quite frightened 

Participial modifiers 

To distinguish the -ing adjectives from participial modifiers such as rising prices (48.5), 

we shall adopt the following criterion: if the -ing form cannot be graded, or intensified 

478 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

y very, as in 1, we shall consider it to be a participial modifier. If it can be graded, or 

intensified by very, we consider it an adjective. Compare a sleeping child with a horrifying 

story: 

1 (participial modifier) *a more/very sleeping child *the child is more/very 

sleeping 

2 (adjective) a more/very horrifying story the story is more/very 

horrifying 

Furthermore, is sleeping in the child is sleeping will be interpreted as a verb, the predicative 

adjective being asleep. In examples such as sleeping bag, sleeping pill, the word sleeping 

is neither adjective nor verb, but a noun modifier (a bag/ pill for sleeping), the 

combination now having the status of a count noun. 

Past participles may often have either an adjectival or a verbal interpretation. In The 

flat was furnished, the participle may be understood either as part of a passive verb form 

or as the adjectival Cs of the copula was. 

Compound forms 

Many participial forms are compounded with a noun, an adjective or an adverbial prefix, 

whose syntactic relationship with the verbal participle may be Subject, Object or 

Adjunct: 

-ing: heart-breaking news; good-looking girl; fast-selling magazines 

-en: well-paid workers; sun-tanned legs; well-known brands 


Compound forms are extremely common in English, where new ones are freely coined 

every day, many of them being nonce formations,such as ankle-twisting and toil-broken 

coined by G. B. Shaw in the following paragraph from A Sunday on the Surrey Hills. The 

relative absence of morphological markers in English adjectives can be observed in the 

following text, where some are marked (e.g. poisonous), others are not (e.g. dull), and 

two are compounds: 

As I am not a born 1 cockney I have no illusions on the subject of the country. The 

uneven 2 ankle-twisting 3 roads; the dusty 4 hedges; the ditch with its dead 5 dogs, rank 6 

weeds and swarms of poisonous 7 flies; the groups of children torturing something; 

the dull, 8 toil-broken, 9 prematurely old, 10 agricultural 11 labourer; the savage 12 tramp; 

the manure heaps with their horrible 13 odour; the chain of milestones, from inn to 

inn, from cemetery to cemetery: all these I pass heavily by until a distant 14 telegraph 

pole or signal post tells me that the blessed, 15 rescuing train is at hand. 

1 

participle; 2 prefixed; 3 compound; 4 suffixed; 5 participial; 6 unmarked; 7 suffixed; 

8 

unmarked; 9 10 11 12 13 

compound; unmarked; suffixed; unmarked; suffixed; 

14 

unmarked; 15 participial 


51.4 SEMANTIC CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES 

As we saw in Module 48, when discussing modifiers of nouns, adjectives in use fall into 

two broad groups: those that describe the referent (descriptors) and those that subclassify 

it (classifiers). Here we simply provide some further subtypes and examples of 

each, with the reminder that many adjectives have both uses. Furthermore, there are 

words outside these two groups that can function as pre-modifiers (see 51.4.4). 

51.4.1 Descriptors 

Such adjectives express the following types of meaning: 

• size, weight, extent: (note that these are often paired as opposites): big/ little, 

large/small, heavy/light, long/short, tall/short, wide/narrow, deep/shallow 

• colour: black, white, red, blue, green, yellow 

• meanings related to time: young, old, new, recent, early, late, weekly, daily 

• evaluative: pretty, beautiful, good, bad, nice, awful, dreadful, shocking 

• an active or passive process (participial adjectives): frightening, surprising, 

soothing, tired, exhausted, refreshed 

• general qualities: hot, cold, full, empty, sweet, sour, hard, soft, strong, weak, 

bright, dull 

• a temporary state: asleep, alone, awake, ajar (with predicative function only) 

51.4.2 Classifiers 

These are of three types: 


• restrictive: they restrict the referent of a noun in relation to another referent: 

average, additional, chief, complete, entire, final, following, initial, main, only, 

particular, primary, public, single, standard. 

– A sub-type relates the noun referent to time or place: old, new, previous, former, 

right, left; 

• relating to groups such as nationalities, religions, politics: Brazilian, Christian, 

Muslim; 

• category-specific meanings associated with culture, technology, science, and 

so on. 

All these are listed more extensively according to topic in 48.5. 

restrictive: an only child, the standard size, the main reason, the entire novel, the 

previous page, his former boss, my old school, her current boyfriend, your left leg, 

my right hand 

relating to groups: Greek sculpture, the Western powers, African music 

category-specific meanings: a nuclear plant, a medical student, parliamentary 

debates 

480 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

51.4.3 Degree emphasisers 

In addition to these two main types, certain adjectives can function as degree emphasisers 

with a strongly emotive tinge. Of these mere and utter have no other meaning as 

adjectives; the others can be used as descriptors (a sheer cliff, a true story, pure water): 

sheer nonsense; mere repetition; utter rubbish; a real mess; a true genius; absolute 

folly; a perfect fool; pure ignorance 

The words sheer, mere, utter, only, previous, main, chief, sole cannot function as predicative 

Complements. The words real, true, absolute, perfect, pure can be used predicatively when 

they have qualitative (not emphatic or restrictive) meaning, as in pure water – this water 

is pure. 

51.4.4 Non-adjectival words used as modifiers 

Although it is mainly the semantic feature of attribution that induces us to classify a 

word as an adjective, this is not an infallible criterion for classification, any more than 

the morphological one. For example, in the expressions the then president, velvet curtains, 

rising prices, the words then, velvet, rising are normally classed as adverb, noun and verb, 

respectively and there is no need to reclassify them as adjectives simply because the 

temporal circumstance, the substance and the active process which they denote function 

as premodifiers of nouns. There is no grammatical problem in saying that an adverb 

or noun or verb functions as an epithet or a classifier in a NG or (with the exception of 

verbs) as Subject Complement in a clause. That is, we distinguish the premodifier 

function from the class of item that realises it. Compare: 


1 velvet curtains, a stone path 

2 velvety fur, a stony path 

In 1, velvet and stone are nouns which classify the head noun. In 2, velvety and stony are 

adjectives which modify the head noun. 

51.5 SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE ADJECTIVAL 

GROUP 

AdjGs can realise functions in both group and clause structures, as follows: 

AdjGs in groups: 

• (pre-)modifier in a NG: a very good actor, heavy rain, an old friend 

• (post-)modifer in a NG something cheap, the person responsible 

• head of a NG: the French, the sick, the most expensive 

• complement of a preposition: at last, for good, in short 

• modifier in an AdjG: bright red, pale blue, red hot 


AdjGs in clauses: 

• Subject Complement: The acting was brilliant. 

• Object Complement: I consider that offensive. 

Peripheral AdjGs 

• Stance Adjunct: Strange, I never suspected him. 

• Detached predicative supplement: Angry and tearful, Susan walked out. 

• Exclamation: Fine! Great! Right! Fantastic! 

Among adjectives as modifiers, the type ‘a good actor’ constitutes a special use of certain 

adjectives, as in a slow reader, a hard worker, a big eater. This is sometimes called the 

process-oriented use, as the adjective doesn’t modify the noun directly, but rather the 

manner of performing the action. However, the manner of performing the action may 

become a characteristic feature of the entity: I’m a sound sleeper means, in effect, ‘I always 

sleep soundly’. 

Stance Adjuncts make an evaluative comment on the content of the whole clause. 

In common use in this function are: odd, strange (Odd, I never noticed). Others such as 

More important still can also function as connectives between clauses. 

Detached predicatives such as angry and tearful are a type of supplementive unit, 

that is, a unit used non-restrictively (see 49.2) and are illustrated in the text in that 

section. Syntactically, they are not integrated into the unit which they modify. They are 

thus free as regards position, though in practice they are usually found in initial rather 

than final or medial positions. They provide an economical means of adding contextual 

information which fills out the reader’s perception of the person or thing referred to. 

They are common in certain written genres and generally absent from conversation. 

Adjectives as exclamations as in Great! can be considered as ellipted copula 

clauses: That’s great! In addition, adjectives function in the exclamative structure initiated 

by how: How dreadful it was! This too can be ellipted to How dreadful! (see 24.1). 


51.6 CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ADJECTIVES 

Of these functions the most central are the attributive function, as modifier in the NG, 

and the predicative function, as Subject Complement in the clause. It is normal to 

classify as central those adjectives which fulfil these two functions, and as peripheral 

those which realise other functions, or only one, or neither of these central functions. 

Interestingly, central adjectives are also descriptors. They add information as part of 

the nominal group or as subject complement, which fills out and enlivens the description 

of people, places and things. Central adjectives also play an important role as evaluators, 

expressing the subjective or objective evaluation of the speaker. 

With the exception of the adjectives of temporary state beginning a-, all the adjectives 

discussed in 51.4.1 are central and are different types of descriptor. By contrast, the 

classifiers, degree emphasisers and process-oriented adjectives are all peripheral. 

Summarising, then, we have: 

1 Central adjectives: descriptors 

2 Predicative adjs only: afraid, asleep, ablaze, afloat, alive, alone, alike, aware, 

averse 

482 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

3 Attributive adjs only: these can be grouped into the following types: 

• restrictive classifiers: the chief/ main reason; sole responsibility; an only child 

• time/ space: the previous page; my old school; a new baby; your left leg 

• associative classifiers: an agricultural college, foreign affairs, a nuclear weapon 

• degree emphasisers: sheer nonsense; utter rubbish; an outright lie 

• process-oriented: a big eater; a hard worker, a light sleeper, a slow reader 

Most peripheral adjectives have a further restriction in that they cannot be graded or 

intensified: *very main, *extremely chief, *more utter. This also applies to adjectives functioning 

as classifiers: *a very nuclear weapon, *a rather Egyptian mummy, *fairly prehistoric 

remains (see Module 52). However, as is explained in Chapter 10, a number of classifying 

adjectives can also be used as descriptors and graded, some more easily than others: 

British exports (classifier), a very British attitude (descriptor). 

The following book blurb from The Review illustrates several of the grammatical 

functions that can be realised by adjectives and AdjGs. 

Advertising director Charles Schine is just another New York commuter, regularly 

catching the 8.43 to work. But the day he misses his train is the day that changes 

his life. Charles has never cheated on his wife in eighteen years of marriage. But 

then Charles has never met anyone like Lucinda Harris before. And though Lucinda 

is married 1 too, it is immediately apparent 2 that the feeling is mutual. 3 Suddenly their 

temptation turns horrifically sour, 4 and their illicit 5 liaison becomes caught up in 

something bigger, 6 more dangerous, 7 more brutally violent. 8 Unable to talk to his 

partner or the police, 9 Charles finds himself trapped in a world of dark 10 conspiracy 

and psychological 11 games. Somehow he’s got to find a way to fight back, or his 

entire 12 life will be spectacularly derailed for good. 13 


1–4 

predicative Complement; 5 m in NG; 6–8 post-modifier in NG; 9 detached predicative; 

10 

m in NG; 11 m (classifier) in NG; 12 m (classifier) in NG; 13 complement of preposition 


DEGREES OF COMPARISON MODULE 52 

AND INTENSIFICATION 

SUMMARY 

1 Comparative and superlative forms in -er, -est and more, most, 

respectively. Irregular forms: better, best; worse, worst; farther/ further, farthest/ 

furthest. Comparative constructions with the + adjective. Structures of sufficiency 

(enough) and excess (too). 

2 Intensification: high: very, most, extremely, extra, seriously (stupid); medium: 

quite, rather, pretty, fairly (cool). 

3 Attenuation: slightly (better), a little (different), a bit salty; not very (good), 


hardly (likely). 

4 Quantification: exact: one-mile; a mile (long); 2-foot-thick; 2 feet thick; 

3-year-old; 3 years old; non-exact: not that long; this big. 

5 Description: by adjs: pale green, dark blue, deep red; by advs: strangely 

silent, cheerfully confident; by nouns: pitch black, paper-thin, world-wide. 

6 Submodification: just as easy, really quite angry, far too expensive, quite 

old enough. 

An important feature of central adjectives is that they are gradable, that is, the quality 

they express can be held in differing degrees. We can question and express the degree 

by a degree adverb How important is it? It is extremely important. Many descriptive 

adjectives are gradable, classifiers in general are not. 

52.1 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES 

When we want to express the notion that a person, thing or situation has more or less 

of a quality, we can mark a gradable adjective for comparative or superlative degree. 

484 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

This is done grammatically in one of two ways: by inflection, adding -er and -est to the 

base form, or analytically by the adverbs more and most: 

Base form Comparative Superlative 

big bigger biggest (inflectional) 

comfortable more comfortable most comfortable (analytic) 

Inflected forms are used with: 

• Short adjectives of one syllable, and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y 

(hot–hotter–hottest; easy–easier–easiest). Exceptions are right, wrong and real. 

• Disyllabic adjectives in -ow (narrow, shallow, hollow, mellow) can be inflected, as can 

other short adjectives ending in weak syllables such as -le (simple, able, noble). 

Analytic forms are used with: 

• adjectives of more than two syllables (e.g. encouraging); and 

• adjectives which are already inflected (e.g. lovable, famous, greenish, pleased). 

However, ease of pronunciation and smoothness of sound are important factors, and 

speakers sometimes improvise if the result sounds acceptable. Lewis Carroll, the creator 

of Alice in Wonderland, is said to have introduced ‘curiouser and curiouser’, which is still 

used, though jocularly, by some speakers. 

Adjectives in -y which commonly take -er and -est include: happy, lazy, cosy, crazy, 

dirty, empty, lucky, nasty, pretty, silly, sexy, tidy, tricky. 

The following adjectives have suppletive forms for grades 1 and 2: 

good, better, best far, farther, farthest 


bad, worse, worst far, further, furthest 

The word further can also be used with the sense of ‘other’, ‘later’, ‘additional’: 

There will be a further meeting next week. 

The theatre is closed until further notice. 

The adjectives elder, eldest (alternative to older, oldest) refer only to persons. 

my elder son; our eldest daughter; an elder brother or sister; 

John is the elder of the two. I was the second eldest. [BNC FY1 45] 

The adjective elderly is not comparative, but refers euphemistically to a person 

approaching old age. The comparative degree of certain other adjectives has the value 

of a classifier: 

junior rank (= low) inferior quality (= bad) major error (= great) 

senior rank (= high) superior quality (= good) minor error (= small) 

your upper/ lower jaw my inner life the outer walls (of the city) 


There are no inflections of lower and lowest degree corresponding to -er and -est. For 

this meaning less and least are used as modifiers. The following table summarises the 

grading options in English: 

The scale of degree Inflectional Analytic 

1 Comparative superiority easier more difficult 

2 Superlative superiority the easiest the most difficult 

3 Equality as easy, as difficult 

4 Comparative inferiority less easy, less difficult 

5 Superlative inferiority the least easy, the least difficult 

6 Sufficiency easy enough, difficult enough 

Adjectives and adverbs whose meanings are inherently superlative such as unique 

and perfect are prescriptively banned from comparative and superlative marking. They 

are sometimes heard in conversation however, intensified by the ‘absolute’ most: a most 

perfect example. 

52.1.1 Functions of comparatives and superlatives 

Adjectives graded for comparative and superlative degree can function both as modifiers 

of a noun and as Complements in a clause. Most descriptive adjectives are gradable: 


As modifiers of a noun 

Have you got a larger size? 

I think you need a more up-to-date stereo. 

What’s the funniest joke you’ve heard recently? 

It wasn’t the most exciting match of the season. 

The cleverest animals, as well as the better-looking, better-humoured and more classy, 

are not the ones holding the leads. 

(Philip Howard in The Times) 

As Cs in clauses 

This house is smaller, but it’s nicer, and it’s got a bigger garden. 

We need something more central. 

We went into several pubs, but this one was undoubtedly the best. 

Really, they should appoint Jones. He’s the most experienced. 

The analytic forms of the comparative and the superlative are illustrated in this short 

description from an in-flight magazine: 

486 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The miles of clean, pristine sandy beaches look especially inviting to the tourist. They 

are safe for even the most daring swimmers. The more adventurous may avail 

themselves of scuba diving training at beginner, intermediate and advanced levels 

from the Professional Association of Diving Instructors. From May to October the water 

is so warm that no wet-suits are needed. Light 3mm suits are comfortable for the rest 

of the year. Submerged wrecks and coral reefs that attract an array of vivid tropical 

fish contribute to a fascinating diving experience. 

For the complementation of graded adjectives by than-clauses, that-clauses and PPs, 

see Module 53. 

When a comparative adjective is not followed by a complement, the other entity in 

the comparison should be inferrable, as happens in the previous text. We understand 

that the more adventurous implicitly compares with other swimmers who are less 

adventurous. In fact, it is normal in everyday communication, especially in conversation, 

to use graded adjectives without mentioning the other entity in the comparison. 

52.1.2 The -er and -er construction 

The repeated comparatives joined by and are used to express a gradually increasing 

degree of the quality denoted by the adjective (or adverb; see 56.1). Verbs of becoming 

such as become, get and grow are commonly used with adjectives. More and more occurs 

with adjectives which don’t admit the comparative inflection. 


It’s growing darker and darker. 

This crossword is getting more and more difficult. 

They became wearier and wearier as time went on. 

52.1.3 The nice and construction 

Nice and is often used in informal speech to intensify a second adjective: nice and hot, 

nice and cold, nice and dirty. Good and is also used in the same way. 

52.1.4 The degree of sufficiency 

This comprises three terms: ‘excess’, ‘sufficiency’, ‘insufficiency’, realised by the adverbs 

too, enough, not enough, respectively. When functioning predicatively, that is at Cs, the 

AdjG structure is as follows: 

excess: 

sufficiency: 

insufficiency: 

This knife is too sharp. 

Is this knife sharp enough? 

This knife is not sharp enough. 

When the AdjG modifies a noun, the NG structures are as follows: 


excess: 

sufficiency: 

insufficiency: 

This is too sharp a knife. 

This is a sharp enough knife. 

This is not a sharp enough knife. 

If the noun is uncountable or plural (e.g. weather, knives), only the predicative structure 

is used for the expression of ‘excess’: 

excess: The weather was too wet. *It was too wet weather. 

These knives are too sharp. *These are too sharp knives. 

The degree of excess can be expressed by the lexical item over (AmE overly) used as a 

compound adjective: Don’t be over-anxious about the future. 

52.2 INTENSIFYING THE ATTRIBUTE 

Intensification is a kind of grading and will be described here in terms of three degrees: 

‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘attenuated’. They constitute a cline rather than a scale of fixed 

points, since they are realised exclusively by lexical items rather than by varied 

structures. In spoken English, the intended degree of intensification can be reinforced 

by stress and intonation patterns. 

52.2.1 High intensification 

This is expressed by adverbs, adjectives and, exceptionally, nouns. The following 

examples show them in AdjGs in both of the central adjectival functions: 


very: the very latest techniques That’s very kind of you 

really: a really good film It was really good 

awfully: an awfully nice man He looked awfully tired 

most: a most extraordinary performance His ideas are most odd 

way: I am way concerned about the environment (AmE) (Cs only) 

Some intensifiers, such as very and extremely, can intensify almost any adjective. Others 

are more limited to specific types of adjectives or to individual ones. Notice that the 

original meaning of some high intensifiers has undergone semantic change. For example, 

terrifically indicates approval, awfully and terribly can intensify both good and bad 

qualities, while dreadfully and horribly are used only with bad ones. The following are 

common collocations: 

dripping wet; boiling hot; freezing cold; blind drunk; dead straight; wide awake; fast 

asleep; frozen stiff; extra special; stinking rich; fully aware; raving mad; highly 

controversial; radically opposed; eminently suitable; deeply moving; seriously 

stupid; hugely successful; supremely confident; terrifically good-looking; horribly 

disfigured. 

488 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Quite, which normally expresses a medium degree of intensification, can express a high 

degree in the sense of indicating a complete degree or extent to which something is the 

case: I stood quite still. To convey this meaning, quite is spoken with higher pitch and 

emphasis. Quite always takes on a high degree when it modifies an emotive adjective 

as in quite amazing, quite incredible, quite disastrous. 

He looks quite different in his everyday clothes. 

You are quite right. 

52.2.2 Medium intensification 

A medium degree of intensification is expressed by the four adverbs quite, pretty, rather, 

fairly. Within the medium degree, we can recognise four sub-degrees in order of 

descending intensification: 

It’s quite cold here in the winter. 

It’s rather cold here in the winter. 

It’s pretty cold here in the winter. (informal, spoken style) 

It’s fairly mild here in the winter. 

Quite denotes moderate but unequivocal intensification of the adjective, whether this 

is appreciative as in quite pleased, quite satisfactory, quite nice, unappreciative as in quite 

dangerous, quite pessimistic, quite nasty, or neutral as in quite tall, quite cheap/expensive, 

quite short/long. 

She felt there was something not quite right about the room. 


Politeness or lack of certainty are often the motivations of the use of quite, as in I’m not 

quite sure. Quite is used to modify not only adjectives but also verbs and adverbs: I don’t 

quite know, I didn’t quite understand. 

Rather can lower the force of a statement by indicating a certain limited degree, as 

in it looks rather difficult. It becomes related to indirectness (see Chapter 5) when used 

in situations which warrant a stronger word such as very or extremely. Politeness is 

sometimes the motivation for the use of rather, for example, to avoid direct criticism 

of others, I’m rather worried about your exam results, or to mitigate the expression of 

the speaker’s own emotions, as in I was rather pleased at winning the lottery. At the same 

time it implies that a larger degree or extent is to be understood, for instance very worried, 

very pleased. This ability to say one thing while implying another makes rather a subtle 

tool in interpersonal interaction. Rather is a word that has contributed greatly to the 

notion of ‘English understatement’, as in: 

Buying that second-hand car may turn out to be a rather costly mistake. 

Pretty expresses the notion of quite but not completely. It is used with all types of gradable 

adjective, but has an approximative value characteristic of informal speech; e.g. She’s 

pretty good-looking, I feel pretty tired after that long walk, That film was pretty awful, don’t 


you think? Like rather, it can also imply a stronger degree, especially when expressing a 

negative evaluation: That paper of his was a pretty poor effort (= very poor). The idiomatic 

combinations pretty well, pretty much can modify certain adjectives and determinatives, 

for instance, pretty well impossible, pretty much the same. 

He’s going to have a pretty bad headache for a while, and the cut is pretty deep, so 

it’s bound to be sore ... [BNC JXU 32349] 

Fairly as a modifier indicates an almost large or reasonable degree of a quality 

(fairly accurate, fairly well-off). It can be used more easily with favourable and neutral 

adjectives than with strongly unfavourable ones, as with fairly honest, fairly intelligent, 

fairly reasonable, but not ?fairly dishonest, ?fairly foolish, ?fairly unreasonable: 

He seems to have a fairly good idea of what he wants to do. 

The above glosses represent only the typical semantic orientation of these four intensifiers. 

At the same time, their references are all slightly indeterminate, rather than fixed 

points on the scale. The attitudes they express can be varied in speech by intonation. 

Other adverbs which suggest that something is very close to having the quality named 

are: almost, nearly, roughly, approximately, partly, largely. 

The following ironical report from the economics section of a newspaper illustrates 

a normal everyday use of intensified adjectives in English: 


A remarkable entirely new economic cure-all has just emerged from widely extensive 

tests. The miracle drug, called taxcuts, is the most versatile drug since penicillin. The 

manufacturers say that if applied in sufficiently liberal doses, it will make people 

more hardworking and less preoccupied with their own financial problems. 

52.2.3 Attenuation 

Attenuation refers to a slight degree of the quality or its entire absence, and is expressed 

as follows: 

slightly better a little disappointing a bit salty 

kind of weird sort of greyish hair somewhat odd (formal) 

Sort of and kind of are used, in very informal English, when the speaker is uncertain how 

to express the exact quality of something. 

At all can be used as an attenuator in yes/no interrogative, negative and conditional 

clauses, as a politeness strategy in the case of conditionals. It is placed before or after 

the adjective: 

Are you at all worried? Are you worried at all? 

We’d like to stay another week, if it’s at all possible (or if it’s possible at all). 

490 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Slight attenuation or reservation can be expressed by negating a high degree: 

not very likely 

not entirely true 

not quite sure of her name 

not particularly fond of insects 

The following modifiers express in 1 a minimal degree of attribution and often imply a 

certain degree of the opposite quality; in 2 they express absence or denial of the quality 

named: 

1 hardly likely, barely necessary, scarcely believable, none too happy 

2 I’m not at all surprised at the result, or, I’m not surprised at all at the result 

52.3 QUANTIFYING MODIFIERS 

Exact quantification 

If we ask the questions How old is she? How long was the queue? How high is Everest? How 

bad was the traffic-jam? the depth, length, height and age can be measured or quantified 

by saying: 

She is 20 years old. 

Everest is 8,708 metres high. 

The queue was 100 yards long. 

The cars were four deep on the motorway. 

These AdjGs can be lexicalised as compound adjectives to modify nouns: 


a twenty-year-old girl 

an 8,708-metre-high mountain 

a hundred-yard-long queue 

a four-deep traffic-jam on the motorway 

Non-exact quantification 

With predicative function, non-measurable quantification is expressed by the 

determinatives the, that, this, any, all, little and no, as in: 

Things are not getting any better. Well, as long as they’re not getting any 

worse . . . 

The situation is no worse than it was before. 

The trip wasn’t that interesting after all. 

We need a box this big. 

She looked all upset. 

That + adjective can be used to modify a singular noun, but not a plural or non-count 

noun: 

It wasn’t that interesting a trip after all. 

The trips were not that long. *They were not that long trips. 

The thunder was not that loud. *It was not that loud thunder. 


52.4 DESCRIPTIVE MODIFIERS 

If adjectives serve to describe nouns, they themselves can also be described, by 

reference to (a) a quality or (b) a specific context: 

(a) Qualitative modification of adjectives is realised by the following classes of units: 

-ly adverbs: strangely attractive; deathly pale; reasonably friendly 

adjectives: light brown; deep red; dark blue; vivid green; bright yellow 

nouns: pitch black; emerald green; blood red; rose pink; paper-thin; 

feather-light; day-long; world-wide 

Note that an expression like a strangely attractive city does not mean ‘a strange and 

attractive city’ but ‘a city which is attractive in a strange way’; it is the adjective 

(attractive) which is modified, not the noun (city). The structure ‘adj + adj’ (e.g. light 

brown) is used especially with colour adjectives. When it modifies a noun, ambiguity 

may occur: The deep blue sea (a sea of deep blue? or a deep sea which is blue?) 

(b) Relational (or contextual) modification indicates the sense in which the adjective is 

to be understood. It is realised by: 

-ly adverbs: socially acceptable; economically difficult; technologically 

impressive; financially independent; physically handicapped 

nouns: music-mad; girl-crazy; foot-weary; duty-free 

The following short paragraph exemplifies the use of modified AdjGs: 


He is one of the most compellingly 1 watchable comic talents I have seen for a long 

time; a slightly 2 comic nose, a retiringly 3 unassertive chin and a wide loosely 4 shaped 

mouth contribute a totally convincing 5 performance as the court jester. He obviously 

has a cheerfully perceptive 6 gift for comedy. 

1 

intensification; 2 attenuation; 3 description; 4 description; 5 intensification; 6 description 

52.5 SUBMODIFYING THE ADJECTIVE 

Modifiers of degree (e.g. less in less interesting) are often themselves graded or intensified 

by a submodifier (sm) placed before them, e.g. rather less interesting. The following are 

examples of this smmh structure which occur in both spoken and written discourse. 

sm m h sm m h 

not quite right only too pleased 

much more productive not nearly as nice 

far too expensive just as complicated 

492 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

This type of AdjG structure reflects two converse types of intensification which are 

characteristic of many English speakers: (a) That of attenuating the negative value 

of an Attribute, as in 1, and (b) that of reinforcing a positive value, as in 2: 

1 This time the results are not quite so clear-cut. [BNC KRL 96478] 

2 We would be only too pleased to provide information on the Association. 

[BNC GX9 13997] 

The submodifier of the modifier enough is placed immediately before the adjective: 

hardly good enough; not nearly clever enough; quite old enough 



COMPLEMENTATION OF MODULE 53 

THE ADJECTIVE 

SUMMARY 

1 When an adjective (e.g. happy) functions in a clause, as Complement of the 

Subject (e.g. I am happy) or of the Object, it is often followed by a complement 

relating it to a fact (e.g. that you are here), a process (e.g. to see you), or a 

circumstance (e.g. about your success). This information indicates the way in 

which the adjective is to be understood and is expressed mainly by finite and 

non-finite clauses, and by prepositional phrases (PPs). 

2 When the complement is a PP, the preposition is determined by the adjective 

and the context: dependent on, clever at, clever with, fond of (see also Chapter 

12). 


3 When the adjective is modified (graded, intensified, etc.), the modifier partly 

determines the type of complement or post-modifier: too cold for us, too cold to 

swim, too cold for us to swim, too cold for swimming in the sea. 

4 When the adjective modifies a NG, it is separated from its complement: too 

difficult a problem to solve. 

53.1 ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTS 

Adjectival heads can take as post-head complements finite and non-finite clauses, or 

prepositional phrases which relate the Attribute to a fact, a situation, a process or a 

circumstance and so tell us how the Attribute is to be understood. 

All adjectives which can take complements indicate the speaker’s or writer’s stance 

with respect to the proposition stated in the complement. They comprise three semantic 

types: epistemic (sure, certain, etc.), affective (glad, sorry, etc.) and evaluative (right, wrong, 

etc.). 

494 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

53.1.1 Complementation by finite clauses 

Adjectives which take embedded that-complement clauses indicate the speaker’s or 

writer’s stance with respect to what is expressed in the complement. Semantically, they 

fall into two main types: 

1 degrees of certainty, such as: sure, certain, positive, convinced 

2 affective meanings, such as: glad, sorry, happy, sad, afraid, grateful, pleased, 

amazed, annoyed 

This structure relates the adjectival quality to a factual complement and is realised by 

a finite clause introduced optionally by that: 

We are sure (that) he is innocent. 

We are proud (that) you are so successful. 

After some adjectives of emotive or modal meaning, such as anxious, willing, eager, 

insistent, determined, essential, the non-factual auxiliary should (in Br E), or the subjunctive 

(especially in Am E), can be used in the that-clause to suggest a present or future action. 

An indicative is used by some speakers, as in 3 (see 11.1). 

1 The public is anxious that the truth (should) be known. 

2 We are not willing that justice (should) be forgotten. 

3 Bill’s wife is insistent that he give/ gives up smoking. 


The complement can also be realised by a wh-clause. I am not quite clear what you mean. 

Extraposed clausal subject 

In the following type of sentence, the second clause does not function as a complement 

of the preceding adjective, but as extraposed subject, replaced by it in the main clause 

(see 5.1.2). Compare the extraposed with the non-extraposed clauses. 

I just think it’s unfortunate that all these rumours have circulated. [BNC KRT 91068] 

That all these rumours have circulated is unfortunate. (non-extraposed that-clause) 

It is not clear why she left. 

Why she left is not clear. (non-extraposed wh-clause) 

The adjective in this construction expresses an evaluative attitude, (usually the 

speaker’s) towards the content of the following clause. But because the construction 

has anticipatory it as subject, the stance or attitude is not directly attributed to the 

speaker or some other person, as occurs with complement clauses, whose subjects are 

referential pronouns or NGs. 

Adjectives which occur in structures with anticipatory it tend to be more impersonal 

than those taking a complement clause. They include: 


advisable, evident, (im)possible, (un) likely, noticable, (un)typical, important, obligatory, 

curious, obvious, shocking, surprising, true, vital 

Certain adjectives can occur in both constructions, however: clear, certain, sure. 

53.1.2 Complementation by non-finite clauses 

This AdjG structure is used to describe the relation between an Attribute and a process 

or situation. The Attribute and process/situation both refer to the same Subject in 

examples (a–g) below: 

(a) The adjective evaluates the process performed by the subject: 

You are kind to visit me. 

She must be clever to have won the first prize. 

(b) The adjective describes the manner of performing the process: 

The Minister was quick to reject the accusation. 

You are very slow to give your opinion, aren’t you? 

(c) The adjective expresses an emotion caused by the process. The subject of the main 

clause is also the implied subject of the to-clause: 

Everyone was sorry to hear about the accident. 

We were all delighted to receive your invitation. 

(d) The adjective expresses an attitude or state concerning the process: 

I am not willing to believe that story. 

The police are powerless to take action in this matter. 

(e) The adjective expresses a property of the subject: 

Mountain water is not always safe to drink. 

Are these pamphlets free to take away (or to be taken away)? 

(f) The adjective forms part of a lexical auxiliary (be sure to, be likely to be bound to) in 

a VG (see 37.3). It denotes a degree of certainty or the tendency of the process to 

occur. The subject is a ‘raised subject’ (see 37.4): 


He is sure to arrive late. 

She is likely to get angry. 

It is bound to rain. 

I am apt to forget details. 

(g) The adjective evaluates the process realised by an -ing clause or a to-inf: 

You were foolish going out/to go out without an overcoat. 

He must have been crazy driving/to drive as fast as that. 

The above examples refer to processes performed by the Subject of the clause, that is, 

the Carrier of the Attribute. The following ones refer to processes not performed by the 

Subject: 

496 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(h) The adjective does not refer to the Subject: 

Smoking is hard/ difficult to give up. 

This sentence does not mean that smoking is difficult, but that to give up smoking 

is difficult. Structurally, it is a ‘raised object’, that is, the implied object of the toclause 

to give up smoking is raised to subject (see 37.4). 

(i) 

In other cases, the Subject may possess the Attribute and at the same time be the 

prepositional Object of the to-infinitive verb: 

This paper is thin to write on. The Atlantic is cold to swim in. 

53.1.3 Prepositional phrase complements 

Prepositional phrase complements are not usually obligatory (though a few are), but 

they are all controlled by particular adjectives. The complement completes the meaning 

with respect to the adjective. Especially in conversation, where speakers can assume a 

knowledge of what has been said, it is frequently unnecessary to add a complement. 

We can say I was angry, we were anxious, everyone was delighted without specifying 

the reason. In writing, however, we often need to make the motivation more specific. 

A number of adjectives, including accustomed (to), conscious (of) and prone (to) (with the 

appropriate senses) require a complement. Several adjectives control more than one 

preposition, for instance good at maths, good for your health, good with children; similar 

to mine, similar in shape. 

We here offer a small representative selection of everyday examples. These are 

grouped according to the preposition and the types of meaning conveyed by the 

adjective. 


1 adjective + about or + at is used for emotional reaction to something: 

angry about what I said; annoyed about the delay 

mad about music concerned about his safety 

2 adjective + at has two meanings: (a) emotional reaction to something or someone, 

and (b) an ability: 

(a) happy at the prospect 

mad at my sister 

(b) clever at getting what he wants 

good at mathematics 

alarmed at the news 

indignant at the accusation 

bad at letter-writing 

hopeless at remembering names 

Other adjectives used with at: (a) pleased, annoyed (b) brilliant, terrible, adept, 

skilled, marvellous 

3 adjective + by (with adjectives derived from past participles and passive in 

meaning): 

amused by the anecdote 

hurt by her remarks 

puzzled by the question 

worried by their failure to return 


4 adjective + for means the value the adjective has for something or someone: 

anxious for success 

good for the health 

hopeful for the future 

responsible for their welfare 

5 adjective + from has two meanings: (a) separation and distancing; (b) effect–cause: 

(a) remote from civilisation 

(b) sleepless from anxiety 

different from everyone else 

tired from overworking 

6 adjective + in is used for an existing or resulting state: 

dressed in white 

deep in a book 

slow in reacting 

lost in thought 

7 adjective + of is used for (a) mental state in terms of the antagonist or process; 

(b) mental state in terms of the protagonist; (c) containment: 

(a) afraid of wild animals 

(b) kind of you 

(c) full of enthusiasm 

capable of great concentration 

stupid of him 

sick of it all 

The (b) sequence occurs in clauses beginning It is + adjective + extraposed subject: 

It is kind of you to take such trouble. 

8 adjective + on is used for dedication, dependence or aim: 

It was stupid of him to lose the keys. 

keen on sport 

intent on divorce 

dependent on other people set on studying abroad 

9 adjective + to means (a) mental state or attitude related to a phenomenon; (b) 


equivalence, similarity or comparison: 

(a) opposed to innovation 

(b) similar to the others 

kind to old people; accustomed to hardship 

equal to half a kilo 

10 adjective + with can be (a) emotional reaction or physical state due to a cause, or 

(b) property or ability: 

(a) fed up with the weather 

(b) skilful with his hands 

pale with fear 

good with children 

Note that 2(b) describes ability in relation to the task; 10(b) describes ability in 

relation to the tools or raw material. 

11 adjective + beyond means to an extreme degree (with non-count nouns): 

cruel beyond endurance 

injured beyond recovery 

The fact that a PP occurs after an adjective does not necessarily mean that it complements 

the adjective; it may be functioning as a clausal or stance Adjunct: 

Complement: 

Clausal Adjunct: 

Stance Adjunct: 

He is brilliant at maths. 

He is brilliant in many respects. 

In my opinion, he’s a brilliant mathematician. 

498 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The following extract from Roald Dahl’s Boy illustrates the use of adjectives and their 

grading and complementation: 

It was always a surprise to me that I was good at games. It was an even greater 

surprise that I was exceptionally good at two of them. One of these was called fives, 

the other was squash-raquets. 

Fives, which many of you will know nothing about, was taken seriously at Repton 

and we had a dozen massive, glass-roofed fives courts kept always in perfect 

condition. 

We played the game of Eton-fives, which is always played by four people, two 

on each side, and basically it consists of hitting a small, hard, white, leather-covered 

ball with your gloved hands. The Americans have something like it which they call 

handball, but Eton-fives is far more complicated because the court has all manner 

of ledges and buttresses built into it which help to make it a subtle and crafty game. 

Fives is possibly the fastest ball-game on earth, far faster than squash, and the 

little ball ricochets around the court at such a speed that sometimes you can hardly 

see it. You need a swift eye, strong wrists and a very quick pair of hands to play 

fives well, and it was a game I took to from the beginning. You may find it hard to 

believe, but I became so good at it that I won both the junior and the senior school 

fives in the same year when I was fifteen. (see exercise 3 on p. 524). 

53.2 DEGREE COMPLEMENTS 


When the adjective is graded, the complement is dependent, not on the adjective 

directly, but on the grading element (-er, more, less, as, etc.), and is realised according to 

the type and structure of the grading element. The following examples serve as a brief 

summary of this area of English grammar. 

Comparative degree 

This takes one of two forms: either adjective + -er + than, or more/ less + adjective + 

than, plus a word, phrase or clause: 

Adj + -er + than + PP It was cooler than in Russia 

Adj + -er + than + clause It was better than we expected 

more + adj + than + AdvG It was more comfortable than usual 

less + adj + than + clause It was less complicated than any of us expected 

more + adj. + -ing clause It was more enjoyable than travelling by air 

Superlative degree 

Adj + -est + PP (in) 

most + adj + PP (of) 

least + adj + that-clause 

It is the longest in the world 

It is the most famous of all his plays 

It is the least interesting novel (that) I have ever read 


Degree of equality 

as + adj + as +AdvG 

neg + as + adj + as + clause 

so + adj + as + to-clause 

It was as lovely as ever 

It was not as easy as most of us expected 

It was so difficult as to be impossible 

If the comparison is between two adjectives, the complement of equality is realised by 

a finite clause: 

She is as good-looking as she is intelligent. 

*She is as good-looking as intelligent. 

If the comparison is negative, the modifier not as may be replaced by not so, though 

so suggests intensification besides equality: In winter, London is not as/ so cold as New 

York. 

Degree of sufficiency (enough) and excess (too) 

Heads modified by postposed enough and preposed by too are qualified by similar units 

to the above: 

Sufficiency: Adj + enough + PP Is the water hot enough for you? 

Adj + enough + to-cl Is the water hot enough to take a 

shower? 

Adj + enough + PP + to-cl Is the water hot enough for you to 


Excess: Too + adj + PP This coffee is too hot for me. 

Too + adj + to-cl 

This coffee is too hot to drink. 

(not *to drink it) 

Too + adj + PP + to-cl This coffee is too hot for me to 

drink. (not *for me to drink it) 

If the to-infinitive verb is prepositional (e.g. think about), the preposition is stranded (see 

6.3.3): 

To-inf cl + prep. 

Your project is too expensive to think about. (*about it) 

This knife is too blunt to cut with. (*with it) 

Notice the emotive use of too in expressions such as: The film was too awful for words! 

and its equivalence to very in: I shall be only too pleased to help you ( = very pleased). 

53.2.1 Discontinuous degree complements 

A degree complement is separated from its adjective when the AdjG premodifies a noun. 

The AdjG is said to be discontinuous, as in examples 1 and 2 below. 

500 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

If we want to put the notion of equality before the noun, the adjective functions as 

a pre-determinative (preceding the article a/ an), with the as-clause following the noun: 

1 It was the most comfortable journey (that) we have ever made. 

2 It’s as nice a country garden as you could ever find. 

When an adjective is graded by a modifier, e.g. more convinced, one complement may 

relate to the modifier as in more (convinced) than I was, and a second one to the head, as 

in (more) convinced of the man’s guilt. They may be placed in either order, the emphasis 

normally being on the second one: 

The judge seemed more convinced than I was of the man’s guilt. 

The judge seemed more convinced of the man’s guilt than I was. 

If one complement is notably longer than the other(s), it is usually placed at the end: 

The judge seemed more convinced than I was of the evidence that had been given 

by one of the witnesses. 

*The judge seemed more convinced of the man’s guilt after listening to the evidence 

given by one of the witnesses than I was. 

When complements are coordinated by and, but, or, they are often of the same class 

form: 

PP: He’s fond of teaching and good with children. 

to-inf cl: The programme was delightful to watch and to listen to. 



ADVERBS AND THE ADVERBIAL MODULE 54 

GROUP 

SUMMARY 

1 AdvGs have certain general characteristics similar to those of AdjGs: 

• Potentially three structural forms: a head, a modifier, and a post-head 

element, which may be a post-modifier or a complement. 

• They are frequently represented by the head element alone. 

• Morphologically, the adverbial head may be simple, derived or compound. 

• Semantically, many adverbs express qualities of processes and situations, 

just as adjectives express qualities of people and things. 

• Not all adjectives and adverbs have the potential of heading a group 

structure: e.g. mere, merely; sole, solely. 


2 In other respects, AdvGs are different from AdjGs: 

Adverbs are a more heterogeneous word class, and can be roughly grouped 

into three main semantic sets: 

• circumstantial: place, time, manner 

• degree or focus 

• connective: addition, reinforcement, result, concession, and the like 

Many adverbs fulfil several functions, however, and their meanings may change 

according to the function. 

54.1 STRUCTURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 

ADVERBIAL GROUP 

The structure of the adverbial group is similar to that of the adjectival group; that is, it 

is composed potentially of three elements: the head h, the modifier m and the posthead 

element, either m (post-modifier) or c (complement). These elements combine to 

form the following four basic structures: 

502 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

AdvG 

1 h yesterday 

2a h early 

2b hm early in the morning 

3 mh very early 

4 mhm very early in the morning 

Other examples of full AdvG structures are: 

mhc more slowly than necessary 

mhc far away from civilisation 

mhc so fast (that) I couldn’t catch him 

mhc quite clearly enough 

The head element is always realised by an adverb (see 54.3). The modifier (see 56.1–2) 

is realised typically by grading and intensifying adverbs, as in these examples, and less 

typically by quantifiers (ten miles across). The complement (see 56.3) expresses a different 

type of meaning from that of the modifier, as it does in AdjGs. It expresses the scope or 

context of the meaning expressed by the head (e.g. luckily for us); alternatively, it can 

serve to define the modifier more explicitly (e.g. more correctly than before). It is for this 

reason that complements of adjectives and adverbs are mostly realised by PPs and 

clauses, whereas pre-modifiers are usually realised by words. However, we shall see 

that few adverbs take prepositional complements. 


General characteristics of adverbs and adverbial groups 

1 Whereas adjectives modify nouns as one of their main functions, adverbs modify 

verbs, clauses, adjectives and other adverbs. 

2 Adverbs and AdvGs function typically in the clause as Adjunct or Complement, and 

in group structures as pre-modifier and post-modifier. In addition, they marginally 

realise subject and object functions in clauses. Many adverbs of directional meaning 

function as particles (up, down, in, out, etc.) in phrasal verbs (Complement or Adjunct 

in clauses.) 

3 They express a wide variety of types and subtypes of meaning (see 54.3). 

4 They perform a wide variety of syntactic functions (see 55.1). 

5 They can occupy different positions in clause structure, when functioning as 

manner, evidential, stance and connective adjuncts (see 55.2; see also Chapter 2). 

6 They are very frequently optional, in the sense that they can be omitted without 

the clause becoming ungrammatical. 

54.2 FORMS OF ADVERBS 

Morphologically, English adverbs are either simple, derived or compound. 


Simple forms 

These are words of one or two syllables, usually of native origin, that are not compounded 

and do not have derivational affixes. Examples: now, then, here, there, far, near, 

soon, as, such, pretty, quite, rather, else, well, even, ever, ago. 

Many adverbial forms also function as prepositions (see p. 543, ‘homograph’). 

However, prepositions are best contrasted with adverbial particles: up, down, in, out, 

on, off, over, away, back, and so on. These are a sub-set of short forms with meanings of 

direction and ‘path’, among others, which are used with verbs to form phrasal verbs: 

walk down the street – walk down; get off the bus – get off (see 40.2). Adverbs are also used 

to form complex prepositions, such as far from, as well as, instead of. 

Certain simple adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjective: 

A hard worker – he works hard 

An early arrival – we arrived early 

a fast car – she drives fast 

a late performance – we left late 

Derived forms 

• Those formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffix -ly include: badly, happily, 

fairly, freely, slowly, proudly, honestly, cheerfully, sadly, warmly. 

• Some adjectives already have the -ly suffix (friendly, princely, daily, weekly, monthly, 

etc.), and this form is also that of the adverb. That is to say, another -ly suffix is not 

added: we don’t say *monthlily. 

• Some adjective–adverb pairs have quite unrelated meanings: hard–hardly; 

bare–barely; scarce–scarcely; present–presently; late–lately; short–shortly. 

• A few adverbs in -ly are not derived from adjectives: accordingly, namely, jokingly, 

among others. 

• Certain very common adjectives expressing very basic meanings don’t lend 

themselves to adverb formation: big, small, young, old, tall, tiny, fat, among others. 

• Those formed from nouns, by the addition of -wise, -ways, -ward(s), include: 

clockwise, moneywise; sideways, lengthways; backward(s), forward(s). 

• A small group of adverbs beginning a- indicate mainly position or direction: about, 

above, across, again, ahead, along, aloud, apart, around, aside, away. 

• Another small set of adverbs has be- as first syllable, also indicating position or 

direction: before, behind, below, beneath, besides, between, beyond. These can also 

function as prepositions: I’ve been here before (adv.); It was before the war (prep.). 


Compound forms 

There are two types: 

• shortened forms of what were originally PPs: downhill, indoors, inside, outside, 

downstairs, overhead, overall, overnight, and others. 

• combinations with other classes of word: somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere; 

however, moreover, nevertheless; anyway, anyhow. 

504 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Phrasal adverbs are those which do not form compounds, but consist of more than 

one word: of course; at all; kind of, sort of; in fact; as well. 

A representative number of adverbs appear in the following passage adapted from 

Joyce Cary’s novel The Horse’s Mouth, which tells how he finds his studio on his release 

from prison: 

I could see my studio from where I stood, an old boathouse down by the water-wall. 

A bit rotten in places, but I had been glad to get it . . . When I had my canvas up it 

was two feet off the ground, which just suited me. I like to keep my pictures above 

dog level. 

“Well”, I thought, “the walls and roof are there. They haven’t got blown away, 

yet. No-one has leaned up against them.” I was pleased, but I didn’t go along in a 

hurry. One thing at a time. Last time I was locked up, I left a regular establishment 

behind. Nice little wife, two kids, flat and a studio with a tin roof. Water-tight all round 

. . . When I came back, there was nothing. Wife and kids had gone back to her mama. 

Flat let to people who didn’t even know my name. My cartoons, drawings, ladders, 

they’d just melted. I hadn’t expected to see the fryingpan and kettle again. You can’t 

leave things like that about for a month in a friendly neighbourhood and expect to 

find them in the same place. When I came back from gaol, even the smell had gone. 

54.3 TYPES OF MEANINGS EXPRESSED BY ADVERBIAL 

GROUPS 


Adverbs express five broad types of meaning in clauses and groups: circumstantial, 

stance, degree, focusing, connective. As with many adjectives and other word classes, 

however, the meaning of a particular adverb must be seen together with its function in 

context. The literal meaning of many adverbs can become figurative, or completely 

different, when used as an intensifier. So, although far is listed in section A (below) as 

meaning distance, Don’t go too far, it expresses degree in Prices won’t go down very far. 

When it functions as an intensifier it takes on a meaning similar to much: far too short, a 

far nicer place, while so far expresses time, similar to up to now. 

A Circumstantial adverbs: where, when and how things happen 

Space 

Position: Put the chairs here/outside/upstairs. An away match. 

Direction: Push it inwards/down/through/out/away. The trip back. 

Distance: Don’t go too far/near/close. 

Time 

Moment: 

Frequency: 

Duration: 

They will be coming tomorrow/sometime/then/soon/later. 

The doctor came once/daily/frequently/now and again. 

We didn’t stay long. We spoke briefly. 


Relation: 

Sequence: 

Manner 

Domain 

The train will arrive soon. It hasn’t arrived yet. 

first, second, next, then, last, finally. 

Hold it carefully. 

The concert was a success artistically but not financially. 

B Stance: expressing a personal angle 

Certainty, doubt: You are certainly right. Perhaps I’m wrong. 

Evidential: Apparently, they emigrated to Australia. 

Viewpoint: We are in good shape financially, and healthwise, too. 

Emphasis: He is plainly just a creep. Indeed he is. 

Judgement: The Minister has wisely resigned. 

Attitude: Thankfully, it didn’t rain. Hopefully, it will be fine tomorrow. 

C Degree adverbs: comparing, intensifying 

Comparison: This is the most/the least efficient scanner we’ve had so far. 

Intensification: He lives all alone but seems quite/fairly/pretty happy. 

Attenuation: It was kind of strange to see her again. 

Approximation: There were about/roughly/more or less 20 people there. 

Sufficiency: Is the water hot enough? 

Excess: Well, actually, it’s too hot. 


D Focusing adverbs: restricting the scope 

Restriction: That is merely a detail. He is just interested in money. 

He hardly ate anything, only a yoghurt. 

Reinforcement: The hotel had everything, even a fitness centre. 

Even is a scalar adverb which carries an implication that the unit modified by even is 

either high or low on a scale of expectedness, in the context. In the example, a fitness 

centre is higher than expected, as not all hotels have a fitness centre. In he wouldn’t stay 

even for one day, it is implied that one day is a shorter stay than had been expected. Both 

are interpreted as slightly surprising. 

E Connective adverbs: logical connection 

Sequence: First, we have no money, and second, we have no time. 

Reinforcement: The house is small and furthermore has no garden. 

Conclusion: It was a tiring trip, but altogether very interesting. 

Restating: We’ve got two pets, namely a rabbit and a canary. 

Reason: I couldn’t find you, so I left. 

Condition: Take an umbrella; otherwise you’ll get wet. 

Clarification: He wants to live abroad, or rather anywhere away from home. 

506 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Contrast: 

Alternation: 

Concession: 

Attention-seeking: 

They accept his invitations, yet they run him down. 

There’s no tea. Would you like a cup of coffee instead? 

What you said was true; still it was unkind. 

Now, you listen to me! Now then, what’s all this about? 

Technical description often makes use of adverbs of degree and quantity as in the 

following extracts from an elementary textbook on Metals by H. Moore. 

Of the ninety or so 1 naturally 2 occurring elements, about seventy are metals. Of these, 

over 3 half are put to practical use, although many of them only 4 in small amounts. 

In every household there are dozens of metal implements . . . from water-tanks to 

tea-spoons. Industrial machinery is made almost entirely 5 of metals. If man had not 

learnt to use metals, we would still 6 be living in the Stone Age. Some metals are used 

in a relatively 7 pure state, for example aluminium, whose lightness and corrosionresistance 

make it especially 8 useful. But metals are used mostly 9 with other elements 

to form alloys and so 10 in this way their properties can be improved and their range 

of uses widely 11 extended. 

1 

quantity; 2 classification; 3 quantity; 4 restriction; 5 restriction; 6 duration; 7 degree; 

8 

degree; 9 intensification; 10 degree; 11 consequence (connective); 12 degree 



SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF MODULE 55 

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL 

GROUPS 

SUMMARY 

1 Just as adverbs express many meanings, they also realise many kinds of 

syntactic functions: 

• potentially as head of an adverbial group; 

• as Adjunct, Complement and, marginally, as Subject and Object in clauses; 

• as modifiers, and complements in AdjGs, AdvGs, NGs, VGs and PPs; 

• as stance adjuncts associated with whole clauses; 

• as connectives between clauses. 

2 Some adverbs have fixed position; others are mobile between initial, middle 


and end positions. 

3 Some adverbs vary their meaning according to their functional role, so just may 

denote an event near to speech time, We’ve just finished, or be used to intensify, 

as in That’s just fine. 

55.1 SUMMARY OF THE SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF 

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL GROUPS 

Adverbs have three main functions: 

• as Adjunct in clause structures; 

• as modifier in group structures; and 

• as connectives between clauses. 

Less typically, adverbs and AdvGs can realise the integrated clause functions of 

Complement, Object and Subject. 

508 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In clause structures 

1 Adjunct: I knew her pretty well. 

2 Stance adjunct: Fortunately, it didn’t rain. 

3 Inferential connective So you don’t want to come, then. 

4 Subject Complement: That’s quite all right. 

5 Directional Complement: Everyone rushed out. 

6 Direct Object: I don’t know when. They didn’t tell me why. 

7 Subject (marginally): Today is the last Friday in the month. 

In group structures 

8 modifier in AdjGs: all wet; quite nice; too long; completely new. 

9 modifier in AdvGs nearly there; more easily; very often. 

10 modifier in NGs: the then Minister of Health; a nearby hotel; 

quite a success. 

11 modifier of determiners: about double; roughly half; almost all. 

12 modifier in PPs: right out of sight; just down the road. 

13 submodifier in AdjGs: much too short; rather more interesting. 

14 submodifier in AdvGs: (not) all that easily; far too often. 

15 post-modifier in AdjGs: quick enough; very beautiful indeed. 

16 post-modifier in AdvGs: quickly enough; beautifully indeed; never again. 

17 post-modifier in NGs: the journey back; the way ahead. 

18 complement of determinative: any (interest) at all; somewhere else. 

19 complement in PPs: over here; through there; from inside; till now. 

20 particle in VGs: pick up; put on; take out; pull off; go in. 


Note that 6 and 7 are realised only marginally by adverbs and AdvGs. As Direct Object, 

when and why can be used elliptically to stand for a whole clause: There’s to be another 

meeting soon, but I don’t know when/ why [there’s to be another meeting]. 

Since Adjuncts of various kinds are syntactic elements that can be realised not only 

by adverbs and AdvGs but also by PPs and finite or non-finite clauses, some grammars 

group all these classes of realisations under the general name of ‘adverbial’. In this book, 

we reserve the term ‘adverbial’ strictly for a class of unit, the Adverbial Group, not to 

be confused with a type of function. 

55.2 POSITIONS OF ADVERBS IN THE CLAUSE: INITIAL, 

MIDDLE AND FINAL 

In their function as modifier in group structure, adverbs occupy fixed positions. As 

adjuncts, however, they are more mobile, occupying initial, middle or end positions, as 

the following examples show: 

1 Really, I don’t like driving. 

2 I really don’t like driving. 


3 I don’t really like driving. 

4 I don’t like driving, really. 

Not all adjunctive adverbs are equally mobile. The choice of position is determined by 

its type (circumstantial, modal, degree, etc.), the scope of its meaning (whole clause or 

part of a clause), the degree of emphasis the speaker wishes to give to it, and the general 

information structure of the clause (see Chapter 6). 

55.2.1 Adverbs in initial position 

When an adverb is placed in initial position as adjunct, its scope extends to the whole 

clause. In this position, the meaning may be one of two broad kinds: 

• It may be thematised (see 28.8), functioning as what is traditionally called a 

‘sentence adjunct’, having the same status as the other clause elements, though 

referring to them all together, as in: 

Slowly, the rising sun appeared over the distant horizon. 

• It may function as a stance adjunct 1, expressing the speaker’s attitude to the 

content of the clause or comment on its truth value 2. Stance adjuncts stand outside 

the clause structure (see Chapter 2). 

1 Hopefully, the new plan will lead to some improvements. 

2 Undoubtedly, the success is due to your efforts. 


Hopefully, and other similar adverbs such as seriously, frankly, may also function as 

adjuncts of manner, within the clause: 

She underwent the operation hopefully. (i.e. full of hope) 

55.2.2 Scope of reference of adverbs as adjuncts 

The different positions an adverb may occupy determine the scope of its reference. 

Compare the examples at the start of Section 55.2, all containing the adverb really. In 

1 the scope of the adverb comprises the whole sentence, the subject and the predicate. 

In 2 the scope covers the predicate, without the subject, but including the negation and 

auxiliary (don’t). In 3 the scope comprises the predicator and its complement (driving). 

In 4, as in 1, the adverb is parenthetical, separated from the clause. Both function as 

stance adverbs whose scope comprises the whole clause, the first strongly, the second 

weakly, as if it were an afterthought. 

In 2 and 3 the adverb focuses mainly on the predicator and its complement and is 

placed before or after the auxiliary, which in this case carries negation. In 2 really emphasises 

the negation more strongly than in 3. Other elements are sometimes focused, for 

example by restrictive adverbs: He alone, only for them. 

510 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

55.2.3 Adverbs of place, time and manner 

Adverbs referring to the place, time and manner of an event are placed most naturally 

in final position. This is equivalent to ‘immediately after the verb’, as long as there is no 

direct object, as in 1 with the intransitive verb arrive. When there is a direct object, 

however, the adverb must be placed after the object, as in 2. Compare: 

1 We arrived early. 

2 We caught the bus easily. Not *We caught easily the bus. 

This is because in English, unlike some languages, an object is not separated from the 

verb which selects it, even by adjuncts of degree: 

I like apples very much. 

Not *I like very much apples. 

The only exception to this is when the direct object is exceptionally long and so requires 

end-focus. 

Indefinite time adverbs such as sometimes, eventually, immediately, finally, recently, 

previously, can be placed in final, pre-verbal or initial position. Again separation of 

verb–object is excluded: 

(a) He stopped the machine immediately. 

(b) He immediately stopped the machine. 

(c) Immediately he stopped the machine. 

(d) *He stopped immediately the machine. 


Of these, (a) is the normal unmarked position, (b) focuses on the process stop, and 

(c) on the whole of the clause. By contrast, (d) is unacceptable. 

Certain adverbs of frequency – always, never, seldom, hardly ever, often, rarely, 

sometimes, usually – tend to occur in mid-position, between Subject and Predicator or 

between operator and main verb. The word often may also focus on the whole clause, 

in initial position: 

(e) We always spend our holidays abroad. (*Always we spend . . .) 

(f) We have never been to Africa. (*Never, we have . . .) 

(g) Lawyers often love to tell you about how good they are. (Often lawyers love 

to...) [BNC J75 3288] 

The adverbs of negative import – never, seldom, rarely, hardly ever – are occasionally 

fronted and followed by Subject–operator inversion for purposes of emphasis, though 

this structure is formal in style (see also 28.10.1): 

Rarely does one find such kindness nowadays. 

Never in my life have I heard such crazy ideas! 

The adverbs still, yet, already express certain time relationships which are described 

briefly and illustrated in the table on p. 513 in question-and-answer structures which 

show their contrasting meanings. 


The examples given of these three adverbs show that their scope of meaning extends 

to the process or the whole predicate, and for this reason they normally occur in midor 

end-position. 

Finally we may observe the similarity of meaning of still and yet in a be + to-infinitive 

structure, and as concessive connectives: 

He’ll make a champion of you yet/ still. 

A cure for chronic bronchitis is still/ yet to be found. 

It was a hard climb. Still, it was worth it. (concessive) 

He’s rather uncommunicative, yet everyone seems to like him. (concessive) 

Spatial adverbs such as abroad, across, back, everywhere, downstairs, inside, uphill, forwards, 

sideways, expressing position and direction, are normally placed after the Predicator or 

in end-position: Push it forwards; turn it sideways. 

Adverbs of manner 

The unmarked position for adverbs of manner is at the end of the clause, as in He speaks 

English fluently, not *He speaks fluently English. If the Object is long, and the adverb is a 

single word, the Od may be placed at the end, as in He speaks fluently several European 

and oriental languages. If the adverb is modified or complemented as a group, it may still 

occupy end-position, according to the principles of end-focus and end-weight (30.3.2) 

even if the Od is also long: 

He speaks English fluently. 


He speaks several European and oriental languages as well as Arabic very fluently 

indeed. 

Adverbs in -ly include many of manner: carefully, easily, correctly, cheaply, politely, 

peacefully, urgently, and also some emotive ones: angrily, gladly, desperately. Both can 

also occur as adjuncts in mid-position, before the lexical verb. Together such 

combinations constitute a useful pattern, as they lend force to what immediately follows: 

We sincerely hope you enjoyed your stay with us. 

I have been seriously thinking of changing my job. 

I will gladly help you if you need me. 

55.2.4 Adverbs of modality, evidence and degree 

The tendency to occupy mid-position extends also to these semantic types: 

They’re probably still partying. (modal) [BNC JY7 9563] 

She is supposedly a rich woman. (hearsay evidential) 

I totally disagree with you. (degree) 

512 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The adverbs still, yet, already 

These three adverbs express, in broad terms, the following time relationships: 

Still refers to processes or states which continue to occur or not occur up to the present. 

Yet refers to processes or states which may occur in the future or have not occurred up to the present moment. 

Already refers to processes or states which occurred before the present moment. 

The following table shows their interrelated uses in questions and answers, as in interpersonal communication. In negative replies, there is 

sometimes an equivalence between the not yet and the still not constructions. When used in monologues or continuous prose, these adverbs 

may be found in other syntactic frames, but mostly in the same basic placements as those shown in the table. 

Question Affirmative answer Negative answer 

1 Does Tom still visit you? Yes, he still visits us. No, he doesn’t visit us any more. 

Yes, he still does. No, he doesn’t visit us any longer. 

No, he no longer visits us. 

2 Is Tom still working? Yes, he is still working. No, he isn’t working any more. 

Yes, he still is. No, he isn’t any more. 

No, he isn’t working any longer. 

No, he is no longer working. 

3 Is Tom working yet? Yes, he is already working. No, he isn’t working yet. 

Yes, he already is. No, he still isn’t working. 

4 Has Tom arrived yet? Yes, he has arrived already. No, he hasn’t arrived yet. 

Yes, he has already arrived. No, he still hasn’t arrived. 

Yes, he already has. No, he hasn’t yet. 

5 Has Tom already gone? Yes, he has already gone. No, he hasn’t gone yet. 

Has Tom gone already? Yes, he has gone already. No, he is still here. 

Yes, he already has. 

6 Does Tom know yet? Yes, he already knows. No, he doesn’t know yet. 

Yes, he knows already. No, he still doesn’t know. 

Yes, he already does. No, he doesn’t yet. 


55.2.5 Function and type 

Since there is rarely a one-to-one relationship between function and type, many words 

can realise more than one syntactic function, with the position of the adverb varying 

according to its function. This is illustrated by the adverbs ‘altogether’ and ‘later’: 

Altogether: 

Later: 

He owes me a hundred dollars altogether (adjunct) 

I think you are altogether wrong (modifier of adj.) 

There were a lot of interesting people there, so altogether we had a 

very good time. (connective) 

There will be another performance later. (adjunct) 

The later performance will be at midnight. (modifier of noun) 

The performance later will be a better one. (post-modifier of noun) 

In conversation, adverbs sometimes occur alone, as responses to something said by the 

previous speaker. In such cases the adverb can carry out such discourse functions as 

agreeing emphatically, expressing mild interest, asserting strongly or granting 

permission in particular contexts: 

Maybe that’s a way to do it. [BNC F7C 26–27] 

Absolutely 

(emphatic agreement) 

Now that’s what I call a first-class meal! 

Definitely! 

(emphatic agreement) 

Did you enjoy the outing? 


Tremendously, yes! 

(emphatic assertion) 

Can I have a look at the contract? 

Certainly. 

(granting permission) 

514 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

MODIFICATION AND MODULE 56 

COMPLEMENTATION IN THE 

ADVERBIAL GROUP 

SUMMARY 

1 Adverbs are graded in the same way as adjectives by more, less, as and so 

on, and the same suppletive forms are used for well and badly as for good and 

bad. 

2 Similarly, intensification is carried out by very, quite, rather, pretty, fairly, among 

others. 

3 Adverbs of space or time are frequently modified by other adverbs of space or 

time (out there, back home). Adverbs of manner are not normally used to modify 

other adverbs of manner, except when expressing modal attitudes. 


4 Few adverbs take direct complements with prepositions or clauses (Luckily for 

us, long to wait). Indirect complements of graded forms function in the same 

way as with adjectives. 

56.1 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE USES 

Adverbs are graded by the same words as adjectives: 

more often, most often, less often, least often, as often, often enough, too often. 

Although the adverb enough is placed after the head adverb, we shall consider it as a 

modifier as we do with adjectives, since it can itself be submodified by an adverb placed 

before the head: not quite often enough (*not quite enough often). 

The following suppletive forms are used as comparative and superlative forms of the 

adjectives good, bad and far, and the adverbs well, badly and far: Good/well: better, best; 

bad/badly: worse, worst; far: further, furthest. 

Tomorrow morning would suit me best, for the meeting. 

It was the driver who came off worst in the accident. 


The forms shared by adverbs and adjectives early, late, quick, fast, long, soon take -est 

and -er in grades 1 and 2. 

His speech was longer than mine. He spoke longer than I did. 

I arrived later than Monica, because I came by a later train. 

Please come the earliest you possibly can. Take the earliest train. 

Correlative forms 

The constructions formed by the more ...the more (or -er ...-er), the less . . . the less, the 

more . . . the less can be used correlatively to indicate a progressive increase, or decrease, 

of the quality or process described. Both adjectives and adverbs can occur in this 

construction: 

The bigger they are, the harder they fall, don’t they? (adj–adv) [BNC KBB 4742] 

The sooner you forget the whole incident, the better. (adv–adv) 

It’s funny, the more painting you do, the more you realise you don’t know. 

[BNC CCO 344] 

The more closely I look at the problem, the less clearly I see a solution. (adv–adv) 

This construction is illustrated in the following extract from an in-flight magazine: 

Don’t eat a large high-fat meal if you want to be mentally sharp afterwards. Too 

much food brings on lethargy. Fat stays in the digestive tract longer, prolonging 

tiredness. The fattier and heavier the meal, the longer it takes you to recover mental 

alertness and energy. 


56.2 INTENSIFYING THE ADVERBIAL MEANING 

As with adjectives, intensification may be (a) high, or (b) medium. 

(a) very soon quite recently right now high up 

just then far back soon after close by 

(b) fairly well pretty easily rather badly 

We saw in 52.1.2 that coordinated comparative adjectives indicate a progressively 

high degree of the quality expressed: it’s getting colder and colder. Adverbial heads also 

participate in this structure, with the adverb as head or as modifier: 

He drove faster and faster along the motorway. 

Her paintings are selling more and more successfully every day. 

516 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Reduplicative adverbs have an intensifying effect: 

very very fast much much better never ever through and through 

over and over up and up again and again round and round 

Attenuation 

a bit harshly kind of hesitantly almost never 

somewhat casually sort of sarcastically hardly ever 

Quantification 

As with adjectives, this refers mainly to circumstantial adverbs of space and time and 

may be either exact, or non-measurable: 

Exact: 

Non-measurable: 

Our houses are only two streets apart. 

I saw her a moment ago. 

quantity is expressed by modifiers such as: soon after, long 

before, quite near, shortly afterwards. 

These circumstantial adverbs can be questioned by how + adj/adv: 

How long have you been waiting? Not long. 

How far is it to the railway station? Not far. 


The focusing modifier: only 

Only is a restrictive focusing adverb which can modify different units: 

I wanted only one piece of toast. 

We go there only once a year. 

There is a tendency in spoken English to front the adverb to a position before the verb: 

I only wanted one piece of toast. 

We only go there once a year. 

Description 

Adverbs of space or time are often preceded by other adverbs of space or time which 

reinforce or describe them more explicitly: 

straight ahead back home up above early today 

out there late yesterday down below in here 


As with adjectives, we may note the emotive modification of adverbs by swear words 

such as damn(ed), as in You behaved damn foolishly, and other less polite ones. 

Though less common in adverbial groups than in adjectival groups, modifiers can be 

found submodified, or even sub-submodified, especially in spoken English: 

rather less fluently 

very much more profitably 

The following adapted extract from a conversation illustrates a rather British use of 

intensifiers: 

J.W. What in fact do we think of when we think of a camel? 

A.R. Well, 1 ... 

J.W. Is it a pleasant animal or . . . 

A.R. An unpleasant animal? . . . Obtuseness I should say generally, 2 the whole 

attitude of a camel seems to be, er, obtuse. It has this, er, rather 3 supercilious 

look on its face . . . for example . . . and they have, I’m told, I’ve never 4 

experienced this I’m happy to say, but they have this magnificent facility for 

spitting quite 5 a considerable distance with great accuracy, er . . . 

J.W. I don’t know that spitting shows obtuseness. I should have thought it probably 6 

shows perspicacity . . . 

G.T. I think he’s slightly 7 ridiculous, the camel, isn’t he? The, er, weird expression 

he has on his face is rather 8 like the ostrich, but the ostrich carries it off. The 

ostrich looks marvellous, where, whereas the camel just 9 doesn’t bring it off 

at all. 

K.B. Camels always 10 strike me as rather 11 mean, they’re ready to do you down 

at the slightest opportunity. 

(L. Dickinson and R. Mackin, Varieties of Spoken English) 


1 

hesitation; 2 frequency; 3 medium intensification; 4 frequency; 5 high intensification; 

6 

modality; 7 

attenuation; 8 

medium intensification; 9 10 

emphasis; frequency; 

11 

intensification (= very) 

56.3 COMPLEMENTATION OF ADVERBS 

The wh-items when, where, why, how and their compounds (somewhere, anywhere, etc.) 

have nominal as well as circumstantial value, as is shown in their post-modification by 

AdjGs (somewhere more exotic), PPs (everywhere in the world), non-fin cl (nowhere to sleep) 

and the adverb else: 

where else? = in what other place? 

when else? = at what other time? 

how else? = in what other way? 

why else? = for what other reason? 

518 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

The forms somewhere, anywhere, nowhere are often replaced in informal AmE by 

someplace, anyplace, no place, though not in wh-questions, e.g. someplace else, anyplace 

else, no place else Circumstantial adverbs are sometimes qualified by others of a similar 

type, so that it is not always clear which is the head and which the modifier: 

We’ll be meeting them sometime soon. 

I need a drink. There must be a pub somewhere near. 

In clauses like the following, the AdvG realising the Adjunct is composed of two 

apposed adverbs: We’ll meet tomorrow Sunday. In informal speech, intensification and 

reinforcement of circumstantial adverbs may be expressed by post-modifiers, such as 

the following: 

The train will be arriving now any minute/any minute now. 

It always arrives punctually on the dot ( = on time). 

Stance adverbs are sometimes modified by enough, in the sense of intensification 

rather than sufficiency: 

Curiously enough, he doesn’t seem to mind criticism. 

The police never found out, oddly enough, who stole the jewels. 

56.3.1 Complements of comparison and excess 

Complements of adverbs are almost exclusively of one type, namely grading. As with 

adjectives, many adverbial heads admit indirect complements, which depend, not on 

the adverb itself, but on the degree modifier. 


More, less . . . than 

-er . . . than 

as...as 

too . . . to-inf 

not adv enough . . . to-inf 

Bill speaks Spanish much more fluently than his sister. 

It rains less often here than in some other countries. 

Our coach left earlier than it should have done. 

I don’t translate as accurately as a professional. 

We reached the station too late to catch the train. 

We didn’t leave early enough to get there in time. 

Such structures may be considered (as with AdjGs) as discontinuous complementation, 

though the two parts of the structure, before and after the head, differ in position and 

content. The modifiers more (-er) and less do not necessarily require the thancomplement; 

on the other hand, complements introduced by than cannot be used 

without a previous modifier which controls this construction. 

If a comparison of equality (as...as...) is established between two adverbs of 

manner (such as elegantly, amusingly) the second as must be followed by a finite clause 

with a form of be, do, or have substituting for the predicator: 

Jane Austen wrote as elegantly as she did amusingly. (and not *as elegantly as 

amusingly) 


Adverbs modified quantitatively by so and that are also complemented in the same 

way as adjectives. The sequence of the clauses can be inverted, the second one then 

becoming an explanatory comment on the first: 

He explained the problem so clearly (that) everybody understood. 

Everybody understood the problem, he explained it so clearly. 

56.3.2 Adverbs taking direct complements 

Whereas a good number of adjectives take prepositional and clausal complements, only 

a few adverbs, all ending in -ly, take direct complements in this way. The preposition 

or clausal complement associated with an adjective is in most cases not extended 

to the adverb: Compare mad about music, safe to drink, but not *madly about music or 

*safely to drink. Only a few prepositions complementing adjectives are also found 

with an adverb. These include: similarly to, independently of, separately from and differently 

from. Apart from these, luckily, fortunately, when used as stance adjuncts, can be complemented 

by for + NG, while the adverbs long (= a long time) and far (=a great distance), 

take a to-infinitive and tend to occur in non-assertive contexts (p. 24), e.g. negative, 

interrogative: 

Luckily/ fortunately for us another coach came along shortly afterwards. 

We didn’t have long to wait. 

Do you have far to go? 

The following recorded conversation is characterised by a variety of very commonly 


used adverbs in various syntactic and discourse functions: 

A. So what’s new, Ann? 

C. Well I don’t know if anything’s terribly 1 new at all 2 really 3 or is it all much 4 

the same? 

B. You still 5 living with Deb? 

C. No, she moved out 6 at the end of April. 

B. Oh. 

A. So, 7 you know, well, 8 we’d been scarcely 9 speaking for almost a year really, 10 

so 11 it was a bit of a 12 heavy atmosphere it didn’t really 13 bother me in fact 

... 

B. m 

C. In fact we just 14 sort of 15 lived entirely 16 separate lives. I used only 17 to see her 

when she came through the kitchen her nose in the air sort of thing. Anyway, 18 

really, 19 I think, the kitchen . . . 

B. A bit 12 awkward, that, I should think you would think a door could be pushed 

through, 21 through where you’ve got that little room with the cupboard in it. 

C. I suppose so, 22 you see, I mean, even 23 if it were a couple living together, 24 it 

520 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

would be just 25 ideal, that sort of thing wouldn’t matter, but it isn’t really 26 suited 

to people who are living separate lives really. 27 So 28 at any rate, she moved 

out. 29 I never 30 heard from her since. 31 

B. You haven’t, not a word? 

C. No, I haven’t heard from her at all 32 and I haven’t contacted her, and she hasn’t 

contacted me. I haven’t really 33 felt I wanted to, cos it was a little 34 sort of 35 

rather 36 unpleasant in the end. 

(Adapted from Jan Svartvik and Randolph Quirk (eds), 

A Corpus of English Conversation) 


Some of the ideas presented in the revised version of this chapter are indebted to the 

following publications: Biber et al. (1999); Halliday (1994); Huddleston and Pullum 

(2002); Quirk et al. (1985). 


Describing persons, things and circumstances 

1 ADJECTIVES AND THE ADJECTIVAL GROUP 


Module 51 

1 After reading the two book blurbs (pp. 477 and 483), use some of the structures to write 

a description of any person you know or have seen, or any novel you have read. 

2 †Express the following sentences differently using a pseudo-participial adjective in -ing or 

-en formed from the noun shown in italics. The first is done for you: 

(1) Lots of people drink spring water sold in bottles. Lots of people drink bottled spring 

water. 

(2) You have shown great enterprise in setting up this firm. 

(3) The newspapers reported all the details of the case. 

(4) Conflicts often arise between countries that are neighbours. 

(5) We live in an ancient town with a great wall round it. 

(6) There are often better opportunities for workers who have skills than for those who 

have not. 

3 †Turn to the passage about Ben and Olly on p. 477. State (a) the function of each 

numbered adjective or AdjG, for example: 1 modifier in NG; (b) Which are classifiers 

and which descriptors; (c) How would you analyse ‘ten’ in ‘Ben and Olly are ten’? 


4 †Say whether the -ing forms derived from transitive and intransitive verbs in the following 

phrases are participial adjectives or participial modifiers. Give a grammatical reason to 

support your analysis: 

transitive: 

intransitive: 

an alarming inflation rate; disturbing rumours; a relaxing drink. 

a ticking clock; fading hopes; a growing debt. 

5 Write very short sentences using the following formal types of compound adjectives. If you 

are not sure of the meaning, consult a good dictionary: 

(1) Adj + V-ing: nice-looking, good-looking, easy-going, hard-wearing. 

(2) Adj + V-en: deep-frozen, big-headed, sharp-eyed. 

(3) Noun + Adj: world-famous, water-tight, self-confident. 

6 Suggest appropriate nouns or adjectives to form compounds with the following adjectives, 

e.g. sea-green. 

-blue, -green, -pink, -red, -cold, -hot, -black, -sweet, -white. 

7 †Express the following NGs differently, using a compound adjective as modifier of the 

head noun. The first is done for you: 

(1) a story so scarifying that it raises the hair on your head = a hair-raising story 

(2) an activity that consumes too much of your time 

(3) cakes that have been made at home 

(4) a speed that takes your breath away 

(5) troops that are borne (= transported) by air 

(6) a plain that has been swept by the wind 

(7) the performance that won an award 

(8) a device that saves a great deal of labour 


Module 52 

1a †Say which of the following adjectives take the inflected forms (-er, -est) for grading and 

which the analytical (more, most): risky, real, varied, blue, typical, mistaken, friendly, userfriendly, 

small, tight, generous, bitter. 

1b Say which of the adjectives as used in the following phrases can be graded: 

(1) shallow water; (2) the closing date; (3) a daily newspaper; (4) a small size; 

(5) the probable outcome; (6) the main reason; (7) a fast driver; (8) the political 

consequences. 

2 In the course of a conversation, a friend makes the following remarks to you. Disagree 

with your friend emphatically using highly intensified adjectives and, where possible, an 

emotive adjective. Use a different intensifier each time, chosen from the following: very, 

extremely, absolutely, really, thoroughly, terrifically, most, exceedingly, completely, highly, 

utterly, perfectly, awfully, hopelessly, dreadfully. 

522 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(1) I don’t think much of these paintings, do you? 

(2) The food in the students’ canteen is pretty awful. 

(3) Have you seen Ross’s new car? It’s a real beauty! 

(4) Apparently, two members of the team have been involved in some kind of scandal. 

(5) You don’t seem to know what’s going on. 

(6) I don’t think she’s the right girl for him. 

(7) Did you see that lousy match on the telly last night? 

(8) You’re looking very energetic and happy today. 

3 On this occasion, your friend will ask you for your opinion, and you will answer using 

adjectives that are moderately intensified by quite, pretty, rather, fairly, reasonably or 

attenuated by expressions such as: a bit, a little, slightly, not particularly, not very, not 

really, to some extent, in some respects, kind of, sort of, not at all. 

(1) Did you have an interesting time in Egypt? 

(2) Was it very hot there at that time of the year? 

(3) Were you in a very large group? 

(4) What were the hotels like? 

(5) Did you find it difficult to communicate with people? 

(6) Were the guides well informed? 

(7) Was the trip expensive? 

(8) Didn’t you find all that travelling tiring? 

(9) I expect you were glad to get home, weren’t you? 

4 Working in pairs, ask and answer questions using how? and the following measurable 


adjectives: 

How long is ...? How old . . .? How deep . . .? How thick . . .? 

How high is/are ...? How tall . . .? How wide . . .? 

4b Ask each other questions with How? and non-measurable adjectives, and use any types 

of intensifier you wish in the answers, for instance: not nearly tall enough to play in a 

basketball team. 

How important . . .? How clever . . .? How hungry . . .? How difficult . . .? 

5 †Add qualitative modifiers to the adjectives in these sentences, choosing them from the 

following list: essentially, genuinely, imaginatively, pleasantly, ferociously, radically, 

ideally. 

(1) The new cultural centre is a(n) - - - - - - - - - - - international project. 

(2) It will be in a style - - - - - - - - - - - different from the usual urban architecture. 

(3) It will be - - - - - - - - - - - placed outside the city, and - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) - - - - - - - - - - - surrounded by fields and trees. 

(5) Some traditionalists have been - - - - - - - - - - - critical of the design. 

(6) The architect has said: ‘We have tried to combine the - - - - - - - - - - - old with the 

- - - - - - - - - - - new’. 


6 †Express these sentences differently by using a ‘relational modifier + adjective’ unit, as in 

the following example: 

From a scientific point of view that opinion is not based on facts or evidence. 

That opinion is scientifically unfounded. 

(1) Drugs are necessary for medical purposes, but if abused they may be dangerous 

from a social point of view. 

(2) The new oral examinations are very good in theory but have proved somewhat 

time-consuming to administer. 

(3) Countries which are advanced in technological matters should help those in which 

science is under-developed. 

Module 53 

1 Complement the adjectives in the following clauses with a finite or non-finite clause. The 

first is done for you: 

(1) Jasmine and Nick are keen to take up golf. 

(2) I am sorry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(3) My girl-friend is insistent - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) You are right - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) This extraordinarily violent film on the passion of Christ is likely - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

- - - - - - - - 

(6) We are convinced - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(7) The Olympic team’s trainer feels confident - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(8) You must be crazy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(9) I am happy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(10) Is she glad - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -? 


2 †Complement the following adjectives with PPs expressing the types of information 

mentioned on the left. The first one is done for you. 

(1) a cause: I’m angry about what you said yesterday - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) a cause: I was delighted - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(3) a process: Not all the students are satisfied - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) a phenomenon: Many of them are opposed - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) an emotion: He went white - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(6) an activity: He is really expert - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(7) an activity: Aren’t you tired - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -? 

(8) a subject: I’m very keen - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

3 Turn to the extract from Roald Dahl’s Boy on p. 499. Then (a) Underline all the adjective 

and AdjGs and state their function; (b) Discuss the parallel aspects of ‘complement’ in both 

nominal groups and adjectival groups, as illustrated in this passage. (NG complements 

are discussed in Chapter 10.) 

524 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4 The following extract comes from the Time discussion transcript archive. The topic was the 

cloning of humans. Read the passage, underlining whole groups containing adjectives and 

adverbs. Use these in sentences of your own on the same topic: 

Timehost presents question: I would like for you to clearly define why you think it is 

morally wrong to clone a human being. So far that has been totally unclear. 

Thomas Murray says: ‘I think the reasons have been made abundantly clear in 

much of the conversation that has taken place since June. The immediate and most 

compelling reason is that cloning, from all the evidence, appears to be an extremely 

unsafe activity right now. The US, and other nations as well, have very strong 

traditions of protecting the human subjects of research. At this time, and for the 

foreseeable future, trying to clone a human being would be clearly unethical 

experimentation.’ 

Another question: 

Timehost presents question: What are your views on the possibility of a ‘master race’ 

possibly being created, where ‘perfect’ children are bought and sold on the black 

markets around the world? 

Thomas Murray says: ‘Well, probably the most fortunate thing about that scenario 

is that at this point it’s really science fiction. I wish I could assure everybody that 

there’s not some crazy person someplace who wouldn’t find a scenario like that 

attractive.’ 


Later, the final question . . . 

Timehost presents question: If this is a fertility treatment, what about custody? 

Wouldn’t a parent that provided the DNA for the cloned child be predisposed to 

custody? 

Thomas Murray: ‘Well, it would be a brand new problem for the law to decide. 

An easy way to dismiss cloning is to raise a variety of legal complexes that it would 

create. And it would create lots of them. I don’t in the end think that’s the most useful 

way to think about what’s good and bad about cloning. I’m more concerned about 

the precise control over the characteristics of offspring that people think, almost 

certainly erroneously, that cloning might provide.’ 


2 ADVERBS AND THE ADVERBIAL GROUP 

Module 54 

1 †Read again the passage by Joyce Cary on p. 505 and identify the type of meaning 

expressed by each adverb or AdvG printed in italics. Are any types used more frequently 

than others? Do you think there is any reason for this? 

2 †Do the same with the following passage, and say whether the relative frequency of the 

types of meanings is the same as in the previous text: 

Is there life elsewhere in the cosmos? One view is that life on earth, especially 

intelligent life, is the result of an incredibly unlikely set of circumstances, and that 

there is no intelligent life anywhere else in our Galaxy, perhaps none in the entire 

Universe. The opposing argument is that there are so many stars and planets in the 

Galaxy that, provided there is even a small chance of intelligence developing on one 

planet, it has probably happened on many others, too. Observations show that about 

10% of all bright stars are roughly similar to the sun. In our Milky Way Galaxy alone 

that means approximately 40 billion stars of the right type. This number is great 

enough to suggest that the odds are quite high. 

James Jeans, The Universe Around Us 

3 †Insert in the following sets of sentences, in appropriate places, suitable adverbs chosen 


from the list of examples suggested for each set. 

(a) Stance adverbs: certainly, reportedly, obviously, allegedly, admittedly, undeniably, 

actually, clearly, undoubtedly, eminently. 

(1) This novel is well suited to the cinema. 

(2) The film is brilliant and moving, though it might have been even more so. 

(3) A visit to the National Theatre is an educational experience for anyone interested 

in twentieth-century architecture. 

(4) The President has not decided yet on seeking a second term. 

(5) The collection includes a poem written by Hitler. 

(6) It was not a well-planned ‘coup’, because it failed so quickly. 

(7) He became a star during the revolt, which allowed him to turn it into a political 

asset. 

(8) Their popularity is rising, judging by the number of fans at their concerts here. 

(b) 

Adverbs of respect: historically, stylistically, politically, socially, racially, 

ideologically, morally, constitutionally, clinically, formally. 

(1) Though not ‘true enemies’, they are unyielding. 

(2) He is well connected. 

(3) The sentences are too long and complex. 

526 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(4) The British are mixed. 

(5) The higher ranks were responsible for the harsh treatment of the prisoners. 

(6) The costumes designed for the play are accurate in every detail. 

(c) 

Restriction and reinforcement: merely, hardly, solely, alone, exclusively, simply; 

just, even; also, too, again, as well, similarly. 

(1) The doctor who begins by searching for a heart-beat on the right-hand side will 

convince the patient that he will be able to help him. 

(2) These taxis are always there when you need one, in the rain. 

(3) To put it in a few words, we do not know the answer. 

(4) The emphasis in language study was for a while on formal grammar. 

(5) Harry said that the river would suit him perfectly, and I said so. 

(6) What has happened explains many problems of the past and will help us avoid 

future ones. 

(d) 

Process adverbs of manner: cautiously, soundly, surreptitiously, heavily, 

momentarily, secretly, endlessly, rigorously, slowly, mechanically. 

(1) Yusuf was sleeping on his back. 

(2) Apparently, the man was suspected of carrying diamonds and should be searched. 

(3) Behind the barrier, Wilson worked at his code books. 

(4) He went on speaking, choosing his words. 

(5) It was said that he drank. 

(6) The rain had stopped. 


Module 55 

1 Revise briefly the list given in 55.1 of the syntactic functions which can be realised by 

AdvGs in groups and clauses. Then make a list of the functions realised by all of those 

used in the text on metals on p. 507. Write out the list and comment on the relative 

frequency of each function. 

2 †Revise the table of uses of still, yet, already given on p. 513. Then answer the following 

questions, (a) affirmatively, and (b) negatively. Give two or three answers to each question. 

(1) Is it time to go yet? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) Have you had your lunch yet? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(3) Do you still love me? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) Are you still studying Russian? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) Is it ten o’clock already? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(6) Have you already been to Venice? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

3 †In the following sentences, insert the adverb given on the left in its appropriate position, 

Indicate alternative positions where they are acceptable, and say whether this affects the 

meaning in any way: 

(1) sometimes: We take long holidays in mountainous areas. 


(2) often: Journalists working in war zones are in danger. 

(3) abroad: She gets on well with people. 

(4) yesterday: They gave a concert. 

(5) longingly: The cat gazed at the brightly coloured fish in the aquarium. 

(6) perhaps: You’d better take an overcoat with you. 

(7) probably: We shall leave tomorrow. 

(8) hopefully: They have arrived at their destination. 

4 We have included the word today in the category of adverb, functioning marginally as 

subject in clause structure and more centrally as adjunct. In one of the grammars mentioned 

in the ‘Further Reading’, today and tomorrow are classed as deictic pronouns, not adverbs. 

Another grammar treats these words as nouns. Discuss these proposals, providing criteria 

and evidence for the different views. Does yesterday fulfil the same conditions as today 

and tomorrow? 

Similarly, ago is sometimes analysed as a preposition with a postposed complement. 

Discuss. 

Module 56 

1 Modify the adverbs marked in the following sentences, in the senses indicated on the left: 

(1) Intensification: She answered automatically, without thinking. 

(2) Medium intensification: He recovered quickly after the operation. 

(3) Description: The book is selling well. 

(4) Attenuation: The look on his face was weird. 

(5) Quantification: He had a few drinks and later was involved in an 

accident. 

(6) Description: The winner of the car rally drove fast. 

(7) Intensification: Our team didn’t play well on that occasion. 


2 Add a post-modifier or complement to the AdvG in the following sentences: 

(1) It’s hotter in the Sahara than anywhere - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) When we came out of the Pyramids, I said to myself: ‘Never’ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(3) I can’t find my glasses. They must be somewhere - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) Curiously - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - he used exactly the same word 

as I did. 

(5) She doesn’t dance as beautifully - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(6) Do your friends live far - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

3 †Read the conversation on pages 520–1, nd identify the syntactic function of each 

numbered adverb and the semantic type to which it belongs. 

528 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

SPATIAL, TEMPORAL AND CHAPTER 12 

OTHER RELATIONSHIPS 

The Prepositional Phrase 

Module 57: Prepositions and the Prepositional Phrase (PP) 531 

57.1 Internal structure of the Prepositional Phrase 532 

57.2 Features of the Prepositional Phrase 533 

57.3 One-word, two-word and multi-word prepositions 534 

57.4 Realisations of the complement element 536 

57.5 Realisations of the modifier element 538 

Module 58: Syntactic functions of the Prepositional Phrase 540 

58.1 The grammatical role of prepositions 540 

58.2 Syntactic functions of Prepositional Phrases 541 

58.2.1 PPs embedded as elements of groups 541 


58.2.2 PPs as elements of clauses 541 

58.3 Classes of words with the same form as prepositions 543 

58.3.1 Prepositions and verbs 543 

58.3.2 Prepositions and conjunctions 543 

58.3.3 Prepositions and adverbs 544 

Module 59: Semantic features of the Prepositional Phrase 546 

59.1 Two types of prepositional meanings 547 

59.2 Lexical prepositional meanings 547 

59.2.1 Location in space 547 

59.2.2 Change of location 549 

59.2.3 Other spatial prepositions 549 

59.2.4 Non-locative meanings 551 

59.3 Time relations 551 

59.4 Metaphorical and abstract uses 552 

59.5 Grammaticised prepositions 554

Module 60: Stranded Prepositions; Discontinuous prepositional 

phrases 556 

60.1 Structures which involve stranding a preposition 556 


Exercises 559 


PREPOSITIONS AND THE MODULE 57 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) 

SUMMARY 

1 Prepositions have a relating function: they establish relations between nominal 

units, mainly nouns and nominal groups, and other units in the surrounding 

discourse. The prepositional phrase consists of a preposition together with its 

complement, typically a nominal group as in under the chair. 

2 Prepositions may consist of one word (from), two words (because of) or three 

(in contact with) and occasionally four (with the exception of ). All are single 

prepositions. 


3 The sequence preposition + nominal complement, with optional 

modifier, can function as a clause element (It fell right into the water) or a 

group element (the house on the corner). Unlike nouns, adjectives and adverbs, 

which can function alone as head of their respective groups, the preposition 

cannot stand alone, without its complement (*it fell right into, *the house on). 

In other words, the combination of preposition + complement is not reducible 

to a single element and for this reason is classified as a ‘phrase’. 

4 The complement may be realised by a nominal group represented by a noun 

(in town), a pronoun (after me), a full NG (for a long time), an adjective (in 

full), an adverb (for now), a PP (except at work), a wh-clause (because of what 

happened), a non-finite -ing clause (by concentrating hard). 

5 When modified, the preposition, or sometimes the whole PP, may be graded 

(more like a canary), intensified (right through the wall), quantified (a mile down 

the road) or described (wonderfully on form). 

INTRODUCTION 

A notable feature of the English language is the extremely wide lexico-grammatical use 

it makes of prepositions. And where there is a preposition there is a PP, since 

RELATIONSHIPS: THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 531

prepositions cannot normally stand alone, although they can be separated from their 

complement by ‘stranding’ (see 6.3.3; 60.1). 

57.1 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE PREPOSITIONAL 

PHRASE 

Nouns, adjectives and adverbs each function as head of their respective groups. In 

AdjGs, AdvGs and NGs, the ‘head’ is the main element, to which the other elements, 

when present, are subordinate. For this reason, the head element – a noun, an adjective 

or an adverb – can be used alone, without other elements, potentially in representation 

of the whole group. Structures of this kind centre on the head. 

In a prepositional phrase (PP), the relation between the preposition and the nominal 

unit that follows it (e.g. under the bed, from home) does not centre on a head. A 

preposition cannot normally occur without a nominal unit, and a nominal unit is not 

part of a PP if there is no preposition. Both are equally necessary to form the phrase; 

both have equal grammatical status. For this reason we refer to the unit consisting of a 

preposition, its complement and an optional modifier as a ‘prepositional phrase’ (PP). 

The internal structure of PPs consists of a preposition and its complement, both of 

which are obligatory, and an optional modifier. It can be represented as follows: 

Prepositional Phrase 

m prep c 


right 

into 

the policeman’s arms 

completely 

straight 

just 

quite 

only 

out of 

along 

at 

near 

by 

control 

this road 

that moment 

here 

concentrating hard 

Not all PPs contain a modifier but all of them contain a preposition and a 

complement. The modifier typically intensifies the preposition by adding something 

semantically specific to the sense of the preposition, such as exactness and immediacy 

in the case of right, together with completion (right into the policeman’s arms) or 

exclusiveness (only by concentrating hard). 

Here is a recorded conversation between three students and a teacher (T), which 

illustrates the abundant use of prepositional phrases in English. Examples are numbered 

for future reference and explanation: 

532 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

T: What’s this about? 1 

B: Oh, animals. 

T: Oh, yes. People are obsessed in this country 2 with being kind 3 to animals, 4 aren’t 

they? 

A: Alison and her cat . . .! 

B: Don’t talk to us 5 about Alison’s cat! 6 

C: That cat is definitely not popular in our house! 7 

B: That cat moults constantly all over our carpet and sofa! 8 

T: But is it true, though? See what I mean? She hates cats! 

A: Just for that silly reason? 9 

T: No, but there seem to be more cases of animal cruelty 10 going on here than 

anywhere else. 11 

A: Yeah. I get the impression from the little I know 12 they’re just as crazy about 

dogs 13 in Belgium and Holland and France and Italy 14 as they are over here. 15 

T: Is it just one of those myths that we perpetuate regarding the British character? 16 

Is it true? 

A: I think it probably is a myth. 

(recorded conversation) 

57.2 FEATURES OF THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 

The prepositional phrase normally functions as: 


• an element of clause structure, for example as Adjunct (e.g. I decided to become a 

writer precisely for that reason); or 

• as a unit embedded in classes of groups, for example as post-modifier of a noun 

(e.g. the girl at the cash desk) or as complement of an adjective (e.g. delighted at your 

success) as explained in 58.2. 

PPs are frequently embedded in other structures, including other PPs: 

On top of [the cupboard [[in your office]] 

In [an envelope [under the letters [in the drawer]]] 

Obsessed [with being kind [to animals]] 

The sequence prep + NG + prep + NG may sometimes be structurally ambiguous. 

For instance, ‘near the bar on the corner’ can represent the following two structures 

which express different meanings: 

1 a simple preposition + complement, which contains another PP as post-modifier: 

near [the bar on the corner] (on the corner is m in the NG headed by ‘bar’) 


2 two independent PPs, functioning as two adjuncts, which might be reversed in 

order: 

near [the bar] + [on the corner] 

on [the corner] + near [the bar] 

The preposition is often stranded to the end of a clause and is separated from the 

nominal. Stranding is typical of spoken English, while the non-stranded counterparts 

are very formal: 

What’s this about? (‘What’ functions as complement of about: about what?) 

Which book are you referring to? (To which book are you referring?) 

The meanings of prepositions are either lexical and ‘free’, or grammaticised and 

‘bound’. Grammaticised uses of prepositions are those which are controlled by a verb, 

adjective or noun, as happens in obsessed with, talk to us, kind to animals, cases of cruelty. 

Lexical prepositional meanings are those freely chosen according to the speaker’s 

communicative intention (in this country, all over our carpet and sofa). Both are discussed 

in Module 59. 

57.3 ONE-WORD, TWO-WORD AND MULTI-WORD 

PREPOSITIONS 

Prepositions may be ‘simple’ (consisting of a single word) or ‘complex’ (consisting of 


two words or three). 

One-word prepositions 

The short, simple forms are by far the commonest, such as: 

about, across, after, around, as, at, by, down, for, from, in, like, near, of, off, on, round, 

to, towards, with, without 

Other one-word prepositions include: 

above, against, beneath, besides, below; during, inside, throughout; considering, regarding; 

given, granted; opposite; despite; than 

Two-word prepositions 

These consist of a preposition (e.g. except), an adjective (e.g. contrary), an adverb (e.g. 

instead) or a conjunction (e.g. because), followed by one of the prepositions for, from, of, 

to, with: 

+ for: as for, except for, but for 

+ from: apart from, away from, as from 

534 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

+ of: ahead of, because of, inclusive of, instead of, regardless of, out of 

+ to: according to, as to, close to, contrary to, due to, next to, on to, near to; on 

to, owing to, thanks to, up to 

+ with: together with, along with 

In most two-word prepositions, the meaning is expressed by the first word, the second 

serving to link it to the complement: 

according to my information; because of what I said 

The forms into and onto can be considered as merged forms, consisting of an adverb 

(in, on) merged with a preposition to. Some other one-word prepositions were once two 

words: upon, without, throughout among others. 

Three-word prepositions 

These usually have the form prep + noun + prep (e.g. in conflict with), with the noun 

sometimes being determined by the (e.g. in the hands of). The first preposition is virtually 

limited to in, on, by, at, for, with, and the second to of, with, for and to. Two other 

combinations in common use have an adverb between two occurrences of as: as far as, 

as well as. 

as far as, as well as, by means of, by way of, in aid of, in charge of, in view of, in return 

for, in exchange for, in spite of, in contact with, on top of, on the part of, at the hands of, 

with regard to, with reference to 


Four-word prepositions 

All these have the form prep + a/ the + noun + of (e.g. as a result of, at the expense of, 

on the part of, with the exception of ). 

Sometimes the noun of a complex preposition may be modified by an adjective, as 

in with the surprising exception of Tom; in close contact with you. 

PPs with the possessive 

A small number of PPs containing complex prepositions ending in of have an alternative 

structure in ’s, no doubt because the complex preposition could also be analysed as a 

simple preposition with a NG complement: for + the sake of the children; on + behalf of 

the committee: 

for the sake of the children; 

for the children’s sake; 

on behalf of the committee; 

on the committee’s behalf. 

However, non-personal reference is not always used with the genitive form: compare 

for heaven’s sake, but not *for peace and quiet’s sake. 


57.4 REALISATIONS OF THE COMPLEMENT ELEMENT 

The complement element of a PP is most typically realised by a nominal group, but it 

may also be realised by the classes of groups and clauses shown below. Simple nouns 

and pronouns, adjectives and adverbs are treated as ‘groups’ represented by the head: 

NGs: at home after which on account of his age 

AdjGs: in private at last for good 

AdvGs: for ever since when until quite recently 

PPs: except in here from out of the forest 

fin. wh-cl: 

Have you decided about when you’re leaving? 

wh + to-inf. cl: Have you any problems apart from where to stay? 

-ing cl: 

The miners charge the employers with ignoring their 

claims. 

The following restrictions exist on the realisation of complements: 

Adjectival and adverbial groups 

Nouns, pronouns and NGs are by far the most common realisation of the prepositional 

complement. By contrast, the use of AdjGs and AdvGs as complements is infrequent 

and limited to certain set expressions such as at last, for good, for ever, as in: 

At last I’m free! [BNC GWH 1268] 


. . . the family left Ireland for good and made its future in England. 

I could stay here for ever, it’s so beautiful. 

[BNC EDA 313] 

Wh-clauses 

English prepositions are not followed by that-clauses (see 11.1.2, p. 104). The only type 

of finite clause admissible is the wh-clause, and the only non-finite type the -ing clause. 

To-infinitive clauses are not admissible either, except when introduced by a wh-item. 

Combinations 1a and 2a (below), therefore, are not acceptable. An -ing clause can often 

provide an acceptable alternative, as in 1b and 2b: 

1a *I was pleased about (that) Pat won the prize. 

1b I was pleased about Pat winning the prize. 

2a *We were annoyed at not to get any news from you. 

2b We were annoyed at not getting any news from you. 

536 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Use of -ing clauses 

One must be careful to distinguish to-infinitive clauses from the preposition to, which 

can take an -ing clause, as in the first example below. Most other prepositions likewise 

take the -ing form, as this is the most nominal among clauses: 

He devoted his career to helping needy and deprived children. 

The intruder escaped by clambering over a back fence. 

The following continuation of the recorded student–teacher conversation shows that 

the largest number of complements are realised by nouns, pronouns and full NGs, with 

a sprinkling of finite and non-finite clauses (see exercise on p. 559). 

The ‘Green’ Party 

A: It’s really making a come-back all of a sudden. 1 

B: Seems to come in and out of fashion. 2 

A: Yeah. 

B: We had elections at school 3 and the ‘Green’ party did win, actually. 

A: So did we. It was a big surprise to everyone, 4 so many anti-establishment 

adherents amongst us. 5 

T: I get the impression that it’s a non-vote, just a comfortable way of not having 

to take a decision. 6 

B: Yeah, a pressure vote, so that you don’t have to vote either for the 

Conservatives 7 or for the Labour Party. 8 People just can’t be bothered with 

comparing programmes and thinking 9 about who to vote for. 10 

T: And you think this has a significant impact on the way the other parties have 

formed their policies? 11 

B: Yeah, but it’s . . . it’s just waffle, just an excuse for getting votes. 12 

T: Do you feel very cynical about them, 13 then? 

B: Suppose I do, a bit. 

T: One of the things people say about, well, at least some of the younger 

generation, 14 not all of them, 15 but on the whole 16 is, there’s no radicalism 

among people today 17 who are in their late teens and twenties. 18 It’s what the 

forty-year-olds say about the twenty-year-olds. 19 They think back to when they 

were young 20 and what they were like then 21 and say that the younger 

generation don’t have any radical or controversial views any more. 

A: I don’t think radicalism has disappeared. Maybe it has been channelled into 

that ‘green’ area. 22 

B: Yeah. A lot of former ideas have been ditched in favour of moving towards a 

position much closer to the centre than before. 23 



57.5 REALISATIONS OF THE MODIFIER ELEMENT 

Like nouns, adjectives and adverbs, prepositions can also be modified. As already stated, 

the modifier tends to modify the preposition, though, as we have mentioned, it 

sometimes appears to modify the relationship expressed by the preposition + complement, 

for instance, in the case of directional modifiers. The modification usually takes the form 

of intensification, direction, attenuation, quantification, description (as with adjectives 

and adverbs) or simply of focusing and reinforcement. Grading by comparative or 

superlative appears to be more restricted. Not all prepositions admit modifiers. The 

following are attested examples. 

Grading modifiers – more, less, far more, much less, the most, the least, in the least 

It was a wonderful day. A day that seemed more like a dream than real life. 

[BNC FRY 494] 

Later, the two houses nearer the church were made into one. [BNC B13 600] 

He says he doesn’t want to sound in the least like our noisy neighbours. 

Intensifying modifiers – completely, directly, right, well, all, absolutely, greatly, 

straight, badly, much 

The ball went right through the window. 

Today I’m feeling absolutely on top of the world. 

Sit down, Paul, and I’ll tell you all about it. 

The walls are badly in need of a coat of paint. 


Directional modifiers – up, down, out, over 

I’ll meet you down by the river. 

The balloons floated up over the houses. 

The race-course is over/out on the other side of Madrid. 

Attenuating modifiers – partly, scarcely, not fully, to some extent, slightly, a little, a 

bit, hardly, not at all, not altogether, somewhat 

I think you’re slightly/a bit out of touch with reality. 

It’s hardly thanks to Mr Payne’s advice that the deal was concluded successfully. 

Quantifying modifiers – a long time, not that much, miles, two hours, way back, 

light years, streets; nearly, almost 

She was streets ahead of her rivals. 

That all happened way back in history. 

Almost at the same moment, they realised they were lost. 

538 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Descriptive or attitudinal modifiers – surprisingly, hopelessly, dangerously, 

unexpectedly 

We were dangerously close to having an accident. 

He is hopelessly in love with a girl who ignores him. 

Focusing or reinforcing modifiers – precisely, mainly, just, principally, chiefly, 

merely, only 

Emil told him that alcohol was available only after departure [BNC BP9 317] 

You say that just for the sake of arguing. 

In many of these examples – just as with prepositions that have adverbs of the same 

form, such as near, after, before, in, above – it is the preposition rather than the prep + 

complement that is being modified: 

We live quite near the main square. 

We arrived just before midnight. 

On the other hand, certain modifiers seem to relate semantically, though not syntactically, 

more closely to the complement, as is sometimes seen in the possibility 

of using an alternative construction, where the adjective or adverb do modify the head 

syntactically: 

I obtained my first job purely by I obtained my first job by pure accident. 


accident. 

We worked almost until midnight We worked until almost midnight. 

The firm is badly in debt. 

The firm has some bad debts. 


SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF MODULE 58 

THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 

SUMMARY 

1 The basic grammatical role of a preposition is to establish a functional 

relationship between its complement and another syntactic element in a nearby 

structure, whether a clause or a group. 

2 In doing this, the whole PP itself functions as an element of the clause (e.g. as 

adjunct in: He works at Heathrow Airport) or group (e.g. complement in: angry 

at his refusal). 

3 PPs can realise up to six syntactic functions in groups and eight in clauses. Some 

of these are frequent and others infrequent. 


4 Some words can be used not only as prepositions but also as adverbs (e.g. 

about) or conjunctions (e.g. until) or verbs (considering), or adverbial particles 

(up). It is important to recognise their different class and functions. 

5 The two-word and three-word prepositions tend to have a ‘core’ or ‘prototype’ 

meaning. The one-word items cover a more varied range of case meanings. 

58.1 THE GRAMMATICAL ROLE OF PREPOSITIONS 

The grammatical role of prepositions is to express a variety of syntactic and semantic 

relationships between nominal entities and 

• other nominals (the bridge over the river), 

• verbs (he ran into the room), 

• clauses (support for raising the subscription), 

• adjectives (angry at his refusal), 

• adverbs (up to the top). 

540 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

When a preposition links its complement to another element of a clause or a group, the 

whole PP itself becomes a functional element of the clause or group. 

58.2 SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 

PPs can realise up to fourteen syntactic functions as constituents of groups, of clauses 

or outside clauses. They share the functions with other classes of unit and are therefore 

mentioned again in the sections below. 

58.2.1 PPs embedded as elements of groups 

1 (Post-)modifier in NG A bridge over the river, apricots on the tree. 

2 Complement in NG He is a teacher of French literature. 

3 (Pre-)modifier in NG Off-the-record comments should not be printed in 

a newspaper. 

4 Complement in AdjG My son is brilliant at mathematics. 

5 Complement in AdvG They don’t live far from here. 

6 Complement in PP I’m free all day except on Mondays. 

An important feature of PPs is their ability to be embedded recursively in other PPs or 

in groups. In other words, one unit is embedded in another, which is embedded in 

another, and so on (see 3.6.3), as in: 

7 A car accident [on the motorway [to Yorkshire]]. 


58.2.2 PPs as elements of clauses 

Prepositional phrases can realise every element of clause structure except the predicator. 

However, their use in the central functions of subject and object is marginal, and 

is normally restricted to expressions of place or time. 

8 Subject After dark is the only good time for fireworks. 

9 Direct Object I don’t consider next to a railway line a good place to live. 

Some verbs are closely related to a specific preposition and take a prepositional object 

(see also 6.3.1): 

10 Prepositional Object Someone has been tampering with the scanner. 

Prepositional phrases are used freely as Complements of the subject or the object to 

express temporary states, where they are often interchangeable with adjectives. Even 

more commonly, they occur after verbs of position or movement to specify place or 

direction (Locative/ Goal Complement): 

11 Subject Complement Monica must be out of her mind to reject such an 

interesting offer. (Monica must be mad.) 


12 Object Complement His illness left him without a job. (His illness left him jobless.) 

13 Locative/Goal Complement The train to London is now standing at the platform 

and the high-speed train from York is drawing into the station. 

Prepositional phrases are also commonly used to realise the three main types of adjunct: 

circumstantial, stance and connective. 

As circumstantial adjuncts 

In this function they typically occur in either final or initial position: 

14 final position All this happened long before the war. 

15 initial position Behind us, we saw that the queue on the motorway stretched for 

miles. 

As stance adjuncts 

Like some other classes of units – mainly adverbs, AdvGs and clauses – certain PPs can 

function syntactically as Stance Adjuncts (see 8.2.5), that is to say outside clause 

structures, to express a comment on–or an attitude to–the form or content of a whole 

clause. They then have the status of supplementives (see 2.4.1): 

16 In all honesty, I don’t believe a word he said. 

17 By all means, do whatever you think best. 


Although we regard Stance Adjuncts here as syntactically outside clause structure, from 

a semantic and psychological point of view they are part of the thematic organisation 

of the discourse surrounding the clause. In other words, the clause itself is not the 

domain of Theme, but rather the clause plus any supplementive attached to it. For this 

reason, we include them in Chapter 6 as a type of non-experiential Theme (see 28.12). 

As connective adjuncts 

Prepositional phrases can also be used as connective Adjuncts to link clauses, or groups 

and words within clauses: 

18 A. I’m leaving now. B. In that case, I’ll go too. 

Of these syntactic functions, by far the commonest are adjuncts of various kinds and 

Locative/Goal Complements in clauses, together with modifiers in group structures, 

especially NGs. 

542 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

58.3 CLASSES OF WORDS WITH THE SAME FORM AS 

PREPOSITIONS 

Some of the one-word prepositions included in 57.3 can also realise functions characteristic 

of verbs, conjunctions, adverbs and adjectives. Such items are considered here 

as words having the same form (homographs), but fulfilling different functions as a result 

of diachronic extension. 

58.3.1 Prepositions and verbs 

The following participial forms can function either as prepositions or as verbs: 

barring, considering, excepting, excluding, following, including, regarding, given, granted. For 

example, 

prep: 

verb: 

prep: 

verb: 

prep: 

verb: 

prep: 

verb: 

No-one barring a lunatic would start a nuclear war. 

There are restrictions barring the employment of children under 

sixteen. 

There are always problems regarding punctuality. 

Up to now I have been regarding you as a friend. 

We open seven days a week excluding Christmas Day. 

I’m not excluding the possibility of an agreement. 

These prices refer to a double room, including breakfast. 

We are including two new colleagues in the research group. 


58.3.2 Prepositions and conjunctions 

It was mentioned in Section 57.4 that prepositions may be followed by finite wh-clauses 

and by non-finite clauses in -ing, since these have nominal reference. A small number 

of items referring to moments of time can, however, be used to introduce declarative 

finite clauses, and are then usually considered as having a conjunctive function (35.2.1): 

prep: 

conj: 

prep: 

conj: 

prep: 

conj: 

prep: 

conj: 

after his accident; after having an accident. 

after he had his accident. 

before your arrival; before arriving. 

before you arrived. 

since our meeting; since meeting you. 

since we met. 

until my visit to Paris; until going to Paris. 

until I went to Paris. 

Three of the participial items mentioned in Section 57.3, considering, given, granted, enter 

into construction with finite that-clauses and so can be classed as conjunctious having 

the same form as the corresponding prepositions: 

prep: 

conj: 

Considering his age, he did very well in the competition. 

Considering that he is so young, he did very well. 


prep: 

conj: 

prep: 

conj: 

Given your interest in painting, you’ll enjoy living in Florence. 

Given that you are so interested in painting, you’ll enjoy your stay in 

Florence. 

Granted the changes nuclear energy will bring about, it will still need to be 

carefully controlled. 

Granted (that) nuclear energy will bring about many changes, it will still 

need to be carefully controlled. 

58.3.3 Prepositions and adverbs 

Both prepositions and adverbs express, typically, circumstantial meanings, especially 

those of space and time. It is not surprising, therefore, that some words can realise 

functions of both classes. The following are examples: aboard, about, above, across, after, 

along, around, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, down, in, inside, near, off, on, 

opposite, outside, through, throughout, under, underneath, up. 

Here are some structural criteria for distinguishing prepositions from adverbs: 

• A preposition – but not an adverb – requires a nominal complement, and when this 

is a pronoun, the preposition governs its case (for him, to them). 

• In paired examples such as We went into the café – we went in, what was a preposition 

in the first version is replaced by an adverb in the second. 

• the adverb is heavily stressed, whereas the preposition is normally unstressed, or 

only lightly stressed (lower down the scale vs lower DOWN; we walked past the café – 

we walked PAST); see Section 6.4.2. 


In certain positions prepositions are stressed; for instance, when stranded at the end of 

a wh-question: What is it FOR? Where is it FROM? The preposition with is stressed in the 

expression ‘with it’ (= trendy), and also in one adjunctive use I’ll take it WITH me, but 

not in to start with (= (at) first). Without is similarly stressed in I can’t do WITHOUT it, 

WITHOUT you. In the combinations do without and go without (food), the word without 

functions as an adverb particle: There’s no milk left, so we’ll just have to do without. 

In the following examples, both the adverb and the PP are functioning as Adjuncts 

or Locative Complements: 

Adverb 

Preposition 

There are always two pilots aboard aboard the plane. 

All the children were running around around the playground. 

The last time I met Monica was 

in September, but I haven’t seen her since since then. (cohesive with 

September) 

The rule is that workmen must go outside outside the factory if they 

want to smoke during the 

morning break. 

544 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

However, not all prepositions have adverbial counterparts: the forms at, from and 

towards function as prepositions, but not as adverbs. Conversely, the forms together, 

apart and forth function singly as adverbs but not as prepositions. When combined with 

a preposition, however, together with and apart from function as complex prepositions. 

Furthermore, even when a form serves both functions, the sense may be different in 

each case. To as a preposition is different from its adverbial function in The unconscious 

boy came TO (= recovered consciousness) in both stress and meaning. 

In the following examples, the words in italics function as part of a PP (in the left 

column) and as modifier of a NG head (in the right): 

PP 

near the town centre 

outside the gates 

inside the museum 

tears rolled down her cheeks 

m in NG 

near neighbours of mine 

an outside broadcast 

some inside information 

a down payment 



SEMANTIC FEATURES OF THE MODULE 59 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 

SUMMARY 

1 The choice of preposition in a PP may be (a) governed by the particular noun, 

verb or adjective that precedes it (a threat to, depend on, bored with), or (b) 

chosen freely from a set of prepositions expressing different relationships (under, 

over, between, across, along, etc.), as in Let’s place the lamp in the corner/ 

on the desk/ by the armchair). The former type is said to be ‘grammaticised’ 

or ‘bound’. The latter type is ‘lexical’ or ‘free’. 

2 Location in space and change of location are the most basic types of 

prepositional relations. When speakers use in or on or under in English, for 

example, they make use of cognitive patterns or mental image schemas of each 

relationship, in accordance with the way each relation is perceived in the 

culture. 


3 The concepts of Figure and Ground (or, more specifically, Trajector and 

Landmark) are used to refer to the salient object, whether moving or stationary, 

and the point of reference, respectively, in a spatial event. The preposition 

expresses the relation between the two – such as ‘containment’ (in), or ‘support’ 

(on) – in the most basic use. Further uses can then be explained as modifications 

of the basic image schema, as these mental pictures are perceived and derived 

from our experience of the world. 

4 Many basic patterns of spatial location are carried over to time relations, e.g. 

in the house, in November, in 1492, and to ordinary metaphorical uses which 

form part of our daily interaction (in love, in time, in pain). 

546 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

59.1 TWO TYPES OF PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS 

Prepositional meanings can be divided into two broad types: 

• those in which the choice of preposition is determined by the verb, noun or adjective 

preceding it; and 

• those in which a preposition is chosen freely in accordance with the speaker’s 

intentions. 

We say that the first type has become ‘grammaticised’ or ‘bound’, while the second type 

is more ‘lexical’ and ‘free’: 

grammaticised 

lexical 

I agree with you; I have confidence in you; fruit is good for 

you. 

We flew/in/into/out of/through/above/below/close to/ 

near/a long way from the clouds. 

In previous sections we have discussed those prepositions which are determined by 

nouns (50.5), adjectives (53.1.3) and verbs (6.3.1; 10.5) (e.g. look after, rely on, put up 

with). These are all grammaticised; that is to say, in such cases the preposition does not 

have its full lexical meaning and is not in open choice with other prepositions. We 

noticed that nouns which take prepositional complements are related to cognate verbs 

or adjectives that take the same prepositional complement, as in the following examples: 

nouns: 

adjs: 

verbs: 

compatibility with, reliance on, damage to, a liking for, an attack on, a 

quarrel with 

compatible with, opposed to, free of/from, lacking in 

to rely on, to dispose of, to amount to, to hope for, to quarrel with, give 

it to me (with the Recipient encoded as a prepositional phrase) 


But notice that, when the noun or adjective takes of, the verb (if it exists) does not 

necessarily take the same, as with ‘hope(ful) of success’ but ‘hope to succeed’. 

59.2 LEXICAL PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS 

59.2.1 Location in space 

The most basic prepositional meanings have to do with location in space. When we 

express spatial relationships we use a mental picture or image schema for each type of 

relationship, in which a salient Figure, typically a person or thing, is located – or moves 

– with relation to a reference point or Ground (usually another entity). It is the principle 

of salience or prominence which enables us to explain why it is more natural to say ‘the 

book is on the table’ than ‘the table is under the book’. In Chapter 8, we encountered 

Figure and Ground, together with Path and Manner, when describing a Motion Event, 

with the example: The children went down to the beach, in which the Figure is ‘the children’ 

and the Ground is ‘the beach’. 


In 1 (below), the Figure (the boy) is stationary with respect to the Ground (the water), 

while in 2 the Figure (the boy) is moving with respect to the Ground: 

1 The boy is in the water. 2 The boy is going into the water. 

As we examine the different spatial relationships expressed by prepositions, we see that 

the nominal group or clause following the preposition represents the Ground, while the 

Figure is a nearby entity in the clause, like the boy. (Other, more specific terms which 

have been widely adopted in the analysis of prepositions are ‘Trajector’ and ‘Landmark’ 

for Figure and Ground, respectively.) 

We now turn to the main types of meaning expressed by spatial prepositions in 

English, in terms of Figure and Ground: 

At: point in space: Tim is at home, at the football match, at the 

cinema, at the supermarket, at work 

On: in contact with a surface: on the floor/wall/ceiling; on the corner of 

Bond Street; on a bicycle; on the train/bus/ 

on board ship; on the map; a wasp on my 

hand 

In: containment: in the universe, in the world, in France, in the 

garden; in the corner, in the car, in a boat, 

the coin in my hand 


The preposition at is used when attendance at the typical function of the premises 

is implied (e.g. at the cinema in order to see a film; at church to attend a religious service), 

all when the speaker is not at the same location as the Figure. In visualising Tim’s 

location at the cinema, the speaker is deliberately vague about exactly where at the 

cinema Tim is. Tim may in fact be in the queue outside the cinema, or inside, seeing 

the film. If the speaker were already outside the cinema and asks where Tim is, the 

answer would be specific: He’s in the cinema, he’s inside. 

On prototypically has the Figure in contact with and supported by a surface (the 

Ground), whether horizontal (there’s a pen on the floor) or vertical (there’s a fly on the wall). 

The Ground includes vehicles and animals on which one rides (on a bicycle/motorcycle/ 

horse), and larger vehicles in transit which have a walkway (on the bus/train, plane, on 

board a ship), whereas in is used where no such walkway exists (in a boat, in a car, in a 

helicopter). However, referring to a train, we say in the dining-car, in the first-class 

compartment, which are conceptualised as containers. When the vehicle is not in active 

use, it is conceived as a container and in may be used (The children were playing in the 

abandoned bus). 

In implies containment: There are strong security forces in the stadium. Containment 

may be complete (the coins in my purse) or in part (Put the flowers in water, a man in a blue 

shirt and jeans). The difference between in the corner (of a room) and on the corner (of the 

street) is one of perspective, whether the right-angle is perceived as containing or 

projecting. 

548 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

59.2.2 Change of location 

Change of location implies motion. Source (see 8.2.3) represents the initial location, and 

is typically marked by the preposition from, while Goal represents the final location and 

is most often marked by to, or by to in combination with on for a surface (onto) or in for 

a container (into). ‘Home’ in go home is an exception in not expressing the notion of 

final location (Goal) explicitly. (Note the explicit encoding of location in BrE ‘stay at 

home’ against the inexplicit AmE ‘stay home’). 

From (source) . . . to (goal) From the bus-stop to the stadium. 

Off . . . (source) . . . onto (goal) The vase fell off the table onto the floor. 

Off . . . (source) . . . into (goal) The boy fell off the cliff into the sea. 

Out of (source) 

I took the money out of my purse. He ran 

out of the house. 

Across, along (path) 

We went from the bus-stop, along the 

street to the stadium. 

Through (passage) 

We went through the tunnel. 

Out of is visualised as exit from a container. Note that the adverb out + the 

preposition of provides the converse meaning with respect to into: into the water/ out of 

the water, while away + from indicates greater distancing: away from the water. Similarly, 

off is the converse of on and onto (off the table onto the floor). 

As we saw in 40.2.2, embeddings of prepositional phrases within adverbial groups 

express complex spatial meanings which are difficult to translate, for example: back from 

the front line, in from the fields, over to the left, up from below. 

Across, along express Path. The difference is that along simply follows a horizontal 

axis, (We walked along the river bank, Cars were parked along the street), while across 

involves crossing the axis, or an open space, at an angle, from one side to another (She 

walked across the street/ the field). 

Through prototypically has the meaning of Passage (motion into a point and then 

out of it (He hurried through the doorway). The Ground can also be two-dimensional 

(You could go through the park, through a maze of streets) or three-dimensional, with 

volume (We drove through the tunnel). 

Past is similar to along, but with respect to some fixed point: Go past the stadium and 

you’ll come to a supermarket. 


59.2.3 Other spatial prepositions 

Other basic spatial prepositions include over, under, up and down. Over is used in 

several ways: 

(a) A picture hangs over the fireplace. 

(b) A helicopter flew over our heads. 

(c) They live over a sweet-shop. 

(d) He wore a raincoat over his suit. 

(e) The lake is just over the hill. 


(f) They sprayed paint all over the wall. 

(g) The horse jumped over the fence. 

(h) I fell over a stone and broke my leg. 

In (a) and (b), one entity is higher than the other, with a space between, the difference 

being that (a) is static location (b) involves motion. The notion of ‘higher’ is still clear in 

(c) but less clear in (d) where, in addition, ‘space’ is reduced to the meaning of ‘on top 

of’. In (e), over implies location at the end of a path. One has to go over the hill to reach 

the lake. In (f) all over is ‘pervasive’ or ‘covering’, whereas (g) signals a movement of 

going up higher than an obstacle and down again on the other side, and (h) moving from 

an upright to a non-upright position. (Compare fall over as an intransitive phrasal verb 

with an adverbial particle: The lamp fell over and broke.) 

Under, meaning vertically below, but with some intervening space, is the converse 

of over. It can function with verbs of location and motion, and the distance may be 

greatly reduced: 

There’s a rug under the table; a bench under the tree. (i.e. under the branches of the 

tree!) 

I pushed the letter under the door. 

He’s wearing a T-shirt under his sweater. (conversely, a sweater over his T-shirt) 

Above and below are similar to over and under, but absolute verticality is not a 

requirement: 

The castle stands above the town; below the castle there is a river. 


Up and down indicate a higher or lower position respectively, as in (a), or motion 

towards that position, as (b). Like under, they can imply the path taken to the higher or 

lower location, as with (b): 

(a) There’s a pub just up/ down the road. 

(b) We had to walk up/ down three flights of stairs. 

Up and down are, however, more commonly used as adverb particles in phrasal and 

phrasal-prepositional verbs, such as If you take it up, I’ll bring it down (see 6.4). 

Round/ around express circular movement along a path in She danced around 

me, but circular position on a path in The children sat round the teacher (though probably 

the circle was not a full one). In the sentence They drove furiously round the race 

track, the track was probably irregularly curved, not circular. Sometimes the meaning 

is indeterminate movement in different directions within an area, as in We walked for 

hours round the streets looking for a cheap hotel. At other times, the movement may be 

neither circular nor along a clear path, but varied and indeterminate in a volume of space 

(e.g. The bees swarmed around us.) These differences may be regarded as different senses 

of the general meaning of ‘circularity’. 

By, beside, at my side, next to, in front of, behind (AmE in back of), on the left, on 

the right, facing, all express degrees of proximity. They correspond to the physical 

550 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

orientation of our bodies, and are extended to certain objects such as cars and houses 

which have a front, a back and sides. 

By has also the meanings of agency (a novel by Tolstoy) and means (by train, by bus, 

by air). 

Between and among express relative position, referring to two entities, or more than 

two, respectively. 

59.2.4 Non-locative meanings 

For has been explained in chapters 2 and 3 as the Beneficiary meaning, that is, intended 

Recipient. It also expresses purpose and intended destination (I’ve brought it for you; 

an extra-fast machine for copying; they’re making for the coast). 

Like expresses similarity of features or character (She looks rather like Lady Macbeth, 

What is she like as a person?) It can also introduce a simile (The lake shone like a mirror) 

and draw on a more vague similarity of situations (Let’s not quarrel over a silly thing 

like this). Like is related to the predicative adjective alike (The brothers look alike) and 

to the adverb alike (The change in climate affects young and old alike). 

As is used when referring to roles, jobs or functions (He made his name as a pop 

singer; Have you ever worked as a shop assistant?). As is grammaticised in comparisons 

(as clear as crystal) and is related to the conjunction as (As I was saying, ...). 

With and without can signal (a) accompaniment and lack of it, respectively (I’ll go 

with you; she turned up at the gala dinner without her husband); (b) possession (a girl with 

red hair, a street without a name) or a part–whole relationship (a cup without a handle); 

or (c) instrument (he broke the lock with a hammer; she pushed her hair back with her 

hand). 


59.3 TIME RELATIONS 

Certain prepositions expressing location in space are also used to express location in 

time. Other prepositions – such as during, until and since – are not used with spatial 

meanings. 

examples 

usage 

At: at one o’clock; at Christmas; point in time: clock time, fixed 

at midday 

holidays 

On: on Friday, on June 2nd for specific days and dates 

regarding the occurrence 

of events 

In: in May, in the year 1888, in the months, years, times of day, 

evening 

seasons, centuries and other 

periods of time, all 

conceptualised as containers; 

note however, in the morning/ 

afternoon/evening, but at night 


Over: We stayed with them over the periods of short duration 

weekend, over Christmas 

During: during the war, during my stay experiential periods of time 

in Rome 

For: We read for hours (cf spatially, duration of time 

We walked for miles); 

We are camping here for the 

summer; for a long time, for 

good (= ‘for ever’) 

for the third time 

frequency 

Since: I’ve been here since 10 a.m. retrospective, referring to the 

initiation of the duration 

Until: We’ll wait until 4 o’clock; typically marks end-point of 

until the plane takes off; 

duration, but marks a starting- 

We didn’t eat until four o’clock; point with negative sentences; 

from morning till night; up till till and up till are informal 

now 

variants, but till is not used 

to start a sentence 

Before before the Flood; the week after almost always express 

and after: next time meanings, but note the 

formal spatial expression ‘He 

appeared before the judge’ 


By: (a) Essays must be handed in (a) a time deadline 

by Friday 

(b) By the summer, she was (b) before a certain time 

feeling stronger 

59.4 METAPHORICAL AND ABSTRACT USES 

Many spatial prepositions are used in abstract or metaphorical expressions. For 

example, about in walk about the house expresses ‘indeterminate spatial movement’, 

whereas in talk about the house it expresses the notion of ‘reference’. 

Although many abstract and metaphorical uses of prepositions (and adverbs) may at 

first sight appear arbitrary, metaphor and metonymy can provide enlightening 

explanations. For instance, the expressions in love, in pain, in anger construe these 

emotions as containers, yet this construal is not applicable to happiness and hate (*in 

happiness, *in hate.) For these, full of happiness/joy/hate and also anger are normal uses, 

with the body in this case construed as the container. The field of vision as well as the 

mind are also seen as containers, as in the expressions ‘in full view’, ‘out of sight, out of 

mind’. 

552 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Between, meaning relative position, is extended to both temporal and abstract 

meanings: Between six and seven this evening; the discussion between them turned into a 

quarrel. 

Into, used metaphorically, indicates active participation in something, as in he’s into 

rugby these days. 

Over and under have non-spatial meanings as in: it weighs over a kilo, it cost under 

ten euros, while in the verbs overact, overcharge, under-estimate, undernourished the 

meaning is ‘excess’ and insufficiency’, respectively. A different extension of meaning, 

something like ‘subordination’ or ‘subjection to’ is illustrated in: under the influence of 

drugs; under his leadership; under the threat of expulsion; under control; under the 

circumstances; under contract for a year. 

With over, the meaning of ‘surmounting an obstacle’ is extended to that of illness and 

difficulties – get over an operation has the sense of recovering from its effects – while 

control over/power over someone, or something, is an extension of the basic higher-vslower 

spatial meaning, as is also the use of over in ‘let’s discuss it over a cup of coffee’. 

Here the mental image is of persons leaning slightly foward, engaged in talk, with the 

coffee on the table between them. 

Out of as ‘exit from a container’ is extended to expressions such as out of petrol, 

out of sugar, out of work (=jobless), out of date (=obsolete). Out also responds to the 

‘emergence metaphor’ as in He did it out of despair, out of love for his family, and to 

the ‘object comes out of a substance’ metaphor, as in Mammals developed out of reptiles. 

The opposite is the ‘substance goes into the object’ metaphor, as in I made a sheet of 

newspaper into a plane. 

Off and on have converse meanings in relation to the notion of support as the Ground: 

the pen fell off the table onto the floor. They are used colloquially as converses in 

expressions such as he’s off alcohol, he’s on drugs. 


Up and down are often metaphorically construed as converses, with positive and 

negative connotations respectively, in expressions such as as coming up in the world, 

going down in the world, look up to someone and look down on someone. Up north and down 

south reflect geographical orientation, whereas up to London, down to the country reflects 

the status of the capital. 

Through can have the meaning of completion and result: He went through a fortune 

in a year; I finally got through that long novel. 

With can metaphorically signal the manner of doing something (Say it with a smile = 

smiling; With a wave of his hand, he left) or result, in black with the smoke, together with 

increasing or decreasing value (This wine has improved with age). 

The following descriptive-narrative paragraphs from Graham Greene’s novel The 

Heart of the Matter illustrate a variety of meanings expressed by PPs: 

Wilson stood gloomily by his bed 1 in the Bedford Hotel 2 and contemplated his sash, 

which lay uncoiled and ruffled like an angry snake; 3 the small hotel room was hot 

with the conflict 4 between them. 5 Through the wall 6 he could bear Harris cleaning 

his teeth for the fifth time 7 that day. Harris believed in dental hygiene. 8 ‘It’s cleaning 


my teeth before and after every meal 9 that’s kept me so well in this climate, 10 he 

would say, raising his pale exhausted face over an orange squash. 11 (now he was 

gargling: it sounded like a noise 12 in the pipes.) 13 

Wilson sat down on the edge 14 of his bed 15 and rested. He had left his door 

open for coolness 16 and across the passage 17 he could see into the bathroom. 18 The 

Indian with the turban 19 was sitting on the side 20 of the bath 21 fully dressed: he stared 

inscrutably back at Wilson 22 and bowed. ‘Just a moment, sir,’ he called. ‘If you would 

care to step in here’. 23 Wilson angrily shut the door. 

1 

proximity; 2 containment; 3 similarity; 4 result; 5 abstract, derived from relative position; 

6 

transversality; 7 

frequency; 8 

grammaticised prep.; 9 

time relative to point; 

10 

containment (metaphorical); 11 verticality + activity; 12 similarity; 13 containment; 

14 

support ; 15 part–whole; 

16 

purpose; 

17 

path; 

18 

goal; 

19 

possession; 

20 

support; 

21 

part–whole; 22 grammaticised prep. (direction); 23 direction–container 

59.5 GRAMMATICISED PREPOSITIONS 

Outlined next are some of the most common grammaticised prepositions, functioning 

mainly as complements of verbs. 

At is the preposition controlled by certain verbs such as laugh, verbs of looking 

– look, glance, gaze, stare – and verbs of aiming: aim, shoot at someone or something. 

The latter implies that the attempt failed, whereas transitive shoot + Od is effective: The 

terrorist shot two policemen dead (i.e. killed them; the addition of the Object 


Complement dead clarifies the difference between a fatal shooting and an injury); he 

shot at the escaping criminal, but missed. 

In is used with the verbs believe, confide, trust, engage, interest and succeed (I tried to 

engage her in conversation, to interest them in world affairs, to get them interested in politics). 

On is the preposition selected by agree, rely, count, concentrate, depend, and by the 

ditransitive verbs feed and spend (spend a lot on entertainment; feed them on cereals). 

By has so many meanings in addition to those already mentioned that it appears not 

to call up one basic mental image. Here are just a few: 

Agency: 

Means: 

Extent: 

Time during: 

The goal was scored by Evans. 

They travelled by bus, by air, by plane. 

The envelopes measure 9cm by 6 cm. 

Travel by day or by night. 

By is also used with intransitive or transitive phrasal verbs: stand by, get by, pass by; Don’t 

let the opportunity pass you by. 

For is used with the verbs allow (allow for delay), ask (ask for help), (exchange) exchange 

one coin for another; (hope) hope for the best, (wait) I’m waiting for you. 

From is used with verbs of preventing (keep, discourage, exclude, exempt, prevent, 

restrain someone from doing something), among other meanings. 

554 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Of is also highly grammaticised, and occurs after verbs (think, hear, approve, convince 

someone, die), adjectives (full, tired) and nouns (a bottle of wine, the home of a former PM). 

These and other prepositions are discussed and illustrated in the chapters referred to 

above. 



STRANDED PREPOSITIONS; MODULE 60 

DISCONTINUOUS PREPOSITIONAL 

PHRASES 

SUMMARY 

There are five clause structures in which the preposition is normally or optionally 

separated from its complement and placed after the verb. The prepositional phrase 

is then discontinuous. Inversion permits different constituents to be fronted as marked 

theme and so emphasised (see 28.8). In some fixed expressions discontinuity is not 

possible. 

60.1 STRUCTURES WHICH INVOLVE STRANDING A 


PREPOSITION 

The normal order of the elements, preposition + complement, is frequently inverted, 

as in Who is the play by? The nominal complement is fronted to initial position in the 

clause, and the preposition is placed at the end, the prepositional phrase being 

consequently discontinuous. This is called stranding. It occurs frequently in English, 

particularly in the five types of sequence illustrated below. Although grammatically 

it is a marked form, it has become the normal, unmarked form used in conversation. It 

has the effect of giving prominence to certain parts of the message. The examples on 

the left illustrate its use, in contrast with the non-stranded order on the right, which in 

the bracketed examples sounds stilted or, if marked by an asterisk, ungrammatical. The 

other examples are all grammatical and normal. 

In cleft clauses 

It is your health I am worried about. 

What I am worried about is your 

health. 

[It is your health about which I am 

worried.] 

[*About what I am worried is your health.] 

556 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

In clauses with restrictive meaning 

The only thing he thinks about is his 

work. 

[The only thing about which he thinks is his 

work.] 

In passive clauses 

With many prepositional verbs (see 6.3), stranding of the preposition is the only way a 

passive can be formed: 

My opinion is never asked for. 

I don’t like being shouted at. 

Nobody ever asks for my opinion. 

I don’t like people shouting at me. 

In active clauses with a ‘raised object’ equivalent to sequences introduced by 

anticipatory it 

That firm is wonderful to work for. 

My boss is easy to get on with. 

It is wonderful to work for that firm. 

It is easy to get on with my boss. 

In each of these examples, the two different forms have different ‘theme’ and ‘focus’. 

For instance, in the last example, one structure has my boss as Theme and focuses on 

easy to get on with, while the other has the evaluative word easy in the Theme, and focuses 

on my boss (see 30.5.1). 

With wh-complements in interrogative and relative clauses 


When the complement of a preposition is realised by an interrogative or a relative 

pronoun, the discontinuous structure is normal in familiar styles of expression, while 

the continuous (preposition + complement) order is distinctly more formal: 

Familiar style 

Who can we rely on? 

The person we can rely on is Tom. 

Formal style 

On whom can we rely? 

The person on whom we can rely is Tom. 

Some wh-questions admit only the discontinuous structure 

What’s the weather like? 

What have you come for? 

Where do we leave from? 

[*Like what is the weather?] 

[*For what have you come?] 

[*From where do we leave?] 

Short questions in response to statements or directives are very common in English: 

We are leaving tomorrow. 

I have to speak to your headmaster. 

We had better leave now. 

Where from? 

What about? 

What for? 


What for? as an independent question is used as an informal alternative to why? to ask 

the reason for the previous statement. Discontinuous What...for? asks about the 

purpose of something, as in What is that tool for? 

Certain PPs which constitute fixed phrases are very rarely discontinuous 

To what extent do they disagree? 

In which respect do you think I am 

wrong? 

[*What extent do they disagree to?] 

[*Which respect do you think I am wrong 

in?] 

Finally it may be mentioned that PPs containing complex (two-word or three-word) 

prepositions can also be discontinuous, though perhaps less often than those based on 

simple prepositions: 

His death was due to natural causes. 

There are certain regulations which 

are in conflict with these proposals. 

What was his death due to? 

There are certain regulations that these 

proposals are in conflict with. 

The following extracts are from an interview in Play in which Iain Banks talks about 

things he dislikes. They illustrate in context some of the prepositions and adverb 

particles that we have examined in these sections (see exercise 2 for module 60): 

Pet hates 


For me, 1 the theatre is a bit like porridge. 2 I don’t like porridge very much, but I force 

myself to eat it every now and again because, damn it, I am a Scotsman and I should 

like it. But even if I dress those rubbery oats up 3 with strawberry jam or salt, 4 I can’t 

get over the impression 5 that I am eating wallpaper paste. 

Theatre is just the same. I just don’t have the taste for it. 6 I go to see things at the 

Edinburgh Festival 7 now and again, but I usually find myself staring at my watch 8 

and wondering what time the pub shuts. 

I avoid opera like the plague. 9 There are two reasons for this. 10 Firstly, the plot 

of your average opera 11 is just nonsensical. Secondly, I detest vibrato singing. I used 

to think that opera singers were unfortunate people who couldn’t hit a note without 

warbling, 12 until my wife told me that they are trained to sound like that. 13 I was 

shocked. You mean they actually choose to sing in that ridiculous manner? 14 

That said, I have been to a few operas 15 in my time. 16 I normally just settle down 17 

in my seat 18 and ask whoever I am with 19 to wake me up when it is all over, or when 

the world ends, whichever comes first. 

558 ENGLISH GRAMMAR


For the structure of the prepositional phrase, Halliday (1994); for the semantics of 

prepositional phrases in terms of Figure, Ground, Path, Talmy (1986); in terms of 

Trajector, Path and Landmark, Langacker (1987); for the container schema and other 

metaphors, Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Lakoff (1987); for an introduction to these 

concepts Ungerer and Schmid (1997); for grammaticised vs lexical prepositions, 

Huddleston and Pullum (2002); prepositions as bound vs free, Biber et al. (1999). 


Spatial, temporal and other relationships: The Prepositional Phrase 

Module 57 

1 Complete the PPs in these sentences with units of the classes indicated on the left: 

(1) NG: We were woken up by a sound like - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(2) AdjG: The couple left Scotland for - - - - - - - - - - - - - - and settled in Brussels. 

(3) AdvG: I was sitting in the back row and couldn’t hear the speaker from 

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(4) PP. The shops are open every day except - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) fin. wh-cl: Can you see the sea from - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

(6) wh + to-inf. cl: Have the judges decided on - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

(7) -ing cl: Are you worried about - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 


2 †Read again the conversation on ‘The Green Party’ on p. 537. Write a list of the 

complements of the PPs used, and say what classes of unit they belong to. Compare the 

relative frequency of the classes. Which classes are not represented in this text? 

3 Insert suitable modifiers of the types indicated, before the PPs marked in the following 

sentences. Refresh your memory first by re-reading the examples in Section 57.5: 

Grading 

(1) His proposals for changes in the public transport system are - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in line 

with the opposition party 

(2) However, they also go - - - - - - - - - - - - - - against public opinion. 

Intensification 

(3) Many villages isolated by the snow were left - - - - - - - - - - - - - - without electricity for 

several days. 

(4) Our plane flew - - - - - - - - - - - - - - over the North Pole. 


Attenuation 

(5) I am - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in agreement with you. 

(6) We moved to this area for financial reasons, but also - - - - - - - - - - - - - - on account 

of my health. 

Quantification 

(7) Archaeologists found prehistoric remains - - - - - - - - - - - - - - below the surface. 

(8) You would have to travel - - - - - - - - - - - - - - into space to find another planet like the 

earth. 

Description or viewpoint 

(9) As a journalist, he is - - - - - - - - - - - - - - out of touch with what’s going on in the 

developing countries. 

(10) Certain industries that have not been modernised are now finding themselves - - - - 

- - - - - - - - - - without resources to be competitive. 

Focus or reinforcement 

(11) The barmen told the boys that alcohol was served - - - - - - - - - - - - - - to persons over 

eighteen. 

(12) She got the job - - - - - - - - - - - - - - because of her knowledge of Arabic. 

Module 58 

1 †To illustrate the syntactic potential of PPs in English, re-read the conversation about animals 


on p. 533 and identify the syntactic function of each PP. 

2 †In the following sentences, classify the italicised words as prepositions or adverbs. Can 

you spot the one which is neither a preposition nor an adverb? 

(1) The children had left their toys lying about all over the floor. 

(2) Our friends live just across the road from us. 

(3) It’s cold on deck. Why don’t you go below to your cabin? 

(4) Some people have the telly on all day. 

(5) Keep on walking. 

(6) Keep on the right side. 

(7) We usually go to a little pub up the street. 

(8) Come on, drink up your beer. 

(9) Tell me all about what happened. 

(10) I’ll run off enough copies for all the students. 

(11) Everything is going to change in the near future. 

(12) In debates he puts his ideas across very well. 

(13) Some plants can live at temperatures below freezing. 

(14) The picture is not finished yet, but I’ll paint in the sky later. 

(15) There were just a few light clouds high up in the sky. 

(16) We’re a long way off understanding the real causes of this situation. 

560 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 59 

1 †Identify the different contextual meanings of the preposition over in the following 

(1) They built a bridge over the river. 

(2) We live over the road. 

(3) I weigh over 80 kilos. 

(4) He looked at the blue sky over his head. 

(5) We had to climb over the wall. 

(6) She laid a blanket over his bed. 

(7) The baby fell over a toy. 

(8) The thief knocked me over the head. 

2 Work in pairs or small groups, as follows: 

(1) Choose one of the simple, frequently used prepositions, e.g. for, at, from, with, 

through, on, etc. 

(2) Collect a good number of examples of the use of the chosen preposition, by 

consulting various dictionaries, periodicals, books or spoken sources. 

(3) Arrange the examples in groups that have a common and reasonably definable 

meaning. 

(4) Study the groups and observe how close the meanings are: (a) within each group; 

(b) between the groups. 

(5) In the light of your observations, try to formulate a core meaning, either for the 

general meaning of the preposition or for the meaning of each group. 


3 Work in pairs or small groups as before: 

(1) Choose one of the following sets of spatial prepositions: (a) by, beside, close to, 

near to, next to or (b) under, underneath, beneath, below. 

(2) Collect examples of their use in their ordinary spatial senses. 

(3) Test the prepositions for substitutability one for another, and try to explain in what 

ways and to what extent they differ in meaning and use. 

4 †There are many fixed PPs in common usage. Can you formulate for each of the following 

four sets a basic meaning relating the preposition to the five complements? 

at once on duty out of work in a hurry under stress 

at times on purpose out of practice in full view under control 

at sea on business out of fashion in luck under-privileged 

at work on time out of sight in labour under the tyrant’s thumb 

at war on holiday out of breath in charge under-weight 

5 †The following sentences all express processes taking place in a period of time. Can you 

explain the different semantic relations between process and period which motivate the 

choice of a different preposition in each sentence? 


(1) I have worked here for two years. 

(2) I have been happy here over the two years. 

(3) We have had problems during the two years. 

(4) We have lived through two years of problems. 

(5) There has been steady progress throughout the two years. 

(6) The building will be finished in two years. 

(7) The building will be finished within two years. 

6 †The following incident from the autobiography of Shirley MacLaine, Don’t Fall Off the 

Mountain, includes many examples of location and change of location. Suggest a semantic 

function such as Source, Path, Location, Goal for each numbered phrase: 

Late one evening on our way home 1 from the studio, 2 we pulled up at a red light. 3 

As we chatted quietly about the day’s work, 4 something suddenly kicked us in the 

rear 5 and my feet went over my head. 6 I reached out for Steve, 7 screaming. I didn’t 

know where down was, and my head wouldn’t move on my neck. 8 The car came to 

a halt. 9 We had been knocked sixty feet to the opposite side 10 of the highway 11 into 

the path 12 of oncoming traffic. 13 Our trunk was in the front seat 14 and Steve was 

pinned under it. 15 ‘Are you all right?’ he called to me. 16 He was twisted out of shape 17 

on the floor, 18 with one arm tangled in the steering wheel. 19 

7 Use the following in sentences to show the difference in meaning between the two members 

of each pair: 


in view of in search of in contact with 

in the view of in the search for in our contact with 

8 Many verbs and adjectives allow only one or two specific prepositions. Try testing your 

knowledge of the prepositions selected by the following items: 

Verbs Adjectives Nouns 

ask plot bored aware answer 

agree hope tired surprised damage 

amount pay delighted prone desire 

appeal suffer anxious related search 

depend complain sorry fraught anger 

point insist suspicious lacking effect 

9 Words related in meaning though of different class usually occur with the same preposition, 

though not always. Illustrate this by composing sentences with the following related words: 

to rely reliant reliance 

to care careful care 

to boast boastful boast 

grateful gratitude 

furious fury 

562 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 60 

1 †Rewrite these sentences with a stranded preposition, beginning each one as indicated. 

(1) I am most interested in the ecological consequences of this project. – It is the - - - - 

- - - - - - - - 

(2) You must be particularly careful about your money when walking in the streets. – 

What you must be - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(3) I haven’t yet paid for the meals. – What - - - - - - - - - - - - the meals. 

(4) I find it difficult to talk to my parents. – I find my - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(5) In what do you believe then? What - - - - - - - - - - - - 

(6) On which flight did you say we are booked? Which flight - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

(7) We are collecting this money in aid of the refugees. Who are you - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

(8) Caracas is the capital of Venezuela. Which country - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

(9) The caretaker said that you can’t park in this parking place. Which parking-place 

did the caretaker - - - - - - - - - - - - ? 

2 †Read again the extract ‘Pet Hates’ at the end of Module 60 (p. 558). Comment on the 

numbered items in ways relevant to the contents of this chapter. 



ANSWER KEY 

CHAPTER 1 

Module 1 

1 (1) participant; (2) participant; (3) circumstance; (4) circumstance; (5) participant. 

2 (1) Adjunct; (2) Subject; (3) Direct Object; (4) Subject; (5) Adjunct. 

Module 2 

3 (1a) No; (1b) Yes; (1c) No; (1d) No; (2a) No; (2b) No; (2c) Yes; (2d) No. 


4 (1) independent; (2) verbless (3) dependent non-finite (as in Not being a tele viewer 

myself, 1 have no preferences as regards programmes; it could also be embedded, as in 

Not being a televiewer myself does not worry me); (4) dependent finite; (5) independent; 

(6) abbreviated; (7) verbless; (8) dependent finite; (9) dependent finite; (10) 

independent. 

5 (1) NG; (2) AdjG; (3) PP; (4) AdvG; (5) VG; (6) AdjG; (7) NG; (8) PP. 

Module 3 

6 (1a) finite independent are 3, 4, 5, 6, 10; (1b) finite embedded are 7, 8; (1c) 

abbreviated are 1, 2; (1d) verbless is 9; (2) 1 and 2; 4 and 5; 7 and 8; (3) 1, 2, 5, 8, 

9; (4) All the coordinated elements are recursive. These include, as well as the 

clauses: coordinated colour nouns as c in PP (of reds and blues, golds and silvers, 

greens and purples); adjectives as modifiers in NG (louder and louder yes; bold, exotic 

and decidedly unnatural colors); mixed modifiers in NG (inexpensive, temporary, haircoloring 

products; shocking British and American punk emblem); nonfinite -ing forms 

in VG (streaking, squiggling and dotting). 

Possibly, the use of elements of equal syntactic status in this text provides, first, 

an element of suspense by means of the conjoined abbreviated interrogative clauses, 

and then a cumulative effect of movement and colour, which mirrors the notions 

expressed and is therefore to some extent iconic. 

564 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

7 (1a) It won’t be difficult . . . (1b) Won’t it be difficult...(2a) Sheila hasn’t anything/ 

has nothing to tell you. (2b) Hasn’t Sheila anything/ Has Sheila nothing to tell 

you. (3a) No-one has left a bag on a seat in the park, (3b) Hasn’t anyone/ Has noone 

left a bag. ...(4a) He doesn’t know anyone/ He knows no-one who lives in 

Glasgow; Doesn’t he know anyone . . ./ Does he know no-one . . . (5a) It isn’t worth 

going/ It’s not worth going to see any of those pictures. Isn’t it worth going to see 

any of those pictures? 

8 (1) any (in an interrogative clause); (2) ever . . . anything (hardly is a semi-negative 

word) (3) anywhere/ anything/ any place (in an embedded clause after negative 

don’t think); (4) anyone/ anybody (in an embedded clause after negative don’t 

remember). 

9 (1) The alternative negative forms never in (a) and not ...ever in (b) establish 

negative clauses and within this scope are followed by non-assertive items such as 

any. (1c) by contrast contains ever, which is not a negative word, but a non-assertive 

word. The clause is therefore not negative as it would be with never, but neither is 

it correctly positive. 

(2) Similarly, no-negation and not-negation are used correctly in (a) and (b) 

respectively. In (c) as anybody is non-assertive but not negative, it can’t make a 

clause negative. 

CHAPTER 2 


Module 4 

1 (1) (since my father’s day); (2) (briefly) (to Mrs Davies); (3) (at the time); (4) none; 

(5) none; (6) (in the park); (7) (before the fall of the Berlin Wall) (practically); 

(8) (just); (9) (insistently) (at six o’clock in the morning) (on a cold November day); 

(10) (for the fifth time) (on Monday). Note that although 10 is grammatically complete, 

the use of the past tense ‘became’ creates expectations of at least an adjunct 

expressing a point in time (see Chapter 7). With a present perfect ‘has become’ this 

would not be the case. 

Module 5 

1 Position in relation to the verb in a declarative clause (All except (1) and (8); 

Position in interrogative clauses (1) and (8). Ellipted in conjoined clauses with same 

subject (3). Concord with verb (all except (7) which lacks number agreement.) 

Realisations: pronouns, subjective forms (all, note ‘which’ in (6)) there (6); dummy 

it (4). The criterion not represented is the question tag. 

2 (1) the use of caves for smuggling; (2) there (Subject place-holder), half a dozen 

men (notional Subject); (3) the light of a torch; (4) what the critics failed to 

understand; (5) the list of people who she says helped her; (6) it (anticipatory) to 

meet him before he died (extraposed Subject); (7) Run like mad; (8) it (anticipatory) 

ANSWER KEY 565

to tell the neighbours you are going away on holiday (extraposed Subject); (9) it 

(anticipatory) that there is no real progress (extraposed Subject); (10) reading in a 

poor light. 

3 (1) It surprised us that Pam is seeking a divorce. (2) It was bad manners, really, 

to leave without saying goodbye. (3) It doesn’t interest me who she goes out with. 

(4) It requires a lot of nerve for such a man to succeed in the world of politics. 

(5) It is obvious that recognising syntactic categories at first sight is not easy. 

4 (1) lies, finite; (2) is, finite; (3) called, non-finite; (4) is, finite; (5) quarried, finite; 

(6) and (7) decorating, filling, non-finite; (8) laid, finite; (9) surrounded, finite; (10) 

making, non-finite. Note that dried up, mummified and bejewelled do not realise clause 

constituents but are participial modifiers in nominal groups. 

Module 6 

1a (1)most of my life (NG); (2) the door (NG); (3) that foreign doctors were not allowed 

to practise in that country (finite that clause); (4) very little (AdvG as quantifier); 

(5) discretion (NG); (6) what they believe to be sunken treasure (nominal relative 

cl.); (7) Anticipatory it as place-holder; that the money will be refunded as extraposed 

object. (8) that many will survive the long trek over the mountains (finite 

that-clause); (9) what is the use of all this (wh-interrogative clause); (10) a ton of 

gravel (NG). 

1b All the NGs are prototypical, except (5) discretion, which is non-prototypical. The 

verb ‘lack’ does not passivise. However, in other respects, ‘discretion fulfills the 

criteria for Od. (4) ‘very little’ might be considered as an ellipted NG, but in this 

case the ellipted part is not as easily recoverable as it is in ‘we ate very little’ i.e. 

(food). The that-clauses are less prototypical realisations, as are the wh-clauses, but 

are nevertheless perfectly normal. Anticipatory it is not prototypical, but is a 

requirement in extraposition. 

2a (1)S and Od NGs; (2) S-NG. Od that-cl; (3) Od-NG; (4) S-NG, Od-NG; (5) S-ellipted 

(they), Od-that-cl.; (6) S-NG and name in apposition, Od-NG; (7) S-NG; (8) S-pron; 

(9) S-pron; (10) S-there. 

2b Realisations of Subject: there are 3 long and heavy ones, the rest short and one 

ellipted. Object: the opposite occurs: All are long and heavy, carrying a lot of 

information. Heavy S and Od occur in ‘reported speech’, the short subjects occur 

in ‘direct speech’. The heaviness is a direct result of the amount of information 

conveyed. The subject in (5) is the same as that of (4), ellipted in coordinated 

clauses. The subject in (8) refers to the whole of (7). 

3 (1) Recipient; (2) Beneficiary; (3) Beneficiary; (4) Recipient; (5) Recipient; 

(6) Beneficiary; (7) Recipient; (8) Beneficiary. 


4 (1) put off (phrasal, trans.;) stare + prep at; (2) approve + prep of; (3) get back 

(intrans phrasal); (4) break into (prepositional); (5) turn up (intrans phrasal); (6) get 

at (prepositional); (7) come up to (phrasal prepositional; (8) intrans phrasal (ellipted 

version of prepositional get off (the bus/train). 

566 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

5a (a) Prepositional Object; (b) Adjunct; (c) Adjunct; (d) Prepositional Object. 

Sentences (a) and (d) can be passivised, and the verb + preposition have lexical 

equivalents (rehearse and be wise to, respectively. Sentences (b) and (c) don’t have 

these possibilities. In (b) through the streets can be fronted, but (c) through the trees 

can’t, presumably because see is not a verb of movement. 

5b In run up large bills, run up is a transitive phrasal verb, with large bills its Od. Run up 

can be discontinuous, as in she ran large bills up. But up large bills is not a constituent, 

and consequently can’t be fronted. Furthermore, only directional/locative adverbs 

in phrasal verbs can be fronted. Up in Run up bills is not directional/locative, whereas 

in run up the stairs it is. 

5c In one meaning on the bus is a locative Adjunct; in another, on the bus is a 

Prepositional Object, equivalent to she opted for the bus. 

5d He rode out; we swam across; they jumped over; get in, all of you! 

Module 7 

1 (1) not very hard Cs (AdjG) to be able to laugh and to cry Cs (conjoined to-inf 

clauses; (2) fit for the task Co (AdjG); (3) a multi-million pound industry Cs (NG); 

(4) what Co (pronominal head of NG); (5) a series of accidents Cs (NG), what he 

thinks Cs (finite nominal clause); (6) accessible to a wide public Co (AdjG); 

(7) unexpectedly cold (AdjG); (8) happy Co (AdjG); (9) utterly miserable Cs (AdjG); 

(10) illegal Co (AdjG). 

2a (1) healthy; (2) smart; (3) one of the most efficient ways of getting about; (4) so 

versatile as transport or for simple pleasure; (5) to work (6) fit; (7) effective exercise. 

All are Subject Complements except (5) Locative/ Goal and (6) Object Complement. 

The particles of phrasal verbs in (3) about and in sitting down, because predicted 

by the verb, can be considered circumstantial Complements. 


Module 8 

1 (1) for five years, circ.; (2) first, then, after that, connectives; (3) allegedly, hearsay 

evidential; under the barbed wire, circ. directional/locative Complement; to reach the 

arms depot, circ. purpose; (4) hopefully, stance, attitudinal; (5) shaped like a spiral 

staircase, supplementive. 

2 (1) the gang’s hideout is Direct Object, without much difficulty is Adjunct; (2) the gang’s 

hideout is Direct Object, more elaborately equipped with technology than they had 

expected is Object Complement. 

3 The sun | never | sets | on the tourist empire.|| But 

S A P A (conj.) 

NG Adv. VG PP 

travel pictures, business contracts and sports programmes| 

S 

NG + NG (conj.) + NG 

ANSWER KEY 567

don’t tell | the full story:|| getting there | may be | no fun at all. 

P Od S P Cs 

VG NG -ing cl. VG NG 

(appositive clause..........................) 

|| Aircraft | perform | flawlessly,|| but what| 

S P A (conj) S 

NG VG Adv WH 

happens | to passengers, flight crews and cabin staff?|| 

P 

Ob 

VG 

PrepG + (ellipted prep. + 2 NGs) 

Jet lag.|| A mass phenomenon, almost as universal as the common cold.|| 

Verbless cl. 

verbless cl. 

NG NG Supplementive 

CHAPTER 3 

Module 9 

1 Exclusively intransitive (a): 2, 4 and 8. Those that can function either as intransitives 

or transitives: (b) 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 10. 

2 (a) Objects unexpressed by social convention 1, 3, 7, 9, 10. (b) With implied 

reflexive meaning 6 (adapt himself). (c) With reciprocal meaning 2 (collided with 

each other). 

3 A valency of 4: for example, I, [PAY] Tom, a lot of money, for his mountain bike 


Module 10 

1 (1) reason with: Cecil can’t be reasoned with; (2) dispose of: Old, broken furniture is not 

easily disposed of, (3) call on: The Minister of Defence will be called on . . .; (4) aim at: 

The target that is being aimed at . . .; (5) keep to: Your schedule should be kept to ... 

Module 11 

1 (2) I doubt whether we have enough petrol to reach Barcelona. (3) Who knows 

whether/ if there is an emergency kit in the building. (4) I asked where the nearest 

Metro station was. (5) We have all agreed (on it) that you keep/should keep the 

keys. (6) The Under-Secretary can’t account for the fact that some of the documents 

are missing. (7) I suggest he look/should look/looks in the safe. (8) The spokesman 

confirmed what we had just heard. (9) We must allow for the fact that he has 

been under great strain lately. (10) Will you see to it that these letters are posted 

today, please? 

2 (1) clause containing NG placed between main clause and that-clause favours 

retention of that, despite co-referential pronoun in that-cl.; (2 )think in previous cl., 

568 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

followed by pronoun in that-cl. favours omission of that. (3) Say + co-referential 

pronoun in that-clause. Think followed by pronoun in that-clause. 

3 (a) noun head (proper name) in the that-clause favours retaining that; (b) verbs say 

and think followed by pronouns in that-clauses favour omission. 

4 1st that-cl. as Od complement of says: he’s really sorry he said he’d take someone 

else to the dance. 

2nd that-cl as complement of sorry: he said he’d take someone else to the dance. 

3rd that-cl as complement of said: he’d take someone else to the dance. 

5 (1) indirect interrogative; (2) nominal relative; (3) embedded exclamative/ indirect 

interrogative; (4) indirect interrogative; (5) embedded exclamative (6) nominal 

relative nominal relative. 

6a Suggest does not take to-infinitive complements. (It takes non-finite -ing-complements 

when only the same subject is involved, and finite that-clause complements when 

a different subject is involved.) 

6b Explain does not allow an Indirect Object (me). But it does allow a prepositional 

Object (to me). Otherwise just the that-clause Object. 

Module 12 

4 (1) He never allowed/Thomas/to drive the jeep in his absence./ V+NG+toinf 

cl. 

(2) The shopkeeper asked/me/what I wanted./ V+NG+wh-interrog cl. 

(3) His powerful imagination makes/ him/quite different from the others./ 

V+NG+AdjG 

(4) Keep/ your shoulders/straight./ V+NG+AdjG 

(5) He left/her/sitting on the bridge./ V+NG+ -ing cl. 

(6) They like/their next-door neighbours to come in for a drink occasionally./ 

V+to-inf cl. with overt subject 

(7) I would prefer/Mike to drive you to the station./ V+to-inf with overt subject 

5 (all patterns) 1 V+NG+ wh-cl. (if =whether); 2 V+NG+to-inf. cl., 3 V+that-cl. with v in 

subjunctive mood; 4 and 5 V+NG+Adjunct; 6 V+PP; 7 V+NG+that-cl.+ to-inf. cl. as 

adjunct, 8 V+NG+that-cl., 9 V+NG+wh-(if =whether)cl.; 10 V+NG+that-cl.; 11 V+thatcl., 

indicative; 12 V+NG+to-inf.cl. 


CHAPTER 4 


1 (1) material; (2) mental; (3) relational; (4) mental; (5) material; (6) relational. 

2 (1a) Teach has a semantic valency of 3: it is trivalent. In 1a all the participants are 

actualised. In 1b they are reduced to 2, and in 1c they are reduced to 1.(2) Bite has 

ANSWER KEY 569

a semantic valency of 2. In this example only one is actualised, the valency is 

reduced to 1. (3) Purr has a valency of 1, as in this example. 

3 (1) Subject-filler; (2) participant (the sum of ten pounds; (3) participant (the baby); 

(4) participant (the bicycle); (5) Subject-filler. 

4 Suggested participants might be: (1) a strong wind; (2) waves; (3) tide; (4) river; 

(5) landslide. 

6 (1) Agent; (2) Affected; (3) Agent; (4) Affected; (5) Affected. 

Module 15 

1 (1) Yes; Most Prime Ministers age prematurely; (2) No; (3) Yes; The sky darkened; 

(4) No; (5) Yes; His brow wrinkled; (6) Yes; The camera clicked; (7) Yes; The load of 

sand tipped onto the road; (8) Yes; The company’s sales have doubled. 

2 (1, 6 and 7) the facility to undergo the action expressed; (2) acted upon; (3) acted 

upon; (4) acting Agent; (5) acting Agent. 

3 (a) is transitive-causative: Sarah causes the rice to cook; (b) is transitive with an 

unactualised Affected participant; (c) is anti-causative. It forms an ergative 

alternation with (a); (d) cook is basically a bivalent process, but in this case its 

valency is reduced to 1 (the same applies to (b); (e) is a pseudo-intransitive involving 

the facility of rice to undergo cooking; (f) Do you often hear of persons being 

cooked? 

4 All the italicised verbs are used causatively in this extract. (Wither = make x shrivel 

and dry up; stale = make x stale; cloy= make x sick with sweetness; satisfy = make 

x satisfied). The Affected participant is different in each case and only the first two 

refer to Cleopatra. 


Module 16 

1 (1) Recipient; (2) Recipient; (3) Beneficiary; (4) Beneficiary; (5) Recipient. 

Module 17 

1 1) cognition, Ph=entity; (2) perception, Ph=entity; (3) cognition, Ph=fact; 

(4) affectivity, Ph=situation; (5) behavioural, Ph=entity, or rather, an event, 

(6) cognition, doubt; (7) cognition, fact; (8) perception (sense of taste), Ph=entity. 

2 (1) The members of the commission were not pleased by/with either of the 

proposals. (2) We were amazed at/by his presence of mind. (3) The government 

is alarmed at/by the dramatic increase of crime in the cities. (4) She is worried by 

the fact that she seems unable to lose weight. (5) Will your wife be annoyed by the 

fact that you forgot to phone? 

570 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 18 

1a (1) instantation of a type, attributive, Carrier-Attribute; (2) the same as 1; (3) 

identifying, Identified-Identifier; (4)attributive, Carrier-Attribute; (5)possessive, 

Possessor-Possessed; (6) circumstantial; Carrier-(intensive)-circumstance; (7) 

identifying, Identified-Identifier; (8) identifying, Identified-Identifier. 

1b (7) Food (Identified/Token) is the supreme symbol (Identifier/Value). 

(8) What we call civilisation or culture (Identified/Value) represents only a fraction 

of human history (Identifier/Token). 

2 (1) e.g. exhausted, resulting; (2) e.g. safe,current; (3) e.g. risky, profitable etc, 

resulting; (4) e.g. still, current; (5) free, current. 

Module 19 

1 (1) reported directive, with to-infinitive cl., (2) reported quote, as in ‘No smoking’ 

or reported statement, with that-cl.; (3) reported statement, with that-cl.; (4) 

reported question, with wh-cl.; (5) either a reported question (expressed by a 

wh-clause) or a reported directive (expressed by a to-infinitive clause); (6) either 

a reported statement (expressed by a that-clause) or a reported directive (expressed 

by a to-infinitive clause); (7) reported statement or (if suitably modalised) a reported 

directive, e.g. that passengers should proceed to Gate number 2; (8) reported 

statement, with that-cl. 

2b There could be omitted from (4) and (5) since each has a ‘presentative’ locative 

Adjunct in initial position. 

3 This explanation applies equally well to the instances of there omission in The Lost 

Girl. 



1 (1) time (distribution); time (location); (2) manner (means); (3) contingency 

(concession); (4) contingency (cause); (5) goal/destination in time; (6) contingency 

(reason); (7) role (capacity); (8) matter. 

2 (1) Instrument; (2) Range; (3) Range; (4) Instrument; (5) Range. 

Module 21 

1 (1) We chatted for a long time; process is realised as entity (chat), circumstance (for 

a long time) as part of entity. (2) X continued to drop bombs (on Y) throughout the night; 

process as entity (bombing). (3) An election campaign that would last for 50 days was 

launched in Canada last weekend; circumstance of place (locative) as entity (Canada), 

process as entity (launch), new process see, circumstance (extent in time) as part of 

entity (50-day). (4) Because he (Franz Josef Strauss) was obviously intelligent and spoke 

exceptionally well in public, Konrad Adenauer appointed him minister without portfolio 

in his cabinet in 1951; Attribute as entity (his obvious intelligence), circumstance 

ANSWER KEY 571

(reason) as entity (exceptional oratory), both of these being causative Agents in the 

metaphorical version won him a place. (5) X was released after people in Washington 

had been increasingly expecting throughout the day that the hostage who would be released 

would be Professor Steen, aged 48; processes as entity (release and expectations), 

circumstance as part of entity (rising). 

3 We have seen that nominalisation and grammatical metaphor tend to reorganise 

an experience in terms of abstractions rather than persons as Agents. This in itself 

results in lower transitivity than when the sentence contains an Agent. Verbs tend 

to be relational (be, have) or if they are material (won) or mental (see) they do not 

have their basic meaning, although they can occasionally have endpoints. Objects 

are rarely Affected. 

CHAPTER 5 

Module 22 

1 Except for the first line and the last, each line of the text consists of one positive 

declarative clause, with Subject-Finite structure. There are primary auxiliaries as 

operators (is, are,) the modal auxiliary may, and the rest are finite lexical verbs. 

They all make statements, whose purpose is to persuade the reader that software 

is better than paper. Punctuation could be by semi-colon or comma. The first line 

is a PP functioning as an Adjunct and does not require punctuation. The last is an 

imperative, exhorting the reader to opt for the better choice, and could be followed 

by an exclamation mark. 


Module 23 

1 (1) positive declarative; Yes; (2) exclamative; Yes; (3) and (6) imperative; No, they 

introduce an illustration; (4) and (7) modalised declaratives, giving an opinion; 

(5) wh-interrogative + intensifier, rhetorical question; (8) whenever is an adverb of 

frequency, and does not introduce a wh-question. 

2 (1) I am not going . . ./ Aren’t you going . . .? (2) Nadine’s Mum didn’t buy . . ./ 

Didn’t Nadine’s Mum buy ...?(3) He doesn’t tell/ Doesn’t he tell ...?(4) Sheila 

didn’t know . . ./ Didn’t Sheila know . . .? (5) Bill didn’t take on . . ./ Didn’t Bill take 

on...? 

3 (1) What’s your name?; (2) What is your address? (3) Where were you born? (4) 

Are you using eye drops? (5) Do your eyes smart? (6) Do you take any medicines? 

(7) Do you wear spectacles/glasses? (8) How long have you been wearing them? 

(9) Are you allergic to anything? (10) When did you start to have visual problems? 

4 Abbreviated clauses have the same polarity as the previous utterance, and are 

typically said by a partner in the conversation. Question-tags usually have reversed 

polarity, and are typically said by the speaker making the previous utterance. 

5 (a) wh-type; (b) Why Ellie has gone pink, i.e. is blushing; (c) No, 2 and 4 are not 

answers; (d) In 2: exclamation and question tag. In 4: ellipted clause. 

572 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6 (1) Yes it does, No it doesn’t; (2) Yes, I have, No, I haven’t; (3) Yes, I will/shall, 

No, I won’t/shan’t; (4) O.K. All right/Let’s; Oh no, let’s not sit down. 

7 (1) isn’t it? (2) haven’t you?/have you? (3) doesn’t she? (4) will you? (5) won’t/can’t 

you? (6) didn’t he?/did he? ((7) don’t they? (8) did he? 

Module 24 

1 (1) vocative, (2) Somebody: subject-vocative; dear: endearment, vocative; you: 

subject, contrastive; (3) Everybody (initial), subject-vocative, (final) vocative; 

(4) vocative; (5) subject; (6) subject-vocative. 

2 (1) pragmatic particle introducing a wish (optative mood); (2) 2nd person 

imperative (= ‘allow’); (3) optative. Type c, suggesting a joint action, is not represented, 

no doubt because Gore did not win the election and so was not in a position 

to invite the American people to collaborate in joint action with him. 

Module 25 

1 (1) Yes; (2) Yes; (3) Yes; (4) No; (5) Modalised performatives are less explicit, but 

yes, it counts; yes; (6) Yes; (7) No, the speaker is assuring, not promising; (8) Yes; 

(9) No, it means ‘I suppose’; (10) Yes, this really was a wager. The ’ll form is 

conventionally used with ‘I bet’. 


Module 26 

1 (1) yes/no (‘polar’ is also used) interrog., query; (2) verbless clause; offer; 

(3) modalised yes/ no interrog., polite request; (4) wh-interrog., rhetorical question; 

(5) declarative, leading question (with marker); (6) polar interrog., exclamation; (7) 

wh-interrog., rhetorical question; (8) polar interrog. as preliminary to request; (9) 

declarative as leading question (with marker); (10) the same, but negative. 

2 (1) any; (2) some; (3a) anything; (3b) nothing; (4) anyone/ anybody; (5) anywhere; 

(6) some. 

Module 27 

2 (a) Uncooperative: Yes, I would mind (without signing). Cooperative: No, I wouldn’t 

mind/ Not at all (signing); (b) Yes, without explaining, or No; Yes (explaining); 

(c) The butler is reacting to the pragmatic meaning of an order, and says ‘yes’ in 

compliance; (d) He might say ‘Not at all, sir’. 

4a (1) declarative, explicit performative; (2) negative imperative; (3) declarative, 

modalised performative; (4) nominal group; (5) passive declarative; (6) modalised 

polar interrog.; (7) passive declarative, performative; (8) declarative, explicit 

performative of thanking (although the thanking is given beforehand!). 

4b 1–5 are orders (4 and 5 are more specifically prohibitions), 6–8 are requests, 8 is an 

indirect request. 

ANSWER KEY 573

5 (1) Wh-interrogative, question, but also disapproval, as is clear from (8); (2) answer, 

statement; (3) declarative, statement (+ aggrieved protest); (4) declarative, apology; 

(5) declarative, explanation/excuse in answer to (3); (6) declarative, explanation 

of (5); (7) acceptance of explanation; (8) declarative, statement + disapproval; 

(9) invitation/polite order. 

6 (1) reprimand; (2) request; (3) request; (4) offer; (5) permission; (6) suggestion. 

8 (1) indirect request following reason for request; (2) ignoring the reason and 

refusing the request; (3) and (4) further reasons for request; (5) suggestion; 

(6) challenge; (7) provocation; (8) suggestion; (9) explanation; (10) order; 

(11) provocation; (12) provocation; (13) warning; (14) threat; (15) threat; (16) selfidentification/ 

implied warning; (17) request; (18) apology; (19) excuse. 

CHAPTER 6 

Module 28 

1 (1) Paul, unmarked; (2) Abruptly, marked, Adjunct; (3) Is he, unmarked; 

(4) Celebrating her victory today, marked, non-finite Predicator + operator is; 

(5) freezing cold, marked, Subject Complement; (6) meet, unmarked; (7) In the 

American soft-drink industry, marked, Adjunct; (8) For months, marked, Adjunct; 

(9) crazy, marked, object complement; (10) Never again, marked, negative Adjunct. 

2 (1) all of these I bought him; (2) fun you call it; (3) most of it we already knew; 

(4) Government spokesman he is; (5) get there I did. 

3 (1) The two topic entities in the paragraph are Mrs Mooney and Mr Mooney. Mrs 

Mooney is introduced as primary topic referent at subject in an intransitive (copular) 

clause. Mr Mooney is first introduced as ‘her father’s foreman’, as object of the verb 

marry. He is later identified as Mr Mooney, as subject of an intransitive verb go (to 

the devil). The topical referent chains are maintained mainly by means of anaphoric 

reference realised by personal pronouns. One chain is initiated by Mrs Mooney, and 

continues with she ...herself ...she . . . (zero). Another chain is initiated by Mr 

Mooney and continues with he . . . (zero) ...him ...he. In the last four lines the two 

topic referents appear together with Mr Mooney as primary topic referent, at 

subject, and Mrs Mooney as second topic referent at object (he ...his wife). The 

last line has both of them together (they) as subject. That refers to the events related 

in the previous sentence One night he went for his wife, etc. until the end of the 

sentence. 


Module 29 

2 (1) SAY; KNOW; HEAR; ANYthing; TOLD; ROOM; CARE; DO; TALK; ALways; 

(2) marked focuses are CARE, DO and ALways. 

4 The intonation nuclei could be assigned as follows: EGG; YOU; YOU; YOU’RE; I; 

NO; ARE; COOKing; yourSELF; THAT; I’LL; I’LL; DO; NO; DON’T; YOU; EAT. 

574 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

5 (1) can; (2) have/’ve done so; or did/did so; (3) haven’t/haven’t done so; 

(4) would/would like to; (5) how/how to; (6) didn’t/didn’t want to; (7) did/did so; 

(8) so/it was. 

Module 30 

1 The thematic progression type between 1, 2 and 3 is Type 2, constant theme 

(Vincent van Gogh – (zero) – he, with the subject in 2 being implicit. Between 3 and 

4 we have Type 1, simple linear (his mother’s keeping – his mother). Between 

clauses 4, 5 and 6 the progression type is constant theme (his mother – she – she). 

From 6 to 7 we have Type 1, simple linear, (with a family friend – the friend) and from 

7 to 8 constant theme with zero anaphora after and. 

2 (1) It is on the recycling of plastic that experts are working; The ones who are 

working on . . . are experts; What experts are working on is . . .; (2) It is fatal diseases 

that smoking can cause; what smoking can cause are fatal diseases; what can cause 

fatal diseases is smoking; (3) It’s by reading and listening to the radio that I unwind 

last thing at night; how I unwind ...is...; when I unwind by reading ...is...; (4) 

It’s against viruses that the computer industry is fighting; it’s the computer industry 

that is fighting . . .; what the computer industry is fighting against are viruses; 

(5) It was shortly after I got home that I realised that . . .; what I realised shortly 

after I got home was that . . .; when I realised that I had lost my purse was ... 

3 (1) Sentence 5; then. (2) Its discourse function is to signal an upcoming shift in the 

story. 

4 (1) a + c; (2) a + c; or a + b, as Edith is higher on the empathy hierachy, and so a 


better topic, than the cake; (3) a + c; (4) a + b. 

5a Suggested preferences for active and passive: (1) passive, because the first kindergarten 

in the United States announces the main topical referent, whereas they refers 

to people in general; (2) either: active makes for topic continuity with 1, while 

passive achieves topic continuity with 3; (3) better active; (4) active effectively gets 

the unthinkable in apposition with its explanation, while passive would separate 

these; (5) either is possible, but when the passive does not fulfil a specific purpose, 

it is wise to opt for the simpler active form; (6) the passive effectively brings the 

choices in topic continuity with the dilemma, leaving budget in final position, where 

(7) active maintains topic continuity with budget. 

CHAPTER 7 


2 The sequencing of the clauses is as follows: Finite subordinated circumstantial 

clause (After–yesterday), two coordinated finite clauses (householders–water), 

finite subordinated circumstantial clause (before–it). Chronological sequencing is 

maintained. 

ANSWER KEY 575

3 (1) non-equivalence (subordinate clause of purpose + imperative clause); (2) 

syntactic equivalence (two clauses in an appositional relationship), semantically 

there is an implied cause–effect relationship; (3) equivalence (two clauses in an 

appositional relationship, the second with pragmatic and); (4) non-equivalence 

(contrastive dependency); (5) equivalence (contrastive coordination). 

Module 33 

2 Suggested completions: (1) which she needn’t have done/ causing herself much 

remorse; (2) which was totally to be expected/ resulting in many absences in the 

following weeks; (3) which has happened several times before/ causing many 

injured; (4) which makes them dangerous areas/ causing merchant vessels to avoid 

them; (5) which is good news/ ending their families’ distress. 

Module 34 

2 (1) adversative (yet); (2) concessive (although); (3) adversative (yet); (4) replacive 

(but instead); (5) replacive (but instead). 

Module 35 

3 (1) pragmatic; (2) pragmatic) (3) semantic; (4) pragmatic; (5) pragmatic; (6) 

semantic; (7) pragmatic. The pragmatic uses give a reason or justification for the 

speech act expressed in the main clause. 

4 (1), (2) and (3) are instances of coordinating enhancement, the combination that 

is intermediate between coordination and dependency; in each case, there is a finite 

secondary clause conjoined to the primary clause by the conjunctive combination 

and + then. The circumstantial meaning expressed is that of time, but also, implicitly, 

one of cause and effect. (4) is an instance of subordinating enhancement, in which 

the primary clause is followed by a finite dependent clause introduced by the 

conjunction before. Again, the circumstantial meaning is that of time, together with 

implicit cause and effect. The parallel or similar organisation of these clause 

complexes, together with the same explicit and implicit meanings in each, contribute 

considerably to the force of the argument expressed. 


6 (1) The independent clause The Japanese . . . relatives is followed by a coordinated 

enhancement clause introduced by and so. This whole complex is dependent 

on the parenthetical We discovered this February. (2) The independent clause The 

Wakamaru ...house is followed by a non-finite clause, with an implicit meaning of 

simultaneity and could be replaced by a coordinated clause and keeps; (3) There 

are two complex sentences joined by a semi-colon, indicating an appositional 

relationship. In the first, the subordinate if-clause frames the independent clause by 

a condition which points to the result in the main clause. The second appositional 

combination is similar to the first, except that the main clause precedes the conditional 

clause; (4) A main clause is followed by direct reported speech in the second 

clause; (5) A subordinate conditional clause followed by a main clause. 

576 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 36 

1 (1) Annie said she was sorry/Annie apologised for interrupting us/ them in that 

vital discussion. (2) I asked the EEC official what exactly his job was. (3) X 

demanded whether I realised that the press would be printing something that wasn’t 

true. I agreed with a smile that indeed it would be frightful. (4) Annie inquired about 

Duncan and asked whether he would be recommended/Annie asked Desmond 

whether he would recommend Duncan. Desmond said he wouldn’t/flatly refused 

to do so. (5) Humphrey stammeringly/in a stammering voice accused the Prime 

Minister of lying. 

2 (1) Annie invited the official to sit down for a minute. (2) Fiona suggested to Godfrey 

that he (should) wear a sports jacket. (3) The Prime Minister suggested that he could 

sort of put on his glasses and take them off while he gave his speech. (4) Luke 

exclaimed in horror and begged/pleaded not to be sent to Israel, claiming that his 

career would be at stake. (5) I told him briskly not to be silly, and pointed out that 

it was an honour and could be considered as promotion. 

CHAPTER 8 

Module 37 

2 (1) primary verb; (2) primary verb; (3) part of lexical aux. be about + to-inf; (4) 

lexical aux. have got + to-inf); (5) same as 4; (6) lexical verb get; (7) lexical verb get; 

(8) lexical verb get (causative). 


3 (1) one-element VGs: whizzed, startled, fell, shouted, turned, said, are, asked, scrambled, 

pick, changed; (2) two-element VGs: was crossing, was clutching, can’t . . . be, was 

pedalling, was lost, had fallen, was rolling; (3) three-element VG: could have injured; 

(7) are in (9) functions as a main verb. 

4 suggested combinations are as follows: (1) is supposed to be; (2) are (un)likely/ 

bound/sure to; (3) is...due to; (4) had better; (5) be able to; (6) was about to; (7) 

are apt/liable to be; (8) have to/would rather/sooner. 

5 (1) The main markets are likely to be France, Germany and Spain. (2) Diana and 

Charles were virtually certain to divorce. (3) You are sure to be among the first 

three. (4) He is supposed to be her boy-friend. (5) You are not likely to get a 

question like that. 

Module 38 

1 (1) as aux in progressive; (2) as lexical verb; (3) as aux in passive; (4) lexical aux 

(is sure to) and lexical verb (be). 

2a (1)oxv, present, modal, progressive; (2) oxv, past, lexical-modal; (3) oxv, present, 

perfect, passive; (4) oxxv, modal, perfect, passive; (5) ov, past, passive; oxv, past, 

progressive; (6) oxv, past, progressive, passive; (7) ov, past, progressive; oxv, past, 

ANSWER KEY 577

perfect, progressive; (8) ov, present, progressive; (9) oxv, present, perfect, lexicalmodal; 

(10) oxv, present, modal, progressive. 

3 (1) was being taken; (2) had been being instructed; (3) must have been using; 

(4) can’t have been using; (5) must have moved; was being taken; (6) will be being 

developed; (7) are likely to be sold; (8) are sure to have been bought; (9) is being 

shot; (10) must have been being shot. 


1 (1) There are only three occurrences of states: the stative verbs (is, sees, sees); all 

the rest are dynamic, showing actions; (2) Finiteness is realised on the lexical verb 

(i.e. Finite is fused with Event) in flash, sees, is, take, panics, heads, hold, comes, goes, 

misses; Finite is realised by an operator in is passing, (is) having, can’t get, (wi)ll’spill, 

‘m braking, honking, flashing; (3) Yes: coming, getting, to make (sure); (4) Present; 

(5) five progressive choices, the rest non-progressive; (6) One instance of can’t 

meaning inability or impossibility, one instance of will with a predictive meaning 

(see Chapter 9; (7) One instance of negative polarity, the rest positive; (8) One 

instance of emphasis (COMES); (9) Briefly, the non-progressive forms are used to 

express a series of actions presented as complete and, in this text, sudden and 

for this reason alarming. The sense of imminent danger is heightened by the use 

of emphasis (COMES) and by modalising the declarative in two cases. The interjection 

(Christ Almighty) and exclamative force of the following clause, indicated by 

punctuation, also contribute. The progressive forms at the beginning of the extract 

plunge the reader into the scene by presenting an action in the process of happening, 

not yet completed (the car with a trailer is passing and having trouble getting back in 

lane); a later sequence of progressives (I’m braking, honking, flashing) represents 

iterative actions (see Module 42, here conveying an impression of urgency. The 

overall use of positive polarity, with one exception, together with the use of Present 

rather than Past tense in the narrative effectively convey the impression of a series 

of events which happened, rather than, for instance, a speculation on events which 

didn’t happen or might have happened. 


Module 39 

1 Clues for the discussion: The italicised verbs in the (a) sentences are lexical verbs; 

in the (b) sentences they are catenatives. The subjects of 1b and 2b are ‘raised’ from 

being subjects in that-clauses to subjects in the sentence: ‘It happened that we were 

away’ to ‘We happened to be away’; ‘It appears that he has misunderstood your 

explanation’ to ‘He appears to have misunderstood your explanation.’ 

2 (2) happened to be/chanced to be; (3) neglected to/failed to; (4) trying . . . 

managed to do so; (5) seems to be; (6) hastened to; (7) tend to be/ tend to be being; 

(8) tried to; proved to be. 

578 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 40 

1 (1) Figure: the president and his wife; Path: through and on up; Verb: Motion + 

manner; (2) Figure: The ship; Path: out of . . . past. Verb: Motion + Manner; (3) 

Figure: She; Path: off. Verb: Motion + Manner + cause; (4) Figure: several trees; 

Path: down; Verb: motion + Manner + Cause; (5) Figure: he; Path: down; Verb: 

motion + Manner; (6) Figure: we; Path: back; Verb: motion + Manner. The 

preposition to + a nominal group, as in (1) and (2) can be analysed as marking Goal, 

i.e. as end of Path. 

3 (1) bring activity to end by reaching a certain limit (a form of completion); 

(2) continuation of an activity; (3) slow completion of an activity; (4) continuation 

of an activity; (5) momentary character of an activity. 

5 (1) Particles with Path meanings: (took) ...out on, (went) up into, (went) back into, 

brought ...out, brought . . . down; (take) ...off, (rowed) away from; Both off and away 

indicate distancing from a point. 

(2) Particles with aspectual meanings: (gathered) up (bringing to a certain limit – 

intensifying function; (worn) out (bringing to a certain limit) – Intensifying function; 

(caught) ...up. 

CHAPTER 9 

Module 41 

2 (1) event, habitual; (2) state; (3) comes . . . and asks, both events, historic present; 

(4) events, quotative; (5) instantaneous events (a demonstration); (6) events, 

referring to past (in press headline); (7) states; (8) ‘prove’ reporting an event that 

is still valid, ‘leads’ habitual. 

5 (1) Past, Past. Early suggests that the speaker is visualising the event as occurring 

at some specific time in the past. The coordinated sequence of events suggests Past 

in both, although in the second the Perfect is marginally possible (have left), in which 

case the car is still by the bridge; (2) Perfect in both: Get here could mean ‘grasp’ 

in either its literal sense or its figurative senses of ‘understand’ or ‘discover’; in either 

case continuation of what has been grasped is more likely than definite possession 

(got) followed by a gap in time; (3) Past, necessarily, since the referent of ‘he’ is 

obviously now dead; (4) Past, for the same reason as in 3; (5) woke up (Past), since 

the waking is clearly over, with a gap in time between the waking and speech time; 

haven’t had (Perfect) since no gap is established; (6) Past (did you say), since the 

action of saying is seen as occurring at some specific time in the past; Past (was) 

with back-shift, or Present (is), since ‘your name’ is presumably still the same; 

(7) Perfect because no specific time is implied, and there is no disconnectedness, 

the addressee still being present; (8) Past, a specific point in time being implied; 

(9) Past, a specific event being visualised; (10) better Perfect in both, since the 

interpretation of connectedness is the more likely: ‘you are still in the wrong group’. 

The Past in both would imply that the situation described no longer holds. 


ANSWER KEY 579

Module 42 

2 (1) In (b) the standard set-up still prevails, whereas in (a) this is not necessarily the 

case. (2) The implication in (a) is that I am no longer a colleague of his, nor in 

the same department, whereas in (b) the situation still holds. (3) (a) asks about the 

point at which you stopped some time in the past; (b) asks about the point at which 

you are now. (4) (a) asks about a destination in the past unrelated to the present, 

whereas (b) connects the destination to present time, with the inference that the 

hearer has (recently) been somewhere and has now returned. (5) In (a) the action 

is over, in (b) it is recent and its effects are probably still felt or visible. (6) is similar 

to 5. (7) In (b) mobile phones are still popular, whereas no such implication exists 

in (a). (8) In (b) the action of giving is recent, in (a) there is no such implication. 

3 (1) is; (2) fled, because located at a definite time, in 1896; (3) had begun, because 

previous to ‘fled’; (4) fled, for the same reason as in 2 – definite time; (5) found or 

has found, the latter if he still lives in Berlin; (6) has made because relevant to present 

time. 

4 (1) feels, is, Present; (2) has wanted, Present Perfect; (3) gets distracted Present 

habitual; (4) is, Present state; (5) drives, Present habitual; (6) says, Present reporting 

(7) read, Past said Past, reporting; (8) thought, reporting, Past; (9) Present + 

progressive, is it going to end, reference to future time; (10) Present states is, love, 

am; (11) he’s achieved, Present Perfect; (12) I’m like, quotative; (13) is, Present with 

future reference. 

Module 43 


1 The Past form ‘squeaked’ is indeterminate between an imperfective (repeated) and 

a perfective (single) occurrence. As ‘squeak’ is a punctual verb whose subject is 

‘shoes’, it makes more sense to interpret it as repeated (iterative). 

2 (1) bounded (2) unbounded (3) unbounded (4) bounded or punctual, depending 

on how you visualise the pouncing (5) unbounded (6) unbounded (7) bounded, 

comprising the stepping and the landing phases (8) bounded (9) unbounded 

(10) bounded. 

3 (1) was driving, focuses on the internal phase of the process before the end-point 

home; (2) was crossing, extended internal phase of the process. Provides a frame for 

when she saw us; (3) were jumping, iterative; (4) have been trying, continuous phase 

anterior to speech time; (5) is seeing, dynamic use of a normally stative verb, see 

(=‘visit’). Both sees and is seeing have future reference, but sees emphasises the 

scheduled nature of the visit; (6) was crackling, ongoing event of temporary duration 

as seen by an observer; (7) were photographing, as in 6, and indeterminate (as is 

photographed) as to whether a single (perfective) or several (serial, imperfective) 

photographs were taken; (8) am shivering and coughing, iterative, speaker observing 

the process at speech time; (9) was pulling up, focuses on the internal phase of the 

process before the end-point expressed by ‘up’; (10) was bending, ongoing event of 

temporary duration as seen by an observer. In all but 4 and 8 the point of time or 

580 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

past event to which these ongoing events relate is not made explicit. In 4 and 8 the 

progressive relates the event to speech time. 

Module 44 

2 (1) will/’ll/shall; (2) can’t/won’t be able to; (3) must; (4) will; (5) can’t; (6) should; 

(7) was able to (8) might, could; (9) must; (10) needn’t/don’t have to. 

3 (1) ambiguous: with volitional meaning, wouldn’t wait; with predictive meaning, 

won’t have waited; (2) must have been mistaken; (3) can’t have been listening . . . 

was saying; (4) should have taken; (5) could hear; (6) were able to capture; (7) may 

have been; (8) had to have . . . vaccinated; (9) would have telephoned, had been 

able; (10) oughtn’t to have been talking/shouldn’t have been talking, was playing. 

CHAPTER 10 

Module 45 

1 (1) [The head is underlined] Everyone in the library; (2a) old men reading 

newspapers; (2b) high-school boys and girls doing research; (3a) the outcome of 

the current crisis; (3b) the pattern of international relations; (4a) Someone here; 

(4b) a story, etc. (to end of sentence), the most notorious of the dictators . . . to end; 

this country; (at) the turn of the century (5a) the seat on my left; (5b) a fat lady 

who, etc. (to end of sentence); an orange; (5c) my right; a thin-faced man etc. (to 

end of sentence); a moustache; a blotchy skin; (5d) He was the one who...etc. (to 

end); a friendly smile; a cheery ‘Good evening’; (6a) The violent attacks . . . missiles; 

the police; bottles, bricks and other assorted missiles; (6b) a large number of 

casualties. 


2 pre-head head post-head 

(1) fit, fun, funky, single parent 

(2) gorgeous, good-humoured, man interested in a loving and lasting 

intelligent, London based 

relationship 

(3) a loving and lasting relationship 

5 Questions 1 and 3: (1) cataphoric reference to the next clause; (2) exclusive we: 

speaker and another, not the addressee; (3) reciprocal; (4) reference to speaker 

or Pam; (5) ambiguous: either anaphoric reference to the mentioned situation or 

relationship, or cataphoric reference to the Complement nature as the cause of 

the relationship (impersonal use of it); (6) impersonal use of you; (7) exophoric 

(ostensive) reference to speaker’s gesture; (8) exophoric (ostensive) reference to 

speaker’s hand; (9) exophoric reference to speaker; (10) exophoric (ostensive) 

reference to speaker’s other hand; (11) anaphoric reference to Pam; (12) anaphoric 

reference to this and that; (13) anaphoric reference to people; (14) exophoric 

reference to speaker. 

ANSWER KEY 581

Question 2: (9) normal use of objective form of pronoun at Cs under prosodic stress 

of end-focus; (11) the same as 9 for her; (14) ungrammatical use of objective form 

of pronoun instead of subjective form. 

6 (1) Ambiguous: either this whole sequence of events, or this last event (i.e. ‘the stopping 

of work at the city’s maternity and children’s units’); (2) Analyse as pronoun. 

Module 46 

1a 1 mass; 2 count [= gymnasium]; 3 mass [= gymnastics]; 4 and 5 mass; 6 mass; 7 

count; 8 ambiguous: appearance 1 = looks, mass; appearance 2 = performance, count; 

9 mass; 10: mass. 

1b Fashion and football can be used as count nouns (new fashions; a new white football); 

shopping and homework can’t be used as count nouns. 

2 The following are used in the text as: (1) mass NGs: one’s nature, material comfort, 

childhood, outer space, humanity, the common sense; (2) count NGs: a habit, the 

cosmonaut’s denial, terrestrial comforts, the satisfaction, the scientific achievement, the 

impact, our planet, a painter, the sight, atomic flames, all cosmonauts, members, one 

family, my space experience, the people who live on our planet. 

3 (1) definite nouns: The Don (proper noun); the age (identified by its post-modifier); 

the village (identified by its post-modifier); the son (identified by its post-modifier); 

the man (identified by its post-modifier); the young boy (identified anaphorically 

by inference from ‘the son’ and ‘the age of twelve’); the new land (identified 

anaphorically by inference from ‘America’); the few gestures (identified by its postmodifier); 

(2) indefinite nouns: a real man (marked by a as indefinite-specific); strange 

men and friends (marked by zero article as indefinite-non-specific); some tie (marked 

by some as indefinite-specific). 


4 the backdoor by inference that it is the backdoor of the speaker’s house, or of a house 

which will be identified later in the text; the moon, exophoric reference to the earth’s 

only moon; the dark hump of the hillside, identified by inference, as what the speaker 

saw from ‘the backdoor’; the smoke, the moon, the night, identified by inference as 

the view from ‘the backdoor’ and ‘the moon’, which shines at ‘night’. 

5 Genericity could also be expressed by the following forms: (1) Liquids have 

no shape, (2) A gas has no shape. (3) Human beings need the company of others. 

(4) A war is politics carried out by violent means. (5) An animal that lives in captivity 

plays with its food . . . (6) A television (set) is a mixed blessing. (7) A bicycle is a 

cheap form of transport. Bicycles are a cheap form of transport. (8) Computers have 

revolutionised business methods. 

6 (1) generic; (2) indefinite; (3) indefinite; (4) generic. 

7 Either an indefinite but specific Frenchman; or, any man who is French (indefinitenon-specific). 

582 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Module 47 

1 (1) subjective; (2) objective; (3) locative; (4) temporal; (5) extent; (6) objective; 

(7) subjective; (8) subjective; (9) subjective; (10) source. 

2 (1) I should like another doctor’s opinion. (2) Have you read the chairman of the 

examination committee’s report? (3) The Regional Training Scheme’s failure was 

inevitable. (4) My next door neighbour’s dog barks all night. (5) No change, in order 

to avoid in my class’s grandmother. (6) Preferably no change, for similar reasons 

to 5. 

3 (1) Every member ...;(2) . . . hundreds of butterflies; (3) . . . some/ sɘm/ very 

good news; (4) Some/s m/ people ...;(5) Most of the people in this office have 

a car. . . . ; (6) None of this work . . . ; (7) . . . such an opportunity; (8) Half my friends. 

4 (1) every; (2) both . . . neither; or, all . . . none; (3) each; (4) every . . . each; (5) both; 

(6) any/ none; (7) every; (8) any (= it doesn’t matter which) or, no (= only the 

soluble kind will do). 

5 (1) everything; (2) all; (3) all; (4) everything; (5) everything. 

Module 48 

1 modified by epithets: Europeans; modified by classifiers: building, policy, power, 

Parliament, week, questions. The post-modifiers of students and attitudes are of a 

classifying type. 

2 The adjectives good, effective, persuasive, optimistic and sound are evaluative epithets, 

all of an appreciative kind, which describe the ideal person for the job. In the context 

of essential qualifications, however, good at least takes on a classifying besides 

a descriptive value. (‘Good’ is a grade in many academic institutions.) Mental is 

clearly classifying. The outstanding benefits non-contributory (pension), personal 

(loan), company (car), career (development), are classified administratively, except 

for the epithet excellent. 


5 (1) classifier ambiguous 

(2) ambiguous classifier 

(3) classifier classifier 

(4) classifier epithet 

(5) epithet classifier 

(6) epithet classifier 

(7) classifier epithet 

6 (1) Place first the shortest, and last the one which you prefer to emphasise; separate 

them by commas. (2) Most speakers would say: We heard a mysterious, faint tinkling 

sound; that is: subjective + short objective + participial epithets. (3) Place shortest 

first, longest last; also in order of ascending ‘dynamism’: her long, slender, artistic 

hands. (4) Shortest first, then submodified -ing epithet, then classifier (a) She had a 

pair of smart, exotic-looking designer sunglasses (5) The most natural order is: size + 

colour + material: The toilet was a smallish, brown, wooden box. Place wooden last as 

ANSWER KEY 583

classifier. (6) The most likely order is: two subjective + two objective epithets. 

Classifier granite nearest the noun: We drove through the dark threatening, wooded, 

granite mountains. No comma after dark (threatening because dark). 

Module 49 

1 (1) integrated; (2) integrated; (3) supplementive; (4) a country which I didn’t know, 

supplementive; which I didn’t know, integrated; (5) supplementive; (6) integrated; 

(7) supplementive; (8) integrated; (9) supplementive; (10) supplementive. 

2 (1) Jessica: appositive integrated. (2) a failure by any standard and (3) the curse of 

twentieth-century democracy appositive, supplementive NGs. 

4 (1) clas. h; (2) eeh; (3) ddhm; (4) de clas. hmm; (5) dee clas. clas. h; (6) hmm. 

5a (1)service for the repair of television aerials; (2) Appointments of Research Fellows 

at the University of Manchester; (3) reduction of the prices of telephone calls made 

during the daytime; (4) alarm about the proposals for the reform of adult education; 

(5) awards of gold medals made to the athletics teams of universities. 

5b (1) land-based multiple-warhead missiles; (2) intermediate-range nuclear-type 

weapons; (3) an all-European home-robots exhibition; (4) a classic midnight-blue 

lady’s velvet evening suit; (5) a two-year-old Maltese honey-coloured stone 

farmhouse. 

6 (a) If there is no comma after neck it seems that it is his neck that is in evening 

dress; moreover one would normally perceive the whole evening dress before the 

chain round the neck. (b) ‘it’ is here placed too far from its presupposed NG a clear 

fire, and appears to say that he is ‘standing with his back to his own evening dress’. 

(c) It also appears that ‘his face is spread out in both hands’. Rearrange the sentence 

as follows: A clear fire burned in a tall fireplace, and an elderly man, standing with his 

back to it in evening dress and with a chain round his neck, glanced up from the newspaper 

he was holding spread out in both hands before his calm and severe face. 


Module 50 

1 First NG The . . . ritual; second NG the coming of spring: third NG an expression of unity 

and fun. (1) complement, (2) complement, (3) complement. All take prepositional 

complements, as the nouns celebration, coming and expression are derived from verbs. 

2 (1) his taste in women: Od of describing; (2) the famous baby doctor, Benjamin Spock: 

S of said; (3) Benjamin Spock: supplementive appositive of doctor; (4) rather severe 

women: complement (c) of the preposition by; (5) their severity: c of the preposition 

despite; (6) The model for these women: S of was; (7) his own mother. Cs after the 

copular verb was; (8) his early eighties: c of the preposition in; (9) a most exceptionally 

charming man: Cs after the copular verb is; (10) the wish to win over his mother. S of 

may help. 

584 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 11 

Describing persons, things and circumstances 

1 ADJECTIVES AND THE ADJECTIVAL GROUP 

Module 51 

2 (2) You have been very enterprising in setting up this firm. (3) The newspapers have 

published/ given detailed reports of the case. Newspaper reports of the case were very 

detailed. (4) Conflicts often arise between neighbouring countries. (5) We live in an 

ancient walled town. (6) There are often better opportunities for skilled workers than 

for unskilled (ones). 

3 (a) Pre-modifiers in NG: 1, 2, 3 (also Northern); 9, 11, 12, 13, 17. As predicative Cs 

in clause: 4–8, 10, 14–16. (b) classifiers: 1 and 9, the rest are descriptors. (c) Possibly 

as an ellipted AdjG: ten years old. 

4 The transitive ones are participial adjectives; they can be graded by more, most 

and intensified by very. They can also function as Complements of the Subject and 

of the Object. The intransitive ones do not fulfil these criteria. Ticking, fading 

and growing are participial modifiers of the head noun. (Notice that, in ‘the clock is 

ticking’, is ticking, are fading, etc. are verbs.) 

6 navy/sky/royal blue; grass/olive green; shocking pink; brick-red; ice-cold; boiling hot; 

pitch black; bitter-sweet; snow-white. 


7 The compound adjectives are: (2) time-consuming; (3) home-made; (4) breath-taking; 

(5) airborne; (6) wind-swept; (7) award-winning; (8) labour-saving. 

Module 52 

1a Inflected for grading: risky, blue, friendly, small, tight. (Bitterest is normal but more 

bitter is probably preferred to bitterer). The remaining adjectives take analytic forms. 

1b Gradable are: shallow (er/more), small, probable and fast. The rest are not gradable. 

5 Suggested correspondences: (1) essentially; (2) radically; (3) ideally placed and 

(4) pleasantly surrounded; (5) ferociously; (6) genuinely old, imaginatively new. 

6 (1) medically necessary, socially dangerous. (2) theoretically very good/very good 

theoretically; (3) Countries which are technologically advanced . . . those which are 

scientifically under-developed. 

The remaining exercises in this module invite free answers; they require only 

reference to the text book or to a good dictionary for some items, and then the free 

composition of examples. For these reasons, no key is offered. 

ANSWER KEY 585

Module 53 

2 Introduce your PPs with the following prepositions: (2) (delighted) at; (3) (satisfied) 

with; (4) (opposed) to; (5) (white) with; (6) (expert) at; (7) (tired) of; (8) (keen) on. 

3 (a) The adjectives and AdjGs in the extract from Boy are: (i) functioning at Cs in 

clause: good at games; exceptionally good at two of them); far more complicated; far 

faster than squash; so good at it that I won . . . (to end of clause); (ii) functioning as m 

in NG: glass-roofed; perfect; small, hard, white, leather-covered; gloved; subtle and crafty; 

fastest . . . on earth (m and c); swift, strong, very quick; and (iii) functioning as Object 

Complement in clause: hard to believe. 

2 ADVERBS AND THE ADVERBIAL GROUP 

Module 54 

1 where (space, position); down (space, position); up (space, position); just (degree, 

intensification); well (discourse marker, attitude of acceptance); there (space, 

position); away (space, direction); yet (time, relation); up (degree, intensification); 

along (space, direction); up (degree, intensification); behind (space, position); all 

round (degree, intensification); back (space, direction); back (space, direction); even 

(scalar, not knowing a neighbour’s name is less than expected); just (focusing by 

reinforcement); again (time, frequency); about (space, indeterminate position); back 

(space, direction); even (focusing by reinforcement). Comment: the preponderance 

of circumstantial (space and time) adverbs, together with focusing adverbs, is in 

accordance with the topic and the subjective stance manifested in this personal 

account. 


2 In this passage, the adverbs are distributed as follows: circumstantial: elsewhere, 

anywhere; modal: incredibly, perhaps, probably; focusing: especially, even, too (= also), 

alone; degree: roughly, about, approximately, enough, quite, so. Comment: the passage 

contains argumentation about space rather than its description, and therefore 

contains only two ‘spatial’ adverbs. No subjective attitude is expressed; the adverb 

incredibly is not emotive in this context, where it means little more than very. The 

modal, focusing and grading meanings of the other 13 adverbs express, not personal 

feelings, but a cautious assessment of the arguments concerning a relatively 

undocumented scientific matter. The observation of this one linguistic feature (use 

of adverbs) in two different kinds of text (personal experience and objective 

exposition) shows how subject matter and its mode of treatment by an author 

always affects the choices of language forms in which a text is written or spoken. 

3a (1)eminently well suited; (2) certainly brilliant and moving, though admittedly it might; 

(3) an undeniably educational experience; (4) Reportedly, the President; (5) a poem 

allegedly written by Hitler; (6) it was obviously/clearly; (7) He actually became a star 

. . . which clearly allowed him to; (8) Their popularity is undoubtedly rising. 

3b (1)ideologically unyielding; (2) socially well-connected; (3) stylistically too long and 

complicated; (4) racially mixed; (5) morally responsible; (6) historically accurate. 

586 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

3c (1) hardly convince; (2) even in the rain; (3) we simply do not know; (4) solely/ 

exclusively on formal grammar; (5) and I said so too/also; (6) and will similarly 

help us. 

3d (1) sleeping soundly; (2) surreptitiously carrying diamonds; (3) Wilson worked 

endlessly; (4) speaking slowly, carefully choosing; (5) he drank heavily; (6) momentarily 

stopped. 

Module 55 

2 (a) Affirmative answers: (1) Yes, it’s already time. (2) Yes, I’ve already had it. Yes, 

I’ve had it already. (3) Yes, I still love you. Yes, I still do. Yes, I love you still. (4) Yes, 

I’m still studying it. Yes, I still am. (5) Yes, it’s already ten. Yes, it’s ten already. 

(6) Yes, I’ve already been there. Yes, I’ve been there already. Yes, I already have. 

(b) Negative answers: (1) No, it isn’t time to go yet. It isn’t yet time to go. (2) No, 

I haven’t had it yet. I haven’t yet had lunch. (3) No, I don’t love you any more/ any 

longer. I no longer love you. (4) No, I’m not studying it any more/ any longer. No, 

I’m no longer studying it. (5) No, it’s not ten o’clock yet. No, it’s not yet ten o’clock. 

(6) No, I haven’t been there yet. No, I haven’t yet been there. 

3 Possible positions are indicated by #. The adverb is given in the unmarked, 

preferred position. (1) #We sometimes take long holidays# in mountainous areas#. 

(2) #Journalists #working in war zones are often in danger. (3) #She gets on well 

with people abroad. (4) #They gave a concert yesterday. (5) #The cat gazed 

longingly at the brightly coloured fish in the aquarium#. (6) Perhaps you’d better 

take an overcoat with you#. (7) #We shall probably leave tomorrow#. (8) Hopefully, 

they have arrived at their destination. They have arrived hopefully at their 

destination. Comments: Remember that the different positions an adverb may 

occupy determine the scope of its reference. When the adverb is in initial position, 

the whole clause is in its scope, and may express either stance or judgement. Within 

the clause, it focuses mainly on the predicator and so is placed closely before, after 

or within the Predicator: sometimes take, are often, gaze longingly, shall probably leave. 

Other elements are sometimes focused, for example by restrictive adverbs: He alone, 

only for them. In end-position, the adverb is either in focus, or else is almost 

parenthetical, as in: We shall leave tomorrow, probably. 


Module 56 

3 Adverb Function Semantic type 

(1) terribly modifier of new intensification 

(2) at all postmod. of anything attenuation 

(3) really Adjunct modal, judgement 

(4) much modifier of the same intensification 

(5) still Adjunct time relation 

(6) out Adjunct spatial direction 

(7) so connective result 

ANSWER KEY 587

(8) well connective concession 

(9) scarcely Adjunct attenuation 



(12) a bit of modifier of NG attenuation 


(14) just Adjunct restriction 

(15) sort of Adjunct attenuation 

(16) entirely modifier of separate intensification 

(17) only Adjunct restriction 

(18) anyway connective concession 


(20) a bit modifier of awkward attenuation 

(21) through Adjunct spatial direction 

(22) so substitute clausal 

(23) even if concessive-conditional focus on if 

(24) together Adjunct manner 

(25) just modifier of ideal intensification 




(29) out Adjunct spatial direction 

(30) never Adjunct time, frequency 

(31) since Adjunct time, relation 

(32) at all modifier of not intensification 

(33) really Adjunct modal, emphasis 

(34) a little modifier of unpleasant attenuation 

(35) sort of modifier of unpleasant attenuation 

(36) rather modifier of unpleasant intensification 


Comment: some common adverbs may be interpreted semantically in more than one 

way. For example, 13 (really) may be considered as an Adjunct having intensifying force 

instead of as an Adjunct expressing a judgement of the truth value of the statement. 

Similarly 14 (just) may be interpreted as expressing attenuation rather than restriction. 

Discussion of the other adverbs in this exercise may well reveal further examples of this 

semantico-syntactic fluidity. 

CHAPTER 12 

Module 57 

2 (1) a sudden: The determiner a gives the impression that we have here a NG. 

However, the whole phrase is an invariable idiom, which functions as Adjunct NG; 

(2) fashion: noun; (3) school: noun; (4) everyone: pronoun; (5) us: pronoun; (6) not 

having to take a decision: -ing cl; (7) the Conservatives: NG; (8) the Labour Party: NG; 

588 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

(9) comparing programmes and thinking: -ing cl; (10) who to vote for: PP; (11) the way 

etc: NG; (12) getting votes: -ing cl; (13) them: pronoun; (14) at least some of the younger 

generation: NG; (15) them: pronoun; (16) the whole: NG; (17) people: NG; (18) their 

late teens and twenties: NG; (19) the twenty-year-olds: NG; (20) when they were young: 

fin. cl; (21) what they were like: PP with wh- complement; (22) that ‘green’ area: NG; 

(23) moving towards a position etc: -ing cl. 

Comments: (a) distribution of these complement forms is as follows: NG (12), 

noun (2), pronoun (4), -ing cl (4), wh-cl (2); (b) AdjG, AdvG, PP (0). (9) consists of 

two coordinated non-finite -ing clauses, the second containing a PP whose 

complement is another PP who to vote for, with stranded preposition. (13) is a NG 

containing a finite relative clause post-modifier, people say. (14) itself contains a 

PP, about . . ., whose complement is a NG containing another PP, of . . . whose 

complement is a NG (14). (17) is a NG, people today, whose post-modifier contains 

a finite relative clause, itself containing a PP, in . . . with a NG as complement (18). 

Nos. (20) and (21) are coordinated finite clauses, functioning together as a complex 

complement of the preposition to. Of in (13), (14) and (15) is a grammaticised 

preposition functioning as part of a quantitative modifier (see 47.4). AdjGs and 

AdvGs are not represented; they are in fact very restricted in this function. 

Module 58 

1 (1) Cs (with stranded preposition) in clause; (2) A in clause; (3) c of obsessed; 

(4) c of AdjG kind; (5) Ob in clause; (6) A in clause; (7) A in clause; (8) A in clause; 

(9) A in clause (of previous speaker); (10) m in NG; (11) m in NG. Graded pre- and 

post-modifier (more cases of . . . than . . .) form one discontinuous unit; (12) A in 

clause; (13) m in AdjG; (14) A in clause; (15) A in clause; (16) in NG headed by 

myths post-modifier. 

2 (1) adverb, (2) prep; (3) adverb; (4) adverb; (5) adverb; (6) prep; (7) prep; (8) 

adverb; (9) prep; (10) adverb; (11) neither adverb nor preposition, but an adjective; 

(12) adverb; (13) prep; (14) adverb; (15) prep; (16) prep. 


Module 59 

1 (1) static, extending from one side to the other, space below; contact only at each 

end; (2) path leading to position; on the other side; contact with surface; (3) nonlocational; 

more than a mentioned quantity; (4) position; higher than; without 

contact; (5) movement up one side and down the other; with contact; (6) extent; 

covering a horizontal surface; with contact; (7) movement downwards from an 

upright position; caused by an obstacle; making contact with the obstacle; (8) 

indeterminate position of a blow on an object. Comment: some different semantic 

features can be expressed by the preposition over in other contexts; e.g. to fall over 

a cliff; to be over an operation; to be over the worst; all over the world; conversation over 

lunch; over the telephone; to take a long time over something; to have difficulties over 

something. 

4 At: related to points in space (sea), time (once, times), and engagement in an activity 

(work, war). On: related to a state or activity. Out of: related to a lack of, or absence 

ANSWER KEY 589

of something, derived from the basic meaning of exit from a container; out of sight, 

not within the field of vision. In: related to a state, or field of vision (in full view) 

abstracted from the container metaphor. Under: in a disadvantaged state, abstracted 

from the basic meaning of ‘in a lower position’ relative to something else. 

5 (1) for is the preposition most often used for the simple expression of the extent of 

a period; (2) over, metaphorical use, spanning the period as a whole; (3) during refers 

to points or short periods at different times during the whole period; (4) through, 

metaphorical use, treating the years of problems as having volume, like a forest or 

a tunnel; (5) throughout intensifies the notion of ‘the entire period’ and ‘constant 

activity’; (6) in means ‘at the end of the next two years’; (7) within means during 

the next two years or a period not longer than two years. 

6 (1) Path; (2) Source; (3) Location (point) in space; (4) reference; (5) Location 

in space; (6) movement of going up higher than something and down again; 

(7) purpose; (8) Location; (9) Goal; (10) Goal; (11) part–whole; (12) Goal; 

(13) part–whole; (14) Location (partly contained); (15) Location; (16) Recipient; 

(17) metaphorical; (18) Location; (19) Location. 

Module 60 

1 (1) It is the ecological consequences of this project that I am most interested in. 

(2) What you must be particularly careful about when walking in the streets is your 

money. (3) What I haven’t paid for yet are the meals. The meals haven’t been paid 

for yet. (4) I find my parents difficult to talk to. (5) What do you believe in, then? 

(6) Which flight did you say we are booked on? (7) Who are we collecting this money 

for? (8) Which country is Caracas the capital of ? (9) Which parking-place did the 

caretaker say we can’t park in? 

2 (1) for, abstract, orientation, functioning as a stance adjunct; (2) like, similarity, 

modified by a bit; (3) dress ...up, discontinuous transitive verb + adv. particle; (4) 

with, means; (5) get over, prep. verb, metaphorical, ‘overcome’; (6) for, selected by 

the noun, taste; (7) at the Edinburgh Festival, location viewed as point, function; (8) 

at, selected by the verb stare; (9) like, similarity; (10) for, selected by the noun 

reasons; (11) of, grammaticised, part–whole; (12) without, conjunctive preposition; 

(13) like, similarity, selected by verbs such as look and sound; (14) in that . . . manner, 

abstract; (15) to, direction, grammaticised; (16) in, container metaphor of time; (17) 

settle down, v + adv. particle; (18) in, container metaphor, a theatre seat has arms 

and is comfortable; (19) with, stranded preposition in wh-relative clause (with 

whoever I am). 


590 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 595

INDEX 

Terms in brackets are (explanation or equivalent) or [category]; a stroke means either/or. Page 

numbers in italics show diagrams. 

abbreviated clauses 180, 183–4 

abbreviations xxi–xxii 

ability 390–2 

aboutness 227 

Absolute Themes 232 

abstract nouns 408–9 

abstract use of prepositions 552–4 

Accompaniment [circumstance] 157, 551 

active/passive voice 7–8, 129, 252–7 

Activities and Accomplishments 371 

actualised participant 125–7 

additionality 157, 285–6 

Adjectival Group (AdjG) 16, 18, 436–42, 

475–9, 484–8 

as Complement 66, 68, 88, 97–8, 536 

detached predicative 71, 231–2, 482 

as post-modifier 453–4, 481 

structure 475, 476, 492 

syntactic functions 18, 481–2 

adjectives 16, 475, 477–81, 484 

and attitude 437–8 

central vs peripheral 482–3 

comparative and superlative 484–8, 

499–501 

complement of 494–501 

functions 482–3 

classifier 404, 426, 435–6, 440–4, 480 

connective adjunct 482 

degree emphasiser 481, 482–3 

descriptor (epithet) 404, 435–9, 442, 480, 

492 

exclamation 482 

modifier in AdjG/AdvG 492–3 

post-modifier in NG 453, 481–93 

pre-modifier in NG 437–9, 481–93 

untypical head of NG 6, 403 

modal 380 

multiple 438–9, 443–5 

participial 478–9 

predicative 482 

see also degree complement; intensifiers 

Adjunct (A) 6–8, 35–6, 69–76, 87, 542 

adds end-point 372 

Circumstantial 17, 36, 69, 70–2, 542 

framing function 71–2, 235–6, 275–6 

as Theme 222, 228–9 

Connective 17, 36, 69, 74–5, 234, 281–3, 

285–6 

circumstance 290–1, 542 

operator-related 70, 513 

with present perfect 363–4 

Stance 17, 36, 69, 73–4, 542 

epistemic 73, 234 

evaluative 73, 234, 482 

evidential 73, 234 

vs Complement 35–6, 71–2, 87 

adverbial clauses 292 

Adverbial Group (AdvG) 16, 18, 45–6, 454, 

502–3 

structure/functions 475, 502–3, 508–9 

adverbial particle 336–41, 372 

adverbs 16, 230–1, 502–7 

complementation 518–21, 536 

degree 190 

modal 380 

modification 515–18 

modifying adjectives 492–3 

position/scope 509–12, 513, 514 

and prepositions 544–5 

relative 454 

syntactic functions 508–9, 514 

see also Complement; grading; intensifiers 


Affected [participant] 5, 7–8, 51, 128–9 

affectedness 165 

as object 5, 7–8, 51, 128–30 

as subject 130–1, 135–6, 252–5 

affectivity [process] 139–40, 142–3, 233 

Agent [participant] 5, 7–8, 128–31, 146, 165 

optional in passive 8, 254–5 

already vs still/yet 513 

ambiguity 9–10, 193, 443, 456, 533–4 

American English see British English (BrE) 

analysing text 9–10, 37–9 

analytical causatives 134–5, 138 

anaphoric (backwards) reference 414, 418, 

419 

anaphora 227, 229, 415 

zero 227, 449–50, 454 

and 278–9, 290–1, 295 

animacy 130, 140, 449–50 

hierarchy 256 

antecedent in relative clauses 449–50 

anteriority 325, 362, 366–7 

anti-causative construction 135, 138 

see also ergative pairs 

anticipatory it 52 

vs extraposition 47–8 

any 23–4, 428 

in negative 23–4, 202–3 

appellatives 234 

apposition 278–80, 281–3, 448 

and circumstance 290–4 

articles 16, 402–4, 417–22 

and countability 405–6, 409–10 

generic reference 421–2 

in/definite 417–22 

zero 420, 421–2, 450 

aspect 325, 361, 369–70, 378 

grammatical 372 

im/perfectivity 369–70 

iterative 377, 378 

lexical 370–5 

durative/dynamic [situation/verb] 

371–2 

habitual 374–5, 377–8 

punctual [situation/verb] 371–2, 374, 

378 

Perfect vs Progressive 325–9, 372 

and phasing 112, 331–5, 378 

(un)bounded ((no) end-point) 165, 371–2, 

374–5 

see also Perfect; Progressive 

aspectual marker 341 

assertive/non-assertive 23–5 

biased questions 202–3 

attempting/helping [phase] 334 

attention 96–7 

attenuation 157, 490–1, 493, 538 

see also intensifiers 

attitude 4, 6, 73–4, 256, 385–90, 437–8 

attitudinal marker 203–4 

Attribute 4–5, 24, 123, 124, 144–6, 164 

circumstantial 146, 150 

current/resulting 88, 97–8, 145 

resulting 134–5 

possessive 146–8 

respect 98 

see also Object Complement; relational 

processes; Subject Complement 

attributive adjective 482–3 

auxiliary verbs (x) 18, 318–22, 323, 325–8 

lexical 21, 318–20 

modal 318, 320, 380, 385 

shall/will 353 

see also be; get; have; primary verbs; 

semi-modal verbs 

backgrounding 272, 276, 290, 298 

backshift 299, 303–4, 359 

bare infinitive 12–13, 47, 102, 111–12, 324 

be 21–2, 124, 193, 322 

as auxiliary 21, 318–19, 325–8, 360 

be able/likely/sure to 319, 321 

be going to 353, 360 

in passive 136, 256 

with clefting 249–52 

as copula 22, 88–9 

with existential there 45, 153, 257–60 

as uninflected subjunctive 103 

Behalf [circumstance] 156 

behavioural processes 122, 142, 151, 152–3 

verbs of 85–6, 153 

being/becoming 144–6 

belief see cognition 

Beneficiary [participant] 55–6, 137–8, 146 

biased questions 202–3 

bibliography 591–5 

bivalency see two-place [monotransitive] 

verbs 

blame-type verbs 95–6 

block language 244 

bound (grammaticised) prepositions 534 

boundedness (verb, contrast) 371–2, 

374–5 

British English (BrE) vs American English 

(AmE) 65, 440, 488 

anywhere/place 519 

haven’t got/don’t have 382 

for as subordinator 110 

have just eaten 365 

must/have to, gotta 382, 388 

prepositions 549, 550 


INDEX 597

punctuation 274 

use of subjunctive 103, 196, 495 

British National Corpus xxii 

but 278, 287 

can, cannot, can’t 21–3, 142, 390–3 

can’t 109–10, 112, 392 

negative of may/must 388–9 

capacity (as) 157 

Carrier [participant] 144–7 

cataphoric (forwards) reference 414, 419 

catenative verbs/complements 108–9 

and ellipsis 243 

causative processes/verbs 91, 113, 126, 130, 

132–6, 138 

causation 130, 132–5 

Cause [circumstance] 156 

certainty 157, 209, 381–5 

chance/tendency [phase] 335 

circumstance 

apposition/coordination 290–1 

clauses 296–8 

semantic roles 4–5, 123–5, 155–9, 166 

enhancement 290–8 

Range 158–9 

circumstance [Adjuncts] as Theme 228–9 

circumstance as clause element 37, 122, 

124–5, 166, 280 

as Adjunct 4–7, 17, 36, 290–4 

as Complement 37–8 

locative/goal 86–7, 99 

as Entity 164 

Circumstantial Adjunct see Adjunct, 

Circumstantial 

circumstantial adverbs 505–6 

clarifying connectives 282–3 

classes of units xxi, 12–16 

classification criteria 37–9 

classifier in NG 404, 435–6, 440–5, 480 

multiple 443–4 

’s 426 

vs noun compound 440–2 

clauses 11, 101, 176–9, 177, 277–80 

classes of 177–212 

comparative 14 

finite dependent 14–15, 292–4 

finite/non-finite 12–13 

in/dependent 13–14, 100–1, 275–6 

infinitival 13 

main 13–14, 187–8, 272–3, 275–6, 

279–80, 288–9, 292–8 

matrix 14, 100, 451 

nominal 14, 44, 46–8, 59–60 

participial 13, 237 

reduced 190, 195–6 

abbreviated 15, 180, 183–4 

echoes 180, 183–4, 190 

supplementive 14–15, 71, 196 

verbless 15, 46–7, 195, 276 

relative 14, 276 

subordinate 14–15, 236, 270–3, 275, 283, 

292 

superordinate 14, 100 

clausal negation 22 

combining 211–12, 272–6 

extraposed 260–1 

functions 17–18, 66, 230, 235–7 

as adjunct 71, 74, 75 

complement of noun 83–99, 114–15 

embedded 46–7, 52–6, 66–8, 100–1, 275 

in NG 101, 436, 452 

in wh-cleft clauses 250–2 

interpreted as 

interaction/exchange 3–4, 6 

organised message 6–7 

representing a situation 3, 5, 17, 128–9, 

148–9, 161–3 

reporting 300–7 

sentential antecedent 283 

illocutionary force 176, 210–11 

initial/final 298 

non-clausal material 274–5 

structure 17–18, 34–41, 101, 277–9 

see also complementation patterns; 

declarative; dependent clauses; 

exclamative; imperative; interrogative; 

mood; negative 

clefting 249–52 

acting as test 9–10, 58, 70–1 

it-cleft 249–50 

stranded preposition 556 

wh-cleft 159, 249–52, 250–1 

and extraposition 261 

reversible 251–2 

closed conditionals 358 

coercion, clauses of 111–12 

cognition [process] 102, 139–41 

cognitive 

representation 96, 210, 407–9 

salience/perspective 96–7, 226, 272 

coherence and cohesion 298, 337, 421, 441 

by ellipsis and substitution 243–5 

by use of articles 421 

by use of pronouns 414–15 

identity chain 226–7, 243, 259, 415 

see also topic 

commands see directives 

communication, see also verbal process 

communication and content 3–5 

communicative dynamism 240, 257 


598 INDEX

comparison of adjectives 484–8, 499–501 

comparison of adverbs 515–16 

Comparison [circumstance] 156, 290–1 

Complement (C) 34–8, 71–2, 229–30 

see also Locative Complement; Object 

Complement; Subject Complement 

complement 

of adjective 494–501 

vs extraposed clause 495–6 

of adverb 19, 518–21 

vs modifier 502, 519 

circumstantial 34, 37, 62, 71–2 

determined by verb 34, 37–8, 100 

of noun 404, 457, 460 

of preposition (in PP) 19, 531 

vs post-modifier 404, 476 

complementation patterns of the verb 83–99, 

114–15 

by finite clauses 100–7 

by non-finite clauses 108–15 

copular 83, 87–9 

intransitive 83, 85–7 

transitive 83 

complex 90, 97–9 

ditransitive 90, 92–6 

monotransitive 90–2 

valency 83–4 

see also -ing clauses; that-clauses; 

to-infinitive clauses; wh-clauses 

complementisers (subordinators) 100–1 

that omitted 102–5 

completed events 112, 366 

complex sentences 272–4 

complex-transitive verbs 90, 97–9, 115 

compound 

adjectives 477 

adverbs 504 

prepositions 534–5 

see also nouns; sentences 

concatenated see catenative 

Concession [circumstance] 156, 290–3 

concord 43–4, 45, 257 

Condition [circumstance] 156, 290–3 

condition and conditional clauses 72, 367 

pragmatic vs rhetorical 196 

and subjunctive 196, 358–9 

confrontation 209–10 

conjoined VGs 331–2 

conjunctions 16, 285, 290, 292–6 

conjunctive prepositions 296, 543–4 

coordinating 276, 278, 290–2 

pragmatic 294–6 

subordinating 287–8, 292–4 

vs prepositions 543–4, 551 

see also connectives; coordinators 

conjunctive combination 290–1 

connectives [adjuncts] 17, 36, 69, 74–5, 234, 

285–6 

adjectives 482 

adverbs 506–7 

clarifying 282–3 

enhancing 290–1 

connectivity 

and discourse cohesion 298 

pragmatic/semantic/syntactic 275–6 

connectors see conjunctions; connectives 

constituents and constituency 9–10, 34, 

275–6 

order of constituents 224 

see also tests 

containers (mass/count) 410, 552–3 

content clause vs relative clause 457 

see also Complement 

context 4, 86, 178–9, 195–6, 205–6, 237, 

242 

co-text 8, 12–16, 22–4, 177 

Contingency [circumstance] 156, 292, 293–4 

continuation or duration [phase/aspect] 112, 

331–5, 378 

Continuative Themes see discourse markers; 

Theme 

contrastive dependency 287–8 

contrastive focus in cleft constructions 250 

conversation 301–2 

coordination 26–7, 331–2 

between clauses 236, 278–80, 455–6 

and circumstance 290–4 

of complements 501 

semantics 285–7 

as test for constituents 441–2 

that-clauses 104 

coordinators (conjunctions) 278, 285–6, 

291–2 

correlative (n)either . . . (n)or 286 

copular verbs and clauses 37–8, 228 

complementation 64–6, 83, 87–9 

core see prototypical 

co-referential [pronoun] 232 

cost-benefit scale 206 

countability 405 

count and non-count 405–6, 417 

non-count 406–10, 421–2 

markers 409–10 

cross-transposition 339 

current relevance in Present Perfect 361–2, 

365–6 


declarative mood/clauses 6, 177, 180–2, 

211 

with attitudinal markers 203–4 

INDEX 599

explicit performatives 197–9 

modalised 20, 208–9 

negative (discourse functions) 23, 199 

un/marked Theme 224 

defining clauses see relative clauses, 

restrictive 

definite reference 226, 417–18, 419–21 

see also articles; determiner 

degree adverb 190, 506 

Degree [circumstance] 157 

degree complement 

of adjective 499–501 

of adverb 519–20 

degree emphasisers 481, 482–3 

deictic centre 353 

deictics (pointing words) 303, 353, 362, 403, 

417 

non-deictics 362, 411 

pronouns 411–13, 424–5 

there 257 

see also backshift 

demonstrative see determiner; pronouns 

deontic [modality] see modality, meanings 

dependency 277, 279–80, 285, 292–4 

contrastive 287–8 

degrees of between clauses 275–6 

subordination 26, 27–8 

dependent clauses 13–14, 272–3, 292–4 


finite vs non-finite 12–13, 71, 74, 75 

as object 53–4 

replaced by Entity 164 

sentential relative 283–4 

as subject 46–7 

and subordinators 292–4 

see also clauses, functions; Complement; 

nominal clauses; non-finite; relative 

clauses 

descriptive modifiers of prepositions 539 

descriptors see epithets 

desideration [process] 139–40, 142–3 

detached predicatives 71, 231–2, 482 

detached Themes 232–7 

determiner (d) 403–4, 423–4, 434 

determinatives 404, 424–34 

central 404 

demonstratives 403, 424, 433 

distributives 403, 423, 429–31, 433 

exclamative what 190–1, 195, 433 

in/definite 403–4, 433 

negative 428 

possessives 403, 423, 425, 433 

quantifiers 403–4, 423, 427–9, 433 

wh-type 190, 193, 403, 426–7, 433 

post-determinatives 404 

pre-determinatives 404 

semi-determinatives 423, 431–3 

see also articles 

dialogue 301–2 

written 301–3, 307–8 

Direct Object (Od) 6–8, 17, 34, 50–4 

extraposed 53 

non-/finite clauses 53–4 

and passivisation 51, 53 

position 50, 51, 60–2 

realisations 50, 52–4 

semantic/syntactic roles 50–2 

thematised 229–30 

unactualised (implied) 91 

untypical 51, 52, 112 

direct (quoted) speech 299–305 

say and tell 105, 152, 301–2 

thought 302–3 

direction and directional 62, 155, 538 

adjuncts 155 

complements 62, 72 

Direction or Path [circumstance] 72, 155–6 

see also Location; Locative 

directives 192, 205–10 

commands 177 

quoted or reported 305–7 

responding to 208 

discontinuity 323, 329–30, 500–1, 519–20 

stranding 59, 534, 556–8 

discourse connectivity and cohesion 298 

discourse markers 75, 234 

dislocations see Theme, detached 

distance, statements about 126 

Distribution [circumstance] 155 

distribution of information 223 

distributors see determiner 

ditransitive patterns/verbs 90, 92–6, 262 

atypical 103 

do 158–9 

do-operator 22–3, 182–3 

see also Finite element; operator 

doing, verbs of 126, 128–30, 138 

domain adjuncts 73–4 

double Themes 233–4 

doubt see cognition 

dummy it 44, 250 

durative processes 371–2 

dynamic [process, use or verb] 123, 142 

vs stative 370–2 


each vs every 429–30 

echo questions 180, 183–4, 190 

egress/termination [phase/aspect] 112, 

331–5, 378 

elaboration 279–80, 281–4 

600 INDEX

elements of structure see structure 

ellipsis 238, 243–4, 245 

quantifiers 428, 429, 430 

textual 243–4 

yes/no questions 183–4, 204 

see also clauses, classes of, reduced 

embedding 26, 28, 101, 275–6, 447–8 

layered/multiple 105, 273, 455–6 

prepositions 533, 541 

emotive overlay 241–2 

emotive verbs 113 

empathy hierarchy 226, 256 

emphasis 157, 325 

emphatic imperative 194 

-en/ed (past participle) 12–13 

as adjective 436, 478–9 

clauses 13, 102, 108, 115, 237, 276 

meanings 113–14, 297 

post–modifiers 448, 452 

end-focus 241–2, 252–5, 257, 512 

end-point 165, 371–2, 374–5 

end-position 246, 254 

end-weight 47, 52, 254, 257, 512 

enhancement 279–80, 290–8 

entailment 111–12 

Entities 401–2 

realising process 163–5 

episodes in talk 225 

epistemic 

parentheticals 301 

see also adjunct, stance; modality, meanings 

Epithets (descriptors) 404, 435–9, 442 

multiple 439, 444–5 

equality, degrees of 500, 501 

equivalence/non–equivalence between 

clauses 277–9 

ergative pairs (alternation) 91, 132–4, 138 

evaluative (attitudinal) 

adjectives 437–9 



Event 317, 352–3 

utterances 242–3 

every vs each/all 429–30 

see also pronouns, indefinite 

Evidence [circumstance] 158 

evidential 



exclamative mood/clauses 177, 190–1 

directive 209 

embedded [indirect] 105, 107, 191 

exclamations 3, 199–200, 211 

rhetorical questions 201 

exemplifying to clarify 282 

Existent [participant] 153, 257 

existential clauses 257–60 

derived 258 

extended 259 

short 258 

states of affairs 259–60 

existential processes 122, 125, 151, 153–4 

existential or unstressed there 45, 153–4, 

257–60 

and concord 257 

expansion (semantics of clause combining) 

277, 279–80 

elaboration 279–80, 281–4 

enhancement 279–80, 290–8 

extension 279–80, 285–9 

experience, first–time 364–5 

Experiencer [participant] 139–43 

experiential meaning 4, 7, 222–3, 401–2, 

437–8 

explicit performatives 197–9 

extended now 362–3 

extension 279–80, 285–9 

Extent [circumstance] 71–2, 155 

extraposition 46, 47–8 

of clauses 260–1, 495–6 

extrinsic modality see modality, meanings 

factual or not? 24, 379–81 

see also assertive/non-assertive 

fairly as intensifier 490 

Figure and Ground 337, 340, 546, 547–8 

final position 246, 254 

finite clauses 12, 14–15, 46, 53 


apposition 281–3 

as complement 100–7, 495–6 

dependent 292–4 

see also that-clauses 

Finite element or operator (o) 6, 180–3, 

185–6 

finite operator 18, 21–2 

ordering with Subject 43 

finiteness 6, 325 

auxiliary verbs 48 

and person/number 6 

and tense 12, 48 

focus of attention 96–7, 370, 373, 376 

Focus of information 238–42 

by clefting 250–1 

contrastive 241–2 

emotive 241–2 

marked 230–1, 238, 241–2 

unmarked (end-focus) 241–2, 252–5, 257, 

511–12 

focusing adverb or modifier 505–6, 539 


INDEX 601

for as subordinator 110 

force see illocutionary force 

Force [agent] 130 

foregrounding 272 

frame, perspective and attention 96–7 

framing function of circumstantials 223–4, 

228–9, 235–6 

free in/direct speech 307–8 

indirect thought 308–9 

free (lexical) prepositions 534 

freestanding subordinate clause 15, 196, 274, 

283, 451 

fronting see thematic, fronting 

functions 20 

discourse/pragmatic 6–8, 207, 250 

semantic 4–5, 19–20 

syntactic 7–8, 19–20 

see also adjectives; adverbs; clauses; 

clefting; existential clauses; nominal 

group; question tags; verbal group 

future events 352–3, 359–60 

future perfect 360 

gender-neutral pronouns 412–13 

generic reference 421–2 

genitive determiner see ’s possessive 

get-passive 136, 138, 256–7, 332 

give [verb] 92–3, 106 

use for Range 94, 158–9 

Given–New information 60–1, 238, 240–2, 

420–1 

New–Given pattern 255–6 

Theme–Rheme 252–7 

Goal see Location; Locative; see also Affected 

grading 

adjectives 484–6 


PP modifiers 538 

grammatical metaphor 160–5 

grammatical status 193, 532 

grammaticised (bound) prepositions 534, 547, 

551, 554–5 

Ground see Figure and Ground 

groups (within clauses) 11 

classes of 16 

syntactic elements 18–19 

habit and habituality 356, 374–5, 377–8 

happening [verbs/processess] 126, 130–1, 

138 

have 21, 323–30 

as auxiliary 318–19 

had better 320 

have been/gone to 365 

have (got) to 320, 382, 388, 393 

as primary verb 21, 318 

use for Range 94, 158–9 

as verb of possession 147 

see also aspect; Perfect; Progressive 

head (h) and headword 402–3 

adjectival 403, 422, 475–6 

adverbial 502–3 

common nouns 405–10 

nominal 401–2, 405 

taking complement 457–8 

pronouns 411–16 

proper nouns 410–11 

substitute 403, 416 

hedged see performatives 

help [verb] 108–9, 112, 332 

historic present 356 

how, exclamative 107, 191 

hypertheme (global topic) 248–9, 249 

hyphenation 441 

hypothetical uses of modals 393 

see also should and ought 

I and we 411–12 

Identified/Identifier 144, 148–50 

and Token/Value 144, 149 

identifying clause 230 

identifying relationship 148–50 

identity chains 226–7, 243, 259, 415 

idiomatic usage 45, 48, 189 

modal verbs 384–5, 393 

phrasal verbs 60, 61–2, 337 

prepositional verbs 56–7, 59 

see also spoken English 

illocutionary force 176, 178, 210–11 

see also speech acts 

imminent events 360 

imperative mood/clauses 177, 190, 191–5, 

205–7, 211 


with dynamic process 123 

reported 306–7 

stative verbs 140, 354 

Theme 225 

imperfective see perfective/imperfective 

implied sense inferred 91, 258, 288–9 

impoliteness see politeness 

indefinite see articles; determiner (d) 

indefinite reference 417–19, 420–1 

pronouns 413–14 

proper nouns and NGs 150, 419 

specific 418–19 

time-frame 361–4 

independent clauses 13, 270–4, 278 

indeterminacy 179, 418–19 

indicative [mood] 6, 103, 177 


602 INDEX

Indirect Object (Oi) 6–7, 34, 50–1, 55–6 

semantic roles 50, 55 

indirect (reported) speech 102–3, 299–300, 

303–9 

backshift 359 

say and tell 105, 152 

speech acts 178–9 

thought 305, 308–9 

indirectness 209–10 

individuation (countability) 405–10 

inference 207, 281–4, 291 

infinitive see bare infinitive; to-infinitive 

information 93, 238–46 

presupposed 249, 250–1 

units 238–40 

see also Focus of information 

informativeness 254 

-ing (present participle) 12–13, 436, 478–9 

clauses 13, 54, 101–2, 276 

and affectivity 143 

as complement 54, 56, 112–13, 115, 

536–7 

as Direct Object 53–4 

expanding NG 259 

initial as Theme 237 

meanings 112–13, 288–9, 297 

of + -ing 459 

as Predicator 48 

restrictive 452 

as Subject 47 

as supplementives 284, 447–8, 452 

vs to-infinitive 108, 113, 332, 537 

ingress or initiation [phase/aspect] 112, 

331–5, 378 

inherent circumstance 124–5 

inherent participants 122, 125–7 

see also obligatory elements 

initial position see thematic, fronting 

initiation or ingress [phase/aspect] 112, 

331–5, 378 

Instrument [circumstance] 156, 551 

integration 

of classifier and noun 440–2 

of preposition and verb 59–60 

intended events 360 

intensifiers, interrogatives 207 

intensifiers and intensification 488 

of adjectives 488–90 

of adverbs 516–18 

attenuation 490–1, 493 

in discontinuous VGs 329–30 

-ever in wh-words 186 

of prepositions 531, 538 

intensive relationship 68 

intention 386–7, 393 

interdependency [clauses] 275–6 

interpersonal meaning 4–7, 178, 223, 234 

interrogative mood/clauses 6, 22–3, 177–8, 

180–9, 211, 225 

alternative 180, 185 

double 186–7 

exclamations 200 

in/dependent 106 

indirect 105–6 

intensifiers 207 

modalised as directive 208 

negative 21–4, 182–3 

position of Subject 43, 180, 182–3 

wh- (non-polar) 22–3, 100, 105–6, 185–7 

yes/no (polar) 22, 177, 201–2, 225 

see also queclaratives; questions 

intonation 193, 195, 196, 199, 203, 207 

contour 276 

questions 176, 181, 186, 187 

see also nucleus; tone units 

intransitive patterns/verbs 37–8, 91, 126–7 

complementation 83, 85–7 

copular verbs 37–8 

pseudo-intransitive 132, 135–6 

intrinsic modality see modality, meanings 

inversion of subject–verb 230–1, 300–1 

interrogatives 22–3, 182–4, 321–2 

not always possible 243, 287 

so/neither/nor 244–5 

involuntary processes 130–1, 152 

involvement of speaker in get-passive 256 

it 413 

anticipatory 47–8, 52, 260–1 

dummy 44, 250 

iterativity (of aspect) 377, 378 


just [aspectual marker] 508 

just [intensifier] 508–9, 516 

keep [verb] 88, 97–9, 332–3, 340, 378 

know [verb] 102, 104–7, 141 

don’t know 105 

Landmark 546 

laugh at 57–9 

left-dislocations 232–3 

let’s/let us/let 194–5 

discourse functions 194, 207 

lexical auxiliaries 21, 319–20 

see also verbs, lexical 

lexical density 162 

lexical (free) prepositions 534, 546–8 

like [verb] 108–10, 142–3 

Location [circumstance] 71, 86, 155–6 

with be and put 124 

INDEX 603

Goal 72, 155–6 

space or time 146 

Time 292, 293–4 

verb tense 353–4 

Locative [space/time] 37–8, 155 

adjuncts 155 


change of location 549 

prepositions 546, 548–51 

Locative/Goal Complement (C loc 

) 17, 37–8, 

99 

intransitive verbs 86–7 

logical necessity 382–3, 385 

look after 57–9 

loving/hating see affectivity 

make, use for Range 94, 158–9 

Manner [circumstance] 37, 72, 156, 292, 

293–4, 553 

phrasal verbs 337–40 

manner-of-motion verbs 86, 337–40 

manner/attitude [phase] 334–5 

marked vs unmarked see Focus; tense; Theme 

markers 

attitudinal 203–4 

discourse 222 

of countability 409–10 

mass noun see countability, non-count 

material processes 122, 125, 138 

causative 132–4 

doing/happening 128–31 

Matter [circumstance] 157 

may and may not 323–4, 388–9, 392 

Means 146, 156 

mental processes 122, 125, 139–43 

metaphor 146 

grammatical 160–5 


metonymy 420, 552–3 

might and mightn’t 392 

hypothetical 385, 393 

might/must have 327–8 

modal auxiliaries [verbs] 21, 318, 320, 

325–8, 385 

negation of may/must 388–9 

past time ref. 386, 388, 391, 392 

have + -en 383, 385, 390 

with perfect + passive 327–8 

with perfect/progressive 318, 325–6 

semi-modals 21–2, 318, 380 

should for subjunctive 103, 393 

modality 325, 379–94 

adjectives/adverbs/nouns 380–1 

as circumstance 157 

meanings 379–81, 385, 393 

deontic or intrinsic 385–90, 393 

dynamic 390–2 

epistemic or extrinsic 157, 209, 381–5 

hypothetical 393 

modal harmony 381 

modal tags 207 

modalised declarative/interrogative 208–9 

modifier (m) 18–19, 403, 492 

of adjectives 492–3 

of adverbs 515–18 

of nouns 404 

of prepositions 531–2, 538–9 

quantified 491 

see also post-modifier; pre-modifier 

momentary verbs/acts see aspect, lexical 

monotransitive patterns/verbs 90–2, 101 

atypical 103 

monovalency 126 

mood 6, 176, 181, 196, 207 

see also declarative; exclamative; imperative; 

interrogative; subjunctive 

morphs and morphemes 11, 16, 26 

Motion Events/verbs 231, 336–9 

and Cause 338–9 

and Manner 86, 337–40 

and Path 72, 337–41 

translation of 339 

movement see Motion Events/verbs 

mustn’t vs needn’t/don’t have to 387–9 


necessity 385–90, 393 

logical 157, 209, 381–5 

need [semi-modal] 21–2, 380 

needn’t as negative of must 389, 393 

negation and negative clauses 21–6, 230–1 

cumulative 23 

declaratives 199 

imperative 194 

interrogative 21–4, 183 

inversion of subject–operator 230–1, 

510–11 

must/need 388–9, 393 

no/none/no-one 258, 428 

not + any 23, 428 

not 22, 182 

nuclear 23, 203 

question tags 187 

transferred 26, 199 

negative objects 231 

neither [substitutive] 230, 244 

see also coordination; determiner, distributives 

new information see Given–New 

NICE properties 321 

no and not see negation 

nominal clauses 14–15, 106 

604 INDEX

see also that-clauses; wh-interrogative 

clauses 

Nominal Group (NG) 16, 18, 44, 52, 403–5 

appositive as post-modifier 455 

Complement of Subject/Object 66, 68, 98, 

420 

complement of preposition 531 

functions 404–5, 460–1 

divisible 110–12 

in/definite 417–21 

structure 18, 403, 403–5, 416, 438, 444 

order of elements 435 

unmarked for count 407 

nominalisation 162–5, 461–2 

non-agentive verbs 244 

non-assertion see assertive/non-assertive 

non-clausal material 274–5 

non-count nouns 405–9 

markers 409–10 

non-declarative see imperative; interrogative 

non-defining see relative clauses, restrictive 

non-factual see factual or not? 

non-finite (dependent) clauses 12–14, 47, 

53–4 

as complement 108–15, 496–7 

see also bare infinitive; -en/ed; -ing; 

to-infinitive 

adjuncts/variants 71, 74, 75, 106 

supplementive 284 

non-finite verb forms 12–13, 324, 328–9 

non-restrictive see relative clauses, restrictive 

non-specific vs indefinite 418–19 

notational symbols xxi–xxii 

noun complement clauses 457–62 

nouns 16, 380, 405–11 

compound 440–2 

nominalisation 162–5, 461–2 

proper 410–11 

see also pronouns 

nuclear negative 23, 203 

nucleus (intonation) 239, 242 

numerals, cardinal/ordinal 427 

Object 35–6, 229–30, 231 

see also Direct Object; Indirect Object; 

Object Complement; Prepositional 

Object 

Object Complement (Co) 17, 36, 38, 64, 

67–8 

Attributive 68, 97–8 

oblique 56, 68, 105 

vs adjunct 68 

object-to-subject raising 38, 50, 321 

objective/subjective (case) 437–8 

pronouns 43, 50, 64 

obligation 385–90, 393 

obligatory elements 37–8, 64, 83, 86, 238 

occurrence, verbs of 85–6 

offers reported 305–7 

one-to-one correspondence 20, 40 

one/ones [pronoun] 403, 416 

operator/finite operator 21–2, 181–2, 

317–18, 321–2, 324 

the do-operator 21 

extended VGs 325–8 

optative mood 195 

order (sequence) 224 

adjectives 438–9, 444–5 

AdjG 438–9, 444–5 

determinatives 434 

determiners 434 

Finite and Subject 43 

NG 403, 435, 438 

ought 21, 318, 383, 387, 390 

parenthetical clauses 105, 283–5, 300–3, 451 

participants (semantic roles) 4–5, 123, 124, 

129, 166 

un/actualised 125–7 

see also Affected; Agent; Beneficiary; 

Carrier; Existent; Experiencer; Force; 

Phenomenon; Possessor/ed; Range; 

Recipient; Sayer/Said 

participials (adj) 478–9 

pseudo-participials 436, 478 

participles 13; see also -en/ed; -ing 

particle (p) 18–19, 22, 341 

let’s 194 

in phrasal verbs 60–2, 336–41 

partitive [determiner] 428–9 

Passage 549 

passive voice 7–8, 252–7 

active/passive 10, 38, 64, 93, 98, 111–12, 

252–7 

with Affected subject 43, 129, 252–5 

bare infinitive 111–12 

in complex transitives 97–8 

discourse motivation 253, 255–6 

and end-focus 246, 252–3 

get 136, 138, 256–7 

and prepositional object/verb 95–6 

raised object 38, 50, 110–11, 252–4 

rare with Beneficiary 55 

with Recipient subject 43, 55, 253–5 

with two objects 93 

in VG structures 325–9 

without Agent 254–5 

passivisation see passive voice, active/passive 

past participle see -en/ed 

past tense 353–4, 358–60, 372 


INDEX 605

distancing 359, 381 

and Present Perfect 361–3 

see also Perfect; Progressive; tense 

Path or Direction [circumstance] 72, 155, 549 

Passage 549 

phrasal verbs 337–41 

Patient see Affected 

pauses, symbols xxii 

perception [process] 111–12, 139–40, 142 

the senses 146 

see also cognition 

Perfect [aspect/form] 361 

non-finite 368 

Past Perfect 361, 366–7, 372 

progressive 372, 377 

Present Perfect 361–6, 372 

progressive 372, 376–7 

time–frame 361–4 

continuous 365, 376–7 

first time 365 

vs past tense 362–3 

perfective/imperfective 369, 370 

performatives [verbs] 197–9 

explicit 197–9 

hedged (indirect) 198 

permission 385–92, 393 

personal pronouns see pronouns 

perspective 96–7, 162–3, 421, 547–8 

persuade-type verbs 110 

phase 112, 331–5, 378 

Phenomenon [participant] 139–43 

phrasal quantifiers 429, 433 

phrasal verbs 60–3, 336–43 

idiomatic 86, 342–3 

semi-idiomatic 341–2 

non-idiomatic 337–40 

phrasal-prepositional 62 

syntactic features 60–1 

vs prepositional verbs 61–2, 338 

see also Figure and Ground; 

manner-of-motion verbs; Motion 

Events; Path 

pitch (intonation) 228, 239, 489 

place-frame 155, 228–9 

place-holders see dummy it; there unstressed 

as Subject 

plural forms of nouns 405–10 

point of departure in message 224, 226 

point of reference in time 352–3 

polarity (positive/negative) 182, 242, 325 

see also question tags; yes/no interrogatives 

politeness and polite forms 203–4, 211–12, 

359, 489 


position 38, 145, 223–37, 252–3 

positive/negative see polarity 

possession 144, 146–8 

possessive forms 425–6, 535 

Possessor/ed [participants] 147 

possibility 157, 209, 381–5, 390–2 

post-determinative 404 

post-head elements 402–4, 447 

post-modifier (m) 403–4, 446–56 

realisations 446–8 

embedded or integrated (restrictive) 

446–50 

mixed or other 452–6 

supplementives (non–restrictive) 404, 

446, 448, 451 

vs complement 404, 476 

postponement 262 

potentiality 113, 359–60, 379 

power (factor) 177, 199 

pragmatic inference 86–7, 180, 294–6 

pre-determinative 404 

predicate 35, 101, 421 

predicatives 482 

detached 71, 231, 231–2, 482 

Predicator (P) 35, 42, 48–9, 101, 182 

predicted/required elements 37–8 

prediction 359, 380–1, 382, 385 

pre-head 402–4, 476, 509 

pre-modifier in NG (m) 403–4, 435–45, 444 

multiple items 443–5 

Prepositional Object (Op) 56–60 

fronted 58 

with passive 59–60 

with phrasal-/prepositional verbs 62, 91–2, 

95–6 

in wh-questions 58 

Prepositional Phrase (PP) 19, 531–4, 532, 

535–55 

as Adjunct or Complement 62, 68, 460, 

497–9, 533, 541–2 

complement element 531–2, 536–7 

embedded 533, 541 

as post-modifiers 452–3 

as Subject 45 

see also discontinuity 

prepositional verbs 56–9, 92, 95 

phrasal-prepositional verbs 62 

vs phrasal verbs 61–2, 338 

prepositions 16, 296, 504–5, 531–2, 534–5, 

540–1 

free vs bound 534, 547 

bound (grammaticised) 554–5 

free (lexical) 547–53 

modifiers 538–9 

stranded 59, 534, 556–8 

and that-clauses 104 


606 INDEX

verbs that take 92, 95 

vs adverb particles 338, 504, 544 

vs homographs 543–5 

present participle see -ing 

present tense 354–7, 372 

habitual 356, 374–5, 377–8 

past events 356–7 

stative 355–6 

see also Perfect; Progressive; tense 

presupposition 242–3, 249, 358 

primary verbs 21, 318 

see also operator 

probability 157, 209, 381–5, 390–2 

processes (lexical aspect) 370–2 

processes (semantic types) 4–5, 49, 122–7, 

163, 166 

dynamic/stative 1, 123, 141, 354–5 

see also behavioural; existential; material; 

mental; relational; verbal 

programmed events 359–60 

progression see thematic progression 

Progressive [aspect/form] 123, 142, 325, 

369, 372–5 

discourse functions 294–5, 375–6 

durative un/bounded verbs 371–2, 374–5 

future events 360 

iterativity 377, 378 

non-progressive 325, 355, 369, 372–3, 376 

passive 327–8 

Perfect aspect 326–8, 376–7 

and tense 372 

prominence (tonic) 239 

pronouns/pronominal forms 16, 104, 

411–16 

backshift 303–5 

demonstrative 414–15, 424–5 

personal 43–4, 50, 64–5, 255, 411–13 

gender-neutral 412–13 

indefinite 413–14 

one/ones 403, 416 

reflexive 192, 413 

wh-type 185–6, 413 

propensity 390–2 

proper names/nouns 227, 410 

(proto)typical forms 40–1, 44–8, 52–4, 88, 226 

correspondence 178 

pseudo-cleft clause see clefting 

pseudo-intransitive 132, 135–6, 138 

pseudo-participials [adjectives] 436, 478 

punctuation 274–5, 281, 283, 441, 447 

Purpose [circumstance] 156, 235–7, 297, 548, 

558 

put and location 124 

qualifier see modifier; post-modifier 

quantifier 403–4, 427–9, 491, 538 

non-count nouns 408–10 

queclaratives 201, 203–4 

question tags 43, 181, 187–9, 207 

questions 201–4 

echo 180, 183–4, 190 

see also interrogative 

quotation see direct (quoted) speech 

quotative verbs 302–3, 356–7 

raised elements 109, 111, 261, 321, 496 

Range [participant] 51, 94, 152, 158–9 

rank-scale 11 

real, appearing [phase] 334 

realisations 19–20, 39, 40–1, 160–6 

Adjuncts 71, 74–5 

Complements 66, 68 

modal meanings 380–1 

Objects 56, 59–60 

prepositional complements 536–9 

Subjects 44–8 

verb complementation 114–15 

VGs 318–19, 326 

Reason [circumstance] 156 

Recipient [participant] 5, 7–8, 55–6, 137–8, 

151 

recursive links 108, 455 

reduced clauses see clauses, classes of, 

reduced 

reference and referent 95, 111, 417–22 

anaphoric (backwards) 227, 414, 419 

cataphoric (forwards) 414, 419 

chains and coherence 226–7, 243, 259, 

415 

exophoric 414 

generic 421–2 

partitive 428–9 

reflexive/emphatic pronouns 192, 413 

relational processes 122, 125, 144–50 

Attributive 144–5 

attributive 145–6 

circumstantial 146 

possessive 146–8 

Identifying 144, 148–50 

see also Token/Value 

relative [circumstances] 155 

relative clauses 449–52 

adverbial 454 

non-restrictive (supplementive) 283–4, 404, 

448, 451 

restrictive (defining) 404, 447–8, 450 

relativisers 449–50 

relevance in Present Perfect 365–6 

relevance time (R) 361–2 

reporting speech/thought 299–309 


INDEX 607

epresentation see clauses, functions, 

interpreted 

respect (as + NG) 98 

restating to clarify 282 

restrictive/non-restrictive 447–8 

Result 294, 366, 553 

retrospection, verbs of 112–13 

reversibility 145–6, 148–50, 251, 278–9 

Rheme 223–4, 246–9 

rhetorical questions 201 

right-dislocations 232–3 

Role [circumstance] 157 

’s possessive 425–6, 535 

salience (cognitive) 226 

say [verb] 103 

and tell 105, 152, 301–2, 305 

Sayer/Said [participants] 151–2 

saying, communicating [process] 151–2 

scope see Range 

selective quantifier 427 

semantic functions xxi, 4–5 

vs syntactic 114–15, 125, 160–2 

see also Affected; Agent; Attribute; 

Beneficiary; Carrier; Experiencer; 

Force; Locative; Phenomenon; Range; 

Recipient; Sayer/Said 

semantic valency 83–4 

semantic–syntactic transfer see grammatical 

metaphor 

semi-determinatives 423, 431–3 

semi-modal verbs 21–2, 318, 380 

semi-negatives 24 

semi-auxiliaries see lexical auxiliaries 

Senser see Experiencer 

sensing see perception 

sentences 272–5, 277–9, 298 

sentential relative clauses 283–4 

sequencing events 331–3 

shall/shan’t 21, 182, 386–7, 388, 393 

should/shouldn’t 21, 383, 385, 390, 393 

situation types 122, 287, 369, 371–2, 371 

see also Attributes; circumstance; participants; 

processes 

situational ellipsis 244 

so [conjunction] 295 

so [substitutive] 230, 244 

some and derived forms 202–3, 427–9 

Source [circumstance] 72, 155, 549 

space, spatial see Location; Locative 

specific vs definite 418–19 

speech acts 176–9, 206, 207 

verbs 92, 109–10 

see also direct (quoted); indirect (reported) 

speech time 352–5, 353 

spoken English 104, 162, 195–6, 256, 283, 

488–90, 513–14 

concord 45, 257 

conversation 179, 195–6, 293–4, 301–3, 

335 

examples 3–4, 240, 260, 520–1 

dialogue 301–3 

novels 26, 209–10, 307–8, 393–4 

plays 75–6, 184, 415 

ellipsis 183, 204 

interview 48 

prepositional phrases 533, 537 

question tags 187–9 

see also idiomatic usage 

stance see Adjunct, Stance 

stance adverbs 506 

statement 177–9, 181–2 

states of affairs 259–60 

stative process/use/verb 123, 140, 141, 

354–5 

vs dynamic 370–2 

still vs already/yet 513 

stranded prepositions 59, 534, 556–8 

stressed/unstressed 228, 238–42, 488–9 

question tag 187–8 

there 45, 153–4, 228, 257–60 

see also any; some 

structure xxi, 20 

AdjG 475, 476, 492 

AdvG 475, 502–3, 508–9 

clause 17–18, 34–41, 101, 277–9 

NG 18, 403, 403–5, 416, 435 

PP 531–2, 532 

VG 18–19, 317–18, 321–2, 324–9, 335 

style adjuncts 73–4 

Subject (S) 35, 42–8, 181, 225–7 

Affected 129, 135–6 

embedded clause 46–7 

implicit 109, 191–2 

see also extraposition 

Subject Complement (Cs) 17, 36, 64–7, 88 

Identifying 66, 230 

subject–operator inversion see inversion 

subjective/objective [case] 437–8 

subjunctive mood/form 103, 196, 358–9, 

393, 495 

subordination 26, 27–8, 279 

subordinate clauses 292 

see also dependency 

subordinators see complementisers; conjunctions 

substitution 238, 244–5 

such 431–2 

sufficiency, degrees of 500 

suggestions, reported 305–7 


608 INDEX

superordinate clauses 14, 100 

supplementives 14–15, 71 

detached predicative 71, 231–2, 482 

non-finite clause 284, 288–9 

non-restrictive 283–4, 446, 448, 451 

parenthetical 404 

verbless clauses 15, 190, 195, 453, 482 

suppletive [adjectival form] 485 

swear words 518 

symbols xxi–xxii 

syntactic functions xxi, 7, 17–19, 39–40 

vs semantic 114–15, 125, 160–2 

tag see question tags 

take, use for Range 94, 158–9 

Target [participant] 152 

tell [verb] 105–6 

tense 325, 352–4 

deictic function 353 

marked/unmarked 354 

past 357–60, 374–8 

habitual 374–5, 377–8 

for hypothetical 358–9 

for present 358–9 

see also backshift 

present 354–7 

for future 358–60 

see also be going to 

habitual 356, 374–5, 377–8 

for past 356–7 

state 355–6 

tensed forms 12, 181–2, 352 

termination [phase] 334 

tests for constituents 9–10, 58, 129, 133, 138 

textual component/meaning 223, 234 

textual ellipsis 243–4 

textual/pragmatic functions see Given–New; 

Theme, and Rheme; Topic 

that [complementiser] 102–5 

that [demonstrative] 414–15, 424–5 

that-clauses 46, 100, 101–5, 196, 449–50, 

457–8 


relative 449–50, 456 

thematic 6–7 

equative 251 

fronting (thematisation) 145, 223–37, 

510–11 

progression 246–9 

Theme 222–5, 226–37, 261, 542 

absolute 232 

constant 247–8 

continuative 75, 234 

derived 248–9 

detached 232–4 

dislocation 232–3 

marked/unmarked 224–5 

multiple 235 

negative 230–1 

non-experiential 234–5 

and Rheme 6–7, 223–4, 228, 235, 246–9 

and Subject/Topic 225–7 

there [existential] 45, 153–4, 228, 257–60 

there/then [anaphora] 229 

think [verb] 103–4, 141 

this/that [demonstratives] 414–15, 424–5 

this/that (of quantity) 491 

thoughts reported 302–3 

three-place [ditransitive] verbs 90, 92–6, 126, 

137–8 

Time [circumstance] see Location; Locative 

time-frame 126, 155, 228–9, 353–4 


present/past perfect 362, 367 

progressive 375–6 

to-infinitive clauses 12–13, 47, 54, 143, 

297, 452 

as complement/object 53–4, 101–2, 

109–11, 332, 459, 496–7, 519–20 


with lexical auxiliaries 319–20 

of purpose 236–7 

vs bare infinitive 112 

vs -ing clause 108, 113, 332, 537 

togetherness 157 

Token/Value 144, 149–50 

tone units xxii, 238–40 

tonic prominence (syllable) 238–9 

Topic and topicality 35, 222, 225–8 

cognitive features 42, 226, 272 

continuity 227, 255–6 

Trajector 546 

transfer of verb/process 92–3, 128, 137–8 

transferred negation 199 

transitivity 5, 90–9, 122 

hypothesis (high–low) 160, 165 

in/transitive verbs 37–8, 126 

types see complex-transitive; copular; 

ditransitive; intransitive; monotransitive 

see also complementation patterns 

translation 339 

trivalency see three-place [ditransitive] verbs 

two-place [monotransitive] verbs 90–2, 126, 

128–36 


unactualised (unexpressed) element 91, 

125–7, 141 

unbounded see boundedness 

units 11–20 

INDEX 609

unreal/hypothetical [past] 367 

upgrading to clarify 282–3 

used to (habituality) 369, 377–8 

valency 83–4, 126 

reduction 94, 122, 127 

Value/Token 144, 149–50 

Verbal Group (VG) 16, 18–19, 317–18, 318, 

321–9 

complementation 18–19, 317–18, 321–2, 

324–9, 335 

discontinuous 323, 329–30 

experiential structure 323–4 

phased 54, 112, 331–5, 378 

realisations 318–19, 326 

verbal process (saying) 151–2 

verbless clauses 195–6, 204, 210, 212, 276, 

307 

supplementive 15, 190, 195, 453, 482 

verbs 16, 37–8, 85–91, 193, 297, 318 

bounded/unbounded 372 

catenative 108–9 

dynamic/stative 154–5, 354–5, 371–2 

finite/non-finite 12–13 

intransitive (one-place) 85–9, 91 

copular 37–8, 88–9 

lexical (v) 18, 318, 370–2 

vs operator 321–2 

meanings 

behaviour 85–6, 152–3 

being/becoming 88, 144–6 

causative/ergative 91, 113, 126, 130, 

132–6, 138 

cognitive/factual 102, 111, 141 

doing/happening 126, 128–31, 138 

expectation 102 

finding/leaving 113 

motion 231, 336–9 

perception/suggestion 102–4, 114 

possession 147 

reciprocal/reflexive 91 

saying 92, 109–10, 151–2, 301–2, 305 

transfer 92–3, 128, 137–8, 138 

volitional 113, 142, 152–3 

and prepositions 91–2, 543 

punctual or momentary 372 

quotative 302–3, 356–7 

transitive 90–1 

three-place (ditransitive) 90, 92–6 

two-place (monotransitive) 83, 90–2 

see also auxiliary verbs; complementation 

patterns; ergative pairs; modal 

auxiliaries; performatives; phrasal 

verbs; prepositional verbs; primary 

verbs; valency 

viewpoint 370 

vocatives 192, 234 

voice (active/passive) 7–8, 129, 252–7 

volition 385–90, 393 

verbs of 113, 142, 152–3 

want-type verbs 98, 108–11, 142–3 

see also desideration 

weather, verbs of 85, 126 

wh-clauses 10–12, 46, 105–7, 195 

complement 100–2, 105–7, 191, 536 

wh-nominal 100, 101, 106, 260–1, 

459–60, 537–8 

exclamative 100, 107, 191 

interrogative 22–3, 46, 100, 105–6 

wh-cleft see clefting 

wh-determinatives 190, 193, 403, 426–7, 433 

wh-interrogatives 22–3, 100, 105–6, 185–7, 

225 

wh-words 100, 185, 449–50 

+ ever 186 

will/won’t/will have 21, 381–2, 386–7, 390–1, 

393 

willingness 385–90, 392–3 

words 11, 16 

would 143, 382, 391 

would have + -en participle 393 

would rather/sooner 318, 320 


Index written by 

Angela Downing and Gerard M-F. Hill 2005 

yes/no (polar) interrogatives 22, 177, 201–2, 

225 

yet 24, 290–2 

vs still/already 513 

zero anaphora 227, 449–50, 454 

zero articles 420, 421–2, 450 

zero plural 405 

610 INDEX

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