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<strong>Torah</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Mouth</strong>, Writ<strong>in</strong>g and Oral Tradition <strong>in</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ian Judaism, 200 BCE - 400 CE<br />

Jaffee, Mart<strong>in</strong> S., Samuel and Al<strong>the</strong>a Stroum Professor of Jewish Studies, University of Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>t publication date: 2001, Published to Oxford Scholarship Onl<strong>in</strong>e: November 2003<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>t ISBN-13: 978-0-19-514067-5, doi:10.1093/0195140672.001.0001<br />

Yeshua b. Sira can serve more general depictions of <strong>the</strong> values embodied <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> scribal literati.<br />

33. So M. Haran, The Scriptural Collection, pp. 60–61.<br />

34. In contrast to relatively little <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual formation of scribes, <strong>the</strong>re is more archeological evidence about tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> art of writ<strong>in</strong>g. For <strong>the</strong> Second Temple period, <strong>the</strong> Judean desert f<strong>in</strong>ds conta<strong>in</strong> some parchments and ostraca used for practic<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

alphabet as well as crudely <strong>in</strong>scribed documents that appear to have been used as tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g samples. For discussion and bibliography, see<br />

E. Tov, “The Scribes of <strong>the</strong> Texts Found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Judean Desert,” pp. 139–141. C. Schams's discussion of <strong>in</strong>scriptional and papyrological<br />

evidence focuses upon <strong>the</strong> titles and functions assumed by scribes ra<strong>the</strong>r than upon <strong>the</strong> evidence of <strong>the</strong>ir tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g (Jewish Scribes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Second-Temple Period , pp. 209–216, 234–238).<br />

35. In his pioneer<strong>in</strong>g study of <strong>the</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and techniques of <strong>the</strong> scribes responsible for <strong>the</strong> six scrolls recovered from Qumran Cave 1, M.<br />

Mart<strong>in</strong> concluded that “if a scribal school existed <strong>the</strong>re, it had nei<strong>the</strong>r an imposed and accepted style of presentation nor normative rules<br />

of orthography nor official and fixed methods of textual <strong>in</strong>dication” (The Scribal Character of <strong>the</strong> Dead Sea Scrolls , vol. 2, p. 710). The<br />

question of a discrete, sectarian scribal school account<strong>in</strong>g for some or many of <strong>the</strong> Qumran scrolls has been debated for decades. A<br />

recent conclusion by a master of scribal practices bears tak<strong>in</strong>g seriously: “The different texts <strong>in</strong>deed belong to different scribal centers or<br />

scribal schools, although <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong>se schools is a matter of some speculation (E. Tov, “Scribal Practices Reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Paleo-<br />

Hebrew Texts from <strong>the</strong> Judean Desert,” p. 273).<br />

36. Well-studied examples of <strong>the</strong> legal genres ei<strong>the</strong>r transmitted with<strong>in</strong> or produced by <strong>the</strong> Tzadokite community <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> controversial<br />

“Halakhic Letter,” 4QMMT, CD 15:1–16:20 + 9:1–14:22, and 1QS 6:8–7:25. On <strong>the</strong> general character of Qumranian legal tradition see <strong>the</strong><br />

classic study of L. Schiffman, The Halakhah at Qumran. For an assessment of <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> recently published “Halakhic Letter”<br />

(4QMMT) on <strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g of sectarian law, see <strong>the</strong> essays ga<strong>the</strong>red <strong>in</strong> J. Kampen and M. Bernste<strong>in</strong>, eds., Read<strong>in</strong>g 4QMMT .<br />

Ano<strong>the</strong>r anti-Hasmonean composition, <strong>the</strong> Book of Jubilees, almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly circulated prior to <strong>the</strong> formation of <strong>the</strong> community that<br />

seems to stand beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> Tzadokite texts. Its legal traditions—particularly regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> computation of <strong>the</strong> Temple ritual calendar—were<br />

preserved and amplified by <strong>the</strong> scribes who transmitted dist<strong>in</strong>ctively Tzadokite views. See S. Talmon, “The Calendar of <strong>the</strong> Covenanters<br />

of <strong>the</strong> Judean Desert,” pp. 147–185.<br />

end p.168<br />

37. The various Second Temple works composed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> apocalyptic genre fall <strong>in</strong>to this category, <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> Enochic literature and<br />

<strong>the</strong> Testaments of <strong>the</strong> Twelve Patriarchs provide well-studied examples. For a general <strong>in</strong>troduction to this genre <strong>in</strong> its Second Temple<br />

sett<strong>in</strong>g, see J. J. Coll<strong>in</strong>s, The Apocalyptic Imag<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />

38. The most famous example of “revisionist history,” designed to deligitimate <strong>the</strong> reign<strong>in</strong>g Hasmonean claim to fulfill div<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>tentions <strong>in</strong><br />

Jerusalem is <strong>the</strong> “admonition” of <strong>the</strong> Damascus Document (CD 1:1–8:21 + 19:1–20:34). A survey of scholarly attempts to decode this<br />

cryptic survey of Heilsgeshichte is available <strong>in</strong> P. R. Davies, The Damascus Covenant, pp. 3–47.<br />

39. Well-studied examples <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> Thanksgiv<strong>in</strong>g (Hodayot) texts found <strong>in</strong> Qumran Caves 1 and 4 and <strong>the</strong> Songs of <strong>the</strong> Sabbath<br />

Sacrifice found <strong>in</strong> Caves 4 and 11. See B. P. Kittel, The Hymns of Qumran ; B. Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry , pp. 173<br />

–355; and S. Segert, “Observations on <strong>the</strong> Poetic Structures of <strong>the</strong> Songs of <strong>the</strong> Sabbath Sacrifice,” pp. 215–224.<br />

40. The case of Yeshua b. Eliezer b. Sira is <strong>in</strong>structive. If he was not from a priestly family himself, he was certa<strong>in</strong>ly very comfortable <strong>in</strong><br />

priestly circles. See S. Olyan, “Ben Sira's Relationship to <strong>the</strong> Priesthood,” pp. 261–286; J. G. Gammie, “The Sage <strong>in</strong> Sirach,” pp. 364–365;<br />

and B. G. Wright III, “ ‘Fear <strong>the</strong> Lord and Honor <strong>the</strong> Priest,’ ” pp. 192–196.<br />

With regard to o<strong>the</strong>r scribes, such as those who composed and copied <strong>the</strong> texts found among <strong>the</strong> Dead Sea Scrolls that speak of a<br />

community of <strong>the</strong> “Sons of Tzadok,” it seems fair as well to assume some sort of priestly orig<strong>in</strong>s. Even if <strong>the</strong> community beh<strong>in</strong>d such<br />

documents might not have been composed exclusively of genealogically verified priestly families, it certa<strong>in</strong>ly preserved legal traditions<br />

consistent with those ascribed elsewhere to Jerusalemite priestly tradition, and it enterta<strong>in</strong>ed hopes of rega<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g control of <strong>the</strong> Temple<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration.<br />

41. Proponents of <strong>the</strong> existence of an <strong>in</strong>fluential lay-scribal community throughout <strong>the</strong> last centuries of <strong>the</strong> Second Temple period <strong>in</strong>clude,<br />

among many o<strong>the</strong>rs, G. F. Moore, Judaism <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> First Centuries of <strong>the</strong> Christian Era , vol. 1, pp. 308–309; E. J. Bickerman, From Ezra to<br />

<strong>the</strong> Last of <strong>the</strong> Maccabees, pp. 67–71; B. Gerhardsson, Memory and Manuscript , pp. 56–66; M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism , pp. 78<br />

–83; and E. Schürer, The History of <strong>the</strong> Jewish People <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Age of Jesus Christ , vol. 2, pp. 322–323. The most recent scholar to<br />

propose <strong>the</strong> existence of a relatively extensive urbanized literary elite produc<strong>in</strong>g a literature reflective of dist<strong>in</strong>ctly nonpriestly perspectives<br />

is J. Berquist, Judaism <strong>in</strong> Persia's Shadow , pp. 161–176.<br />

P. Davies, Scribes and Schools , pp. 82–83, and A. Baumgarten, The Flourish<strong>in</strong>g of Jewish Sects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Maccabean Era , pp. 117–123,<br />

acknowledge a broaden<strong>in</strong>g of scribal education beyond priestly circles but conf<strong>in</strong>e this to a narrow, wealthy elite. Recent challenges to <strong>the</strong><br />

earlier consensus <strong>in</strong>clude R. Gray, Prophetic Figures <strong>in</strong> Late Second Temple Jewish Palest<strong>in</strong>e , pp. 53–58, and A. J. Saldar<strong>in</strong>i, Pharisees,<br />

Scribes, and Sadducees <strong>in</strong> Palest<strong>in</strong>ian Society, pp. 273–276.<br />

C. Schams, Jewish Scribes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second-Temple Period , pp. 287–296, f<strong>in</strong>ds scribal skills distributed ra<strong>the</strong>r broadly beyond priestly<br />

circles toward <strong>the</strong> end of our period, but partly because of <strong>the</strong> broaden<strong>in</strong>g use of scribal titles <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> period to designate a wide variety of<br />

skilled professionals beyond <strong>the</strong> composers and transmitters of literary works.<br />

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