Horticulture Principles and Practices

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Summer pruning eliminates an energy or food producing portion of the tree and can result in reduced tree growth in the year of pruning and increase light penetration. Summer pruning is not as severe as dormant pruning and usually only results in the removal of current seasons’ growth done by hand or with hand pruners. Pruning can begin as soon as the buds start to grow, but it is generally started after vegetative growth is several inches long. For most purposes, summer pruning should be limited to removing the upright and vigorous current season's growth; only thinning cuts should be used. To minimize the potential for winter injury, summer pruning should not be done after the end of July in the Southeastern United States. TRAINING SYSTEMS One of the most frequently asked questions is, “To what shape should I train my fruit tree?” It is difficult to give one answer. You can choose from many different training shapes and forms with multiple variations on each form. This chapter will focus primarily on the central leader and open center training systems for medium density orchards. A list of fruit trees conventionally trained to each system is also included. A fruit tree may be trained to any system. Depending on the form and function of the desired shape, you may want to train a tree to a nontraditional system. Whatever system you chose, keep in mind that the objectives of training and pruning are to achieve maximum tree life and productivity. CENTRAL LEADER TRAINING - APPLE, CHERRY, PEAR, PECAN, PLUM A central leader tree is characterized by one main, upright trunk, referred to as the leader. Branching generally begins on the leader 24 to 36 inches above the soil surface to allow equipment and labor movement under the tree. The first year, 3 to 4 branches, collectively called a scaffold whorl, are selected. The selected scaffolds should be uniformly spaced around the trunk, not directly across from or above one another. Above the first scaffold whorl, leave an area of approximately 18 to 24 inches without any branches to allow light into the center of the tree. This light slot is followed with another whorl of scaffolds. Alternating scaffold whorls and light slots are maintained up the leader to the desired maximum tree height. See Figure 1. The shape of a properly trained central leader tree is like that of a Christmas tree. The lowest scaffold whorl branches will be the longest and the higher scaffold whorl branches will be progressively shorter to allow maximum light penetration into the entire tree. DEVELOPING A CENTRAL LEADER TRAINED TREE AT PLANTING Fruit trees are frequently purchased as whips, which are unbranched trees ranging from 1/2 to 3/4 inch diameter. The tree should be planted in early winter with the graft union 2 inches above the soil surface. Just before the buds start to grow in the spring, the tree should be headed, or cut off, at 30 to 34 inches above the soil surface. The height at which the tree is headed depends upon where you want the first whorl of branches. Once the tree is headed, permanent branches will be selected from buds growing within 4 to 12 inches below the heading cut. See Figures 1 and 2. 19.14 Training and Pruning Fruit Trees 589
A B C At Planting As the buds begin to swell, head the tree at 30 to 34 inches above the soil surface. Dormant Pruning Head the tree at 24 to 30 inches above the highest branch of the first scaffold whorl. Top View D First-Year Summer Pruning Summer prune when new growth is 3 to 4 inches long. Leave a as the new leader, and remove b and c. Select four uniformly spaced laterals for the first scaffold whorl, and remove the remaining lateral branches. Steps in Pruning: • Leave only one trunk for the central leader. • Remove branches with crotch angles less than 60 degrees. • Remove all branches directly across from one another on the leader. • Space lateral branches uniformly around the leader to prevent crowding as the limbs grow in diameter. E After pruning the third year Three scaffold whorls have been developed with three to four branches uniformly spaced around the tree in each whorl. A light slot of 18 to 24 inches is left between each scaffold whorl. Note the pyramidal tree shape that allows light penetration to the lower branches and interior of the tree. FIGURE 1 Pruning a central leader tree Summer Pruning After the new vegetative growth has reached 3 to 4 inches in length, summer pruning should begin. The first step is to select one upright shoot near the top of the tree to be the leader. After selecting the leader shoot, remove all other competing shoots for approximately 4 inches below it; rehead the tree above this leader. See Figures 3 and 4. At this time, side shoots (laterals) should be spread out to form a crotch angle of at least 60 to 70 degrees between the leader and the side shoot. This angle is referred to as the branch or crotch angle. Branches that do not have a wide crotch angle are overly vigorous and have a weak point of attachment to the leader. These branches frequently break under a heavy fruit load. Spreading the lateral branches will also reduce the growth of the branches to a manageable level and promote the development of secondary or side shoots on the scaffolds. When growth is only 3 to 4 inches, toothpicks or spring clothespins can be used to spread branches. See Figure 5. However, with a flat crotch angle the branch will grow upward so that the orientation of the branch will be more upright than the angle of the crotch. After a proper branch angle is attained, clothespins can be moved to the ends of longer limbs to weigh down the branches as they start to grow upward. 590 Chapter 19 Pruning
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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HORTICULTURE Principles and Practic
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With love to Theresa, quarterback;
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Brief Contents Preface xxi PART 1 T
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Contents Preface xxi PART 1 THE UND
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5.3 PLANT GROWTH PROCESSES 160 5.4
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8.20 COMMON GREENHOUSE DISEASES 276
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12.3 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
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PART 6 Summary 541 References and S
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22.18 INDOOR COMPOSTING SYSTEMS 668
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Preface Horticulture is the area of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful
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PART 1 THE UNDERLYING SCIENCE CHAPT
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1 What Is Horticulture? PURPOSE AND
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(a) (c) (b) (d) FIGURE 1-1 The many
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FIGURE 1 Bridge. The plaza view of
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CYCADS Many people mistake these pr
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FIGURE 2 The world's largest unbran
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FIGURE 2 Sold flowers are loaded on
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FIGURE 1-4 Formal landscaping featu
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1.4 ROLEOFTHENURSERY AND SEED INDUS
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1.5 HORTICULTURE AND SOCIETY Hortic
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TABLE 1-3 U.S. Horticultural Export
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Turfgrass Operation 1. Landscape te
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What Is Horticulture? This site pro
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Examples of botanical gardens http:
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2 Classifying and Naming Horticultu
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Eight major taxa are commonly used
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TABLE 2-3 The Divisions of the King
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HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY PAUL R. F
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AGE OF HERBALISTS Two major events
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possible system of nomenclature. Ho
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TABLE 1 Type Categories for Plant N
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2.3 OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (O
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2. Shrubs. A shrub has no main trun
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Simple Fruits Fleshy Fruits Drupe B
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FIGURE 2-14 A pome, represented by
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2.3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
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(a) (b) FIGURE 2-22 (Source: George
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FIGURE 2-25 A narrowleaf plant. (So
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FIGURE 2-29 Parts of a typical gras
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such as rosemary, sage, thyme, marj
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c. Leaves d. Bulbs 2. Cut across (t
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Whole plant Organs FIGURE 3-1 Level
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ibonucleic acid (RNA), proteins, an
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called cristae; this extreme foldin
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By virtue of its position, the prim
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Phloem Tissue Structurally, phloem
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(a) Stalk (b) Culm FIGURE 3-5 Cross
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Scale Compressed stem (a) Whole bul
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Upper epidermis Palisade layer FIGU
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usually occur in xerophytes. In cer
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FIGURE 3-22 Selected common leaf ma
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FIGURE 3-25 Selected common leaf ti
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absorption of water and minerals fr
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Outer bark Inner bark FIGURE 3-37 T
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Anther Filament Stamen FIGURE 3-41
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Exocarp Parts of a typi- FIGURE 3-4
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE LABORATORY 1.
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4.1 CLIMATE, WEATHER, AND HORTICULT
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concentration in the atmosphere.A c
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TABLE 4-1 Climatic Adaptation of Se
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and upward. Another important gener
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Rate of photosynthesis mg/sq. dm/hr
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and plants that flower under only c
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times of the year. Growers start th
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content. This section is sometimes
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TABLE 4-7 Soil Mineral Nutrients Es
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Micronutrients (Trace Elements) Mic
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Neutral FIGURE 4-11 A representatio
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4.4 FERTILIZERS Fertilizer sources
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One of the most commonly used contr
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Chlorosis (the yellowing of green l
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Fertilizers may be applied before p
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It is neither practical nor safe to
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Solution: How much of ammonium nitr
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1°C (34°F), the optimum temperatu
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Cellulose sponge Perched water tabl
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Overhead Sprinkler Irrigation Water
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FIGURE 4-19 Furrow irrigation of le
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can self-install an underground irr
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1. Surface drainage. Surface draina
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Secondary Tillage Primary tillage i
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(a) (b) (c) (d) FIGURE 4-20 (Source
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texture. The most commonly used gra
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TABLE 4-11 Selected Standard Mixes
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Steam Pasteurization Steam pasteuri
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Maracher, H. 1986. Mineral nutritio
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5 Plant Physiology PURPOSE AND EXPE
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Growth in an organism follows a cer
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5.1.2 THE ROLE OF SIGNALS IN GROWTH
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waxes are embedded. Waxes consist o
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5.3.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis
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CO 2 FIGURE 5-6 The C 4 pathway of
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Growth and Development The general
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TABLE 5-2 Energy Produced from Aero
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Certain plants are adapted to dry e
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conditions exist to sustain growth
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Shoot Elongation In certain plants,
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for success, since high temperature
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FIGURE 5-13 Ripening of plantain sh
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Terminal bud removed Unbranched pla
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conditions—pertaining to light, m
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them to maturity. The major process
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6 Breeding Horticultural Plants PUR
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Similarly, there can be no plant br
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APPLICATION, CHALLENGES, AND PROSPE
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hit with target DNA. Therefore, it
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Generally, within ten days of exper
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Aziz A.N., Sauve R.J., Zhou S., 200
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(b) F 1 Rr Rr round round F 2 RR R
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e.g., Aa × Aa), the lethal allele
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eeder’s equation. Simply stated,
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Before the seed or product becomes
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6.18.2 THE GENERAL STEPS OF RDNA TE
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2. Political disagreement. There ar
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Ac
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PART 2 PROTECTING HORTICULTURAL PLA
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7 Biological Enemies of Horticultur
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8. Weeds may clog drains, waterways
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is also a root parasite that obtain
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LEGISLATIVE Both state and federal
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Example Integrated cultural, physic
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7.4.2 IMPORTANT INSECT ORDERS Insec
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Egg FIGURE 7-3 Life cycle of an ins
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sucking insects (also found with so
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FIGURE 7-12 Corn earworm damage. (S
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TABLE 7-1 Selected Fungal Diseases
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7.6.1 SMALL ANIMALS Rabbits, mice,
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FIGURE 7-16 The disease triangle. P
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fungitoxic exudates in its leaves,
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SUMMARY Insects are a major class o
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For the home growers or those who c
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for consumers and the environment).
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TABLE 8-1 Strategy 4: Strategies an
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gibberellic acid spray overcomes st
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In a competitive industry, a variet
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Chemicals gain access to humans thr
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2. Pesticide management. Controllin
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Every organism has its natural enem
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TABLE 8-3 Selected Examples of Biol
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1 2 YEAR 3 4 FIGURE 8-5 cycle. A cr
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6. Heat treatment. In the greenhous
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Organic Compounds (Organics) Organi
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under enclosed conditions (e.g., wa
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FIGURE 8-9 A tractor-mounted spraye
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8.11.9 LANDSCAPE PESTS AND THEIR CO
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application, a particular herbicide
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Further, they do not provide unifor
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SUMMARY Herbicides are chemicals us
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Sulfur may be applied for both prev
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8.23 PREVENTING GREENHOUSE DISEASES
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PART 3 PROPAGATING HORTICULTURAL PL
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9 Sexual Propagation PURPOSE AND EX
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Anther Microspore Megaspore mother
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Lettuce seeds Red light Darkness Fa
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FEDERAL AND STATE SEED LAWS Federal
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Germination Test In laboratory prac
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FIGURE 15 The essential structures
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processing into flour or meal). How
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physiologically immature seeds must
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seeds may be treated in this way be
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The two basic modes of seedling eme
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locations in the field. Home garden
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FIGURE 9-9 A plastic flat. (Source:
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(a) (b) FIGURE 9-12 (a) Sowing seed
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y the gardener or grower. Whatever
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REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING Co
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species enables vegetative propagat
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for rapid rooting. There are two ba
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Cutting involving one node (e.g., s
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This practice is especially importa
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10.6.4 STICKING THE CUTTING Cutting
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(a) Indexing by budding Diseased pl
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10.11 M ETHODS OF GRAFTING Grafting
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Scion Wax FIGURE 10-17 Steps in bar
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MODULE 3 BUDDING 10.12 TYPES OF BUD
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MODULE 4 LAYERING 10.13 TYPES OF LA
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Buried part of shoot is nicked FIGU
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variety of ways. In air layering, a
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FIGURE 10-34 by using cormels. Prop
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Psuedobulbs In the Dendrobium orchi
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The technique is used widely in cro
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PART 4 GROWING PLANTS INDOORS CHAPT
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11 Growing Houseplants PURPOSE AND
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TABLE 11-1 Common houseplants Commo
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Saddle leaf Philodendron selloum To
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Window Displays Plants in windows e
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CONTAINER GARDENS DR. TERRI W. STAR
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annuals and hardy perennial species
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of the large container filled with
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perfection about four to six weeks
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FIGURE 11-6 Flowers displayed on th
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TABLE 11-5 Plant Selected Plants fo
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The lighting condition near these w
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Fluorescent Lights Fluorescent ligh
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may be used for one pot or a group
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garden rooms, atriums, or a large c
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The photoperiod affects when the ho
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patted firm to keep the plant erect
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Other Materials Apart from clay and
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(a) ( FIGURE 11-25 Support for plan
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TABLE 11-7 Common Problems of House
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• Keep soil moist all the time
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• Prefers high temperatures • P
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amount and quality of light. If sup
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12 Controlled-Environment Horticult
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6. Curvilinear 7. Curved eave 8. Do
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Detached greenhouses have several a
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12.2.3 FRAME DESIGN There are two b
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horticultural business a less-expen
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Texas, Hawaii, and California. The
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source of heat for times when the t
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FIGURE 12-17 Greenhouse production
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FIGURE 12-21 Moving tables allowing
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Research program on greenhouse engi
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greenhouses equipped with a variety
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FIGURE 1 Annual energy required per
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This system was demonstrated in a 5
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FIGURE 6 Amounts of waste energy ut
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Ekholt, B.A., D.R. Mears, M.S. Gini
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or object to be warmed. Failure to
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objects in its path (e.g., the floo
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FIGURE 12-27 Motorized ventilation
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FIGURE 12-30 Movable internal shade
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FIGURE 12-33 A high pressure sodium
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Source of Water The quality of loca
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FIGURE 12-37 Overhead sprinkler irr
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Intermittent Feed Greenhouse plants
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However, in winter, greenhouse vent
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OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the
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. Foliage or green plants. Foliage
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2. Labor. The size of the labor for
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FIGURE 13-1 Greenhouse production o
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FIGURE 13-2 Lettuce plug is inserte
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13.8.4 AGGREGATE HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 13-6 Plug produc
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14 Growing Succulents PURPOSE AND E
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FIGURE 14-3 Leaf succulent represen
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frost-hardy. Their rosettes are usu
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TABLE 14-1 Plant Selected Popular S
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(a) (b) FIGURE 14-12 Typical bromel
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14.7.1 WHAT ARE CACTI? 14.7 CACTI C
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FIGURE 14-16 Opuntia. (Source: Crai
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FIGURE 14-23 Mammillaria. (Source:
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FIGURE 14-28 Both desert and jungle
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Growing mix Gravel Cacti (a) (b) FI
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PART5 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: ORNA
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15 Principles of Landscaping PURPOS
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8. Create recreational grounds. Suc
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knowledge, with concern for resourc
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(a) (b) (c) FIGURE 15-2 The occurre
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GUIDELINES FOR LANDSCAPE DESIGN DAV
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the landscape. Some very successful
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Rhythm and Line Panoramic view of a
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FIGURE 15-10 A formal garden. The e
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How frequently do they entertain? A
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the patio should be located on the
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15.7.1 SELECTING PLANTS A homeowner
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Plant Arrangement in the Landscape
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Shadow FIGURE 15-15 Planting a tree
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SUMMARY Landscaping enhances the su
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3. Supply materials on a timely bas
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such as preparation rooms (for mixi
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of environmental fluctuations. Furt
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FIGURE 16-4 A bare-root tree seedli
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17 Installation of the Landscape PU
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for walks, driveways, and patios (F
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Planting may be limited to accentin
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17.3.3 PREPARING THE BED The soil s
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FIGURE 17-4 Bedding plants raised i
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SUMMARY Bedding plants are largely
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TABLE 17-6 Selected Ground Covers T
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TABLE 17-7 Selected Ornamental Gras
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they determine the success and surv
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12. Wildlife attraction. Trees in t
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pennsylvanica), hackberry (Celtis s
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y winds. A stake, which is often a
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TABLE 17-8 Selected Narrowleaf Ever
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TABLE 17-11 Selected Deciduous Shru
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Blooming bushes 1. Blue mist shrub
Page 564 and 565: Planting Bulblets and Bulbils Speci
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Page 568 and 569: FIGURE 18-1 (Source: George Acquaah
Page 570 and 571: Cool-Season (Temperate) Grasses In
Page 572 and 573: Growth Habit Turfgrasses are the mo
Page 574 and 575: Heavy Use Lawns on playgrounds and
Page 576 and 577: The seed should be free from weeds
Page 578 and 579: Source of Sod As with seed, sod sup
Page 580 and 581: A plug of sod FIGURE 18-7 Plugging
Page 582 and 583: way, plants are able to adapt to th
Page 584 and 585: form of a can placed on the lawn wi
Page 586 and 587: TABLE 18-3 Some Common Lawn and Tur
Page 588 and 589: even surface soil surface for layin
Page 590 and 591: MacCaskey, M. 1987. All about lawns
Page 592 and 593: Pruning is sometimes done in conjun
Page 594 and 595: 4. Pruning may be done to reduce th
Page 596 and 597: 19.4.2 SAWS A saw may be designed t
Page 598 and 599: defeat the purpose of pruning. The
Page 600 and 601: Bud withers as cut end dries back d
Page 602 and 603: 19.6 STRATEGIES FOR PRUNING ABOVEGR
Page 604 and 605: Rejuvenation Pruning Cut canes to a
Page 606 and 607: 3. In the third and subsequent year
Page 608 and 609: (a) Cut Prune (b) FIGURE 19-16 Step
Page 610 and 611: Eucalyptus and Paulownia are amenab
Page 612 and 613: TRAINING & PRUNING DECIDUOUS FRUIT
Page 616 and 617: a) b) FIGURE 2 Newly planted apple
Page 618 and 619: FIGURE 6 Wooden limb spreaders can
Page 620 and 621: FIGURE 9. An apple tree trained to
Page 622 and 623: years to promote continued lateral
Page 624 and 625: Horizontal Espalier The horizontal
Page 626 and 627: 19.16.1 CANE FRUITS Cane fruits are
Page 628 and 629: FIGURE 19-26 Shearing of Christmas
Page 630 and 631: pyramid-like form that is wider at
Page 632 and 633: After selecting the appropriate spe
Page 634 and 635: PART 6 GROWING PLANTS OUTDOORS: VEG
Page 636 and 637: 20 Growing Vegetables Outdoors PURP
Page 638 and 639: The National Agricultural Statistic
Page 640 and 641: (This item omitted from WebBook edi
Page 642 and 643: growers should take to determine an
Page 644 and 645: pests and reduce/ eliminate hail da
Page 646 and 647: square yard (10 to 68 grams per squ
Page 648 and 649: High tunnels help increase the prof
Page 650 and 651: (This item omitted from WebBook edi
Page 652 and 653: 20.4 VEGETABLE MARKET TYPES Fresh V
Page 654 and 655: Establishing the Crop Planting into
Page 656 and 657: home water supply from the tap. Thi
Page 658 and 659: Cole crop Cabbage Root Potato Bean
Page 660 and 661: 6. Adequate nutrition. While overfe
Page 662 and 663: variable, ranging from creamy yello
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There are two general production pr
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This toxin is heat resistant and no
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large, or jumbo. The bulb may be sw
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REFERENCES Growing selected vegetab
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TABLE 21-1 Popular Herbs and Their
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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) FIGURE 21-1
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22 Organic Farming PURPOSE AND EXPE
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22.3 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING
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and the specific materials to be us
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22.8 MANAGING SOIL PHYSICAL QUALITY
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preemergent or early postemergent o
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Composting is a deliberate activity
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22.14.5 THE CARBON-TO-NITROGEN RATI
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Moisture Supply Water is required b
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Compost materials FIGURE 22-4 a wir
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As microbial decomposition proceeds
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Establishment and Management of an
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night, freezing can occur in spring
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accomplished by stratification. It
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transmitted by the dagger nematode
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PART 7 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES AND HANDL
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24 Cut Flowers and Floral Design PU
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to more than four-fold in standard
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Temperature and Humidity Wilting re
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FLORAL DESIGN: AN OVERVIEW BY WM. J
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Principle Definition Types (or Uses
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pH value-a measure of the acidity o
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FIGURE 6 Parallel Design-Parallel d
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24.3.2 TOOLS AND MATERIALS The tool
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3. Establish the focal point. 4. Ad
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Natural Drying To dry naturally, fl
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24.4.3 DRIED FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS Dr
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25 Terrarium Culture PURPOSE AND EX
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FIGURE 25-3 Terrarium containers ar
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FIGURE 25-5 Assortment of tools use
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25.6.7 ENHANCING THE DISPLAY Certai
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(a) (b) FIGURE 26-1 Bonsai can be c
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TABLE 26-3 Plant A Selection of Pop
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26.3.1 COLLECTING BONSAI PLANTS FRO
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Strip bark Bare branch FIGURE 26-9
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26.5.2 SANITATION It is critical to
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27 Postharvest Handling and Marketi
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whereas oranges are picked (they ha
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(b) (a) (c) (d) (e1) (e2) (f) FIGUR
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To reduce packaging injury, contain
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is replaced by the by-product of re
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Stored produce may lose some color,
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with pricing. When selling by volum
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(a) (b) FIGURE 27-5 Horticultural p
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APPENDIX A Temperature: Converting
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APPENDIX B Metric Conversion Chart
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APPENDIX D Common and Scientific Na
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Pecan (Carya illinoensis) Peony (Pa
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GLOSSARY A Abaxial Turned away from
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Cellulose A complex carbohydrate th
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Floriculture The science and practi
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M Macronutrient An essential elemen
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Root cap A mass of hard cells cover
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INDEX A-frame, 395 A-horizon, 108 A
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defined, 390 fertilization, 432-434
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Radiant heaters, 378 Radicle, 90 Re
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color plate 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) M
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color plate 3 (b) (a) (c) (d) (e) (
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color plate 5 (a) (b) (d) (c) (e) (
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color plate 7 (b) (c) (d) (a) (e) (
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color plate 9 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (
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color plate 11 (a) (c) (b) (d) Grow
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color plate 13 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
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color plate 21 (a) (b) (c) (e) (d)
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color plate 23 (c) (b) (a) (d) (e)
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color plate 25 (c) (a) (b) (d) (e)
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color plate 27 (a1) (a2) (b2) (b1)
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color plate 31 (a) (b) (c) Floral d
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Horticulture Principles and Practices

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