The Occurrence of Cocaine in Egyptian Mummies - New research provides strong evidence for a trans-Atlantic dispersal by humans
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<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Open-Access Journal <strong>for</strong> the Basic Pr<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ciples <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Diffusion <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>ory, Experiment and Application<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Occurrence</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Mummies</<strong>strong</strong>> -<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>research</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>provides</<strong>strong</strong>> <strong>strong</strong> <strong>evidence</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> a <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> <strong>dispersal</strong> <strong>by</strong> <strong>humans</strong><br />
Dom<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ique Görlitz<br />
Technische Univerität Dresden, Institut für Kartographie, Germany<br />
(received 22 May 2016, accepted 29 June 2016)<br />
Abstract<br />
One <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the unsolved problems <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> modern science is whether the pre-Columbian peoples <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
World developed completely <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dependently <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> cultural <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>fluences from the Old World or if there<br />
was a <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic contact? A number <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> scientists agree that there are many – and <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>ten<br />
remarkable – similarities between the cultures <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> pre-Columbian America and those <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
Mediterranean world. Nevertheless, there is no agreement, as yet, on how cultural diffusion can be<br />
differentiated from <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dependent <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>vention. Scientific analysis shows that scholarly positions are<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>ten <strong>strong</strong>ly pre-<strong>for</strong>med from paradigms (scientific based assumptions), which tend to h<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>der<br />
consideration <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> solid scientific data <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>fered <strong>by</strong> geo-biology and its <strong>trans</strong>-discipl<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ary exam<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ation<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the subject under <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>vestigation here.<br />
An unambiguous answer to the question, what historical processes led to the emergence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
ancient American agriculture, hasn‟t been given. However, the archaeological discovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> crops<br />
with clear <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> addition to advances <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> molecular biology, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>creas<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gly support<br />
the hypothesis that <strong>humans</strong> from the distant past <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>fluenced each other across the oceans at a much<br />
earlier stage. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> vegetation and zoo-geography <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dicate, <strong>by</strong> numerous examples that some species<br />
could only have spread through perhaps un<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>tentional (passive) human <strong>trans</strong>mission [1].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>re are two very old crops found <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the „<<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World‟, which contradict the paradigm <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a<br />
completely <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dependent orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <strong>for</strong> American agriculture. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se are the African Bottle Gourd<br />
(Lagenaria siceraria L.) and the ancestral cotton species (Gossypium herbaceum L.) <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
domesticated sp<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> able sub-genus <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tetraploid cotton. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> historical spread <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> both types has been<br />
under discussion <strong>for</strong> decades, especially <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> respect <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic human contact with the<br />
American cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ent. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>re has also been a debate <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the „Old World‟ ever s<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ce the discovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies, center<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g around whether „<<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World‟ plants (or the<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gredients) might have been <strong>trans</strong>mitted <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the reverse direction, back to the presumed start <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
centers <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Ancient World‟s oldest civilizations.<br />
This article is based on extracts from the writer‟s PHD thesis <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> [2], whose <<strong>strong</strong>>research</<strong>strong</strong>> cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ues the<br />
work <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Dr. Svetlana Balabanova on this much disputed topic <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies.<br />
Keywords: coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies, <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> crop <strong>dispersal</strong>, Geo-Botany,<br />
Egyptology, proto-historical voyages, ancient diffusion and cultural <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>teraction<br />
1. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Biology <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Coca Plants<br />
Coca plants belong to the sub-class <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>f lower<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g plants. Currently there are known to be about 300<br />
species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> this genus. Only two <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> these species have anyeconomic significance – <strong>for</strong> cultivat<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g or<br />
gather<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g edible coca leaves. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Mansfeld's Encyclopedia <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Agricultural and Horticultural Crops<br />
is referr<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g a third cultivated coca species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Ecuador – Erythroxylum ulei O.E. Schulz [3]. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> two<br />
important ones are the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World species Erythroxylum coca Lam. and Erythroxylum<br />
novogranatense (D. Morris) Hieron. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> most common species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> South America is Erythroxylum<br />
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.<br />
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1
coca. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> second domesticated species Erythroxylum novogranatense colonizes the arid region so<br />
northern South America, the northern coast <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Peru, and up <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to southern Central America [4].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> plant<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> genus name Erythroxylum refers to the characteristic red-colored wood and the red bark <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
these plants (Fig. 1). <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>al name coca orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ates from the Aymara word "khoka", which<br />
simply means „tree‟ <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the language <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> this ancient American tribe.<br />
Fig. 1: Representatives <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca species are spread throughout the southern hemisphere. Only<br />
two species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the World (Neotropics) produce the alkaloid coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> sufficiently high<br />
concentrations <strong>for</strong> human consumption. This picture shows the leaves <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the species Erythroxylum<br />
coca, which enjoys the greatest popularity among the Andean nations. F<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ds <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
mummies <strong>by</strong> Balabanova & Parsche [5] caused great controversy when first announced.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the genus Erythroxylum are predom<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>antly slender, but densely bushy, trees or<br />
widely extended shrubs up to five meters <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> height [6]. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> cultivated species are shrubs <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> up to<br />
three meters <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> height. When harvested regularly, without allow<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the shrubs to grow fully [7],<br />
coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e is <strong>for</strong>med <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> larger quantities.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> leaves are po<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>tedly ovoid to lanceolate and <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> dark green color. Towards the leaf marg<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>, its<br />
characteristic nerves are connected to each other. Important <strong>for</strong> the comparison <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> plants on<br />
different cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ents is the colors and shape <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the characteristic scaled leaves at the base <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> young<br />
branches [8]. A good coca shrub <<strong>strong</strong>>provides</<strong>strong</strong>> three harvests per year <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> up to 300 grams <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> fresh leaves,<br />
which corresponds to an amount <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> about130 grams dry weight.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> flowers are <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>conspicuous, hermaphrodite and a white-cream color. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>y are poll<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ated <strong>by</strong><br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>sects. After fertilization, the flowers evolve oblong-ovoid drupes with one seed, which is then<br />
ma<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ly spread <strong>by</strong> birds. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se seeds are non-toxic to the birds because they excrete the undigested<br />
[9].<br />
2
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> ma<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> alkaloids <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the two <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World cultural and shamanistic plants Erythroxylum coca and E.<br />
novogranatense are coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and cuscohygr<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>y belong to the group <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tropanal and ecgon<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
alkaloids, and are based to the two am<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>o acids prol<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and ornith<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e. Acetate is also <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>volved <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
<strong>for</strong>mation. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>ir evolutionary function is to protect the plant aga<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>st herbivores. Many members <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
the genus conta<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> a number <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> other alkaloids and <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gredients, which were also used <strong>by</strong> the<br />
naturopath [10].<br />
Natural Spread on Earth<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Erythroxylaceae <strong>for</strong>m a pantropical family and the numerous species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the genus<br />
Erythroxylum are spread over four cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ents. It can be determ<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed, from the recent spread, that two<br />
large development centers orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ally emerged – the Amazon Bas<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> and Madagascar. Both regions<br />
show some analogies <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the configuration <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> certa<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> species. However, it is not possible to prove a<br />
dependency upon each other [11, 12].<br />
Most species are to be found <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World, but only plants with striped stipules. Particularly<br />
strik<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g are the species with a large calyx. By contrast, on the cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ents <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Old World there are<br />
only a small number <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> species. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> few species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> tropical Africa have no relationship to those <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
the Americas, but <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>stead are close to those <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Madagascar and Asia [13]. Because <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> this, it is<br />
reasonable to assume that members <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the genus Erythroxylum spread throughout the southern<br />
hemisphere from America over to Africa, then Madagascar, and southeast Asia, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>clud<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g Australia<br />
(see. Fig.2).This is probably due to geological processes <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>volved <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> plate tectonics [14].<br />
Fig. 2: <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> tertiary land bridges between the Neotropics, Palaeotropis, Australis with the Antarctic about 80<br />
million years ago. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> major land bridges <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the southern hemisphere are: 1.Madagascar/Seychelles/India<br />
2.India/Kerguelen/East Antarctica, 3. South America/West Antarctica and 4. Australia/East Antarctica<br />
(accord<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g to [15]). Over these tertiary land bridges, the South American coca and tobacco species got their<br />
palaeolithic spread across the southern hemispheres outside the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World. However, Madagascar<br />
separated very early from Africa, so that only four coca species were spread across the narrow Strait <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
Mozambique to Africa <strong>by</strong> other natural effects.<br />
3
Domestication, Use and Anthropogenic Spread<br />
On the American cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ental landmass, the use and cultivation <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca bush has a very ancient<br />
history. S<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ce earliest times the Andean peoples used this very versatile plant. In the arid lowlands<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Peru, rema<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>s <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca leaves were found, along with lime and associated coca usage items, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
numerous pre-Columbian graves, dated to at least 5,000 years be<strong>for</strong>e the present [16]. In many pre-<br />
Columbian cultures coca had an extremely important function as an economic commodity, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
medic<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e, as an aphrodisiac, and as a ritual <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>toxicant. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> consumption <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca is synonymous<br />
with Andean civilization [17].<br />
When the Spanish conquered Peru, the coca bush immediately aroused the attention <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
conquistadors. All writers who dealt with the history <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the region reported the wonderful effects <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
this plant. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> coca plant was <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>troduced to central Europe first when Clusius (1605) <strong>trans</strong>lated the<br />
Spanish writ<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gs <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the physician, Nicholas Monardes from Seville, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to Lat<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> (Simplicium<br />
Medicamentorum Historia):<br />
That from early morn<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g until even<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the Indian is cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ually chew<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the sun-dried<br />
coca leaves <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the mouth without consum<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the same. This is done partly <strong>for</strong> pleasure<br />
addiction, but also partly to suppress hunger and thirst and susta<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> their enormous<br />
ef<strong>for</strong>ts, especially <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> travel<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g. In order to prevent the dry leaves from be<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g crushed to<br />
quickly between the teeth, they are mixed with ashes and quicklime, which is obta<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed<br />
from Conchylien shells, then placed <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to the mouth <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the <strong>for</strong>m <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> beads [18].<br />
Large parts <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> today‟s south and Central American population use the coca leaf as a daily narcotic<br />
stimulant. This is also due to the fact that the leaves possess, beside coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e, a relatively high<br />
nutritional value (per 100 g = 305 kcal). <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Spanish conquerors tried to stop coca usage among<br />
locals. However, as a result, per<strong>for</strong>mances <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the local work <strong>for</strong>ce decl<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed, due to the now miss<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g<br />
stimulatory effects <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>re<strong>for</strong>e the Spanish conquerors allowed coca chew<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g to<br />
resume among the <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>digenous population. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>ir descendants chew coca leaves to this day.<br />
Although the coca plant was <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>troduced as a drug <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to Europe quite late, we f<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>d its first mention<br />
much earlier <strong>by</strong> Amerigo Vespucci <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> 1499. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> first plants reached Europe around 1569. In 1859,<br />
the German chemist, Albert Niemann, isolated the alkaloid coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e from the leaves [19]. At the end<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the 19 th century people began to smoke the leaves <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> America and England. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se coca leaves<br />
were named „Peruvian tobacco‟ [20]. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> cultivation <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca shrub has s<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ce been spread<br />
throughout the world, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> such places as the Seychelles, East Africa and India [21].<br />
At first, it was assumed that alkaloid coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e had only been exploited <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Old World after the<br />
discovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Americas <strong>by</strong> Columbus. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>n came the surprise discovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e<br />
concentrations <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ancient <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> addition to the identification <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tobacco and its<br />
ma<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> alkaloid, nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e [22] (Balabanova 1997a).<br />
4
2. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e</<strong>strong</strong>> Controversy<br />
2.1 Coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Mummies</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> fact that coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e has been found <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies <<strong>strong</strong>>provides</<strong>strong</strong>> further <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dications <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a <strong>trans</strong>oceanic<br />
cultivated crop exchange. This discovery makes the whole issue even more complex:<br />
One could still try to expla<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the presence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tobacco <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ancient Egypt with local,<br />
previously unknown African species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tobacco, but with coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e it is not possible [23].<br />
Alkaloid coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e has been detected (Fig. 3) <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the 1992 exam<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ations <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the mummy <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Henut Taui.<br />
Hair samples were taken and it was found that these samples conta<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e [24].<br />
Fig. 3: <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> mummified skull <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Henut Taui. Balabanova<br />
and Parsche (1992) found the first traces <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the alkaloids<br />
nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> this mummy. Later, they were able<br />
to discover these same alkaloids <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> other <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
mummies. But coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e has only been found <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
mummies, while nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e has been identified <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> human<br />
rema<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>s <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Europe, Ch<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>a and <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Levant.<br />
Table 1: Balabanova and Parsche detected higher concentrations <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e, nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and THC <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
several <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>vestigation data were published <strong>by</strong> Parsche et al. [25].<br />
Location <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the mummies Alkaloids (numbers <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Concentration <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ng/g<br />
samples)<br />
Hairs coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e (n=4) 24 – 200<br />
nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e (n=4) 300 – 900<br />
THC (n=4) 800 – 4.100,0<br />
S<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>t tissue<br />
coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e (n=7) 69,6 – 441,5<br />
nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e (n=7) 124,4 – 1.330,0<br />
THC (n=7) 59 – 2.686,0<br />
Both alkaloids (nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e) po<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>t us towards the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World (Table 1). As a source <strong>for</strong><br />
coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e it is only possible to take the two <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World plants Erythroxylum coca and Erythroxylum<br />
5
novogranatense <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to consideration – accord<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g to our present knowledge. However, the discovery<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> several tropanal alkaloids <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the southwest African plant species Erythroxylum zambesiacum N.<br />
Robson might be worthy <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> further consideration. Robson gave Yahia et al. [26] arguments <strong>for</strong> a<br />
possible coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e source <strong>for</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummification <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> South Africa. This species exists <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
Zambezi River bas<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> as well as <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> southeast Africa. It is related to the West African species<br />
Erythroxylum manii Oliv. and belongs to the Melanocladus section (uncommon designation <strong>for</strong> an<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>frageneric group) [27, 28]. However, there is no <strong>evidence</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> any cultivation history or <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dications<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a local exploitation <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> these species. Also the literature fails to mention any applications <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
bark or leaves <strong>by</strong> the local population <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> southern Africa [29].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> samples from the alkaloid study <strong>by</strong> Yahia (1987) represent seven <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Schulz‟s (1907) designated<br />
sections <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the genus Erythroxylum. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>y cover the basic geographical distribution areas <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
world. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> distribution pattern study <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> their acids makes special reference to four sections which<br />
are derived from southeast Africa and from there they expanded <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to a diversification <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the genus.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> distribution pattern and the presence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> several tropanal alkaloids, organic acids and benzene<br />
acids with<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Old World are clearly different from the examples <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World. In particular,<br />
the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World species Erythroxylum coca, as a representative <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Archerythroxylum section,<br />
proves – accord<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g to Yahia (1987) – that there are no esters or acids <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the root bark. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> study <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
the alkaloids <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Erythroxylum zambesiacum does not there<strong>for</strong>e provide any <strong>evidence</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a close<br />
relationship <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the chemistry <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> both classes. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> same applies to the Australian species<br />
Erythroxylum australe F. Muell. (Coelocarpus section). All studies concluded that no coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e has<br />
been detected <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Old World species [30, 31 & 32].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se newer chemical analyses are confirm<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g not only the morphological observations <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Schulz<br />
(1907) that the few species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tropical Africa have no immediate relationship to those <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> America,<br />
but also re<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><strong>for</strong>c<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the hypothesis that the coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e synthesis <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Andean species is the result <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a<br />
vicariance process (isolated micro evolution). Ethnographic observations provide clear <strong>evidence</strong><br />
that the existence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a previously hypothetical coca plant <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> southern Africa is highly unlikely to<br />
expla<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the orig<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ancient <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies. All four coca species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Africa were<br />
never cultivated. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> same applies to the numerous wild coca relatives <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Madagascar. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>y all<br />
have the same cultural mean<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>glessness as the wild species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> South America. Only the three<br />
cultivated (coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e conta<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g) species <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World have been taken <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to the care <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the native<br />
people. Two <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> them have then been spread <strong>by</strong> <strong>humans</strong> over vast areas, first with<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Americas<br />
and later outside the western cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ent landmass.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se new f<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>d<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gs are <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> great importance <strong>for</strong> the evaluation <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a possible <strong>trans</strong>atlantic importation<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <strong>for</strong> ancient <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummification <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> pre-Columbian times.<br />
2.2 <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> Chemistry <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e</<strong>strong</strong>> Impacts Mummification Practices <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Egypt<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> result <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>vestigations <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>to the chemistry <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca species leads to the conclusion that the trim<br />
on related tropanal alkaloids and organic acids could be applied as a systematic feature with<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
Erythroxylum genus [33 & 34] (Plowman & Rivier 1983; Yahia et al. 1987). <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>y confirm the<br />
6
morphological and physiological differences <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Erythroxylum species <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Neo- and Palaeotropis [35].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>Coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e</<strong>strong</strong>> is a special representative <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tropanal alkaloids, which exist exclusively <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> America and not<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> Africa or elsewhere outside the <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World.<br />
It may sound unbelievable at first, but the only realistic explanation <strong>for</strong> the presence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies seems to be that there have existed trade relations<br />
between the ancient <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> world and America [36].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> results <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> my doctoral thesis [37] refute the paradigm that was established <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ethno-biology and<br />
archaeology after the first simulation experiments with seeds <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> salt-water bas<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>s <strong>by</strong> Whitaker &<br />
Carter [39, 38, 40] (1954; 1961; 1971) and Stephens [41, 42, 43].<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> ocean drift experiments made <strong>by</strong> my team, between 1999 until 2007 (Figs. 4 & 5), produced<br />
realistic measurements to show that the seeds and fruits <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> crops cannot drift <strong>for</strong> months across the<br />
<strong>Atlantic</strong> [44]. Trans-<strong>Atlantic</strong> <strong>dispersal</strong> from Africa to America and <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the opposite direction, without<br />
the support <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> early man, appears to be very difficult. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> results restrict broader speculation and fix<br />
the spread theories to a realistic basis.<br />
Fig. 4: In trawls beh<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>d all ABORA reed boat expeditions, the writer exam<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed the drift ability <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
multiple crops. Many types were tested and had no drift ability. Only tobacco and bottle gourds<br />
possessed a fair share <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> salt-water tolerance (approx. 200 d). This is, however, too little to expla<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
an <strong>Atlantic</strong> Ocean drift <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> recent prehistoric times without human <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>tervention. Furthermore, the<br />
ABORA Expeditions (I-III) prove experimentally that Stone Age seafar<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g across the large oceans<br />
might have been existed <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> prehistory.<br />
Old World areas <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> crop cultivation <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> prehistoric and early historic times can probably not have<br />
been established as a result <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> drift. Most likely they were the result <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> very early<br />
human <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>teractions across the <strong>Atlantic</strong> Ocean. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>research</<strong>strong</strong>> results <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the vegetation geography<br />
suggest that the people <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Stone Age and, later, <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> early antiquity, conducted extensive travel<br />
7
upon the high seas <strong>for</strong> long-distance trade. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se eastern <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> areas <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> crops were not<br />
caused <strong>by</strong> hydrochory (water distribution). <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> only exception is the prehistoric spread <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the A-<br />
genome ancestors <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> cotton to the Americas. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se were spread <strong>by</strong> anemochory (air distribution)<br />
[45, 46].<br />
Fig. 5: This diagram shows the decreas<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g germ<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ation ability <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Nicotiana tobacum L. dur<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g<br />
ocean drift<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g. Several hundreds <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> seeds were tested to <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>vestigate the possible drift duration <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> an<br />
American crop <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the Mediterranean Sea and <strong>Atlantic</strong> Ocean. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> measurements <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>dicate a<br />
maximum salt-water tolerance <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> between 165 to approx. 180 days. This drift capability is too short<br />
to expla<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> a hydrochor <strong>dispersal</strong> event <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> prehistoric times, which is estimated <strong>by</strong> experts to be<br />
between two and three years [48]. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se results also deliver <strong>strong</strong> <strong>evidence</strong> <strong>for</strong> a possible human<br />
<strong>dispersal</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> pre-Columbian times. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> average <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> all tests is shown <strong>by</strong> the black<br />
broken l<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>se <<strong>strong</strong>>research</<strong>strong</strong>> results suggest that people <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the Stone Age and <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> early antiquity had already<br />
conducted <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic voyages and long-distance trade. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> concentrations <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e, as well as<br />
nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e, <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies, measured <strong>by</strong> Balabanova & Parsche [47], <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>fer <strong>strong</strong> biological<br />
<strong>evidence</strong> <strong>for</strong> early contact between the Old and <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World. In the case <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the spread <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> tobacco, we<br />
can even demonstrate the presence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> its South American pest <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies and tombs<br />
[49, 50, 51, 52]. Alfieri [53] was able to identify several dozen specimens <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the American tobacco<br />
beetle (Lasioderma serricorne Fab. 1792) <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the anti-chamber <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Tutankhamun‟s tomb (ca. 1,341-<br />
1,323 BC). Several biologists support the conclusion that these dry-resistant <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>sects arrived as<br />
8
passengers <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> tobacco leaves used dur<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the mummification process [54, 55, 56, 57]. Accord<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gly,<br />
these tobacco discoveries, as well as the tobacco pests found <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> tombs, support the coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e<br />
analysis.<br />
3. Summary<br />
Cultivated plants that had been domesticated <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> prehistoric times on the American cont<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ent<br />
achieved a fairly rapid spread across the <strong>Atlantic</strong> Ocean with<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> only a few millennia <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
beg<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>n<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Holocene. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> development <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> these eastern <strong>Atlantic</strong> distribution areas has not been<br />
conv<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>c<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>gly expla<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ed to this date [58].<br />
Drift studies with seeds <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> selected crop plants, as well as chemical analyses <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> several coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e<br />
species, support the hypothesis <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a pre-Columbian human <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>teraction between the Old and <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
World. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> emphasis <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> this article has deliberately been put on the <strong>dispersal</strong> and cultivation history<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the American coca plant (Erythroxylum). This is because <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the recent discovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
ancient <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>>re is also the <strong>dispersal</strong> history <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the plant and exist<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g knowledge<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the use <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> a shamanic plant, which have led to controversial discussions over several decades<br />
about potential <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> contacts prior to Columbus‟ rediscovery <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> America.<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> spread and domestication history <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the coca plant delivers strik<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g <strong>evidence</strong> <strong>for</strong> the theory <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
anthropogenic <strong>dispersal</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> this species across the <strong>Atlantic</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> ancient times. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> unique phytochemical<br />
characteristics <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> this plant, its south hemispheric distribution pattern and its limited water<br />
<strong>dispersal</strong> ability <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> crop plants (coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e as well as tobacco, fig. 5) support this theory. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
reconstruction <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> those <strong>dispersal</strong> routes, and the identification <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the proto-historical merchants<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>volved <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> such contacts, poses a fasc<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>at<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g challenge <strong>for</strong> future <<strong>strong</strong>>research</<strong>strong</strong>>.<br />
Prehistoric <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic trade appears to be much older than accepted and published <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the<br />
predom<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ant ma<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>stream literature. It was one decisive factor <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the development <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the first<br />
advanced civilizations. <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> discoveries <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> large „step pyramids‟ similar <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> architecture to those <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
the Mediterranean as well as on the Canary Islands and even a Phoenician wreck <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>>f the Azores, are<br />
emphasiz<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g the <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>tensity and importance <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> activities <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> the late Neolithic times [59,<br />
60, 61]. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>> enigma <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> the occurrence <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>> <<strong>strong</strong>>Egyptian</<strong>strong</strong>> mummies is not capable <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> reveal<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g<br />
all aspects <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> these <strong>trans</strong>-<strong>Atlantic</strong> <<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>teractions between the Old and <<strong>strong</strong>>New</<strong>strong</strong>> World, but the bio<strong>evidence</strong>s<br />
<strong>strong</strong>ly suggest regular <strong>trans</strong>-oceanic contacts long be<strong>for</strong>e the days <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> Columbus. <<strong>strong</strong>>The</<strong>strong</strong>><br />
f<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>d<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>g <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> nicot<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e and coca<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>e yields further <strong>evidence</strong> <strong>for</strong> the assumption that cosmopolition and<br />
<<strong>strong</strong>>in</<strong>strong</strong>>ternationalism are much older and part <<strong>strong</strong>>of</<strong>strong</strong>> our rich maritime heritage. Thus, prehistoric watercrafts<br />
were man‟s first major tool to explore and conquer the world.<br />
9
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11