Abstract Volume 2017

ABSTRACT VOLUME 

Photo: iStock 

World Water Week in Stockholm 

27 August – 1 September, 2017 

Water and waste: reduce and reuse




Water and waste: reduce and reuse 

Contents 

Seminar: Water in the circular economy: opportunities and challenges ..................................... 3 

Seminar: Wastewater and health – managing risks, seizing opportunities ............................... 21 

Seminar: Financing wastewater treatment and resource recovery .......................................... 43 

Seminar: Smart solutions in water and waste management for liveable cities ......................... 51 

Seminar: Harnessing opportunities for the safe reuse of wastewater in agriculture ............... 77 

Seminar: Water, pollution, and systemic challenges: the case of the textile industry …….... 100 

Seminar: Opportunities and limits to water pollution regulations ........................................... 113 

Seminar: Governance of water and waste: a key to sustainable development? ..................... 131 

Seminar: Understanding the gender dimension of water and waste....................................... 156 

Abstract Volume – World Water Week 2017 2

Seminar: Water in the circular economy: 

opportunities and challenges 

Photo: iStock 






Seminar: Water in the circular economy: opportunities and challenges 

Contents 

A circular economy approach to wastewater treatment - A Danish example ...................... 5 

GreenSpeed - Integrated wastewater treatment and biobased production ........................ 7 

Local circular economy loops in between sectors .................................................................. 9 

One Water' strategies for corporate engagement ................................................................ 11 

Quantifying the circular water economy: The case of Singapore ......................................... 13 

Replication of circular sanitation economies enables opportunity ...................................... 14 

Technology innovation in implementing a circular economy strategy ................................. 16 

Urban water services transitioning to a circular economy .................................................... 17 

Poster: Managing waste streams in a house - lessons in decentralization........................... 19 


A circular economy approach to wastewater treatment - A Danish example 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Theis Gadegaard, Denmark, Krüger A/S 

Mr. Ole Johnsen, Denmark, Billund Water Utility 

Highlights 

A biorefinery has been built at the existing Grindsted WWTP in Denmark that demonstrates circular economy. 

The plant utilizes new technologies that process raw materials consisting of wastewater, separated organic 

household waste and organic waste from industries. Outputs are purified water, energy, fertilizer and 

feedstock for polymer production 

Introduction and objectives 

The Billund BioRefinery was developed and built in a PPP-project supported by a grant from the Danish EPA 

to demonstrate how Denmark and the utility sector together with technology suppliers can take a circular 

economy approach in wastewater and waste handling. Drivers for the project included: 

• EU initiatives on Circular Economy 

• Finding renewable and storable energy sources 

• Danish water sector law requiring savings on utility operations but limiting the types of acceptable 

activities 

• Local Municipal strategy to lower energy consumption and CO2 emissions 

• Local Municipal strategy to lower nutrient loading on local receiving waters 

Methodology approach 

The heart of the refinery is the thermal hydrolysis system. The purpose is to recover energy and produce 

more refined products from wastewater and organic waste, i.e. biofertilizer, Struvite, biogas, biopolymer and 

water for reuse. The nutrients in the wastewater are mainly captured in the WWTP in simultaneous biological 

processes and made accessible in excess hygienized biofertilizer. The influent is a mix of domestic and 

industrial wastewater and some rainfall from combined sewers generating biological sludge. Household 

waste is sorted and collected in paper bags. The industrial waste is delivered by trucks and categorized by 

energy density 

Analysis and results 

The BioRefinery demonstrates new waste and wastewater technologies in a new, fully-integrated 

configuration. All processes are interconnected through on-line control “smart” systems that adapt to 

alternating load. The amount of remaining biofertilizer is minimized and the yield of CO2-neutral biogas is 

maximized with thermal hydrolysis and double digestion. The BioRefinery is an "open concept" that can 

collect all types of organics and convert them into valuable resources, closing the loop of carbon and 

nutrients from farm to table and back. To avoid pollutant components in the wastewater (and thus eventually 

the biofertilizer), all industries have outlet control of flow, heavy metals content and content of xenobiotic 

components. The approval is published by the local authority - Billund Municipality. The biowaste is sorted 

and collected at local households and industries. Sludge and organic waste is carefully mixed and codigested 

to give energy excess of +200%, turning biogas into electricity and excess heat. Actual Effluent Values 2016 

for the WWTP (10 months operation) are as low as 25% of regulatory. The biofertilizer contains 6 kg P/ton and 

11 kg N/ton and has a slow rate release in the local agricultural soil. Annual energy production is around 12 

Gwh. 


Conclusions and recommendation 

The biorefinery is a showcase example of the circular economy demonstrating how wastewater utilities can 

contribute to the local and national economy and improve the environment. The Danish example business 

model has ROI of 8-10 years. The biorefinery is scalable and replicable, and can be built anywhere these raw 

materials are available for reasons of hygiene and the environment need to be treated safely; and the output 

products can be applied locally, regardless of geography. With the proven technologies, setup and business 

case it is recommended for other Wastewater utilities to be proactive as Billund and close the local/regional 

loops. 


GreenSpeed - Integrated wastewater treatment and biobased production 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Marianne Thomsen, Denmark, Aarhus University 

Mr. Kim Helmo, Denmark, Helmo Consult 

Highlights 

GreenSpeed may transform wastewater treatment plants into net energy producers 

GreenSpeed may provide climate change mitigation services and added value bioproducts 


Several Danish wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have implemented energy as well as nitrogen, 

phosphorous and carbon management strategies, resulting in several of the Danish WWTPs to become 

carbon neutral energy producing plants. Besides reducing GHG emissions and energy consumption, 

technologies for combined water treatment and green production is emerging in Denmark and globally. 

GreenSpeed wastewater treatment represents a low carbon technology, designed to reduce the energy 

consumption and N2O emission, while assimilating CO2, NH4+, PO4- and K by microalgae subsequently used as 

a carbon rich resource for biogas production or for the production of high-value products. 


A comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of introducing the GreenSpeed technology at existing WWTP in 

Denmark were analyzed. The WWTP designs differ regarding: (1) treatment capacity, (2) N and P 

management strategies (e.g. chemical precipitation vs. biological treatment), (3) C management strategy 

(e.g. biogas and sludge-derived fertilizer production). The increased resource-efficiency obtained from 

implementation GreenSpeed were assessed with focus on the potential to reduction in GHG (CH4 and N2O) 

emissions, and substitution of COD consumption with CO2 release, by microalgal production. The LCA were 

accompanied by a cost-benefit structure analysis and performed in accordance with international standards 

ISO 14040-44. 


Implementation of GreenSpeed at decentralized WWTPs (≤ 20.000 PE) vs. centralized WWTPs ≥ 100.000 PE 

showed differences in the environmental and economic cost-benefit structure. Several environmental and 

economic benefits were observed for the decentralized plants, while a reduction in biogas production at the 

centralized WWTPs receiving sludge from decentralized WWTPs represents a reduction in the return on 

Investment. Pilot plant testing at a two-step WWTP of the size 25.000 PE showed that a GreenSpeed process 

volume of 3,240 m 3 , are able to capture 53-67% of the nitrogen and 15-19% of the phosphorous in the influent 

wastewater. Such microalgae assimilation capacity results in reduction in the energy consumption for 

aeration during conventional biological treatment. Furthermore, a reduction in the N2O emission 

corresponding to the percent N assimilated in the microalgae biomass is resulting. Pilot testing shows a 

continuous growth rate corresponding to 10.8 ton fresh weight microalgae harvest per day with a dry matter 

(DM) content of 20%. Data showing a CH4 conversion factor of 300 l CH4/ kg VS points towards a biogas 

production per year in the range of 2-3 TJ, which corresponds to an increase in the biogas production at the 

test study plant of 36%. 



Initial studies reveal a budget economic opportunity for decentralized plants in valorizing their resources in 

wastewater. The results of the LCA and cost-benefit analysis have identified barriers and opportunities for 

WWTPs to become net energy producers contributing to climate change mitigation. Emerging opportunities 

for increased revenues from integrated wastewater treatment and biobased production systems have been 

identified in terms of protein and antioxidant extraction prior to biogas and fertilizer production. GreenSpeed 

is a low carbon resource-efficient wastewater treatment technology providing the opportunity for WTPs to 

become climate neutral while returning resources in wastewater back into the economic system. 


Local circular economy loops in between sectors 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Martine Vullierme, France, Veolia 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Municipalities and industry need to optimize their water management within the watershed in which they 

are located. Taking a Circular Economy - CE- approach with water assets maintenance and development can 

be the enabling factor for a healthy local economy and in line with the central role of water. 


Population growth, economic development, improved quality of life, and limited resources provide the 

catalyst for a circular economy approach not only for water, but also its nexus with energy and materials. 

Water and the water-material nexus can benefit and be leveraged through the restorative and reuse nature 

of CE. Based on their experiences with connecting best practices and applying them in an impactful way for 

the benefits of their municipal and industrial customers around the world, the authors have identified and 

will share a number of CE pathways, success factors and barriers towards implementation. 


The circular economy is based on the concept that waste is designed out of or extracted from flows at the 

onset, and that net material flows are balanced, such that extraction rates do not exceed return or output 

rates. As appropriate based on geography and local conditions, evidence shows progress is aligned with the 

three CE Design Principles: 

• All durables are reused, 

• Consumables are used in multiple cascading cycles before safe return into the natural environment, 

and 

• All natural capital (including energy) is used only to the extent they can be regenerated 


Examples from water scarce regions illustrate the benefits and challenges of the CE approach. The authors 

experience reveals that CE best develops in three basic ways: 

• by removing the technical, administrative, and governance silos between water and wastewater. 

Since 2003, this allowed the Windhoek potable water direct reuse scheme to support 300,000 

inhabitants; 

• by removing the social and sectoral silos between industries, cities and the civil society. The Durban 

(SA) Recycling Plant makes it possible for industry to switch manufacturing processes to recycled 

water, using 98% of the city’s reclaimed wastewater. In Honolulu, Hawaii, the 38,000 m3/d municipal 

treatment plant produces water for its industrial park and for irrigation. 

• By moving beyond infrastructure and operation silos to a holistic, integrated life-cycle view. This 

approach is increasingly applied by public utilities in arid zones with a strong push towards Non- 

Revenue Water Management such as in Oman, Riyadh or Tangiers). The concept is also applied in 

the industry, such as Shell in Qatar where the water generated during the gas-to-liquid process is 

fully reused on site, leading to zero liquid discharge management. 



Current linear economic and business models need to move to a circular model to alleviate escalating demand 

for scarce water resources. Technical solutions are already available and more effective ones will continue to 

become available. However, implementation of technical solutions can be a challenge if the enabling 

environment is not ready. Changes in regulatory and institutional frameworks are necessary to encourage 

circular solutions. Effective implementation of CE concepts will require acknowledging and adapting 

practices to local conditions, obtaining stakeholder consensus, having accurate metrics, and allowing 

adequate time for implementation. 


One Water' strategies for corporate engagement 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Alex Money, United Kingdom, Smith School of Enterprise 

and the Environment 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

The circular water economy can improve the alignment between corporate water strategy and stakeholder 

expectations. 

This could catalyse social, economic and political momentum necessary to facilitate broader transitions to 

non-linear water use. 

It would unlock value that is embedded in water as a corporate asset, rather than a risk liability. 


Questions of quality, quantity and social licence are well rehearsed in the literature on corporate water 

strategy. I begin by challenging the orthodoxy of current best-in-class approaches by companies to manage 

stakeholder expectations - focusing on efficiency and replenishment. From there I present a paradigmatic 

model using the circular water economy as a unique and powerful tool to align corporate strategy; 

accountability and disclosure; and stakeholder engagement. 

Presented as a work in progress, I propose avenues for incorporating circular economy approaches as a tool 

to catalyse innovation, enhance stewardship, and benchmark progress towards the sustainable management 

of water resources. 


Question: Can the sharing economy paradigm align corporate water strategy with stakeholder expectations, 

and unlock the embedded value of water as an asset? 

Approach: I will describe gaps between strategy and expectations based on extant best-in-class approaches, 

and illustrate how and why a 'one water' methodological approach could close those gaps. 

Method: Using real-world exemplars of efficiency and replenishment targets, I will discuss their limitations as 

proxy solutions, and contrast this to a 'one water' approach. I will suggest that incorporating the shared 

economy into corporate water strategies will expedite the development of new models that facilitate 

broader environmental transitions. 


Many companies have public targets to reduce their water use per unit of output. But let us imagine all 

incremental efficiency measures have been taken. Now, suppose an exogenous shock results in reduced 

water availability. The efficient company has no 'fat in the system' - which means that the shock cannot be 

mitigated. As a result there is either a direct effect on operations (making performance more volatile) or the 

company has to take a greater share of available water (threatening its social licence). Perversely, a less 

efficient water user may not face this Hobson's choice. 

This presents philosophical and practical questions as to whether targeting absolute efficiency is the optimal 

approach for companies and stakeholders. But rather than the strategy above - that identifies water as a 

liability whose use should should be minimised - what are the prospects for a 'one water' strategy that 

identifies water as an asset whose value should be maximised? 


In this context, what becomes salient is 'water asset turnover' - a much richer conception of efficiency than 

per unit approaches. It allows for the value of water to be recaptured and realised both within and beyond 

the operational fence line. 


Examples of 'one water' frameworks are emerging, e.g. Nestle's Lagos de Moreno dairy factory in Jalisco. 

But the approach is still largely dependant on companies' local production imperatives rather than their 

global strategic aspirations. The circular water economy can improve alignment between corporate water 

strategy and stakeholder expectations. This in turn could catalyse the social, economic and political 

momentum necessary to facilitate broader transitions to non-linear water use. It will expedite the 

technological innovation necessary to capture a growing share of the value that is embedded in water as a 

corporate asset; rather than its risk as a corporate liability. 


Quantifying the circular water economy: The case of Singapore 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Julian Kirchherr, Netherlands, Utrecht University 

Prof. Asit Biswas, Singapore 

Mr. Martin Stavenhagen (Institute of Water Policy, National 

University of Singapore) 

Mr. Paul Schot (Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University) 

Highlights 

• Singapore is the world’s model country on the circular water economy 

• We provide the very first quantitative assessment of this circular water economy showcasing the 

economic value created compared to a linear economy 

• Our assessment provides a fact base and a quantification approach for policymakers and water 

managers contemplating the transition to a circular water economy 


Singapore is internationally recognized as the model country on the circular water economy. Although the 

various measures undertaken in Singapore to reduce, reuse and retain water have been described by a variety 

of scholars, e. g. Luan (2010), Chen et al. (2011), Tortajada et al. (2013), Tortajada & Joshi (2013), or Lee & Tan 

(2016), no holistic quantitative assessment has been undertaken so far on Singapore’s closed water loop. Our 

paper intends to address this gap. We quantify the economic value of Singapore’s circular water economy 

compared to a linear water economy. 


The economic model developed for this paper refines the modeling approach chosen by Hieminga et al. 

(2017) who calculated the economic value of a circular water economy for selected countries, while our breakeven 

point calculations emulates the approach chosen by Louwen et al. (2016). Our model is iterated with 

decision-makers and experts of Singapore’s circular water economy, e. g. policy-makers interviewed at 

Singapore’s Public Utilities Board (PUB) and/or Singapore’s Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources 

(MEWR). 


Our quantifications indicate that Singapore’s circular water economy creates less economic value in the 

short-term than a linear water economy since particularly recycling water is a costly endeavor. However, we 

also evidence that the economic value of the country’s circular water economy is far greater than the value 

created by a linear water economy in the medium- and long-term since it helps to reduce exacerbating water 

scarcity in the country. In particular, our findings on the break-even point are largely in line with previous 

quantitative assessments of the circular economy. Various measures are discussed which may further reduce 

the amortization period for a circular water economy, while we also outline the particularities of our case 

study to highlight the limits on external validity of our findings. 


Our quantitative assessment indicates that Singapore’s circular water economy creates vast economic value 

compared to a linear water economy in the medium- and long-term and is thus instrumental in ensuring 

sustainable water access for the country’s private and industrial water users. The quantification approach 

outlined in our paper may be replicated by those interested in calculating the economic value implications of 

a circular water economy, while our overall assessment provides a fact base for those contemplating the 

transition to a circular water economy. 


Replication of circular sanitation economies enables opportunity 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Eleanor Allen, United States, CEO Water For People 

Ms. Brenda Achiro Muthemba, Uganda, N/A 

Mr. Steve Sugden, United Kingdom 

Ms. Kelly Latham, United States 

Highlights 

Creating a circular economy around human waste - or brown gold - is the ultimate contribution to improving 

health, protecting the environment, and generating business opportunities. Making a step-change aligned 

with Sustainable Development Goal 6.2 requires new technologies, proven business models, capacity 

building, market forces, and government partnerships. 


The world is in a state of crisis – one third of the global population still does not have access to a toilet. 

Developing disruptive and game-changing approaches are required to overcome this global scourge and 

solve this crisis. Water For People has a scalable model in East Africa that is tested and replicable for 

decentralized sanitation systems. By coupling sanitation with resource-recovery technologies with business 

models and capacity building, we aim to catalyze a sanitation renaissance and through scale and progress 

faster towards safely managed sanitation for all. 


The rural and peri-urban areas in East Africa will not be sewered by 2030 (if ever). Water For People plays a 

facilitating role to catalyze business opportunities within the market system along the value chain of on-site 

sanitation while also providing quality, affordable, and accessible services to the poor. We apply proven 

technologies (e.g., desirable toilets, pit life extender, DEFAST, etc.) to cover the entire value chain of 

sanitation (toilets, pits/tanks emptying, collection, sludge treatment, and sludge reuse). Our approach builds 

upon Water For People’s impact model – Everyone Forever (EF) and our ideal is zero waste. 


EF provides sustained sanitation services for every community member through infrastructure and institution 

building. We work with government partners and private sector to help create business opportunities using 

market forces that are all part of the circular economy of brown gold. 

Business opportunities that Water For People is currently incubating and accelerating are: 

• Building toilets 

• Improving toilets 

• Supporting start-up of pit emptying businesses and continuous development of better pit 

emptying technologies 

• Reuse of wastewater (where available) for flush toilets 

• Building and operating decentralized fecal sludge treatment plants (DEDFAST) 

• Working with governments to support smart subsidies to spark sanitation 

• Developing sludge products for sale such as fuel briquettes, fertilizers and compost 

• Creating and supporting sources of credit for loans for toilets 

• Starting call centers and enabling infrastructure for pit emptiers in peri-urban areas 

• Partnering with others for large-scale urban treatment works of fecal sludge 


Water For People has 38 sanitation market initiatives in various stages throughout East Africa. The outcome 

of developing this circular economy sanitation paradigm is stronger communities that are cleaner, healthier, 

and more economically productive. 


One of the most exciting aspects of decentralized sanitation is the ability to create business opportunities 

while also solving a societal problem and working towards SDG6. This change occurs through infrastructure 

development as well as through creation and transformation of sanitation services. We are focused on 

driving this change with market forces and innovative technologies with a holistic approach and a vision on 

creating circular economies. All of this we will do in partnership with government to ensure long-term 

success. Our track record is good to date and we are focused on scale and replication. 


Technology innovation in implementing a circular economy strategy 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Cody Friesen, United States, Zero Mass Water 

Mr. William Sarni, United States, Zero Mass Water 

Highlights 

Alternative sources of water are an integral part of a circular economy strategy for water. In particular, air 

moisture capture technology for residential use is a viable technology to move towards an off-grid solution 

to providing access to water. 


The objective of this presentation is to highlight the importance of water technology innovation in addressing 

SDG 6.1. Specifically, how air moisture capture technology "powered" by solar technology can provide an 

alternative to centralized drinking water or access to unsafe water. A roadmap of technology identification, 

funding and scaling the technology solution will be presented along with recommendations to facilitate 

water technology innovation and adoption. 


Universal access to safe drinking water remains a global challenge and traditional approaches have had 

limited success. Traditional solutions of deploying centralized water systems or residential systems remain 

challenging in emerging markets. "Democratizing" access to safe drinking water through deploying air 

moisture capture systems powered by solar systems frees individual families to secure access to safe drinking 

water - providing high quality and high security. This innovative off grid approach bypasses many of the 

hurdles in deploying large scale and more traditional small scale water systems. 


A case study will presented highlighting the success of bringing together academic research in material 

science with proven entrepreneurship and socially mined funding sources from outside the water sector. The 

challenges of implementing an innovative water technology will be presented along with a long term strategy 

to identify and build a business ecosystem of stakeholders to scale the off grid solution to accessing safe 

drinking water. Technical, funding and adoption challenges will be presented along with examples of 

successful implementation in the Middle East, Central America, Mexico and the US. 


Stakeholders need 21st Century technology solutions to achieve SDG 6.1 Accelerating technology innovation 

coupled with catalyzing an ecosystem of stakeholders to fund and deploy these technologies shows promise 

in ensuring universal access to safe drinking water. Technology innovation and entrepreneurs outside the 

traditional water sector can bring new ideas and strategies to address the poor access to safe drinking water. 

These entrepreneurs working with the public sector, socially responsible funders and multinationals have 

been successful in implementing new solutions to a circular economy strategy. 


Urban water services transitioning to a circular economy 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Astrid Michels, Germany, Deutsche Gesellschaft für 

Internationale Zusammenarbeit 

Ms. Corinne Trommsdorf, International Water Association, 

Netherlands 

Mr. Andres, Rojo, Die Internationale Gesellschaft für deutsche 

Zusammenarbeit, Mexico 

Mr. Kittisak Unwerawattana, Die Internationale Gesellschaft 

für deutsche Zusammenarbeit, Thailand 

Highlights 

Four case studies from Mexico, Peru, Thailand and Jordan demonstrate the opportunities for urban utilities 

to transition to a circular economy by adopting energy recovering, water reuse, and nutrient recycling 

measures. Challenges include access to financing to implement new technologies as well as incentives for a 

low carbon water sector. 


A resource-hungry future urgently requires the water sector to embrace a paradigm shift from removing 

pollutants in wastewater to resource recovery opportunities. By transitioning to a circular economy approach 

and towards recycling nutrients, reusing treated wastewater, and recovering clean energy, utilities can 

significantly reduce their carbon footprint. Four case studies from across the world (Mexico, Peru, Thailand 

and Jordan) demonstrate how utilities are pioneering the way to a low carbon water industry for others to 

follow and contribute to carbon targets agreed to under the nationally determined contributions. 


The project ‘Water and wastewater utilities for climate change mitigation (WaCCliM)’ supports climate 

change mitigation efforts in the water sector using a cross-sectoral approach that links water, energy and 

food security to developing concepts for a climate resilient and low emission water industry. 

The project uses a systems approach and considers all components of the urban water cycle from water 

supply, wastewater to reuse of water. Pilot measures on energy efficiency, water loss reduction as well as 

energy generation from biogas are implemented with lead executing agencies to reduce overall greenhouse 

gas emissions. 


Optimising energy use as well as wastewater treatment processes provide opportunities for significant GHG 

reductions across the entire urban water cycle. Through energy generation from biogas, energy efficient 

pumps, significant amounts of CO2e can be reduced. In the city of Cusco, Peru, for example ~ 4000 t CO2e/a 

were avoided through improved sludge management resulting in increased biogas production. Furthermore, 

1230 tons CO2e/a can be reduced through refurbishing old pumps with new energy efficient pumps. In the 

city of Chiang Mai in Thailand, 130 tCO2e/a can be reduced through more energy efficient pumping stations 

and the reduction of infiltration in the sewer network. In Guanajuato, Mexico; the wastewater utility reduced 

its carbon footprint by 20% (120tCO2e/a) through energy optimisation measures. Expanding wastewater 

service levels led to additional reductions of 2200tCO2e/a. 

At the national level, the program provides technical support to water experts and utility staff managers to 

improve the political, regulatory and institutional framework and integrate emission reduction measures to 

reduce the waters sector carbon footprint. Technical assistance is provided to support the multiplication of 

pilot measures, development of incentives for national mitigation strategies and the introduction of 

appropriate financing instruments. 



While utilities are engaging in technologies and practices that support a circular economy, some challenges 

remain: remodeling of the water sector towards a sustainable low-carbon future requires country ownership 

and the provision of sufficient financing that facilitates the deployment of new technologies. In addition, 

robust water sector GHG accounting and monitoring, and sharing best practices within the industry to ensure 

wide adoption of an economically viable and sustainable transition to decarbonisation is needed. Investment 

in decarbonizing the water sector significantly contributes to meet the Nationally Determined Contributions 

agreed in the COP21 Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals. 


Poster: Managing waste streams in a house - lessons in decentralization 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Vishwanath Srikantaiah, India, Biome Environmental Trust 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Water management, urban, technology, storage, sanitation 


Running an ecological design practice provides an opportunity to include management of water and wastewater 

in individual buildings and institutions we design. 

In the context of Bengaluru,where at a city level water has become a scarce resource,it is possible to easily 

integrate rainwater harvesting , greywater recycling, kitchen waste composting, and terrace gardening into 

individual homes and institutional buildings such as schools to reduce dependency on external water and 

sanitation systems. Not only is harvested rainwater a major supplement but the nutrients from ecosan and 

greywater can be used productively for food production at household level. 


Designing of building often avoids services such as water and wastewater infrastructure assuming a link to 

the city lines. More often than not buildings in the periphery of a growing city have to create independent 

services such as a borewell for water supply and septic tanks for sanitation systems.Analysing rainfall pattern 

both storage and recharge systems were designed to hold and reuse rainwater. Greywater tanks were 

located to catch clothes wash and bath water and filtered using biological systems for reuse in toilet flushing 

and for vegetable cultivation. Ecosan toilets provided urine and dessicated faeces as fertiliser for crops. 


In the design of a large school building it was possible to capture almost all the rainwater falling in a large 

sump tank. This water is filtered before being used for drinking. For toilets it is used directly. Greywater 

treatment system recycle water for flushing requirement. The school with 200 students is independent of 

the city system for water and wastewater management. 

In most houses depending on the rooftop area between 100,000 to 200,000 litres of rainwater is harvested 

annually.Where a perched aquifer exists an open well provides all the water requirement of the house and is 

recharged using rooftop rainwater. Greywater systems recycle almost all shower and washing machine 

water. By replacing detergents with ecofriendly soaps it is possible to simplify treatment requirements. Twin 

leach pit toilets and ecosan toilets provide safe containment and reuse of faeces.This in turn is reused for 

growing rooftop vegetable gardens. Kitchen waste is composted and reused on site. A rooftop provides an 

ideal space for reusing greywater and nutrients from human waste as also to harvest rain. About 40 sq. mt. 

of roof area can provide water, food and energy security and also take care of waste from a house in 

Bengaluru. 



By designing for rainwater harvesting,water efficient fixtures,recycling systems,ecosan toilets it is possible 

to supplement water requirements to a great extent and complete the food cycle using nutrients from 

human and kitchen waste.Ecological design is the way forward in closing the water and nutrient loop. 

Architects and engineers can play a crucial role in addressing the water and wastewater management of cities 

Simple design tools and filters for rainwater and greywater recycling is needed to help take the design 

implementation forward. Building byelaws and tax incentives can be thought of aprropriately for each city to 

to encourage such designs . 


Seminar: Wastewater and health – 

managing risks, seizing opportunities 

Photo: Robert Bos 





21

Seminar: Wastewater and health – managing risks, seizing opportunities 

Contents 

A health risk assessment of wastewater use in Ghana ........................................................223 

Development of a sanitation safety plan for peri-urban areas, Tanzania .......................... 225 

Effects of fecal sludge in wastewater stabilization ponds: Port-au-Prince, Haiti ............... 227 

Identifying water quality hotspots for contacts with contaminated surface waters ....... 229 

Making pathogens visible to guide investment in what matters .......................................... 31 

Modelling impacts of waste treatment options .................................................................... 33 

National standards for wastewater treatment - what is "safely treated"? ......................... 34 

Processes and challenges of faecal sludge management in Odisha, India .......................... 35 

Poster: Effective managing risks in cascade of reservoirs .................................................... 37 

Poster: Evaluating hazards and risks of water sources in Sultan Kudarat ........................... 39 

Poster: Wastewater reuse and the burden of parasitic diseases in Nigeria ......................... 41 

22

A health risk assessment of wastewater use in Ghana 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Prince Antwi-Agyei, United Kingdom, London School of 

Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 

Prof. Sandy Cairncross, United Kingdom 

Dr. Anne Peasey, United Kingdom, University College of 

London 

Dr. Jeroen Ensink, United Kingdom 

Highlights 

• Produce contamination should be managed at all domains along the food chain, although prioritising 

markets and kitchens would be a more cost-effective approach. 

• Awareness of wastewater irrigation health risks alone is insufficient for vendors and consumers to 

adopt risk reduction measures, or influence them when buying produce or prepared salad. 


Wastewater use in urban agriculture is common as a result of rapid urbanisation, water scarcity, and the high 

cost of treating urban wastewater. The use of wastewater holds clear benefits to farmers, but also poses 

serious health risks to farmers and consumers of wastewater irrigated produce. This study aimed at 

identifying key risk factors for produce contamination at different entry points of the food chain. It also 

assesses participants’ awareness and knowledge of wastewater irrigation practices, associated health risks, 

and the adoption of health protective measures. 


In the period from September 2012 to August 2013, over 500 produce and ready-to-eat salad samples were 

collected from fields, markets, and food stalls in eight neighborhoods in Accra, Ghana during two cropping 

seasons, and over 300 soil and irrigation water samples were collected. All samples were analysed for E. coli, 

human adenovirus and norovirus using standard microbiological procedures. In addition, almost 700 

participants including wastewater farmers, market and street food vendors, chefs and consumers were 

interviewed and observed to assess critical exposures associated with the transmission of faecal pathogens 

in farmers and consumers. 


The results showed that over 80% of produce samples were found to be contaminated with E. coli, with 

median concentrations from 0.64 to 3.84 Log E. coli/g produce. Street food salad was found to be the most 

contaminated (4.23 Log E. coli/g), and that consumption of salads did not meet health standards. No street 

food sample was found positive for viruses, while less than 10% of produce from farms and markets were 

positive for adenovirus. Key risk factors identified for produce contamination included farm soil, the use of 

wastewater for irrigation, poor food and environmental hygiene, and operating with a hygiene permit. 

Awareness of the source of irrigation water was found to be low, but despite the high awareness of health 

risk, consumers did not prioritize health indicators when buying produce from vendors but were motivated 

to buy produce, or prepared food based on taste, friendship, cost, convenience and freshness of produce. 

For example, only 2% of street food consumers relied on health indicators when buying food from vendors. 

Similarly, farmers’ awareness of health risk did not influence their adoption of safer farm practices. 

23


The study findings suggest that farmers, vendors and consumers may not necessarily adopt risk reduction 

measures based only on their awareness or knowledge of wastewater irrigation health risks. The study 

recommends the promotion of interventions that would result in more direct benefits to producers and 

vendors, together with hygiene education and inspection, hygiene certification and enforcement of food 

safety byelaws in order to increase the uptake of the WHO multiple-barrier approach recommended for the 

safe use of wastewater for agriculture. Access to credit schemes and improved land security are also 

recommended to encourage farmers to adopt risk reduction measures. 

24

Development of a sanitation safety plan for peri-urban areas, Tanzania 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Marta Domini, Italy, CeTAmb LAB, University of Brescia 

Prof. Sabrina Sorlini, Italy, CeTAmb LAB, University of Brescia 

Prof. Guenter Langergraber, Austria, University of Natural 

Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) 

Mr. Samson Maswaga, Tanzania, MAMADO 

Highlights 

• The research address the question of sanitation planning in peri-urban areas of low income countries 

• Strengths and weaknesses of CLUES and SSP methodologies are examined within their application 

to a case study in Tanzania 

• The combined use of the tools is shown as successful in potentiate their effectiveness. 


The rapid urbanization occurring in most areas of developing countries contribute to worsen the problem of 

adequate sanitation infrastructures and services, in particular in peri-urban areas. The study aims to explore 

the domain of recent approaches to sanitation planning for improving the sanitation system in peri-urban 

wards of the Municipality of Iringa, in Tanzania. In particular, the Sanitation Safety Plan (SSP) approach was 

tested to investigate how it could be adapted to a specific context and used for supporting the planning of 

an improved sanitation system focused on the safeguard of public health and environment. 


The research was conducted within an international cooperation project under development in peri-urban 

wards of Iringa, selected as case study. Two approaches were tested: the Community-Led Urban 

Environmental Sanitation (CLUES) and the Sanitation Safety Plan (SSP). The SSP was developed based on 

guidelines of the WHO manual at research level and adapted for the specific context. A simplified matrix for 

semi-quantitative risk assessment and a tool for prioritizing control measures based on weighted criteria 

were developed for the case study. Strengths and weaknesses of these approaches applied in field were 

evidenced and a methodology foreseeing their integrated use was proposed. 


The CLUES approach was applied involving stakeholders and communities of peri-urban wards of Iringa and 

participatory methods were used for selecting feasible and acceptable sanitation options for designing an 

improved sanitation system, named S1. A SSP was developed for the current sanitation system in place, 

named S0. A risk assessment was conducted for S0 for each step of the sanitation chain identifying exposure 

groups and routes, as well as hazards and related hazardous events. For each risk obtaining high level, 

additional control measures were identified and integrated in the design of S1, applying a multi-barrier 

perspective. The application of these planning tools resulted in the design of an improved system, and in the 

development of an action plan and a monitoring and verification plan for its implementation. 

In its application in field, CLUES showed to be a strong tool for involving local communities and institutions 

in understanding sanitation problems and defining shared solutions. The SSP demonstrated to be 

complementary to CLUES in addressing specifically health risks and issues, assuring that all measures needed 

to control and reduce risks for health and environment in the whole sanitation chain were considered. 

25


The application of planning tools to the case study permitted to evidence strengths and limits of both 

methodologies in the specific context, and the added value of combining them for designing an improved 

sanitation system with a strong participatory component and based on a multi-barrier approach, for 

guaranteeing the health risks control along the whole sanitation chain. The innovation suggested by this 

research is the proposal of the integrated use of CLUES and SSP for the design of improved sanitation 

systems in peri-urban areas which could be useful for others facing the challenge of sanitation in similar 

contexts. 

26

Effects of fecal sludge in wastewater stabilization ponds: Port-au-Prince, 

Haiti 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Rick Gelting, United States, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention 

Ms. Andrea Martinsen, United States, Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention 

Mr. Allain Darius, Haiti, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention 

Highlights 

• Characterized the influent waste (including fecal sludge) arriving at a wastewater lagoon facility in 

Port au Prince, Haiti 

• Evaluated the performance of the lagoon facility in treating waste 

• Recommended potential modifications for existing and future lagoon designs to treat high strength 

waste that includes fecal sludge 


Most residents of Port au Prince, Haiti, rely on on-site sanitation facilities such as latrines, septic tanks, or 

cesspools which require regular emptying and disposal due to their location in dense urban areas. At the 

request of the National Water and Sanitation Agency of Haiti (DINEPA), a performance evaluation of one 

disposal site, a non-discharging wastewater stabilization pond (WSP), was conducted to determine if the 

facility was operating in accordance with its design, to better characterize the influent waste, and to assess 

the effect of high-strength fecal sludge on treatment. 


In order to assess the performance of the WSP, grab samples were collected from trucks transporting fecal 

sludge (both from septic tanks/cesspools and latrines) to the facility, and from pipes between each lagoon 

cell at the facility. On each sampling visit (four total), we collected one sample from each lagoon process 

step, as well as samples of septic tank/cesspool waste and latrine waste. As biochemical oxygen demand 

(BOD5) was the main criteria used in the design of the facility, this was also the primary indicator used to 

assess performance, although analysis of other parameters was also included. 


While the volume of waste entering the WSP is less than what it was originally designed for, the estimated 

volumetric loading rate of BOD5 is approximately at capacity. This is primarily due to the high strength of the 

fecal waste from latrines. The range of values for BOD5 found in latrine waste was approximately 5,000 to 

almost 40,000 mg/L, which is much higher than previous literature would suggest. The facility does appear 

to be performing approximately as designed in terms of overall BOD5 reduction, although reductions in each 

lagoon cell do not conform to the design. 

Accumulation of sludge in lagoon cells has been a significant challenge at the facility, and emptying sludge 

from the anaerobic ponds has been required multiple times. Not only can the sludge accumulation increase 

the operation and maintenance challenges at the facility, but it may also it may decrease the effectiveness of 

treatment. 

Although more sampling is required to confirm these results, this evaluation does suggest that design values 

for BOD5 in this facility and others receiving fecal sludge from latrines may need to be modified, depending 

on the proportion of waste that comes from latrines. 

27


Characterization of the strength of fecal sludge and treatment of high-strength fecal sludge in traditional 

wastewater treatment facilities are not well understood, and more research is needed on these topics. 

Possible modifications to this existing facility to help prevent solids overloading include adjusting grates to 

prevent larger solids entering the system or pretreatment of high strength fecal sludge in drying beds or by 

other means. More routine monitoring of this facility than was possible in this project, including building local 

laboratory capacity to perform regular analysis of key parameters, is also needed. 

28

Identifying water quality hotspots for contacts with contaminated surface 

waters 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Ilona Bärlund, Germany, Helmholtz Centre for 

Environmental Research-UFZ 

Dr. Martina Flörke, Germany, CESR, University of Kassel 

Ms. Klara Reder, Germany, CESR, University of Kassel 

Prof. Joseph Alcamo, Germany, CESR, University of Kassel 

Highlights 

Severe pathogen pollution affects around one-third of all river reaches in Latin America, Africa and Asia; 

Cities are hotspots of wastewater generation and intake but also rural population is exposed through direct 

contact to polluted surface waters; 

Modelling can contribute to integrated assessment identifying river reaches potentially at risk 


The ongoing socio-economic development together with urbanization presents a challenge for water quality 

worldwide, especially in developing and emerging countries. The amount of wastewater from domestic and 

industrial sources is rising, which can lead to an increased risk of surface water quality degradation, if the 

wastewater is not sufficiently treated before returned to water bodies. This in turn has impacts on 

ecosystems and human health. The newly adopted targets for sustainable development include protection 

of water quality and sustainable use of water resources. To achieve these goals, appropriate monitoring 

strategies and the development of indicators for water quality are required. 


In the pre-study for a ‘World Water Quality Assessment’ a methodology for assessing freshwaters was 

developed in order to distinguish river stretches potentially at risk due to degraded water quality. The 

continental scale WorldQual model simulates loadings and in-stream concentrations to provide insight into 

main sources of pollution and status of water quality. The exposure is described by direct human contact 

with potentially polluted surface waters using faecal coliform bacteria (FC) as indicator. High FC levels 

correlate with presence of dangerous pathogens. For the assessment a benchmark for safe and unsafe FC 

levels was determined from existing water quality standards. 


The pre-study results indicate that severe pathogen pollution already affects around one-third of all river 

stretches in Latin America, Africa and Asia. The number of people at risk to health by coming into contact 

with polluted surface waters may range into the hundreds of millions on these continents. The temporal 

trends from 1990 to 2010 reveal that FC loadings have increased on the average in all three continents. Most 

of the FC pollution in Latin America comes from sewered domestic wastes (81%). For Africa, the majority of 

FC comes from non-sewered domestic sources (56%), Sub-Saharan countries having the lowest levels of 

sanitation coverage. In Asia, about half of FC comes from sewered domestic waste. Only about one-third of 

all wastewater in Asia is treated. Among the most vulnerable groups are women and children. Women are at 

particular risk because of their frequent usage of water from rivers and lakes for cleaning clothes and 

collecting water for cooking and drinking in the household. Children are also at particular risk because of their 

play activities in local surface waters and also because they often have the task of collecting water for the 

household. 

29


The results indicate the key role of domestic wastewater as source for FC loadings which are high in areas of 

high population density like cities. In general, the manufacturing and agricultural sectors are minor pollution 

sources. However, these sectors are at risk if using polluted water for further processing. It is not only about 

drinking water, this study highlights the exposure of rural population through direct contact to water. 

Because sanitation and water use practices are of major importance, the improvement of wastewater 

management is crucial for pollution prevention. Modelling can be used to run scenarios on improved 

treatment effects. 

30

Making pathogens visible to guide investment in what matters 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Cynthia Mitchell, Australia, Institute for Sustainable 

Futures, UTS 

Dr. Kumi Abeysuriya, Australia 

Ms. Katie Ross, Australia 

Prof. Juliet Willetts, Australia 

Highlights 

Liquid streams (effluent, leachate, unintended leakage) from onsite and networked water-based sanitation 

systems can pose a significant health hazard, but have received little attention. A new heuristic draws 

attention to pathogens, synthesising health and engineering science with local knowledge to help decisionmakers 

avoid investing in technologies that increase unsafe return. 


Liquid streams (effluent, leachate, unintended leakage) from onsite and networked treatment systems for 

water-based sanitation can pose a significant health hazard, but to date have received little attention in 

Indonesia. The recent focus of development partners and policy makers on faecal sludge management has 

led to essential gains, yet reaching ‘safely managed’ sanitation requires a step further, through making 

pathogen hazards visible in all discharges, assessing all local exposure paths. Because measuring pathogens 

is complex and costly, and significant gaps remain in data and scientific understanding, this can only be 

achieved through ‘first principles’, translating existing knowledge into actionable directives. 


This paper (based on Mitchell et al. (2016) Waterlines 35(2):163-181) proposes the Pathogen Hazard Diagram 

(PHD) to describe, visualise and assess pathogen removal/survival through common wastewater treatment 

systems and remaining hazards, particularly those in liquid streams. Firstly we identify the accidental 

misunderstandings generated by common representations of pathogen removal. Secondly, we use available 

scientific evidence on pathogen hazard reduction mechanisms and treatment efficacy of different 

technologies and management approaches (encompassing the diversity of viral, bacterial, protozoan, and 

helminth responses) to populate the new heuristic tool. The tool is then applied to assess water-based 

sanitation systems and policies in urban Indonesia. 


The term ‘pathogen’ is often absent: wastewater system design/performance focuses on chemical/biological 

pollutants, not microbiological. When pathogen numbers are noted, exponential terms are used because the 

numbers are large: every day an infected person produces 104-106 helminth eggs. Similarly, expected 

treatment performance is communicated in log reductions: sealed tanks reduce helminths by 0-2 log10. 2 log 

removal corresponds to 99%, which sounds effective. But are we concerned about reduction in relation to 

influent, or hazard in the effluent? The minimum infective dose is 100-101, meaning 100-10,000 (102-104) doses 

leave the tank. Communicating treatment performance in terms of potential infective doses discharged 

focuses on what matters most for human safety. 

We propose a new heuristic tool, the PHD, as a prototype for assessing local hazards in the absence of 

pathogen data. Responses to particular removal/inactivation mechanisms often vary between viruses, 

bacteria, protozoa, helminthes classes. In contrast, filtration and sorption are efficacious across all classes. 

The PHD combines existing health and engineering science with local knowledge and system contexts to 

assess pathogen treatment efficacy. It reveals Indonesia’s policy of replacing traditional unsealed pits that 

31

facilitate filtration/sorption with well-sealed septic tanks could increase ‘unsafe return’ (where treatment 

units are above groundwater). 


A decade ago WHO defined the key determinants of pathogen risk, but these do not seem to be part of 

sanitation planning and implementation, in Indonesia and perhaps elsewhere. Explicitly considering 

pathogens in terms of the hazard that remains, including in intended and unintended liquid discharges, can 

guide investment towards wastewater treatment systems that reduce the hazard to public health where 

exposure paths exist. As a stopgap until better/local data is available, the PHD is an attempt to make this 

possible for local sanitation planners, delivery partners, and policy makers, requiring only local knowledge 

and general sanitation reference knowledge. 

32

Modelling impacts of waste treatment options 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Upasana Yadav, India CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Dr. Meera Mehta, India CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Mr. Mahroof M., India, CEPT University Ahmedabad 

Mr. Paresh Chhajed, India, CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Highlights 

The impact of poor waste management on environment and public health is well documented. Cities face the 

twin challenges of providing safe sanitation and improved environment. The model framework of SaniPlan 

provides a tool for simulating outcomes of various options and enables informed decision making. 


It is critical to plan for safe wastewater conveyance, treatment and reuse. The model, Saniplan, is an aid to 

decision makers to choose appropriate sanitation technology that is efficient (in service provision) and 

affordable. The model SaniPlan simulates impacts of various options on service outcomes. The health impacts 

are captured through impact of technology selection on environmental parameters. The model also takes 

into account capital and operating costs of various options and enables design of a financing plan. 


The tool SaniPlan developed at CEPT University under the PAS Project, is a modular tool that help iterative 

decision making towards achieving safe sanitation. Health outcomes are captured through impacts on 

environmental parameters. The assessment module analyses the entire sanitation service chain of sanitation. 

Service levels are measured through specific performance indicators. These indicators are linked to the 

Performance Assessment System (pas.org.in) which is an exercise carried out in India. The tool incorporates 

various improvement actions (e.g. actions related to septage collection, conveyance, treatment, septic tanks 

refurbishment etc.) that cities can choose to implement as part of their sanitation improvement plan. An 

environment and health impact assessment module has been overlaid to the model. 


The tool has been successfully used in two small cities in India to plan for improving sanitation situation across 

the whole service chain. These two cities, Wai and Sinnar in Maharashtra, are dependent on onsite sanitation. 

Open defecation, practiced by 10% of the population has been curbed. The challenge now is to plan and 

implement a safe system for conveyance, treatment and disposal of waste. The SaniPlan model was used to 

formulate a viable fecal sludge management plan. This plan is currently being implemented. 

The SaniPlan model is designed to simulate service level impacts of various actions. Recognising that it 

becomes difficult for city level decision makers to run the Excel based model and see the impacts of various 

actions, a simple dashboard was linked to this model. The dashboard helped the decision makers to 

understand financial and service level impacts of various actions. 


Evidence-based decision making is advocated by city governments. However, there are no ready tools that 

support such decision making. Application of SaniPlan in small towns in Maharashtra, India suggests that 

decision-makers are receptive to such comprehensive frameworks that can assess service outcomes, costs 

and financing plan leading to design of tariffs. 

33

National standards for wastewater treatment - what is "safely treated"? 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Kate Medlicott, Switzerland, World Health Organization 

Mr. Daniel Berdat, Consultant for WHO 

Highlights 

SDG Indicator 6.3.1 calls for the measurement of “safely treated” wastewater. But what is safely treated? 

Safe for public health, safe for ecosystems or both? What do countries national standards consider safe? And 

what can be used as an international benchmark for “safely managed reporting under the SDGs? This paper 

presents finding from analysis of national standards and discusses implication for global reporting, 

regulation, and implementation of quality monitoring. 


SDG Indicator 6.3.1 calls for the measurement of “safely treated” wastewater. A definition of safely treated 

is needed in order to classify data and have met the SDG target. Yet, desired levels if wastewater treat vary 

depending on the intended next use and exposure environment. In 2016 a treatment working group (TWG) 

recommended normative definitions of safe treatment to using a treatment ladder with rungs according data 

type of increasing relevance for public health. 

This study gathered and reviewed national standards on wastewater treatment with the objective of 

comparing with TWG recommendations for globally comparable reporting and asks what is “safely treated”? 

Safe for public health, safe for ecosystems or both? What do countries national standards consider safe? And 

what can be used as an international benchmark for “safely managed reporting under the SDGs? This paper 

presents finding from analysis of national standards and discusses implication for global reporting. 


The TWG recommendation of a treatment ladder with rungs according data type of increasing relevance for 

public health was used a point of departure. A systematic search for national standards was conducted 

through WHO country office and national counterparts ands well as internet searches. Data on treatment 

requirements was extracted from the national standards retrieved and classified according to the proposed 

ladder rungs – no treatment, technology based (eg primary, secondary tertiary treatment), environmental 

compliance based (BOD, COD, SS) and Public Health compliance based (e.g. e.coli). 


Analysis in ongoing at the time of submission. Preliminary findings indicate that: 

• National standards are predominantly based on environment parameters (BoD, CoD) 

• Regional reporting initiatives such as the EU Urban Wastewater directive seeks technology based 

data although countries have more detailed national standards and compliance reporting covering 

environmental and often public health parameters. 

• Some countries (proportion TBD in final analysis) have a ranges of treatment qualities based on the 

receiving environment and human exposure scenario. 


Conclusions and recommendations of relevant for 6.3.1 “safely treated” classification will be added in July 

when the research is complete. 

34

Processes and challenges of faecal sludge management in Odisha, India 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Prasanta Mohapatra, India, Orissa Water Supply and 

Sewerage Board 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

This article provides an overview of the processes and challenges of implementing faecal sludge 

management in Odisha State, India. The key processes are selection and establishing a low cost system for 

faecal sludge treatment and engaging a private operator to run the cesspool fleet to transport the sludge. 


About six million urban residents of Odisha state in India rely on onsite sanitation facilities. Over time, large 

quantity of partly digested faecal matter are accumulated in them. Effluent containing high BOD and 

pathogens spills to the immediate environment posing grave danger to human health. Episodes of jaundice 

were reported in many towns in the summer of 2014 with few deaths due to contamination of drinking water 

pipelines. This article provides the processes followed and challenges faced during implementation of the 

faecal sludge management (FSM) project in the State. 


In 2015, the state decided to implement FSM in its urban areas. In Odisha, nearly half of the urban population 

live in its 9 big towns. So, initial thrust was given to providing FSM service in the nine populated towns. Best 

practice and field study on full FSM service elsewhere in Asia were studied as the same were not available in 

the country. The existing state sanitation strategy was reviewed and FSM was incorporated as a key 

component to achieving city sanitation. FSM guideline was formulated to assist urban local bodies. 


The pilot sanitation survey revealed that discharge of untreated faecal sludge from household into open 

drains have deteriorated the water quality in four perennial rivers serving as source of raw water for seven 

towns. For maximum impact of FSM service, nine populated towns out of total 110 towns of Odisha were 

chosen sheltering nearly half of urban population. The adopted faecal sludge treatment units consist of 

sludge receiving chamber, screen channel, settling cum thickening tank, sludge drying bed and cocomposting 

of dried sludge and, anaerobic baffled tank, horizontal constructed wet land, and a polishing 

pond for treatment of liquid effluent. Transparent public procurement processes were followed for (i) 

construction of treatment facility, (ii) procurement of cesspool vehicles and (iii) engaging private operators 

to manage fleet of cesspool vehicles in these towns. The towns received capex grant from the government 

for the first two activities considering their weak financial base. The households pay fee towards faecal 

sludge emptying/collection service. The fee shall cover the cost of operation and maintenance of the vehicles 

for transport of faecal sludge to the treatment plant. In the future, a part of the fee will go towards operation 

of the treatment plant. 

35


The challenges faced during implementation of the project was majorly related to availability of land for 

construction of treatment facility. To avoid land disputes, site for treatment facility henceforth shall be 

located near the solid waste management facility. Community participation is very important for the FSM 

project. The FSM project is now planned for adoption in small towns of Odisha. The cesspool vehicles and 

treatment facilities will be operated by private players. The State will provide fund to close the gap between 

revenue generated and actual expenditure to keep the system functional and viable. 

36

Poster: Effective managing risks in cascade of reservoirs 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Nataliia Rozhenko, Ukraine, Frantsevich Institute for 

Problems of Materials Science of NASU 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

New approach and model are presented for prognostication of concentrations of contamination in rivers and 

reservoirs. It gives effective strategy of pollution reduction in surface water for sustainable development and 

health-protective wastewater management. Cascade of the Dnieper reservoirs (Ukraine) was analyzed. 


The Dnieper basin includes nearly 50% of the total area of Ukraine and contributes with about 80% of the total 

volume of Ukrainian water resources. It is possible to decrease negative influence of work of industry on 

Dnepr by optimization of management by a flow for sustainable development. For practice a task of pollution 

reduction is important in connection with the necessity of prognostication of the state of water resources, 

to their fitness for the use, possible influencing of contamination on population on an environment, and also 

estimation of efficiency, possible water safe measures. 


A mathematical model which united exactness one-dimensional, simplicity and small time of computer 

realization of the simplified (by an ordinary chamber) model was developed simultaneously overcoming 

failings each of them. 

A model is foreseen description of conduct of contamination in running reservoirs in solution, on suspension 

and in the layer of the ground deposits, an exchange takes into account water-bottom, water-suspension, 

time of transporting on a reservoir and influencing of diffusion, what is provide possibility of design of wide 

spectrum of contaminations for more effective impact assessment and safety planning. 


Water of Dnepr is used for the supply about 30 million people, 50 cities and industrial centres, about 10 000 

industrial enterprises, 2200 agricultures, 1000 communal services, 50 large irrigational systems. Presence 

hydroelectric power plants (HPP) enable to utilize their modes of operation for adjusting of contamination 

of reservoirs. Changes of the modes exploitation HPP can be applied for diminishing of the harmful 

influencing of contaminations on a population and environment. On the basis of research of influencing of 

the modes of exploitation HPP on the size of concentration of contamination possibility of application of the 

offered model is shown for determination of influencing of water protection measures on quality of water. 

At the use of model by varying of the hydrological mode requirements and limitations, laid on different water 

users, can be easily taken into account, the ecological consequences of the different modes of exploitation 

are quickly counted HPP and the optimum mode of operation is certain. There are conflict of interest 

practitioners and policy-makers: hydropower companies, irrigation, industry, water supply, fishing, water 

transport, recreation, ecology. 

37


The main problem - coexistence different practitioners and policy-makers in control of cascade of the Dnieper 

reservoirs. The work demonstrates some possibilities to improve communication of practitioners and policymakers 

in the Dnieper basin. Accurate modeling and system approach can provide with more effective impact 

assessment on contaminations in wastewater systems and helth-protective wastewater management. 

38

Poster: Evaluating hazards and risks of water sources in Sultan Kudarat 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Yolwin Jed Perales, Philippines, University of the 

Philippines- Diliman 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

• Sultan Kudarat heavily relies on water sources studied for food, water and household chores. 

• There is no current research on the potential risks and condition of these water sources in Sultan 

Kudarat. 

• The province needs to make and revise policies based on the results of the research. 


Water pollution is one of the major concerns in the Philippines most especially in rural areas where proper 

healthcare, sanitation and water purification are often expensive and limited. This study aims to 

quantitatively determine the levels of toxic heavy metals cadmium and lead from two major fresh and two 

major seawater sources in the province of Sultan Kudarat. This study also aims to calculate the projected 

blood levels of the heavy metals to children and correlate the presence of these metals to common health 

and biodiversity problems encountered by the communities living beside the water bodies. 


The research used an experimental design in determining the amount of heavy metals in the four bodies of 

water concerned by obtaining appropriate amount of sample using proper sampling techniques replicated 

three times. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) was used to measure the amount of metals in the 

samples. A through historical and archiving research supplemented by interviews and surveys were also 

conducted to government officials and residents living around the vicinity of the bodies of water studied to 

gather data of health and biodiversity problems they encountered and related it to the results of the 

instrumental analysis and current industrial operations in the area. 


Results showed that the two heavy metals are present in all four water bodies with varying concentrations. 

All fresh water and one seawater body went above the allowed safety limit of 0.005 ppm and projected blood 

safety level of 10ug/dL for lead. On the other hand, all fresh water samples and one seawater sample 

exceeded the allowed safety limit for cadmium of 0.005 ppm but had an acceptable projected blood level. It 

was also been found from the historical research that the number of marine species thriving into the fresh 

water bodies in 1980s was around 50-60 before quarrying, logging and other industrial processes were 

conducted in the area. Currently, only 20-30 marine species could be found in these fresh water bodies. On 

the other hand, there are also above average number of cases of diarrheas, frequent fever and nausea most 

especially on children of the residents living near the bodies of water from year 2000 onwards, which can be 

side effects of the high presence of heavy metals in the water. One of the seawater is also notably cleaner 

and having lower concentrations of heavy metals compared to the other because of the intensive fishing and 

other marine commercial activities conducted on the latter seawater body tested. 

39


It can be concluded that all water bodies studied are not safe and risky for human and animal consumption. 

These bodies of water are also experiencing deterioration of biodiversity as well as impacting their 

neighboring habitats through disruption of food chain. Industrial processes conducted in the community 

where water bodies are located contributed a lot in degrading the quality of the waters. Stricter policies 

should be implemented to preserve the biodiversity of these bodies of water, to alleviate the health risks that 

may cause by excessive heavy metals concentration and to preserve the quality of the waters. 

40

Poster: Wastewater reuse and the burden of parasitic diseases in Nigeria 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Nneka Ozowara, United States, Baltimore City Community 

College 

Dr. Oliver Odikamnoro, Nigeria, Ebonyi State University 

Highlights 

The presence of the metacercariae of Fasciola gigantica and the infective stages of other parasites in 

irrigation water was investigated. The study revealed that life cycle stages of Fasciola gigantica, eggs of 

Ascaris lumbricoides as well as infective larvae of hookworms and Strongyloides stercoralis were recovered 

from the water sources. 


Most rural farmers in eastern Nigeria villages practise some form of irrigation for their crops. Thus, water 

from broken drains, run-off from open defecation sites and night soil dumps are carried in channels through 

the farmlands causing potential risk of infection with parasitic helminthes. The infective stages attach to the 

surfaces of the vegetables. In addition, the soil and water bodies are seeded with parasite eggs and larvae 

thereby exposing the farmers to multiple infection. Irrigation of farmlands in developing countries including 

Nigeria is done using untreated wastewater and raw manure of domestic animal origins as fertilizer. 

Mitigation measures are needed. 


Soil-transmitted helminthiases have remained a common health problem of rural farmers in southeast 

Nigeria. The study was conducted by investigating the life cycle stages of the parasite in irrigation water 

sources using sedimentation, centrifugation methods and microscopic examination respectively. Ten rural 

farming communities in southeast Nigeria were selected for the study. The study revealed that life cycle 

stages of helminthes are present in irrigation water bodies in both wet and dry seasons between February, 

2013 to January, 2016. The analysis of variance showed that there is a statistical significant difference between 

water sources in having life cycle stages of the parasite (P


The transition from a rain-fed to irrigation agriculture favours the development and propagation of waterborne 

infections to both humans and livestock. The present study identified parasitic contaminants of 

irrigation water, organic manure and sewage for vegetable production; suggesting that the parasites 

identified may pose. Occupational risks to the farming communities and consumers. The practice of using 

wastewater for irrigation offers many opportunities, but poses human health risks which is associated with 

consumption of contaminated vegetables irrigated with wastewater. Safe and adequate drinking water 

should be provided in order to reduce the use of contaminated water which is highly incriminated with 

parasitic helminthes. 

42

Seminar: Financing wastewater 

treatment and resource recovery 

Photo: Yegor Korzh 





43

Seminar: Financing wastewater treatment and resource recovery 

Contents 

Business models for resource recovery and reuse in wastewater sector ........................... 45 

Public-private partnerships for resource recovery and reuse in low-income countries ..... 47 

Using investment guarantees to leverage private sector financing .................................... 49 

44

Business models for resource recovery and reuse in wastewater sector 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Miriam Otoo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management 

Institute 

Dr. Pay Drechsel, Sri Lanka, International Water Management 

Institute 

Highlights 

The paper shows that different wastewater reuse related business models have great potential to support 

the sustainability of wastewater management enterprises, by reducing operational and maintenance (O&M) 

costs and/or use generated revenues from recovered resources to bridge financial gaps and complement 

other supporting mechanisms for making wastewater management more attractive. 


There are significant opportunities to generate social benefits from wastewater treatment and also monetize 

the reuse value in ways that enable public and private sectors to achieve higher degrees of cost recovery or 

to generate profits for a better delivery of wastewater services. As we make a paradigm shift towards more 

market-driven options for wastewater management, it is timely to analyze emerging business models for 

testing and dissemination in the public and private sectors. The presentation will show successful examples 

of wastewater reuse business models including: water recovery for irrigation, nutrients and energy recovery 

and carbon credits in developing countries. 


The conceptual framework was based on an in-depth assessment of empirical wastewater reuse cases to 

understand factors driving their success and sustainability; and scalability barriers. The assessment drew on 

data from 25 developing country case studies, together with a broad range of information sources (literature 

review, key informant and focus group interviews, secondary and primary quantitative data). Using 

standardized indicators, the cases were assessed based on key criteria that shed light on the financial flows, 

production factors, resources or capacities requirements, management structure, and economic benefits to 

help understand the financial sustainability, scalability and development impact potential of the models. 


1. Social and environmental value can be maximized while targeting cost recovery especially in regions 

where water is a scarce resource and reclaimed water is of high importance for agriculture as noted 

in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco. Some notable cases recovered 50 – 75% of operational costs, although 

financial cost recovery can be limited given the commonly subsidized freshwater tariffs or free 

groundwater access. 

2. For medium to small-scale community-based wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), additional 

value propositions such as the sale of fish fed with fodder grown with the nutrients wastewater 

offers, can exponentially increase cost recovery potential for WWTPs (e.g. Ghana, Bangladesh and 

India). RRR to achieve high cost recovery also extends to larger-scale WWTPs through highly 

efficient energy recovery mechanisms (e.g. Jordan). 

3. These successful enterprises of wastewater reuse leverage key partnerships to reduce investment 

costs and increase access to markets for their outputs. Results also suggest that the structure of 

business arrangements (i.e. innovative cost sharing models with clear benefit-sharing mechanisms, 

revenue models, management structure) has significant impacts on overall benefits to the involved 

45

parties. Complex managerial systems of multi-partnerships can result in inefficiencies and higher 

operational costs when responsibilities of key partnerships are not clearly defined. 


Market-driven mechanisms are increasingly being adopted in the wastewater sector to catalyze higher 

degrees of cost recovery or profit generating to better deliver waste management services. Innovative and 

strategic partnerships have an important role to play in the success of wastewater reuse related business 

models, although complex managerial systems and unclear benefit-sharing can hinder the sustainability of 

the partnerships and invariably that of the wastewater reuse enterprise. 

46

Public-private partnerships for resource recovery and reuse in low-income 

countries 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Katharina Felgenhauer, Ghana, International Water 

Management Institute 

Dr. Josiane Nikiema, Ghana 

Highlights 

Public-private partnerships (PPP) can enhance resource recovery and reuse (RRR) but remain challenging to 

implement. 

Practitioners require more skills and capacity to run viable PPP but receive insufficient guidance, especially in 

low-income settings. 

IWMI’s analysis of PPP in RRR in Ghana can inform tools to guide PPP practitioners in RRR. 


Resource recovery and reuse (RRR) can help alleviate the wastewater crisis by easing the waste burden and 

generating additional income. Public-private partnerships (PPP) can enhance RRR capacity and viability but 

differences in mandate, strategic focus, procedures and interface management complicate partnership 

building across sectors. Practitioners require better skills and more capacity to run PPP effectively and 

efficiently but they face a gap in PPP guidance, especially in low-income settings. IWMI seeks to develop 

recommendations and tools for PPP in RRR, drawing on lessons from first-hand implementation experience 

in Ghana. 


IWMI has successfully brokered and implemented PPP in RRR in Ghana. The analysis of these cases exposes 

success factors and bottlenecks along all stages of PPP management, including partnership brokerage, 

feasibility assessment, contract management, objectives-oriented planning, business models, financing 

options, execution, monitoring and evaluation, risk management, and options for being more genderinclusive. 

Framework conditions have been screened for pull and push factors as well as barriers to full 

stakeholders’ involvement. The resulting lessons can inform PPP practitioners in RRR and potentially fill gaps 

in existing PPP guidance and tools. 


IWMI’s reference cases from Ghana demonstrate how PPP in RRR can be set up while addressing skills and 

capacity gaps. Guidance derived from these cases include: 

1. The identification and attraction of suitable partners can be challenging for all sides. Clear strategies 

and commitments to overcome remaining capacity gaps need to be included in the PPP setup and 

business planning. 

2. Partners need to build capacity across operational and leadership functions to negotiate between 

sectors. Joint management and supervisory bodies can lower transaction costs. 

3. The development of functional cost- and risk-sharing mechanisms requires full cost and benefit 

transparency between stakeholders. Willingness to cooperate is fundamental but subject to risks 

over time. 

4. Marketing, supply chain development and logistics for RRR products are key components of PPP 

inception and implementation especially when value chains are weak. 

5. New partners and financing mechanisms can bridge funding gaps, especially in upfront investments. 

47

6. Insufficient involvement of and alignment with stakeholders throughout the inception and 

implementation processes can hinder synergies and put the PPP at risk. 


There is a need and an opportunity for practical tools for PPP in RRR because existing tools insufficiently 

respond to the realities of practitioners, especially in low-income settings. Lessons from IWMI’s case studies 

and other examples can be translated into practical recommendations which complement existing PPP tools 

and address the particular requirements of public and private sector partners in RRR. Such PPP guidance will 

leverage viable business models for RRR and support investment decisions. 

48

Using investment guarantees to leverage private sector financing 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Malinne Blomberg, Cote d'Ivoire, African Development 

Bank 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Investment guarantees are used to mitigate risks faced primarily by private players. 

Whilst extensively used in sectors like energy, and transport, they are rarely used in water and waste. 

This presentation demonstrates how guarantees can be used to bring additional and new financing to RRR 

infrastructure and services. 


The private sector can bring much needed new funds to RRR efforts, but their potential remains largely 

untapped, often explained by the socio-political and historically public nature of water and waste. However, 

the private sector is interested, but finds investments risky, and beneficiaries’ affordability constraints makes 

it difficult to balance the risk and reward of investments. 

Investment guarantees are products designed to mitigate risk to make investments feasible. They are 

extensively used in sectors like energy, and transport, yet hardly used in water and waste. This presentation 

demonstrates how investment guarantees can be used to foster additional financing. 


Establishment of high-level overall volumetric demand, the consequential demand for funding, the 

challenges to private sector participation, the history of PSP in Africa and the reasons why existing guarantee 

instruments are not being used. This was followed by assessing the potential realistic demand for guarantees 

and how this can be promoted and by whom. The assignment concludes with a feasibility study of the 

proposed instruments and recommendations on operationalisation. The study is based on primary and 

secondary information sources. Hypotheses and recommendations were tested with private sector 

stakeholders for relevance and underwent a peer review by the AfDB. 


A multi-pronged approach involving multiple investment facilitation actions will effectively support private 

investment. 

1. Policy and sector reform to ensure realistic political decisions regarding tariffs and subsidisation 

policies, determining the ability to service loans or to generate acceptable returns on investment. A 

policy environment that reconciles the conflicting goals of providing safe and affordable water, 

while ensuring a commercially viable system is needed; 

2. Tailoring existing Partial Risk Guarantee (PRG) product to create a specific water and sanitation 

guarantee. This will mitigate the main cause for market failure and limited engagement by the 

private sector, which is loss due to the failure of governments to set tariffs at cost recovery level, or 

the failure to provide subsidies for long term creditworthiness; 

3. Marketing and brokerage functions to make private and public sector operators, financial 

institutions and other W&S stakeholders aware of the potential and how to build risk mitigation 

products into projects; 

49

4. Development of a pipeline of bankable projects, including the use of blended finance. When the 

transaction volume has increased, a specific investment guarantee facility may be set up for water 

and waste; 

Concrete suggestions will be provided for all of the above. 


Through a multi-pronged approach, and collaboration amongst stakeholders, a pipeline of water and waste 

projects that use guarantees will be built and investment funds mobilised from the private sector, oftentimes 

blended with public funds. In Africa it is estimated such investments can be ramped up from about $250 

million/year over the next two years, to the range of $6billion/year in about 10 years. A large portion of this 

will be for RRR. 

50

Seminar: Smart solutions in water and 

waste management for liveable cities 

Photo: The Big Picture/Google Maps 





51

Seminar: Smart solutions in water and waste management for liveable 

cities 

Contents 

Application of the UWU model for urban water use management ................................... 553 

People’s initiatives for improving livable urban slums through ecological management 555 

Rethinking urban water management: Improving water security..................................... 557 

Reuse oriented faecal sludge management in Kenyan towns ........................................... 559 

T ▪ PARK: Leveraging the energy/water nexus in sludge treatment ..................................... 61 

True or false: ‘pilots never fail, and never scale’? .................................................................. 62 

Valuing sustainable urban drainage systems for water smart cities .................................... 64 

Poster: Green infrastructure in context: Public health and ecosystem services ................. 66 

Poster: Holistic Surface Water and Groundwater Management for Sustainable Cities ..... 68 

Poster: How to revitalize decentralized wastewater treatment plants in Nepal ................ 70 

Poster: Interactive map of urban wetlands ........................................................................... 72 

Poster: Runoff and site suitability analysis of rain water harvesting structures ................. 74 

Poster: Using urine as a smart solution for sustainable food production ........................... 76 

52

Application of the UWU model for urban water use management 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Daniel Costa dos Santos, Brazil, Federal University of 

Paraná 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

The IUWM approach offers real possibilities for water sustainability; 

The IUWM approach allows stakeholders to deal with a complexity of water use; 

It is necessary to consider a public vision for water management in urban areas; 


Given the dialectical conflict between a conservative approach and uncontrollable environmental changes, a 

new paradigm emerges in which the planning and management of water resources use requires a new 

approach. To deal with this context, the Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) approach offers 

contributions which aim to bring responses to these changes through alternatives that face this new 

paradigm. Thus, the aim of this work is to present an application of Urban Water Use (UWU) model which 

was developed under the IUWM and strategic planning approaches. This application was addressed to 

Almirante Tamandaré City, Brazil. 


The UWU Model, while base of a case study, was applied in Almirante Tamandaré. The UWU is composed by 

six steps: input data, vision building, scenarios elaboration, measures selection, outcomes and final 

evaluation. With input data collected, it is possible to build the vision by indicators selection. The scenarios 

consider external factors such as growth population rate, temperature and gross domestic product per 

capita. The measures are conceived based on Water Demand Management, Decentralized Sanitation, 

ECOSAN and SUDS philosophies. To conduct the final evaluation it is estimated the Effectiveness Index (EI) 

which establishes a hierarchy among group of measures. 


According to the Methodology Approach the measures were selected, as follow: Measure 01 - water 

consumption reduction by low-flush toilet; Measure 02 - greywater for toilets, cleaning and irrigation; 

Measure 03 - reduction of water loss in the distribution pipelines; Measure 05 - reuse of water using treated 

wastewater for agriculture; Measure 09 - expansion of the current wastewater treatment plant; Measure 11 

- construction of new sanitation system. With these measures 4 groups were composed to apply the UWU. 

Observing the results for this specific case study, the Group II (composed of measures 1, 3, 5 and 11), and the 

Group IV (composed of measures 1 and 2), presented the best performance considering that they achieved 

the highest EI values. The EI values obtained for Groups II and IV were 4.0 and 4.1 respectively, which were 

classified as “good”. In these results it is important to highlight measures such as water consumption per 

capita reduction in buildings and decentralized wastewater treatment plants implantation because they are 

the cheapest and promote good results. Thus, with Water Demand Management and Decentralized 

Sanitation measures it was possible to build the management plan for water conservation in Almirante 

Tamandaré. 

53


It was possible to observe in this case study that the best strategies were Water Demand Management and 

Decentralized Sanitation. With these strategies it was possible to build a management water conservation 

plan for Almirante Tamandaré. The UWU application has demonstrated some flexibility to manage variables, 

due to the easiness to review the vision and to change the external factors. However, it is important to pay 

attention to the input data step and to fit coefficients in equations according to each studied reality. And for 

final evaluation it is recommended to have sensibility and knowledge enough to make good decisions. 

54

People’s initiatives for improving livable urban slums through ecological 

management 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Md. Azahar Ali Pramanik, Bangladesh, Society for People's 

Action in Change and Equity (SPACE) 

Ms. Sabekun Naher, Bangladesh, Society for People's Action in 

Change and Equity (SPACE) 

Highlights 

Adamjee slum dwellers efficiently manage newly installed innovative water, sanitation and waste recycling 

facilities to prevent diseases. They also manage stormwater keeping drainages functional during heavy rains 

and floods. Managing fecal sludge and solid wastes into organic fertilizers, they promote healthy 

environment, foods safety, promote marketing eco-products and urban-rural partnership. 


In each block, Adamjee slum dwellers are organized into groups for solving WASH and environmental 

difficulties. Installing solar operated water pumps, community eco-toilets, solar lighting and rainwater 

harvesters in one block, they experience encouraging results in energy savings, onsite fecal sludge 

management and accessing safe water to 100% households. New drainage and self-financed wastes 

management initiatives keep environment clean, what they have planned to implement in other blocks. 

People's initiatives in recycling and reusing wastes for making healthy residence give scope to conduct this 

study. This paper dedicates in presenting people-initiated models to wider audiences for scaling up. 


In quest of study question "How poor slum-dwellers have made their residences suitable to better live", the 

study was designed and framed for conducting. Participatory approaches have been followed for conducting 

the study. A set of data collection tools comprising of questionnaire for household survey, Key Informant 

Interview, face to face interviewing, transect walks, observation sheets and Focus Group Discussion were 

developed and trained data collectors collected data. To ensure quality of data, senior staffs directly 

supervised monitored and rechecked 10% of collected data. Findings have been documented by critically 

analyzing the qualitative and quantitative aspects of data. 


According to baseline study, about 10,000 lower income people from 1265 households live in Adamjee Colony 

with two squire kilometres area. It is divided into six blocks; an average 200 households with 1,000 

populations live in each. Baseline findings reveals there were six demolished and unhygienic community 

latrines, severe water crisis, unhealthy waste dumps, clogged old drainage expose frequent health-threats. 

The report further reveals 100% children suffer from 7 to 10 times episodes of diarrhoea, stunting-growth 

trends found among 70% children, 80% mothers face intestinal and urinal infections, medical cost of each 

household was around US$ 150 to 350. Social cohesions among households were too weak. These unwanted 

effects aggravated their sickness and poverty levels. 

Study after one year interventions in selected block with 218 households reveals 100% households have access 

to safe water, 85% households hygienically use Community Eco-toilets; recycle human excreta into organic 

fertilizers and market those. 100% households hygienically wash hands in critical times, keep children clean 

and manage wastes efficiently as part of social norms and control. Diarrheal diseases among children and 

medical expenses significantly decreased. Community drainages drain out stormwater. Positive results of the 

initiative have inspired neighbours for scaling up the same facilities. 

55


Despite over crowded population, severe water and sanitation crisis, improper waste management, water 

logging due to older and clogged drainage, the poor slum dwellers of Adamjee slums have reorganized them 

to prevent negative implications through undertaking an innovative initiative towards healthy and livable 

environment. The innovative new initiatives include integration of hardware and software mixed 

interventions e.g. assessing community needs, social preparation, Eco-friendly innovative technologies, 

strengthening community capacities for monitoring, linking with resource organizations, resources recycle 

for marketing, recovering partnership between urban and rural settings and involving multi-stakeholders 

towards suitable lives in urban cities to address the targets of SDG. 

56

Rethinking urban water management: Improving water security 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Dinesh Mehta, India CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Dr. Meera Mehta, India CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Ms. Upasana Yadav, India, CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Ms. Aditi Dwivedi, India, CEPT University, Ahmedabad 

Highlights 

The paper highlights susceptibility of cities in semi-arid regions to water scarcity. Climate change and 

resultant uncertain weather patterns are forcing cities to take extreme steps to combat water crisis. The 

paper describes efforts initiated by community based organization at reviving the lakes and recharging 

groundwater in cities in India. 


Bhuj, a city located in an arid region of Kutch in India, has suffered water scarcity in recent years. Community 

efforts have revived the traditional wisdom and explored alternative water sources to work towards 

becoming water secure. The study highlights the unique example of participatory urban water management 

approach through the efforts made by the community and local NGO. These efforts combine a deep 

knowledge of the history of water resources and in-depth technical assessment through participatory water 

management process. These efforts have led to influencing the new Development Plan and local government 

programmes. 


Water resources management approach in Bhuj incorporates a strong technical knowledge in disseminating 

information to the citizens through a citizens’ forum called as Jal Strot Sneh Savardhan Samiti (JSSS). In the 

initial stages the forum was supported by NGO in the form of studies, research, data collection, capacity 

building, planning and monitoring. Along with this, they also undertook technical interventions and pilot 

demonstrations in the revival of the lake, flood control, groundwater recharge, rain water harvesting and 

decentralized water supply systems. It is envisaged that these efforts will make the city water secure through 

sustainable water resource management. 


Building up of the technical knowledge base and disseminating this knowledge to the citizens through strong 

citizens’ forum is a key to the success of urban water resource management in Bhuj. Dissemination of the 

technical information to the citizens through simple messages and various awareness activities were also 

helpful. One learns from these efforts that sensitisation of local officials, capacity building of civil society and 

government officers and demonstrations through pilot projects are essential for successful urban water 

management. Another lesson is that it is essential to create specific institution and institutionalize the various 

processes of PGWM to make it sustainable. It also shows that citizens need to be involved in planning, 

implementing and monitoring. The whole process of integrated urban planning and renewal of traditional 

water system should be backed by a governance system that ensures sustainable efforts. The urban water 

resource management approach adopted in Bhuj has served as a background for initiating similar efforts in 

other cities to build their resilience in water security. 

57


The case of Bhuj shows a unique approach and offers valuable lessons in urban water resource management. 

Smartest way to de-risk from future uncertainty is to begin with the conservation of local water resource 

rather than depending on distant sources. There is a need to bring back that traditional knowledge to ensure 

self-sufficiency in water resources. 

58

Reuse oriented faecal sludge management in Kenyan towns 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Alexandra Dubois, Deutsche Gesellschaft für 

Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH 

Mr. James Murage, Kenya, Water Services Trust Fund 

Mr. Ismail M. Shaiye, Water Services Trust Fund 

Mr. Simon Okoth, Kenya, Water Services Trust 

Fund/Stockholm Environment Institute 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Improvement of environment through intermediate sludge management for cleaner cities and 

reduced groundwater and water bodies pollution. 

Reuse of faecal sludge coming from the DTF as soil conditioner or fertiliser, reducing the use of 

chemical fertilizer. 

Possible reuse of treated effluent from the DTF as irrigation water. 


Kenya’s urban population continues to grow at an alarming rate of 4.2% annually. However, there is no 

commensurate development of basic water and waste water management infrastructure. Of about 13 million 

urban population, only 11% have access to sewerage services. The remaining 89% depend on onsite sanitation 

systems characterized by poor sludge management. To address the situation, a national sanitation up-scaling 

programme has been initiated in Kenya. The programme aims at improving sanitation services in urban areas 

of Kenya through implementation of citywide resource oriented sanitation built on the principles of natural 

systems for wastewater management and processing for reuse. 


The management of faecal sludge from onsite toilets is an infamously difficult problem in urban communities. 

Often, sludge is dumped directly to the environment, with likely negative impacts on health. However, there 

are opportunities in properly managing the faecal sludge through decentralized treatment facilities (DTFs) 

with the aim of reusing the processed sludge for soil conditioning and the treated effluent for irrigation. 

Utilities often accept responsibility only for sewerage, and not for FSM despite their institutional mandates 

for sanitation service provision. The programme exploits this legal mandate for the utilities to construct DTFs 

and promote reuse of the recycled resources. 


The intervention is currently being up-scaled in over 20 towns that do not have sewer networks. To date, a 

total of 7 DTFs have been constructed with the capacity to treat 24m3 of sludge per day and serve 10,000 

beneficiaries each per day. A total of 70,000 people are expected to benefit from the FSM systems. The DTFs 

are small scale decentralized wastewater treatment plants which cater for sludge from dry and wet toilets 

brought in by the exhausters trucks among other sludge transportation equipments. The DTFs are designed 

to be located conveniently within the towns to provide sludge treatment for toilets which are of a standard 

that permits emptying. The Fecal sludge management is achieved through the transportation system and 

decentralized treatment facilities (DTFs). One key feature of the DTF design is the incorporation components 

for processing sludge by-products such as organic compost, soil conditioner, and treated effluent for 

irrigation as well as biogas. A robust business model has been formulated along the operations of the DTF 

including sales of the processed sanitation by-products. Already the programme through the utilities have 

constituted sanitation teams and have also developed guides for the DTF operators on how to co-compost. 

59


Marketing of the end-products of sanitation is not easy as utilities lack the capacities to market. Robust social 

marketing strategy that referring to the best practices in sludge management is already being implemented. 

There is potential for the DTF s approach to treat sludge to contribute to improved sanitation services while 

also creating opportunities for farmers to use the natural manure recycled from faecal sludge and treated 

water for irrigation. The use the sector structures and engagement of community groups as sanitation teams 

gives the reuse of manure from sludge and effluent credence thus marking the turning point for sludge. 

60

T ▪ PARK: Leveraging the energy/water nexus in sludge treatment 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Laurent Auguste, Senior Executive Vice President of Veolia 

Mr. Dominique Gatel, Director – Water Public Affairs, Veolia 

Ms. Anita KWOK, Hong Kong 

Highlights 

T ▪ PARK is the first sludge treatment facility in Hong Kong, treating sludge from 11 of Hong Kong’s sewage 

treatment plants to achieve the government’s vision of sustainable waste management and waste to energy. 

To facilitate community acceptance and raise awareness, it incorporates an environmental education center. 


Hong Kong has major challenges as one of the world’s most densely populated cities. Ongoing upgrades of 

its sewage treatment plants have resulted in significant improvement of the marine environment but 

generate large quantities of sludge. Landfilling had been the only means of sludge disposal but the increase 

has shortened the capacity and stability of the landfills. 


T ▪ PARK combines technical innovations with creative measures for wider community acceptance. The intent 

was to build a facility that addresses the water, waste, and energy challenges and simultaneously provides 

opportunity for community awareness and acceptance. To manage the sludge volume, four fluidized bed 

incineration trains operate at 850°C and can handle a daily capacity of 2,000 tons of wet sludge containing 

30% dry solids. Steam generated from the process produces energy for onsite use and export to the grid. 


T ▪ PARK began operation in April 2015 and has already proven to be a success in meeting its technical and 

environmental requirements. It is currently treating 1,100-1,200 tonnes of sludge per day. Sludge volume is 

reduced by 90% and all internal power requirements are met with steam-generated electricity derived from 

burning of sludge, with the excess power exported to the grid. An on-site desalination plant provides all of 

T ▪ PARK’s water supply. Zero effluent discharge is achieved through onsite use of treated wastewater for 

process, cleaning, flushing and irrigation requirements. The Environmental Education Center opened in June 

2016 and has attracted strong interest from the public with almost 40,000 total visitors over the initial six 

months. T ▪ PARK has also won numerous awards for its design that successfully integrates a large-scale 

industrial facility with its surrounding environment. The Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department 

has thus demonstrated that a large-scale waste treatment facility can be built and operated embracing the 

principles of environmental sustainability (self-sufficiency for water and energy), circular economy (giving 

value to what had none) and achieve acceptance by the community by providing both an educational and 

leisure experience. 


T ▪ PARK provides a sustainable solution to manage the growing amount of sludge from more extensive 

sewage treatment in Hong Kong. Reducing landfill usage, it also turns waste into energy, paving the way for 

a sustainable source of electricity. T ▪ PARK has created a new model for development of such facilities, 

incorporating innovative and creative features to raise awareness and encourage public acceptance. 

61

True or false: ‘pilots never fail, and never scale’? 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Titia Wouters, Netherlands, VIA Water 

Ms. Willemijn Nagel, Netherlands, VIA Water 

Ms. Jacqueline Barendse, Netherlands 

Mr. Aart van der Horst, Netherlands 

Mr. Sjef Ernes, Netherlands 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Showing promising water innovations in urban Africa of African innovators; 

New approach of searching for the African initiatives focusing on local ownership and sustainability; 

Simultaneously learning and innovating leads to a higher rate of successful innovations potentially 

making the transition to a sustainable business or social change 


VIA Water is a Dutch programme that supports innovative solutions for urban water, waste and sanitation 

problems (‘pressing needs’) in seven African countries: Benin, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Rwanda and 

South-Sudan. The Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs funds VIA Water. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water 

Education and Aqua for All are carrying out the programme. Our goal is to realise about 60 applicable 

innovations and to have an inspiring, active learning Community operational. At Stockholm, we will share our 

experiences and start an interactive discussion on the sustainability of pilot projects, that just come out of 

the research phase. 


VIA Water’s intention is to identify critical success factors of social innovations in the African urban context. 

For this research, VIA Water supports a postdoctoral researcher (from Rwandese origin). VIA Water designed 

a learning strategy, in which three levels of learning are defined; project, programme and concept. On each 

level VIA Water carries out activities to uptake the knowledge collected there. 

These activities entail Learning Tours, workshops, competitions and follow‐up VIA Water Cafés in the 

countries concerned. Also country reviews were carried out by the African Studies Centre in Leiden. 


VIA Water is in the midst of its operations. On all three learning levels, see above, we have collected important 

learnings/results that we want to share with the Stockholm crowd. Our project owners will be present to tell 

their story. 

Some preliminary results: 

1. To keep focussing on the continuity of the pilot after conclusion, is key to success. Who is potentially 

interested, what is your market, what is the willingness to pay? 

2. Key success factor is to give projects access to networks and financing to assure the continuity. 

Trying to get away from grant funding. 

3. Combining innovating and learning is unique and of added value 

4. Innovations in sanitation often focus on closing the value chain, adding economic value 

5. Many innovations look at the usage of ICT in the water sector 

6. Dynamics in the urban context help to attract innovations 

7. The importance of skills development for African project leaders (business development, project 

management, technological knowledge) 

8. The importance of connecting African innovators with international implementers to share 

knowledge and experiences 

62

We dare to argue that under the conditions mentioned above, the statement above: ‘pilots never fail and 

never scale’ can be considered as false. 


The major steps taken by VIA Water in two years: over 523 applications received, resulted in 36 contracts and 

another 26 in the pipeline with an (online) Community. 

With 82% of the applicants coming from African lead partners, the goal is reached of getting most initiatives 

coming from partners abroad. 

But the biggest challenge is in the phase after conclusion of each VIA Water project. Without the extra 

support on improving skills, investing in coaching, linking participants to potential investors and making the 

learning more hands‐on, the projects remain pilots and not sustainable solutions to pressing urban water 

needs. 

63

Valuing sustainable urban drainage systems for water smart cities 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Katie Spooner, United Kingdom, Business in the 

Community 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Business in the Community (BITC) has worked with leading developers and water companies in the UK to 

develop a business case for sustainable drainage systems (SuDS). This project has sought to demonstrate the 

direct and multiple benefits of SuDs so that they can be integrated with future urban planning 


SuDs supports improved water management and quality in cities. These systems can be a mix of hard and 

green infrastructure that can store water for reuse or to slow its progress to the water course, making them 

a key tool for supporting climate resilient cities. 

This project assessed the investment costs vs. savings in surface drainage charges to assess payback periods 

as well as quantifying multiple benefits to encourage investments in SuDS for cities. By demonstrating the 

value of SuDS we hoped to encourage wider use of the approach both by retrofitting existing buildings and 

within new builds. 


The concept was that non-domestic customers, working with schools initially, could be incentivised to 

implement SuDS through re-investing subsequent savings from surface water charges. 

Greater Manchester was chosen as the pilot area as it is a region that places direct costs on surface water 

charges. there are currently over 1,000 schools paying together over £4.3m in surface water charges to 

United Utilities per year. If they could all move down one charging band, this could save over £2m which could 

be reinvested to cover the costs of SuDS measures in the short-term and educational benefits in the medium 

term. 


This project has identified that there is potential to create a model that can make it easier to significantly 

increase the uptake of SuDS in the North West, using Surface Water Drainage Charges to help incentivise 

implementation. This could work for individual organisations, but would be most effective at a programme 

level (city/city region or collection of smaller conurbations). While the project focused on schools the process 

could work as well with businesses, local authorities, the NHS etc. and could lead to more holistic solutions 

at a landscape level. 

Between January and March 2017 we will be valuing the multiple benefits of SuDS and engaging with a 

government led national level review of how SuDS can be mainstreamed into UK urban planning. From July 

2017 we will also be starting a pilot to design and implement SuDS in three sites as part of a practical 

demonstration of this project. This additional work will be presented to participants of the conference as part 

of a comprehensive example of the value of SuDS that can be applied globally. 

This work was project was a partnership with Arup, Costain, MWH, Marshalls and United Utilities supported 

by the UK government(DEFRA). 

64


By identifying the additional benefits for water quality, air quality, biodiversity and making our cities better 

places to live and work the benefits of SuDS can be applied to a global context. Urban planners, national 

policy makers and developers can be incentivised to invest in SuDs as part of a strategy of smart solutions in 

water for climate resilient and liveable cities. Whilst this case study is based in the UK, SuDS technologies are 

globally applicable and accessible. 

65

Poster: Green infrastructure in context: Public health and ecosystem 

services 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Laura Schifman, United States, NRC Postdoc with U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency 

Dr. Alessandro Ossola, United States, NRC Postdoc with U.S. 


Christopher Nytch, MS – Doctoral Candidate, Environmental 

Sciences Dept., University of Puerto-Río Piedras Campus 

Dr. William Shuster, United States, U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency 

Danny Wiegand, MSPH, PE – Environmental Engineer, US 


Matthew Hopton, PhD – Research Ecologist, U.S. 


Highlights 

Integrating socio-hydrology and public health principles into urban stormwater management can inform 

urban planning to incorporate resilience to changes in climate forcing and vector ecology. We present two 

case studies that identify potential green infrastructure benefits toward public health in subtropical urban 

areas (Caguas, PR and New Orleans, LA). 


Using interdisciplinary approaches to urban water management strategies can yield benefits for 

sustainability. While green infrastructure (GI) has primarily been used to increase infiltration and reduce 

runoff in urban areas, targeted situating of GI can provide additional socio-ecological benefits such as habitat 

for biodiversity, enhanced public space and communities, and reduced heat island effects. By situating GI in 

the broader context of the city as a socio-hydrologic system, we emphasize that traditional stormwater 

management services and anticipated public health benefits can be jointly realized. We present two case 

studies where contextual GI emphasizes public health and stormwater management. 


We describe a planning approach for contextual GI that targets the persistence of standing water after 

rainfall in subtropical urban areas, thus disrupting and alleviating the severity of vector-borne disease 

transmission and infection. To develop portfolios of suitable landscapes for GI toward both stormwater and 

vector control, we used remotely sensed data of vegetation, topography, and rainfall patterns in conjunction 

with field measurements on soil parameters and surface hydrology, in relation to the abundance of Aedes 

aegypti and A. albopictus populations in Caguas, PR and New Orleans, LA. 


Landscape and mosquito data are overlaid and zonal statistics calculated to generate easily interpretable 

maps that differentiate among site suitability for GI using color-coded areas in red (low suitability), yellow, 

and green (high suitability). This approach is used to rate sites where GI could be prioritized and installed to 

provide multiple ecosystem services. 

66


This interdisciplinary work recognizes that GI can serve multiple objectives that cut across social, 

environmental, and institutional gradients in cities. We argue the importance of integrating both field and 

remotely-sensed data for use in designing GI with the intent to control stormwater runoff and limit or 

eliminate Aedes spp. habitat. Finally, incorporating eco-hydrological principles into city planning can 

strengthen resilience to changing socio-environmental conditions and help implement innovative solutions 

for dealing with coupled human-water issues, particularly those related to public health management and 

watershed planning that enhances urban areas. 

67

Poster: Holistic Surface Water and Groundwater Management for 

Sustainable Cities 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Chrysi Laspidou, Greece, University of Thessaly, 

Department of Civil Engineering 

Mr. Dimitrios Kofinas, Greece, University of Thessaly, Civil 

Engineering Department 

Mr. Nikolaos Mellios, Greece, University of Thessaly, 

Department of Civil Engineering 

Dr. Stamatia Rizou, Greece, Singular Logic S.A. 

Highlights 

Water4Cities project will focus on water management, urban infrastructure management, sensor networks, 

data mining, data visualization, system integration and urban planning. Due to the multi-disciplinary nature 

of the project, staff exchanges will allow partners working closely together to deliver high quality results and 

contribute towards urban water sustainability. 


This work is part of the new Horizon 2020 project "Water4Cities" funded by the EC Horizon2020 Marie 

Skłodowska-Curie RISE program. Urban water management becomes progressively more challenging in the 

view of population growth and increasing complexity of water management infrastructure. In this line, 

Water4Cities project will enable water providers and public authorities to critically evaluate the existing 

water ecosystems at city level in respect to the water supply, waste water treatment, reuse potential and the 

effect the growing population has on the water ecosystem and endangered species. 


The Water4Cities project will rely on sensor technologies, data and visual analytics to enable localization, 

visualization and analysis of urban water (both surface water and groundwater) at a holistic urban setting 

providing services to multiple water stakeholders. More specifically, the Water4Cities project aims to develop 

the necessary models and associated platform that will enable water providers and relevant stakeholders to 

monitor in real-time the urban water resources, support their decisions for optimal urban water management 

causing minimal environmental impact and involve policy makers, corporations and the public to provide the 

support for sound and balanced decision-making. 


The project will contribute in sustainable management of urban water by relying on the design of a holistic 

integrated methodology for urban surface water and groundwater monitoring and management, the 

construction of a beyond the state-of-the-art data collection mechanism and the enablement of real-time 

spatiotemporal visualization of water resources for sustainable urban water management. It will provide 

water managers the appropriate tools that will enable them to assess the implications of their decisions, such 

as groundwater over-exploitation, trade-off between energy and water use, different land uses and the 

effects of climate change on available water resources. Example decision support services are: a)improved 

groundwater management (e.g., planning of infrastructure such as location of municipal waterwells, 

planning of groundwater abstraction, enrichment of groundwater), b)improved water supply planning (e.g. 

selection of optimal water source w.r.t. energy and water use, water quality), c)improved water reuse 

potential (e.g., assessment of waste/storm water, water treatment) and d)implications of different land uses: 

city managers and urban planners will have all relevant information and data to decide the effects of a new 

project—such as a hotel, a swimming pool, a golf course, buildings with underground garages—expansion 

of tourism sector, etc. 

68


Overall the scarcity of groundwater data and their poor exploitation through existing ICT tools, calls for new 

solutions assisting groundwater management. However, groundwater management cannot be seen in 

isolation from the overall urban water ecosystem. Both surface water and groundwater should be viewed as 

part of the extended urban water ecosystem with its spatiotemporal availability, quantity, quality and 

competing uses being taken into account. Unlike existing approaches, Water4Cities will conduct research on 

an integrated approach to tackle multiple issues concurrently, and assist in understanding trade-offs 

between different measures and investments and in optimizing resource use in the urban water ecosystem. 

69

Poster: How to revitalize decentralized wastewater treatment plants in 

Nepal 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Susanne Shatanawu, Netherlands, Simavi 

Jimena Duram, Netherlands 

Ms. Saskia Geling, Netherlands, Simavi 

Highlights 

• Assessment of the functionality and management of decentralized waste water systems in 

Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. 

• The understanding of factors that affect functionality, sustainability and management of 

decentralized wastewater treatment plants. 

• The inclusion of private sector in the management of decentralized wastewater treatment plants. 


Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) have popularity as an alternative to centralized 

wastewater treatment systems. In this study, the authors present an integrated analysis of the functionality 

of wastewater treatment plants installed in Kathmandu Valley, in order to understand the factors that affect 

its functionality and management and design frameworks that allow long-term sustainability. The 

introduction of DEWATS in Nepal has facilitated improved environmental conditions and usage of biogas and 

sludge. However, problems persist in sustainability and management. A possible solution to this challenge is 

the consideration of a multi-stakeholder approach and the inclusion of private sector management 


The study was conducted in two phases. The first phase took place in the month of December (Winter 

Season) in which the existing DEWATS inside the Kathmandu valley were explored. The operational 

conditions of the treatment plants were prioritized to make a category based on it and the site conditions of 

the plants in full or partial operation were assessed. The second phase of the study was conducted in April 

(Summer Season) for comparative analysis variation in functionality, flow pattern and site conditions. 


In the case of the municipal plants, the application and management aspect is very weak and the significant 

reasons for the failure of such systems are lack of periodic maintenance, lack of ownership, lack of monitoring 

from the concerned authorities and lack of awareness among users. In the case of institutional plants, the 

scenario is opposite and functioning of the system is given priority. The reason behind this is about proper 

care, maintenance and management system. A possible solution is private sector management or publicprivate 

partnership approach. In order to assure transparency and a good relationship, a system for 

accountability of all activities must be developed. 

However, the study still revealed that the majority of the systems visited were operating at least partially and 

there were a lot of positives to take from the 8 selected for detailed study. The more awareness among the 

user committee and ability to maintain the systems led to increased functionality; positive examples were 

shown in Shreekandapur and Kathmandu University where ownership was taken and the condition of the 

system significantly improved over the course of the study. 

70


The study shows that treatment plants fail during the operation phase and their sustainability is a bigger issue 

in Nepal. The major limitation behind the failure of the systems is weak management and low involvement 

from major stakeholders during the operation phase. The study highlights several recommendations useful 

for the guaranteeing better performance of wastewater units that concern: 1) the empowerment of the 

caretakers of the system; 2) the collection of wastewater treatment tariff from the users; 3) incorporation of 

proper biogas and sludge production in the design; 4) the engagement of private sector entrepreneurs. 

71

Poster: Interactive map of urban wetlands 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Camila Teutsch, Chile, Patagua 

Mr. Francisco Vasquez, Chile/Colombia, Independent 

Researcher 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Multi-stakeholder participation is being promoted for urban wetlands protection and management. 

An integrated approach is being used to study urban wetlands as part of a green infrastructure 

system, highlighting their relevance regarding stormwater management, water supply, public space 

and climate change control. 

Relevant public information on environmental and urban water issues is being produced. 


The enormous array of environmental services that wetlands provide is hardly appreciated in Southern Chile. 

Real estate development has become a major threat to these valuable ecosystems, hence the urgency of 

making them visible and raising awareness among city inhabitants and decision makers. The Interactive Map 

of Urban Wetlands aims to contribute as an innovative tool for integrated urban water management. The 

initiative is currently being piloted in two towns through a participatory process that is shaping the online 

platform to better fit the needs of different types of users, and that is also gathering information to feed the 

map. 


This is a social innovation project which has multi-stakeholder participation at its core. The participatory 

process involves collaborative mapping, workshops, focus groups and other activities, which bring together 

representatives of local governments, civil society organisations, education institutions, and the productive 

sector. The participatory approach has been undertaken to identify information needs as well as to gather, 

produce and validate part of the information that will feed the map. Also, extensive research has been 

undertaken to understand what makes a social mapping platform useful, practical and alive. 


Although research is still ongoing at the time of writing, some key preliminary results can be highlighted: 

1. Different stakeholders have different baseline knowledge on urban wetlands, but they are all eager 

to contribute to the mapping process and to get involved in wetland protection and management. 

2. There is clear scope to use the interactive map of urban wetlands as a tool to support the ongoing 

process of updating urban development guidelines for both pilot towns involved. 

3. Participatory mapping has resulted in valuable information on urban wetlands at a high level of costefficiency. 

4. The multi-stakeholder participatory approach has enabled cross-sectoral collaboration for urban 

water management. 

5. Active participation of local governments and other decision-makers has contributed to the 

engagement of other relevant stakeholders. 

6. Different stakeholders have different information requirements and see different potential for the 

interactive map of urban wetlands. However, some of their shared information needs are: i) current 

and past wetland location; ii) land ownership/ public space potential; iii) urban biodiversity; iv) risk 

72

and protection areas; v) development projects; vi) existing and potential paths and trails; vii) 

touristic spots and highlights. 

7. Research shows that collaborative mapping platforms tend to lose strength when they are too 

ambitious in terms of the scope of information they cover and the applications they offer. 


Participation of multiple stakeholders is key for the design, development and information gathering of an 

IWRM tool such as the Interactive Map of Urban Wetlands. In order to be successful and sustainable, this 

kind of platform needs to be as simple and intuitive as possible (less is more). Once the interactive map is 

adjusted to its final version, there is clear scope for replication in other territories. 

73

Poster: Runoff and site suitability analysis of rain water harvesting 

structures 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Kumar Veluswamy, India, ACRI-TNAU 

Dr. Alagu Raja R A, India, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, 

Madurai 

Mr. Antony Joe M, India, TCE Madurai 

Mr. Subbu Venkatraman R, India, TCE Madurai 

Mr. Balasubramaniyan S, India, TCE, Madurai 

Highlights 

 

 

Suitable water harvesting sites are identified to create macro level rainwater harvesting structures. 

The runoff potential map generated for this work will be useful for various applications such as flood 

risk zone analysis, crop suitability area analysis. 


A smart city is an innovative city that uses technology to improve the quality of life which has to support 

growing population’s needs along with efficient management of natural resources. Increasing population 

density in cities creates more demand for water. Among essential natural resources, available water has 

already become a commodity due to its scarcity. Rain is the primary source of water. Due to climate change, 

rainfall pattern becomes unpredictable and extreme events as floods and droughts occur often. Moreover, 

Groundwater is being exploited in a worrisome manner. Therefore it is critical to harvest rainwater to 

recharge groundwater. 


This paper presents a GIS-based approach for identifying the suitable sites for rainwater harvesting structures 

in Madurai, one among 100 cities in India selected by Government of India. Site selection is made using runoff 

potential of location, soil characteristics, slope details and land use pattern data. Runoff potential map is 

generated using Soil Conservative Service –Curve Number method. Slope map is derived from the contour. 

Land-use Land-cover data are obtained from NRSC, Hyderabad. Precipitation data is received from Global 

weather data, Texas A & M University. These spatial data are processed with GIS software to obtain the 

required thematic layers. 


An Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) – weighted overlay analysis is performed using GIS with priority values 

for different spatial layers. The purpose of the weighted overlay analysis is to apply a common scale of values 

to diverse and dissimilar data input to create an integrated analysis. The layers used for this work are LULC 

map, soil map, slope map and runoff potential map. Each layer has its own influence, based on its importance 

and necessity. So different weightages are assigned to each layers. As a result of this process, the suitable 

macro level rain water harvesting sites such as farm pond, percolating tank and check dam are identified. The 

runoff potential map was also generated and it will be useful for applications such as flood risk zone analysis, 

crop cultivation area analysis. From the study area of Madurai district, the Madurai metropolitan area alone 

is extracted for validating the result. From the validation process, it is cleared inferred that the areas 

highlighted are highly suitable for setting up the rain water harvesting structures. 

74


Rain water harvesting structures are critical to conserve the scarce resource. It will be helpful to check floods 

during rainy season. Madurai is now facing acute shortage of water and getting it from long distance. 

Growing urban area and shrinking water bodies in the city makes the need for creation of more water storage 

structures to cater both agricultural need and drinking purpose. With that view, Madurai is selected for 

identification suitable sites to create water harvesting structures utilizing remote sensing and GIS 

technologies and several suitable sites are identified for macro level rain water harvesting structures. 

75

Poster: Using urine as a smart solution for sustainable food production 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Joel Ssekabembe, Uganda, Kawuku Womens Group 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Urine was tested and evaluated as a crop fertilizer in small scale farming. 

Urine contributes to significant yield improvements among urban farmers. 

Social barriers against diffusion are negotiable. 

Action research can create pathways towards sustainability. 


Urine though understood as a human waste,it is valuable for enriching soils for sustainable food production 

in developing countries like Uganda. Urine fertilization is valued as a low cost and low risk practice 

contributing to significant yield, increases food security and lower poverty levels especially in this era of 

enormous climate change with worn out soils. Kawuku Women's Group is promoting the use of urine among 

small scale urban farmers as a smart solution for sustainable food production in Uganda. However, the scale 

up of the project is still a challenge which needs to be addressed. 


 

 

 

 

Urine is collected and stored in 5 gallons capacity from bathrooms among the mobilized 

communities. 

In one (1) gallon of urine you add 4 gallons of water to dilute the urine because it is strong and 

concentrated. 

Apply the urine to the outer perimeter of each plant that you feed. 

Give one (1) pint to each plant and water the plants thoroughly after applying the urine. 


 

 

 

 

 

Using urine as a fertilizer enriches the soils and contributes to sustainable food production in urban 

areas. 

Urine contributes to yield improvement and positive farmer evaluation. 

Urine fertilization is a low cost and low risk yet it contributes to food security and increases urban 

farmers incomes. 

It is an appropriate method for purposes of sustainable land management, food security and urban 

livelihoods. 

The importance of culture and social norms should be recognized but not taken as absolute barrier 

to diffusion of the practice. 


In conclusion, urine fertilization should be acknowledged as a smart solution for sustainable food production 

and land management, food security and urban poverty reduction and livelihood. It is important for 

agricultural research to collaborate with urban farmers in all stages of development in research for 

affordable, locally anchored and sustainable practices. It is also important to to support the scaling up of such 

projects in more and larger areas for better results. 

76

Seminar: Harnessing opportunities for the 

safe reuse of wastewater in agriculture 

Photo: Kim Andersson 





77

Seminar: Harnessing opportunities for the safe reuse of wastewater in 

agriculture 

Contents 

Connecting practitioners across the Asia Pacific - the Kini Initiative ................................... 79 

Global spatial assessment of indirect wastewater reuse in irrigated croplands .................. 81 

Irrigation with wastewater – experiences from Nigerian Fadama development project .. 83 

Leveraging traceability to promote agricultural use of wastewater treatment biosolids . 85 

Reuse of wastewater in agriculture in Bangladesh ............................................................... 87 

Safe use of wastewater in LAC: status and capacity needs .................................................. 89 

Sustainable wastewater reuse for agricultural application ................................................... 91 

Wastewater reuse for community livelihood enhancement Wadi Musa case study .......... 93 

Poster: Effect of urine on maize yield - Prospects for food security .................................... 95 

Poster: Evaluating filtration types of wastewater for agricultural irrigation systems ........ 97 

Poster: Strategic approach for waste water reusing in agriculture in Palestine ................. 99 

78

Connecting practitioners across the Asia Pacific - the Kini Initiative 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Karen Delfau, Australia, International WaterCentre Alumni 

Network 

Mr. Ralph Ogden, Australia 

Highlights 

Agriculture requires 80% of water resources in the Asia Pacific. The Kini Initiative connects practitioners and 

brokers knowledge between Australia and the rest of the Asia Pacific to share and promote effective best 

practices for water management in the Asia-Pacific, a key component of which is water recycling and reuse. 


The Kini Initiative is a research-based knowledge sharing initiative that brokers knowledge and connects 

practitioners to support improved, integrated water management in practice. This presentation shares key 

knowledge and insights from the Kini Interview series, and looks at the priorities and opportunities for 

improved water and wastewater governance and management to address water scarcity and drought, 

particularly in the agriculture sector in the Asia Pacific. The Kini Initiative is a joint activity of the Australian 

Water Partnership and the International WaterCentre Alumni Network. 


Extensive research has been undertaken to understand (1) knowledge needs and (2) mechanisms for 

accessing knowledge by practitioners in the Asia Pacific. The Kini Interview series provides long-form 

interviews with leading water management practitioners in Australia and throughout the Asia-Pacific to 

identify innovative approaches and evidence-based best practices to addressing water management and 

water scarcity challenges throughout the region, particularly in the agriculture sector. 


At the time of writing, research is ongoing, however key themes have emerged to support knowledge 

management and water management. 

In terms of knowledge management, learning through virtual means must be complemented by face-to-face 

interaction. High-value content (such as the Kini Interviews and supplemental articles) should be shared 

through existing means (e.g., no new platform is required). 

For water management, three key themes have emerged: 

1. Understanding the resource is the essential first step to managing water and wastewater. Not only 

should this understanding include quantifiable data and relevant information, but it should also 

include an understanding of the users and stakeholders, the values associated with water, and the 

benefits derived from water. 

1. Cross-sectoral approaches are what will allow for the full realization of benefits (including associated 

health, food, energy, waste, WASH). 

2. Knowledge exchange helps stakeholders to be able to think strategically, and when needed, change 

behaviors/act accordingly in order to effectively tackle water management challenges. 

79


Relationships are at the core of knowledge transfer, and the Kini Initiative works to link practitioners 

throughout the Asia-Pacific to support learning and the implementation of Integrated Water Management 

to address water scarcity challenges, particularly in the agricultural sector. Where Australia has developed 

technologies, policies, and tools for addressing water scarcity challenges (including wastewater recycling and 

reuse), the transfer of this knowledge and its eventual uptake requires a long-term, integrated approach. 

80

Global spatial assessment of indirect wastewater reuse in irrigated 

croplands 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Anne Thebo, United States, University of California, 

Berkeley 

Dr. Pay Drechsel, Sri Lanka 

Prof. Eric Lambin, United States, Stanford University 

Prof. Kara Nelson, United States, University of California, 

Berkeley 

Highlights 

This study develops the first spatially-explicit estimate of irrigated croplands with a high likelihood of 

irrigating with untreated, although often diluted urban wastewater. 35.9 Mha of irrigated croplands were 

located in catchments highly influenced by urban wastewater flows. 29.3 Mha were located in areas with low 

levels of wastewater treatment. 


Urban population growth is rapidly outpacing the development of infrastructure for the safe collection and 

treatment of wastewater, leading to the widespread discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater 

to surface water bodies. Downstream of many urban areas are large areas of irrigated croplands reliant on 

these same surface water sources. Urban wastewater is a reliable, nutrient rich source of water for 

downstream farmers, but can present health risks without appropriate protections. Our study presents the 

first spatially-explicit global estimates of the magnitude and distribution of irrigated croplands with a high 

likelihood of irrigating with untreated, although often diluted, wastewater. 


Case studies document the widespread use of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture, but due to the 

practical and political challenges of conducting a true census of this practice, its global extent is not well 

known except where reuse has been planned. Cognizant of the limitations of past attempts to characterize 

wastewater irrigation, we instead opted to develop a GIS-based decision tree classification algorithm. These 

methods were developed to primarily quantify indirect reuse. Major sources of data used in this analysis 

included MIRCA2000 (irrigated croplands), WRI AQUEDUCT database, AQUASTAT and other compilations on 

wastewater treatment. 


Our study presents the first spatially-explicit global estimates of the magnitude and distribution of irrigated 

croplands (a) influenced by urban wastewater flows; and (b) having a high likelihood of irrigating with 

untreated, although often diluted, wastewater. 

55.1 Mha of irrigated croplands were located within 40 km downstream of or within an urban area. This area 

of downstream irrigated croplands (DSIC) constitutes approximately 26 percent of the global irrigated 

croplands identified by Portmann et al. We found 35.9 Mha (65%) of DSIC were located in catchments with 

high levels of dependence on urban wastewater flows. These same catchments were home to 1.37 billion 

urban residents. 91% of wastewater dependent DSIC were located within 10 km of urban areas. Of these 

irrigated croplands, 86 percent (29.3 Mha) are located in countries where less than 75 percent of wastewater 

receives some form of treatment. Five countries, China, India, Mexico, Pakistan, and Iran, accounted for 25.1 

Mha (85.7%) of DSIC with a high likelihood of untreated reuse. 

81


Considerable strides have been made in increasing access to improved sanitation in urban areas, but 

investments in wastewater treatment continue to lag behind. Even when untreated wastewater constitutes 

a small percentage of flow, concentrations of pathogens in irrigation water can far exceed those 

recommended in WHO guidelines. This study sheds further light on the often complicated ways in which 

urban areas impact agricultural water quality in downstream peri-urban and rural environments. Further work 

is needed to ensure that urban sanitation policies not only address the protection of surface water quality 

for ecological reasons, but also recognize the water quantity and quality needs of downstream farmers. 

82

Irrigation with wastewater – experiences from Nigerian Fadama 

development project 

Presenting 

Author: 

Prof. Sridhar Mynepalli, Nigeria, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Nigeria embarked on Fadama farming since 1996 resulting in improved food security and quality of 

life of farmers. 

Wastewaters, municipal and industrial effluents were widely used for irrigation which became risk 

factors. 

There is need for improved irrigation water quality and implementation of stringent water quality 

guidelines. 


Nigeria is a beneficiary of National Fadama (low-lying flood plains) Development Project, initiated in 1990s by 

the World Bank. The project is in Phases I, II and III , covering all 36 States and further funded by African 

Development Fund and other Donors. Simple and low-cost improved irrigation technologies were adopted. 

Farmers, however, practiced use of wastewater, effluents and polluted waters for irrigation and realized 

increased economic crops: up to 65% (Vegetables), 334% (wheat) and 497% (Rice) with improved quality of 

life. This paper described the quality of irrigation waters being used and their impacts. 


Exhaustive data were collected from various States in northern, middle and southern belts, but this paper 

limits to Taraba State. Data collection methods included community visits, in depth interviews and sampling 

of irrigation water samples. Standard methods followed using American Public Health Association. Water 

quality assessment was made using pH, Electrical conductivity, Chloride, major cations (Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+), 

zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni). In addition, boron, CO3, 

HCO3 and NO3 were measured. Water quality risk factors were computed. 


The critical parameters of irrigation water are the salt content, toxic chemicals, carbonates and bicarbonates 

and essential nutrients. The pH values 5.86±0.15 and 5.60±0.05 obtained from Taraba River (Gassol) and 

ground water (Bali) were below the permissible limit. The electrical conductivity, CO3, HCO3, Mg, Na, K, and 

Cl were low; Zinc, Manganese, Iron and Nickel were within the permissible limits, Copper was higher 

(mg L-1) in Garin Dogo (Stream, 3.10±0.10), Garin Dogo (Ground water, 10.23±0.21) and Garin Dogo (Tube well, 

1.31±0.03); Cr levels in Taraba river (Gassol), Garin Dogo (Stream), Garin Dogo (Ground water), Bali (Ground 

water) and Garin Dogo (Tube well) ranged between 1.19±0.004 and 1.51±0.01 which were above permissible 

levels. The risk factors are open defecation, discharge of municipal, industrial, and livestock wastes, and 

navigation. Eutrophication and growths of aquatic macrophytes were conspicuous and Water-borne 

infections (Schistosomiasis, diarrhea) were common. The serious emerging risk factors were technology 

related agrochemicals arising from excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. Use of Gammaline for fishing 

was widely practiced resulting in elevated levels in fish: Gamma BHC 5.4 to 35.2, and dieldrin 1.2 to 

10.2 mg/Kg-1. 

83


Fadama initiative by the Nigerian Government since 1996 is most welcome by the farming populations. Where 

there is water, there is food and farmers enjoyed improved quality of life economic gains. However, with 

subsidized farming inputs and irrigation equipment, farmers used any available waters such as wastewaters, 

effluents from small and medium scale industries, and polluted and eutrophic water bodies for irrigation thus 

compromising water quality and public health risks. There is need to improve irrigation water quality through 

technology use and implementing stringent water quality guidelines for effective reuse of precious water 

resources. 

84

Leveraging traceability to promote agricultural use of wastewater 

treatment biosolids 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Maelenn Poitrenaud, France, SEDE Environnement 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

In order for a sustainable and economic land application of treated sludge, a robust method to verify and 

validate the supply chain and life cycle from plant to land is necessary. This includes traceability, action where 

violations and discrepancies occur, and effective measurement and reporting. 


The wastewater treatment process produces biosolids as a by-product. Biosolids have significant fertilizing 

and organic value, and can be used in agriculture for fertilization of plants and soils (by composting). Because 

of the inherent risks that could be present, proper management of the material and credible tracking of use 

is necessary. SEDE -VEOLIA is the European market leader in the recovery of organic wastes produced by 

communities and industries. To support controlled and safe reuse of biosolids, traceability of the quality and 

use is key. The authors will describe the SUIVRA software created by SEDE-VEOLIA. 


SUIVRA can monitor any type of products, on both quantitative and qualitative basis, over a period of several 

years. The software can be linked to a geographical information system that can display the plots used for 

land application on a map base. The functional developments incorporated for connectivity with GIS make 

Suivra a high-performance and user-friendly software program. The two applications are closely linked and 

guarantee the traceability of the land application operations. SUIVRA’s functionalities enable users to check 

the regulatory compliance status of sludge and by-products at any time, relative to expectations. 


Proper land application of sludge may replace on average 30% of Potassium and Magnesium, 40% of Nitrogen 

and 100% of Phosphorous of the needed fertilization in regions where this land application practice is 

common. SUIVRA provides farmers, waste producer and local authorities with a comprehensive record of 

the land spreading campaign, with various reports. SUIVRA is also an ideal tool for the establishment of the 

nutrient management plans. Analyses are performed to determine the optimized nutrient balance and the 

heavy metal content of the soil, and the results are automatically imported into SUIVRA. This land-plot 

management system is used to establish the spreading schedule. The quantities of sludge required to fertilize 

the crops are determined for each plot of land. Where necessary, the balance of nutrients to be supplied in 

chemical form following land spreading is also calculated. 

Today, SUIVRA data base integrates: 

 

 

 

3 million tonnes of solid urban and industrial by-products 

5 million m 3 of food industries effluents processed 

10 000 farmers over 1 000 000 ha of landbank 

85


Software applications such as SUIVRA allow land use application of biosolids to be done in a traceable and 

verifiable manner. This traceability helps alleviate concern over misuse and pollution impacts. As a result, a 

very sustainable use of a waste product can be more widespread. Currently, SUIVRA is being applied in 

France, Belgium, United-Kingdom and in the Republic of Ireland. The software is conducive for use by 

regulatory agencies in every country. 

86

Reuse of wastewater in agriculture in Bangladesh 

Presenting 

Author: 

Prof. Mohammad Habibur Rahman, Bangladesh 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Context of wastewater reuse in agriculture and aquaculture and its pros and cons. 

Critical evaluation of present practices associate to fecal contamination of greywater and its impact 

on health and environment. 

Recommendations for safe and sustainable reuse of wastewater. 


Worldwide feresh water sacarcity is compelling the reuse (combining water and nutrient recycling) of 

wastewater, greywater and fecal sludge in agriculture and aquaculture at a rapid pace. In Bangladesh, 

wastewater, greywater and fecal sludge are being traditionally used in agriculture by the farmers in rural as 

well as in peri-urban areas, particularly in the drought-prone parts. But this may pose risks to human health 

and ecosystem. This paper attempts to identify the benefits, challenges, social acceptance and institutional 

arrangements of wastewater reuse in the country and identify the management initiatives for its sustainable 

reuse. 


Most of the data in this study were collected from two Bangladeshi cities, Dhaka and Rajshahi. Statistically 

representative wastewater samples were collected randomly towards the end of dry season in 2015 for 

laboratory analysis. The study also presents findings of a questionnaire survey having a total sample of 250 

households for Dhaka and 150 households for Rajshahi that were selected and interviewed using a semistructured 

questionnaire focusing wastewater disposal and fecal sludge management. Then governance 

issues and secondary data are reviewed particularly for rural areas, where wastewater is reused in agriculture 

and aquaculture to address the situation coherently. 


The most important benefits of wastewater reuse have been found as the availability of wastewater over all 

seasons and reduced chemical fertilizer requirements. The farmers reported that the crops grown with 

wastewater irrigation are socially acceptable as they do not face any difficulty to sell them in the market. 

Interviews with the key stakeholders indicate that a long term institutional arrangement for sustainable reuse 

of wastewater is available. They identified various problems associated with wastewater that includes 

incidents of pest and excess weed in the crop field, smells, skin diseases, mosquito nuisance and damage to 

irrigation pumps due to the high solid waste content. Test results revealed that the biological quality 

parameters in the wastewater used in agricultural and aquacultural purposes do not satisfy the FAO and WHO 

guidelines values. This also has a very high degree of microbial contamination. More than 63% of the 

respondents in Dhaka expressed their concern that putting fecal sludge here and there contaminates 

greywater, affects human health and has negative consequences on environment in general. This percentage 

is lower (37%) in Rajshahi compared to Dhaka, but there is a certain level of awareness among people about 

the undesirable consequences of this act. 

87


Reuse of wastewater has an increased benefit due to higher crop production with minimum fertilizer cost in 

Bangladesh. But there are possibilities of incidents of pest and excess weed in the crop field as well as health 

impacts of farmers. Microbiological and biological quality parameters in the wastewater used in agriculture 

and aquaculture exceed FAO and WHO guidelines values. This demands much more attention on the 

implementation of simple yet cost-effective alternatives to wastewater treatment plants to improve 

wastewater quality, improving wastewater application methods, control of human exposure for their 

sustainable utilization in the context of ecosystem perspective. 

88

Safe use of wastewater in LAC: status and capacity needs 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Javier Mateo-Sagasta, Sri Lanka, none 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

Great potential to safely reuse the resources embedded in the 30 km 3 of municipal wastewater 

produced every year in the region 

To reach its potential and meet the SDG 6.3 the region needs to develop capacities and facilitate the 

replication of the existing but still limited success stories 


LAC is the most urbanized region in the world. Its urban settlements produce more than 30 Km 3 of municipal 

wastewater every year. The resources embedded in these wastewater (e.g. water and nutrients) would be 

enough to irrigate and fertilize millions of hectares, but these resources remain greatly untapped. This 

presentation will review the available regional data on wastewater treatment and reuse in agriculture and 

analyze the key capacities that need to be developed to transition to a safer and more productive use of 

these waters in agriculture, all illustrated with sceptic examples form the region. 


We will present the results of a review of cases, literature and secondary data provided by a large number of 

regional stakeholders to answer the following questions: 

 

 

How much wastewater is produced, treated and reused in agriculture in the region? 

What are the key capacities that need to be developed for a safer and more productive use of 

wastewater in agriculture? 

What are some bright examples that if replicated across the region could accelerate the transition 

for more and safer reuse? 

The capacity needs assessment is partly based on the consultative workshops undertaken under an FAO- 

WHO-UNEP-UNWDPC-UNU-INWEH-ICID-IWMI project. 


More than 60% of the 30 Km 3 of municipal wastewater produced in LAC every year is discharged to the 

environment without any treatment, missing opportunities for safe and planned reuse. As a result about 25% 

of the rivers in the region are affected by severe fecal pollution and an estimate of almost 2 Million hectares 

use polluted water to irrigate, posing relevant health and environmental risks. Nevertheless there are bright 

examples of economic and finance models, reuse safety plans, effective policies, technologies and costeffective 

investments that if replicated across the region would accelerate the adoption of safe reuse 

practices. 

89


Countries in the region need to assess in depth their capacity needs for a safer and more productive use of 

wastewater in agriculture in at least these focus areas: i) better data and diagnosis of wastewater 

management, ii) more institutional coordination and policy integration, iii) broader use of the WHO 2006 

guidelines and iii) better business models and incentives for safe reuse. 

The region needs to design cooperative initiatives to promote that countries learn from each other and 

replicate success reuse stories across the region. 

90

Sustainable wastewater reuse for agricultural application 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Aleksandra Lazic, Sweden, Xylem Inc. 

Mr. Christian Baresel, Sweden, IVL Swedish Environmental 

Research Institute 

Highlights 

Reuse of municipal wastewater is the responsible solution to manage water scarcity, but configuring the 

most sustainable treatment system is challenging. This study offers an approach based on sustainability tools 

(e.g. environmental and economic evaluations, effluent performance and plant size) in the configuration of 

the agriculture reuse treatment systems. 


Water reuse for agriculture can be achieved with additional tertiary and disinfection steps, however it is 

important to analyze these steps from both environmental and economic outcomes. 

The goal of this project is to optimize wastewater treatment processes for sustainable agriculture reuse of 

treated wastewater. The starting point is to assess the environmental and economic profile of two treatment 

trains that combine the secondary treatment (sequencing batch reactor, SBR) with two different tertiary 

treatment technologies. The environmental impact assessment of the treatment trains is done using life cycle 

assessment. The economic evaluation was performed using life cycle cost. 


Two (2) different treatment trains for water reclamation for agriculture and urban use were evaluated for 

three different full-scale sizes 20,000, 100,000 and 500,000 PE. 

The environmental assessment is carried out with LCA methodology according to ISO 14044 (2006). The goal 

is to compare the environmental profiles of treatment lines, which deliver reclaimed water for the same 

purpose. 

The upstream boundary of the assessed system is the wastewater at the point of intake to the SBR. The 

downstream boundary considers all the effluents including reclaimed water and sludge treatment (aerobic 

sludge stabilization step (AD), thickening (TH) and dewatering (DW)). 


Results of the study allowed designing a sustainability tool integrating the environmental, economic and 

treatment performances of the two selected treatment lines and three studied plant sizes. The outcome of 

the tool provides a comprehensive understanding of the degree of sustainability of the treatment train for a 

specific application and raises visibility of the factors that have the greatest effect on the environmental 

impacts, the investment and operational costs. 

Generally, tertiary treatment steps with disinfection have only a small impact on the overall environmental 

impact even though those steps upgrade the water quality to non-potable water reuse standards. Within the 

tertiary treatment and disinfection step, energy consumption of UV contributes the most. 

Evaluation of the Life Cycle Cost revealed that for each of the selected treatment trains, the operating cost 

(OPEX) is larger than the investment cost (CAPEX) over the 20 years of lifetime of the plant. In addition, the 

energy consumption accounts for more than 50% of the total operating costs based on European energy and 

labor prices. 

91


This study shows that various wastewater treatment trains can achieve the same reuse effluent quality while 

having different environmental and economic impacts. Sustainability tools (effluent quality, LCA, LCC, energy 

consumption, footprint, water efficiency) can be used to provide a more complete understanding of the 

environmental, economic and social impacts when selecting the most sustainable reuse treatment train of 

certain size. 

92

Wastewater reuse for community livelihood enhancement Wadi Musa case 

study 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Loay Froukh, Jordan, JWSRO/NGO 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

This paper presents a success story for sustainable development project in Wadi Musa where wastewater 

reuse is used to alleviate the poverty and create jobs for the local community.This will to support Jordan wide 

strategy to encourage beneficial reuse of wastewater and will contribute to achieve SDG's 1 (poverty), 2 (food 

security) and 6 (water and sanitation). 


Wastewater reuse in Wadi Musa is a landmark water reuse pilot project which aimed at enhancing the 

livelihood in the local community. The project main objectives are: 

 

 

To help improve the livelihoods of the local community 

To reduce the pressure on the groundwater 

To protect health and environment in Wadi Musa area 

The project is located approximately 10 km north of Petra and it was the first community based project 

established in Jordan. Up to 100 hectares is irrigated with reclaimed water for growing fodder crops mainly 

AlfaAlfa. 80 farmers and their families benefited from this project. 


Using the integrated rural water management approach and adopting the water conservation and reuse 

strategy,Wadi Musa wastewater reuse project was established to irrigate 100 hectares in the first phase. A 

main conveyance system (3 km) with booster stations to pump water from Wadi Musa wastewater treatment 

plant to farms downstream. In order to run the project an NGO farming Association was established to be 

responsible on the project.The Women form 20% of the farmers.The HF and JWSRO provided the technical 

support to farmers to maintain the irrigation system and so it can provide optimum use of wastewater. 


It was found that the treated wastewater was suitable for growing fodder crops in Wadi Musa farms. The 

yield of the crops is higher by 20-30% from using freshwater. This is basically due to high nutrients such as N 

and P in the water. The avergae generated income per farmer is around 500 Jordanian Dinar which is more 

than poverty limit (150 Jordanian Dinar per family). This provided the farmers with a sustainable source of 

income and contributed to drop in migration from rural/remote areas to cities. 

However, the main challenge was to control the rise in salinity. In year 2014 to 2016 the salinity levels are 

increasing with time (some records in recent years reached 1000 ppm) which affected the efficiency of the 

irrigation system by blockage of drip irrigation network by 20-30%. It also affected the booster stations 

efficiency to drop by 10-20. 

93


The Wadi Musa case study is a success reuse story which lead to; 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A source of income for the local community members has been secured 

A revolving fund has been established which will invest at least 20% of the annual revenues of the 

cooperative to support the future expansion 

Social stabilization and reduction of migration from rural to urban. 

Women farmers involvement in farming activities and association decision process 

Protection of the tourism environment around Petra 

Contribution to achieve SDG's: 1 (poverty), 2 (food security) and 6 (water and sanitation). 

94

Poster: Effect of urine on maize yield - Prospects for food security 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Oliver Odikamnoro, Nigeria, Ebonyi State University 

Ms. Oluchukwu Odikamnoro, Nigeria, Ebonyi State 

University 

Highlights 

The effect of human urine on the growth and yield of three local varieties of maize was investigated on the 

research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, southeast Nigeria. Results 

revealed that human urine significantly influenced the growth rates and yield of the varieties of maize. 


Human urine is rich in nitrogen and can be used to fertilize crops. It also contains nutrients like phosphorus, 

potassium, magnesium, and calcium. Urine constitutes only 1% of the total wastewater generated. However, 

it contains the largest proportion of plant nutrients found in wastewater. Reuse of the nutrients contained 

in urine will reduce environmental pollution. The advantages of urine as fertilizer will be immense as it will 

serve as a substitute to commercial fertilizer. It can be of great use in meeting the fertilizer demands of rural 

farming communities in developing countries. In Nigeria, maize remains a major cultivated cereal 


The experiment was designed to determine the effectiveness of human urine as a viable and beneficial source 

of plant nutrients in comparison to other sources of nutrients. The experiment was a 5x3 factorial laid out in 

a randomized complete block design (RCBD). It had factor A as five sources of fertilizer (human urine, poultry 

manure, urea, NPK 15:15:15, and control). Factor B was three local maize varieties. This gave a total of 15 

treatment combinations replicated three times, giving a total of 45 plots. Urine treatment was applied on all 

three varieties of maize and compared with other nitrogen sources. 


The results of the experiments clearly showed that all three maize varieties responded positively to the 

treatments (human urine, poultry manure, urea, NPK 15:15:15) except the control that had no form of fertilizer 

applied to it.It was shown that human urine significantly influenced the growth rates and yields of all three 

maize varieties, followed closely by NPK 15:15:15, urea, and lastly poultry manure. Maize varieties fertilized 

with human urine produced similar results as those fertilized with other sources of nitrogenous fertilizer. This 

agreed with earlier documented works by other authors which affirmed that the urea or ammonium-N in 

urine compares well with that of urea and inorganic fertilizer. In the taste assessment test, tasters could not 

differentiate between maize treated with human urine and those grown with other sources of fertilizer. Thus, 

tasters did not prefer any particular maize sample as all the maize were evaluated as being good-tasting. This 

showed that human urine does not affect or alter the taste of any crop it is fertilized with. This experiment 

was able to show the viability of the use of human urine as fertilizer. This means that human urine can be 

used at the convenience of a home to grow crops. 

95


Previous documented works by different authors have successfully demonstrated the benefits of using 

human urine as fertilizer. The results of this study affirmed these earlier works. Urine can be harvested by 

constructing community urine diverting latrines in residential neighbourhoods. Simple and water-less urinals 

can be constructed near the garden for collecting the urine for use in the field. Urine can also be collected 

from private homes and stored before use. This work has high implication for policy. Governments at all levels 

should promote ecological sanitation and en-corporate it into relevant agricultural, health, and 

environmental policies and programmes. 

96

Poster: Evaluating filtration types of wastewater for agricultural irrigation 

systems 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Michael Davidson, United States, Davidson Consultants 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

This presentation provides a comparative study of three filtration systems of wastewater for agricultural use. 

This research includes: a taxonomy and description of the properties of wastewater salient for agricultural 

use; a comparison of the amount of water disposed during operation; available options for wastewater 

filtration; and generalizable outcomes 


The reliance on wastewater for agricultural use is increasing and it is imperative to understand how this water 

resource should be optimally managed. A key element for utilizing wastewater is filtration. This study 

evaluated the utility of automatic self-cleaning filtration of wastewater in agricultural settings using three 

case studies. The objectives of the presentation include: explain and discuss the properties of wastewater; 

explain the properties, characteristics, types and options of filtration; explicate the filtration requirements 

for all irrigation regimens; conduct a cost-benefit comparison of typical filtration options; and compare the 

disposal characteristics of flush water. 


This study compared the performance of three methods of filtration for agricultural use of wastewater in 

California. This is a quantitative comparison of sand media filtration, automatic self-cleaning disk filtration 

and automatic self-cleaning screen filtration. The purpose of the study was to determine the rate of flushing, 

quantity of flushing effluent, time for flushing sequence. The source for all three system is the same; 

wastewater provided by Ventura County. Each system had identical inputs: flow, filtration degree, water 

source, pressure and operative demands. The evaluation covered one irrigation season of 100 days. 


The three filtration options performed well. The objective was to evaluate the flushing performance of each 

filter system. Each filter option provided equivalent degrees of filtration and performed well in the eyes of 

the grower. The sand media filter system flushed about 4 times per day (424 times per season); the disk filter 

system flushed about 11 times per day (1144 times per season); the screen filter flushed about 15 times per 

day (1515 times per season). Each flush of the sand media filter took 12 minutes and flushed 11340 liters; the 

disk filter took 3 minutes to flush and flushed 2268 liters; and the screen filter took 0.25 minutes to flush and 

flushed 95 liters. For the season, the media filter flushed 4,808,160 liters; the disk filter flushed 2,594,592 

liters and the screen filter flushed 143,925 liters. Each filtration flush disposes of effluent water. Even though 

the screen filter flushed 3.5 times more frequently than the sand media system and 1.3 times more frequently 

than the disk filter system, it disposes about 3% of the total water disposed by sand media filters and about 

6% of the total water disposed by disk filters. 

97


Wastewater is of significant utility for agricultural purposes. A key consideration for irrigation system using 

wastewater is filtration type. An important characteristic of filtration systems is the amount of water that is 

disposed during the automatic flushing sequence. It is important to reduce the amount of wastewater that 

is disposed and, conversely, make greater use of total available wastewater. This research illustrates 

important inferences about the utility of self-cleaning screen filtration. Self-cleaning screen filters provide a 

reliable and generalizable solution for reducing wastewater disposal for irrigation systems. 

98

Poster: Strategic approach for waste water reusing in agriculture in 

Palestine 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Bahaa Obaid, Palestinian Territories, OBAID Integrated 

Solutions 

Dr. Basheer Obaid, Germany, OBAID Integrated Solutions 

Ms. Shahrazad Obaid, Germany, OBAID Integrated Solutions 

Highlights 

This research presents a new approach to encourage the society and farmers to use treated waste water 

through public awareness, Farmers incentives and sustainable treated water supply for agriculture. 


In Palestine, 70% of water is used in irrigation. Reusing of wastewater will reduce the scarcity of Water and 

reducing salinity of Groundwater. This research presents a new approach to encourage the society and 

farmers to use treated waste water through public awareness, Farmers incentives and sustainable treated 

water supply for agriculture. 


Research methodology is based on three phases: Survey analysis for 100 farmers, Intensive Public awareness 

and Implementing approach on selected Pilot area in North Gaza. 

This paper presents a pilot study in Gaza and will address Public Awareness Program implemented in pilot 

area. This paper also shows the analysis of Detailed social-cultural Survey about using of treated water in 

Agricultural. 


69% of participation agree to use treated water in agriculture uses when there a sustainable supply for it. 75% 

of farmers agree to use treated water when there is incentives for that. Majority of farmers selected Installing 

pipes and reducing treated water tariff as the most important incentives. The reused water quality was 

observed in the pilot area which is acceptable and according to international standards. Several parameters 

have been measured such as salinity, chloride, nitrogen, heavy metalsnow and etc. 


Public awareness is an important role to use treated water in agriculture as an alternative water resources. 

Incentives encourage farmers to use treated water. Using of treated water will reduce the health risks and 

ground Water contaminations. 

99

Seminar: Water, pollution, and systemic 

challenges: the case of the textile industry 

Photo: iStock 





100

Seminar: Water, pollution, and systemic challenges: the case of the textile 

industry 

Contents 

From field to fashion: examining textile’s grey water footprint ......................................... 102 

Taking textile water stewardship to the next level ............................................................ 104 

Targets and textiles: target setting in the private sector .................................................... 105 

The ZDHC wastewater discharge guideline for the textile industry ................................... 107 

Wastewater management in Egyptian textile industry sector ......................................... 1099 

Poster: Sustainable management practices to the textile industry for growing economy 111 

101

From field to fashion: examining textile’s grey water footprint 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Ruth Mathews, Netherlands, Water Footprint Network 

Ms. Alexandra Freitas, Netherlands 

Dr. Ertug Ercin, Netherlands 

Dr. Guoping Zhang, Netherlands 

Highlights 

Water Footprint Assessment of polyester and viscose fibres, field cotton and washing, dyeing and finishing 

mills shows that the grey water footprint is by far the largest share of textile’s total water footprint and that 

this water footprint is often in locations already suffering from poor water quality. 


The textile industry is ranked as the second largest polluter globally, after oil industry, with a large share of 

that pollution ending up in water, making fresh water unfit for other uses and with severe consequences on 

human health and ecosystems. With production (from raw materials to garment finishing) often taking place 

in areas under already unsustainable water pollution levels, this analysis aims at understanding the impact of 

textile production in water quality throughout different production stages, by calculating the grey water 

footprint of polyester, cotton and cellulosic fibres and for textile washing, dyeing and finishing mills. 


Quantification of the impacts of textile production on water resources has been mainly focused on water 

consumption. This study analysed the impact of textile at different stages of production – raw materials, 

fibres production and washing, dyeing and finishing – by applying the Water Footprint Assessment 

methodology. The grey water footprint, i.e., the volumes of freshwater required to assimilate pollution to 

meet specific water quality standards (grey water footprint) was calculated for each production stage and 

for different fibre types and the environmental sustainability of this water footprint was assessed against 

local pollution levels and their socioeconomic efficiency against benchmarks. 


The studies focused on the Water Footprint Assessment of the production of polyester and viscose fibres 

globally, production of field cotton in three states of India and on textile processing mills in China and 

Bangladesh. Results showed that more than 98% of polyester and viscose’s water footprint is grey water 

footprint from industrial processing, and these can reach 30,000 m 3 /tonne of fibre, depending on the 

processes and practices applied. The grey water footprint of filed cotton varies dramatically across the 

different agricultural practices, reflecting the level of toxicity of the pesticides used, or the overuse of 

nutrients, reaching in some cases 500,000 m 3 /hectare. In textile processing mills, the grey water footprint 

also represents the largest share of the total water footprint, and can be as high as 563 litres per square 

meter of fabric. The majority of all production sites analysed for fibres, fields and mills, are located in areas 

with unsustainable water pollution levels, which worsens the impact of textile production in these regions. 

Results also indicate, that management practices and processing choices, both at industrial and farm levels 

largely influence the size of the grey water footprint, i.e. level of pollution caused. 

102


Adopting better practices and processes without compromising production can significantly contribute to 

the reduction of freshwater pollution by the textile industry and consequently enhance water quality where 

textile is produced. The grey water footprint of textile production assists selection of the most effective 

practices for reducing the industry’s impact on freshwater quality and can be used to prioritise locations in 

most need of investment into improved practices. These practices include better choices in the chemicals 

used, both at industrial and field levels, chemical reuse and closed-loop cycle production at industrial level, 

and enhancement of wastewater disposal and treatment methods. 

103

Taking textile water stewardship to the next level 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Charlotta Jarnmark, Sweden, Pierre Borjesson 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Global textile companies bring proof of impact, cleaning up their internal business. 

Collective action push out of existing footprint and sets off a multiplication of impact into new areas, 

new sectors. 

Movement from a footprint approach to understanding collective action 


The aim of this research is to deeper showcase the effect of water stewardship collective action on a 

multitude of scales. 

On a basin level, companies working with risk mitigation that engage local and regional decision makers, local 

industry and finance interests creates not only tailor made local solutions to water challenges, but also 

increases the critical mass that transforms governance, creating ripples by the pure pressure of water risks. 

A company that claims water stewardship, next step is increasing the amplitude of the wave, expand, recruit 

more companies for water stewardship and grow engagement to a global scale. 


The stewardship journey, from a clean fish in a dirty pond to a clean brand in a dirty world. 


Where does the scaling up of a successful water steward impact take us? 

Looking for global governance support and setting science based targets for water is an adaptive processs 

on local scale, but globally it may lead the industry to governing power levels. 


Event participants to contribute what focus on the expansion that give best impact on water management 

globally. 

104

Targets and textiles: target setting in the private sector 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Orla Delargy, Ireland, CDP 

Mr. James Lott, United Kingdom, CDP 

Ms. Morgan Gillespy, United Kingdom, CDP 

Ms. Ariane Laporte-Bisquit, United Kingdom, CDP 

Highlights 

The World Bank estimates 20% of industrial water pollution comes from textile production. The high water 

intensity of this sector, coupled with increasing demand is straining already stressed water resources. CDP 

highlights how textiles companies are setting targets to improve their water management practices. 


The textiles industry is estimated to be the second largest polluter of clean water resources, with more than 

8,000 chemicals used in various manufacturing process including dyeing and printing. It is therefore 

imperative that the textile industry is a leader in water and wastewater management. This presentation will 

use data from CDP's water programme in 2016 to provide insights into the targets and goals set by textiles 

companies to address their impact on water resources on which they rely. 


Companies need to set targets and goals to bring their water impacts to sustainable levels that reflect the 

ecological, economic and social needs of the river basins in which they operate. The textiles industry is no 

exception, and must tailor the objectives it sets to the specific challenges it faces. As above, pollution is one 

of the key challenges for this sector. In this presentation, the information that textiles companies disclosed 

about their targets is analysed. This includes: category of target, motivation for target, base-line year and 

proportion of target achieved. Case studies of best practice will be presented throughout. 


In 2016, over 3,000 companies were invited to respond to CDP’s request for water-related information, of 

which 36 were from the textiles sector. Just 13 of these 36 textiles companies responded, representing a 36% 

response rate. Some of well-known responders include Burberry, Adidas, Coach and Kering. 77% of these 

companies set targets (quantitative) and/or goals (qualitative) related to water. Some of the most common 

targets among the textiles industry reported to CDP in 2016 were reductions in product water intensity; 

improving the monitoring of water use; and seeking a reduction in consumptive volumes. Despite the fact 

that the textiles industry is the second largest industrial polluter, only 3 out of the 10 companies set targets 

relating to water pollution prevention. Burberry is one of these few, having set a target to eliminate the use 

of chemicals that may have an environmental impact by 2020. Companies can also set qualitative goals such 

as educating their customers to help them minimize product impact; remediating and restoring watersheds 

and ecosystems; and engaging with suppliers to help them improve water stewardship. Such actions can 

deliver significant benefits for companies: for example, Adidas AG report cost savings from requiring 

suppliers to use approved bluesign chemicals, reducing the need to test upstream suppliers and lowering 

operating costs and Kering have developed a Chemical Management Framework to serve as a standard for 

their brands and suppliers. 

105


There some excellent examples of proactive action from textiles companies, but the sector can do more to 

address its growing impact on water resources. Meaningful targets are needed to address the specific issues 

that face the textiles sector, such as water pollution and contamination. As regulation on the textiles industry 

tightens, companies will have to practice good water management to remain competitive and ensure that 

they retain their social license to operate. 

106

The ZDHC wastewater discharge guideline for the textile industry 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. John Rydzewski, United States, Nike, Inc. 

Mr. Stefan Seidel, Germany, Puma 

Mr. Germann Garcia Ibanez, Spain, Inditex 

Ms. Rachel Wallace, Netherlands, ZDHC 

Highlights 

First of kind guideline to set pass/fail reporting limits and standardizes testing methods for 15 

targeted classes of hazardous chemicals 

 

 

Defines equivalence among various national standards and regulations for traditional wastewater 

parameters 

Creates a three-tiered system to drive continuous improvement on traditional wastewater 

parameters for direct dischargers 


In the apparel and footwear industry, most manufacturing processes use water and generate wastewater 

that requires treatment before reuse or discharge. Treatment processes often are developed to align with 

effluent discharge parameters dictated by regulations that govern the receiving waterbody or centralized 

wastewater treatment. Many countries have developed wastewater discharge regulations, some specific to 

the textile industry, which reduce the potential for human health issues and/or negative environmental 

impacts. Leading consumer brands in the textile and apparel industry have recognized an opportunity to 

drive performance beyond existing regulations and guidelines; and to address 15 classes of hazardous 

chemicals. 


In the apparel and footwear industry, most manufacturing processes use water and generate wastewater 

that requires treatment before reuse or discharge. Treatment processes often are developed to align with 

effluent discharge parameters dictated by regulations that govern the receiving waterbody or centralized 

wastewater treatment. Many countries have developed wastewater discharge regulations, some specific to 

the textile industry, which reduce the potential for human health issues and/or negative environmental 

impacts. Leading consumer brands in the textile and apparel industry have recognized an opportunity to 

drive performance beyond existing regulations and guidelines; and to address 15 classes of hazardous 

chemicals. 


Through the years, some multi-brand consortia and individual brands have undertaken the development of 

manufacturing facility wastewater discharge guidelines for locations at which wastewater discharge 

standards have not yet matured or were considered insufficient. Despite efforts devoted to developing 

wastewater discharge regulations, there is no single industry-standard guideline that attempts to standardize 

discharge criteria and define equivalence among testing methods. Leading textile and footwear brands, in 

conjunction with the Roadmap to Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) Program, identified an 

opportunity where the global supply chain for the footwear and apparel industry would benefit greatly from 

a single, industry-standard discharge guideline with standardized analytical methods for monitoring 

wastewater quality. In response to brands’ own concerns – and those by raised by civil society organizations 

– about water pollution and the use of hazardous chemicals, leading brands and the ZDHC collaborated with 

global wastewater treatment experts and civil society organizations to develop wastewater a discharge 

107

quality guideline for the apparel and footwear industry. This guideline goes beyond regulatory compliance to 

help ensure wastewater discharges do not adversely affect the environment or the surrounding 

communities, and is the first in the world to develop pass/fail criteria for 15 classes of hazardous chemicals. 


In December 2016, the ZDHC released to the public first official version of ZDHC Wastewater Discharge 

Guideline for the footwear and apparel industry, and is currently piloting the guideline. During World Water 

Week, we will discuss the methodology used for the development of the guideline, the results of the pilot, 

and next steps for the guideline. 

108

Wastewater management in Egyptian textile industry sector 

Presenting 

Author: 

Prof. Rifaat Abdel Wahaab, Egypt, Holding Co.for Water and 

Wastewater (HCWW) 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

The Egyptian textile industry is one of the corner stone of the Egyptian economic strategy. It has a major 

impact on the social economic and environment quality of life. It faces a challenging condition in the field of 

quality and productivity due to globalization of the world market. 


For the above mentioned reasons, better use of resources, pollution abatement and waste minimization, 

improved quality and productivity of textiles, cleaner production opportunities, enhancing the competitive 

edge by using innovative technologies, upgrading the scientific knowledge as well as ecological and 

technological capabilities of the human resources, in addition to strength the partnership between textile 

sector and R&D institutions to make innovative happen as well as inclusion of all stakeholders throughout 

the corporate value chain are the most important priorities of Egyptian textile industry to stay competitive 

in the long-term and helps to ensure sustainable development and create new jobs. 


The current study intends to search how the Egyptian textile industry can be motivated to reduce their 

wastewater pollution through implementing process integrated improvements and abatement technologies. 

In the past several improvements projects in the Egyptian textile industry have taken place demonstrating 

the viability of the approach of Resource Efficiency and Cleaner Productions. Also as wastewater treatment 

technology is widely applied in the wet textile processing industry worldwide the question remains how the 

textile industry can be motivated to implement these technologies to the extent required. 


The present study shows that there are several aspects under which the Egyptian industry operates which 

should favour its sustainable development: 

1. Rising prices of resources which will stimulate their efficient use; 

2. Several improvement programmes and service providers demonstrating the viability of resource 

efficiency, quality improvement and other technological and managerial improvements; 

3. An extensive strategy by the Egyptian government to expand (and modernizing?) the textile 

industry; 

4. Laws and regulations addressing the various aspects of sustainability; 

5. The desire to increase export to European countries and US which will require a higher level of 

quality products; 

6. Increasing awareness of retailers and brands on sustainability issues in their supply chain; 

7. Various business driven initiatives focusing on improving the textile supply chain and notably the 

social circumstances in the RMG and banned chemicals in wet textile processing and finishing. 

It is worth to highlight that improved technology and equipment operations, metering of resource 

consumption, monitoring and implementation of RECP recommendations in utility, process and waste 

managements may reduce water consumption on average with 40% and energy with 20%. These both case 

study and lesson learnt have been replicated in other industrial establishments within textile industry sector. 

109


The study is highly recommend cleaner production opportunities, and at the same time reduce pollutants 

concentrations in the final effluent. Accordingly, the following few pollution prevention opportunities were 

recommended: 

1. Tight closing of dyestuff containers in the chemical store. 

2. Replacement of acetic acid by formic acid. 

3. Combining the after “full bleaching or dyeing” neutralization-softening steps in one bath. 

4. Expanding the use of bi-functional reactive dyestuffs 

110

Poster: Sustainable management practices to the textile industry for 

growing economy 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Sohail Ali Naqvi, Pakistan, WWF-Pakistan 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

This paper demonstrates the analysis of implementation of agreements (MEAs) and linkage with local 

standards in the textile sector of Pakistan. This project also highlights the sustainable practices in the textile 

industry to reduce the water consumption as well as wastewater production in processes with cost-benefit 

analysis. 


Pakistan has ratified a number of international conventions to improve its position in global market. Textile 

industry in Pakistan contributes 8.5% of the country’s GDP and 52% in exports. However, majority of the 

industry is unable to implement the MEAs and don’t know the linkage of international standards with locals. 

This sector also consumes more water and discharges pollution to water bodies without any treatment. This 

project will devise some practices which will make this sector resource efficient as well as develop linkage 

between international and local standards. 


We have engaged different groups of textile sectors from weaving to textile processing and did our analysis 

on the implementation of Multi-environmental agreements (MEAs) in the industrial sector. We also 

conducted surveys for the water consumption per process and wastewater production in the textile sector. 

On the basis of our observations, some practices (Smart Environmental Management Practices) were devised 

for those industrial sectors to adopt and become resource efficient with cost-benefit analysis. Some 

techniques of water replenishment were also suggested from the treated or recycled water to reduce the 

load on the water reserves 


Our analysis revealed that there is a gap of implementation of MEAs on ground because of unawareness 

among industries. There is a dire need of alignment of local standards with MEAs as a number of industries 

are complying local standards which also contribute to the MEAs but a clear linkage is needed. Pakistan has 

ratified many international agreements which links directly or indirectly to industrial compliance but 

industries are unable to understand. 

The survey of industrial sector also showed that there are a series of recommendations for textile industry 

to adopt for becoming water efficient named Smart Environmental Management Practices (SEMPs). These 

SEMPs comprise of a wide range of techniques for water management with short term to long term solutions 

such as from floor washing, reuse of wastewater to technical solution within process like Mercerization 

process, dyeing bath etc. This analysis also showed the estimated cost of each intervention with benefits and 

payback period. The case study revealed that if an industry invests upto 100,000 Euros in different 

interventions, it could save more than 110,000 m 3 of water on annual basis with a reduction of 10-15% of 

pollution and a payback period of upto 10 months. 

111


The alignment of the local standards with the multi-environmental agreements will make it easy for the 

textile industry to understand and implement on ground. The adoption of SEMPs in textile industries will 

reduce the resources consumption in the processes as well as increase the production which will be leading 

towards the economic benefits and productivity of the country. The SEMPs practices are one of the solutions 

of the problem and could be used as guidelines for industries. By arranging training sessions, the compliance 

of environmental standards and SEMPs implementation could be made more clear to the industrial sector. 

112

Seminar: Opportunities and limits to 

water pollution regulations 

Photo: iStock 





113

Seminar: Opportunities and limits to water pollution regulations 

Contents 

Agrochemical use in Argentine farming and its impact on water - Legal implications ...... 115 

An operator’s views on wastewater regulations around the world ................................... 117 

Integrating water footprint assessment into regulations to meet policy goals ................ 119 

Policy strategies for contaminants of emerging concern in water ......................................121 

To a paradigm shift in water quality and safety assessment ............................................... 123 

Wastewater management regulations: challenges and opportunities for Africa .............. 125 

Poster: Integrated management of industrial effluents in Montevideo - Uruguay ........... 127 

Poster: Water quality and climate change: Science supply vs. demand ............................. 129 

114

Agrochemical use in Argentine farming and its impact on water - Legal 

implications 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Clara Maria Minaverry, Argentina, National Cousel for 

Scientific and Technical Research, University of Buenos Aires 

and National University of Lujan 

Prof. Raul Matranga, Argentina, National University of Lujan 

Ms. Melina Macrini, Argentina, National University of Lujan 

Highlights 

Sustainable Development Goal N° 6 (3) states that by 2030, we must improve water quality by reducing 

pollution, and minimize chemicals release. 

On the contrary in Argentina, Buenos Aires Provincial Congress is analyzing a bill of law which reduces 

agricultural herbicides use distances between fields and households, without protecting water. 


Agriculture is the main activity developed in Argentina, and in 2016 a bill of law was partially aproved by 

Buenos Aires Provincial Congress focusing on “exclusion zones”. It fixes a distance of 500 meters for 

agricultural spraying, but is reduced to a 100 meters for the most toxic products, and to 10 meters for 

moderate chemicals. 

The purpose of this paper is to analyze regulations and jurisprudence regarding agrochemical use in 

Argentina. 

The spatial scope chosen was from 2008 until present, where we started to analyse jurisprudence from a 

selection of argentine provinces. 


Exploratory phase: 

We compiled regulations and jurisprudence about agrochemical use in farming activities in a selection of 

provinces of Argentina (Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Cordoba). We followed the direct documental 

observation and the legal hermeneutics methods. 

Descriptive phase: 

The information taken before was categorized in order to elaborate a description of provincial “cases”. 

Analytical phase: 

The documental analysis implemented was used to ascertain legal principles and decisions, in order to find 

strengths and weakness which are described at the conclusions. 


Sante Fe Province (Peralta case law): 

In 2009, judicial courts forbidded agrochemicals spraying in this province, having to apply a distance of 800 

meters from houses and of 1500 meters if it was air spraying, due to neibourhoods complaints. 

This case described the “environmental paradigm” and recognized nature as a “subject of law”, and gave 

more importance to collective goods than to individual ones. It also stated that neighbours were not obliged 

to demonstrate their damages, and that Public Administration should provide a technical report (prepared 

by a university) showing agrochemical toxicity levels within a period of 6 months. 

Cordoba province (Gabrielli case law): 

In 2012 a Criminal Court sentenced to 3 years of conditional prison to a farmer and to the pilot who sprayed 

agrochemicals in a rural area. The first one was condemned as author of the environmental pollution crime 

115

which is regulated by the hazardous waste law, and the pilot was sentenced as co-author. Both were disabled 

to manage these toxic products and also were obliged to comply with community work. 

One of the most important issues was that courts applied the “Precautionary Principle” in all the analyzed 

jurisprudence, and they declared that scientific uncertainty about environmental risks could provoke 

irreversible damages to people and nature. 


In rural areas in Argentina, agrochemicals spraying is frequent in order to maximize agricultural performance. 

The main concern is that at the north of Buenos Aires province, researchers are starting to find herbicides in 

rivers and streams, affecting water quality and threatening human health. 

Nowadays Argentina does not have specific regulations in all provinces, so judicial courts and citizens claims 

are developing a leading role in order to minimize environmental damage. Some social researchers question 

whether if it is suitable or not to apply criminal sanctions. Our country model is a key issue and might be a 

limitation in order to achieve a natural equilibrium. 

116

An operator’s views on wastewater regulations around the world 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Nicolas Le Poder, Belgium, Northern Europe zone 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

The challenges facing wastewater systems stakeholders are to efficiently collect and treat wastewater while 

reducing energy, maximizing water reuse and recovering materials at best cost, speed and environmental 

efficiency. Global operators such as Veolia are benefit from seeing how different regulations generate 

different kind of results over time. 


Initially, wastewater discharge regulations are characterized by stringent discharge permits, and 

corresponding requirements for processes, such as secondary treatment or other best available 

technologies. As conditions in the country improve, regulations are expanded with more tailored approaches 

to understand and address impacts on the receiving waters. There is better identification of pollution 

sources, such as distinctions between industrial vs. municipal. Regulators then move beyond mainly 

enforcement actions, taking more complex and targeted action, which may be translated into proactive fiscal 

incentives or more command and control approaches. 


Veolia actively partakes in bidding for construction or operations of wastewater facilities in nearly all 

countries, ranging from developing to more mature economies. This diverse experience offers a perspective 

to compare situations with different regulatory approaches. From this perspective gathered from their own 

experience or from technology transfers, the authors compare regulatory challenge experiences from 

various geographies. 

The authors will focus more so on the different kind of results obtained and trends noted over time with a 

given a regulatory approach than on evaluation of short term results. 


The authors have become familiar with the tools and approaches that regulatory authorities use around the 

world, and the resulting variations in the speed and degree of effectiveness in meeting objectives. Examples 

of different situations in western and central Europe and elsewhere in the world where Veolia is constructing 

or operating wastewater treatment facilities are described in regard to local regulation and local 

environmental objectives. 

Some examples such as in France,Germany, or Japan demonstrate how environmental objectives have been 

continuously upgraded over time by plant refurbishment and upgrades, or operational improvement, or 

often a combination of both. 

Other examples such as in Eastern or southern Europe or in China illustrate the achievement of meeting 

environmental objectives in a limited amount of time. 

Going forward, compliance will mean addressing increasingly more stringent requirements that include a 

wider range and scope of environmental impacts such as water scarcity (such as in Africa and middle east) or 

GHG emissions. Minimizing these more global impacts means contending with differing regulations. 

117


Pollution control options are influenced by the level of ambition of the local authorities, and reflect an 

understanding of pollution impacts, desired level of pollution control, compliance timelines, and the 

economic capacity of the country and trust in its development capacity. Countries usually first opt for 

traditional and basic wastewater treatment requirements, as SDG Goal 6 suggests: and even this fundamental 

approach can take a decade to implement. Over time, more tailored and diverse approaches are necessary 

to deal with an increasingly uncertain future, and to deal with longer time frames because stakeholder 

support becomes the determining time factor 

118

Integrating water footprint assessment into regulations to meet policy 

goals 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr Christopher Briggs, Executive Director, the Water Footprint 

Network 

Dr. Ertug Ercin, Netherlands, Water Footprint Network 

Ms. Ruth Mathews, Netherlands, Water Footprint Network 

Dr. Guoping Zhang, Netherlands 

Giuseppe Frapporti, United Kingdom, UK Environmental 

Agency 

Mesfin Mekonnen 

Highlights 

A new regulatory framework integrating water footprint indicators into water abstraction licences and 

effluent discharge permits was developed with UK Environmental Agency to help achieve policy goals. By 

including both water consumption and water quality indicators, this holistic framework will be instrumental 

in allocating pollution loads while protecting the environment. 


Current regulations regarding water abstraction and effluent discharges and good compliance rates may not 

be sufficient to protect water quality. A holistic approach that embraces water pollution and consumption 

under a single framework is needed to understand the sources of problems and to guide the formulation and 

implementation of regulations that meet policy goals. Water Footprint Assessment was used to understand 

the underlying water management and allocation issues driving poor water quality in both surface and 

groundwater and to identify a new regulatory framework that can help the agency solve seasonal and local 

water pollution problems. 


To develop a new regulatory scheme that supports sustainable development, we applied Water Footprint 

Assessment in 35 sub-catchments located in the UK Environment Agency’s Hertfordshire North London 

(HNL) Area. We first calculated green, blue and grey water footprints for the domestic, industrial and 

agricultural sectors on a monthly basis for both surface and groundwater. Next, we evaluated monthly blue 

water scarcity and water pollution levels for surface and groundwater to assess the sustainability of the water 

footprints. Furthermore, we applied a wet and dry climate change scenarios and demographic changes to 

predict changes in pollution loads for the year 2060. 


Thirty-four percent of the sub-catchments in UK Environment Agency’s Hertfordshire North London Area 

have significant or severe annual average surface water pollution levels. The primary contribution to these 

high levels of pollution is coming from the discharge of treated effluent from sewage treatment works. Three 

sub-catchments have a significant or severe annual average groundwater pollution level, largely due to the 

recharge or infiltration of treated effluent. Based on the Water Footprint Assessment results, a new 

regulatory scheme for wastewater discharge permits and water abstraction licenses was proposed that uses 

blue water scarcity and water pollution levels in a sub-catchment to approve an application with conditions 

or reject it entirely. The conditions reflect the intra- and inter-annual variability of water availability as well as 

differences between point and non-point source pollution. This approach will better respect the spatial and 

temporal variability of water resources and will better integrate water management for water quantity and 

quality, and for surface and groundwater. By using a single indicator, the water footprint, to assess water 

consumption and pollution, the study provided insight into the role of water management and the existing 

regulatory framework in failing to meet policy goals for water quality and environmental protection. 

119


Our analysis showed that Water Footprint Assessment and in particular, water pollution levels can provide a 

basis for regulatory reform at the catchment level. The grey water footprint and water pollution levels can 

be instrumental in managing cumulative effects of point and nonpoint source pollutant discharges. Most 

importantly, using a common metric for water quantity and quality management enables integration across 

surface and groundwater, scarcity and pollution. Next steps of setting water footprint maximum sustainable 

limits, equitable allocations and improved water efficiency will support further improvements in managing 

water resources sustainably now and into the future. 

120

Policy strategies for contaminants of emerging concern in water 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Florence Metz, Switzerland, University of Bern, Institute of 

Political Science 

Prof. Karin Ingold, Switzerland, University of Bern, Institute of 

Political Science 

Ms. Laura Herzog, Switzerland, University of Bern, Switzerland 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Overview of policies in selected countries regarding contaminants of emerging concern to water 

quality 

Results from an international survey with public, private, and civic actors about preferences 

regarding command-and-control, market-based, and persuasive instruments 

Results on actors’ support for proactive or reactive approaches to deal with uncertainties related to 

emerging pollutants 


With growing awareness about newly detected, but unregulated, pollutants in waterbodies, the question 

arises of how to politically address these emerging issues to water quality. While traditional policy responses 

to water protection reach their limits, new wastewater treatment technologies and innovative monitoring, 

screening, and modelling techniques offer promising pathways to secure water quality in the future. This 

contribution provides an overview about countries’ and policy actors’ responses to new challenges in water 

protection by presenting results from a research project conducted in Switzerland, France, Germany, and the 

Netherlands. Results support future regulation decisions in this emerging field of water protection. 


Which policies do countries adopt for contaminants of emerging concern? How can policy-makers reach 

agreements that ensure water protection? We evaluated policy designs of Switzerland, France, Germany, and 

the Netherlands with a 6-item index, and analysed networked policy processes that promote water 

protection agreements. 

Which policy instruments do actors support to address emerging pollutants? Which strategies do actors 

pursue when they face uncertainties related to substances with unknown hazardous consequences? We 

conducted an international survey with 110 public and private actors involved in water policymaking and 

analyzed preferences towards command-and-control, market-based, persuasive instruments, proactive and 

reactive strategies. 


While Switzerland has integrated new wastewater technologies into legislation, countries like Germany, 

France, and the Netherlands have focused on alternative policy strategies including persuasive, commandand-control, 

or economic instruments. To explain these policy variations, we analyzed actors’ policy 

instrument preferences, their way of dealing with uncertainties in policymaking, and network constellations. 

Instrument preferences of Swiss policy actors, for example, show that support for command-and-control or 

voluntary instruments exceed market-based approaches for reducing emerging pollutants in water. In the 

Swiss case, most of the actors support precautionary action as an appropriate policy strategy to deal with 

remaining uncertainties. Actors agree on the fact that addressing the source of the pollution problem, and 

thereby avoiding the input of pollutants into waterbodies, is an appropriate way of dealing with 

micropollutants. By contrast, Swiss actors are divided when it comes to technological solutions which 

address pollution end-of-pipe. Network constellations show that improvements in wastewater treatment, 

121

nevertheless, represent a pragmatic policy compromise on which environmentalists and sceptics could agree 

in the Swiss case. Similar results will be presented for the German, French, and Dutch cases in a comparative 

perspective. 


While contaminants of emerging concern to the aquatic environment remain largely unregulated, this 

contribution provides an overview about policies adopted by the Rhine riparian states, as those are 

forerunners in this new policy field of water protection. Findings reveal that collaborative governance 

supports actors in dealing with uncertainties and promotes regulatory innovations in water protection on 

the national and international level. Collaborative arrangements contribute to effective water protection 

policies when they incentivize concerned actors to exchange and form dominant water protection coalitions, 

promote policy entrepreneurship, and enable strong brokers to mediate during negotiations. 

122

To a paradigm shift in water quality and safety assessment 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr Armelle Hebert, Veolia, France 

Dr. Stephanie Rinck-Pfeiffer, Australia, Global Water Research 

Coalition (GWRC) 

Dr. Beate Escher, Germany 

Frederic Leusch, Australia, Griffith University 

Highlights 

Endocrine disruption 

in vitro bioassays 

safety assessment framework 


Bioanalytical tools hold great promise as an additional tool of our current water monitoring strategies. In 

vitro bioassays, which are increasingly being applied in water quality assessment, provide relevant and robust 

predictive biosystems able to specifically and quantitatively measure early adverse effects of contaminants 

in water, including providing a measure of mixture effect, even in low doses, where individual components 

of the mixture alone would not show an effect. They provide comprehensive and high-throughput 

monitoring systems for a wide range of water contaminants, without the use of experimental animals. 


Smart combinations of chemical & biological analytics can lead to reduced uncertainty in safety assessments, 

especially with regards to endocrine disruption, oxidative stress as other relevant primary adverse outcome 

pathways triggered by environmental mixtures of water micropollutants. 

Recent international projects delivered several methodological advances leading to a comprehensive 

framework including the most promising panel of assays and expanded effect-based trigger values (EBT) for 

both drinking and environmental waters (GWRC Endocrine Toolbox II, FP7 DEMEAU, FP7 Solutions, BRAVE 

initiative). These innovations could contribute to strengthen the safety of conventional water treatment 

plants and be integrated in future regulations. 


They also could provide robust monitoring frameworks to promote alternative water schemes as promoted 

by the Blue Print Initiative in Europe to better safeguard water resources and the WHO Potable Reuse 

Guidance document. 

While leading players in Australia, Europe and US recommend to incorporate predictive tools in the water 

cycle regulatory monitoring (Water Research Australia, US (CA), Canada, RIVM, EAWAG, KWR, UFZ, EU-JRC 

and EU DG-Env, WHO and GWRC), these bioanalytical tools need to be more comprehensively validated and 

benchmarked across the entire water cycle and against human and ecological health outcomes before they 

can be adopted in regulatory frameworks. A critical next step will be to derive further EBT for an expanded 

scope of bioassay endpoints. Several strategies for the derivation of EBT have been proposed but there 

remains a lack of acceptance and harmonization across the field to allow better acceptance of these 

innovative water quality and safety frameworks. 

Covering a wide range of issues including water quality and quantity management and the management of 

water-related risks, the OECD is endeavouring to capture science as policy recommendations that derive from 

its past and recent work on water in a single, consistent and action-oriented policy. 

123


By hosting a collaborative task-force or expert working group including GWRC experts and gathering 

international organizations such as WHO, UNESCO and the OECD we can get to benchmark these new effectbased 

trigger values, and contribute to the water challenge by targeting Water effect-based standards. 

Complementary tasks could also be taken up by such Science to Policy interface as a supportive action to 

better explain and disseminate the associated benefits for stakeholders as citizen towards their health 

protection, municipalities and local authorities, water professionals and institutional bodies. 

124

Wastewater management regulations: challenges and opportunities for 

Africa 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Clever Mafuta, Norway, GRID-Arendal 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

With as much as 65% of residents in some African urban centres living in slums, management of wastewater 

needs creative policies that are attractive to investors while at the same time facilitating a habitable 

environment for residents. Africa lacks adequate infrastructure for wastewater management and adequate 

sanitation provision. 


The presentation will be based on preliminary findings from a project that seeks to identify opportunities for 

investment in wastewater management and sanitation delivery in Africa. This is a joint project by the Africa 

Development Bank, UN Environment and GRID-Arendal. 

The objectives of the paper are to: 

1. note Africa's infrastructure needs for wastewater management; 

2. highlight pollution levels due to wastewater; 

3. analyse policy arrangements for wastewater management and sanitation delivery in Africa, and 

point out success stories for up-scaling and replication; and 

4. suggest policy options for Africa. 


The Drivers-Pressure-State-Impact-Response framework will be used in a desk research that addresses the 

following questions: 

1. What is the state of wastewater pollution in Africa? 

2. Where and by who is the bulk of wastewater generated? 

3. What are the regulatory solutions to wastewater management, and are these adequate? 

4. What are the human and ecosystem impacts of poor wastewater management in Africa? 

5. Where are successes in wastewater management in Africa, and how can this be up-scaled or 

replicated? 

6. Why is new investment needed in wastewater management in Africa, and will it profitable. 


Africa has made little progress in attaining sanitation goals as defined by the just concluded Millennium 

Development Goals. This is partly due to increased levels and inadequate infrastructure for wastewater and 

sanitation management. The population without an improved sanitation facility in 2015 had increased by 289 

million since 1990 (with about 52% living in rural areas); and only 248 million people gained access during the 

period. The situation is compounded by rapid urbanization and high rates of population growth (population 

is expected to double by 2050 to over 2 billion people). Moreover, in sub-Saharan Africa, as much as 65 per 

cent of some urban dwellers live in informal settlements. Together with increased industrialisation, and 

exposure to climate change, the situation puts the health of people, water resources and ecosystems at risk; 

and threatens economic development. As such, huge efforts are needed to ensure greater access to 

improved sanitation, including better management of wastewater. 

125

Cases from Burkina Faso indicate that investment in both sanitation and wastewater management can be 

profitable for both private and public investment. Such investment needs to be supported by a wellfunctioning 

regulatory system. 


In as much as poor wastewater management and sanitation delivery is a health issue, it is also an opportunity 

for investment. As long as there is a conducive regulatory framework such investment can be profitable. It is 

therefore recommended that local and central authorities be more creative in providing regulations that 

allow for investment while at the same time addressing human and environmental needs. 

126

Poster: Integrated management of industrial effluents in Montevideo - 

Uruguay 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Alicia Stella Raffaele Vázquez, Uruguay, Government of 

Montevideo. 

Mr. Hernán Méndez, Uruguay, Government of Montevideo 

Ms. Mary Yafalián, Uruguay, Government of Montevideo 

Ms. Antuanet Calero, Uruguay, Government of Montevideo 

Highlights 

Montevideo, the smallest of the 19 political/administrative divisions of the Republic of Uruguay, concentrates 

most of the country's industries and service activities, and almost half of the country's population. 

Main contamination sources are: domestic sewage, industrial effluents and solid waste disposal. 


Montevideo’s water courses network is composed by a large amount of surface water courses. The streams, 

Pantanoso and Miguelete and the Bay of Montevideo, are very important because they are closely linked to 

human activities. 

The high degree of contamination found in the city's water courses, originates mainly from the dumping of 

sewage and industrial effluent, and the indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes. 

The main objectives of the City government programs and policies are directed towards: 

 

 

Optimizing technical resources (public and private) and identifying weaknesses and strengths. 

Reducing pollution loads contributed by Montevideo's industries. 

Working in a holistic manner, with the continuous participation of the community. 

We largely met the objectives, particularly in reducing pollution loads. 


The Industrial Effluent Monitoring Program is complementary to the Program of Water Bodies and 

Environment and Education, initiated in the year 1997. Previously, a municipal regulation, the “Industrial 

Pollution Reduction Plan” (Resolution number 761/96), was carried out gradually, thus allowing its adoption 

by small businesses that could not afford large investments in a short period of time. 

The companies responsible for 90% of the pollution of Industrial origin in Montevideo, according to their 

actual or potential contribution to such pollution, are included in the Industrial Effluent Monitoring Program, 

and are grouped into prioritization categories. 


By the end of 2015, the greatest contribution to industrial pollution (88%) was attributable to 23 companies, 

and their relationship in the total pollution loads were: 88% flow, 77% oils and fats, 88% BOD5, 97% Sulphides, 

95% Chromium, 83% Lead. 

Since the start of the program, there has been a significant expansion of industries’ activities and to a lesser 

extent, of the industrial discharge flow. 

However, industrial restructuring, the implementation of quality systems and environmental management, 

the monitoring and control together with civic monitoring, have achieved important reductions of 

contamination loads. 

There is a growing public interest and citizen’s participation has increased thanks to a well targeted campaign 

through social networks, a more visible complaint handling system online and the establishment and training 

of environmental commissions comprised of experts, members of the public, and non-profit organizations. 

127

This prompted improvements in the relationship between industries and the community. The industries 

became more open in their relationship with the population, thus driving more and better information. 

The implementation of the program has also involved job creation (oriented towards supporting technical 

areas of environmental affairs): preparation of technical reports, works or reforms required, and others. 

Furthering these industrial effluent control efforts to recover watercourses and to improve the 

environmental quality of Montevideo and its habitants, management system and public works’ plans were 

implemented for: construction of health infrastructure, rehabilitation of networks and interceptors, and 

elimination of uncontrolled discharges of waste and other pollutants into water streams. 


The Industrial Effluent Monitoring Program is an innovative action for the city and its inhabitants, and it has 

been very helpful as a tool for solving contamination problems in Montevideo. 

It is an element that marks an improvement in terms of industrial waste treatments and water quality, and 

could be used as a benchmark and a framework to resolve city problems in other areas and in other citys. 

It has had a positive overall impact that has challenged the traditional status quo in the city, and given that 

the modality of work is based on the coordination and efficient use of resources (a priority for countries with 

economic shortfalls such as ours), it permits the creation of a foundation for new policies and management 

strategies, and contributes to sustainability in departmental government management. 

128

Poster: Water quality and climate change: Science supply vs. demand 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Meghan Klasic, United States, University of California, 

Davis 

Dr. Julie Ekstrom, United States, Policy Institute of Energy, 

Environment and the Economy 

Dr. Mark Lubell, United States, University of California, Davis 

Highlights 

1. Climate change science and management overwhelmingly focuses on water quantity instead of 

water quality 

2. There are gaps between water quality and climate change science supply and demand 

3. Comparing on-the-ground managerial experience with peer-reviewed and published science helps 

inform future water quality and climate change policy making 


As a first line of defense on public health and safety, water resource practitioners must consider water quality 

in long-term climate change planning. While current science shows that water is a major factor in discussions 

around extreme events, it disproportionately focuses on the linkage with supply and availability rather than 

quality. Water quality threats from extreme events, such as drought and wildfire, are becoming more 

commonplace, globally affecting drinking, food production, and ecosystem health. To begin understanding 

why water quality and extreme events are not prioritized, this study compares threats identified by California 

drinking water system managers with published science. 


The overarching research question is how can science meet the needs of resource managers? More 

specifically we are concerned with long-term water quality and climate change planning. Framing this study 

in terms of supply and demand, we compare survey results of California drinking water systems with the 

subset of published literature that addresses water quality and climate change in California. To determine 

whether supply meets demand, we compare the results using an alignment/misalignment typology. This 

methodological approach allows us to begin ground-truthing science supply to determine whether it is 

addressing the most appropriate challenges as identified by water practitioners. 


The survey and literature comparison considers surface water quality threats and groundwater quality 

threats separately. There are a total of 48 surface water quality -- extreme events combinations identified by 

California drinking water system managers. The surface water quality results show that 23 of the 48 water 

quality -- extreme events combinations have some level of misfit. The highest level of misfit shows that 

surface water salinity is linked with drought by 77% of survey respondents, while only 12% of publications 

mentioning salinity also mention drought. The surface water quality threat that most frequently shows some 

level of misfit is Eutrophication. Overwhelmingly, the majority of available literature on water quality and 

extreme events focuses on surface water. Additionally, every groundwater quality threat (6 identified in the 

survey) shows some level of misfit between demand and supply for at least one extreme event type. The 

linkage between agricultural contaminants and extreme storms is the largest misfit with 24% of respondents 

reporting a connection while 80% of articles mention a connection. While science production is often 

assumed to be addressing the most important challenges, our study questions this notion by attempting to 

ground-truth published science with managerial perspectives. 

129


The results question the assumption that science production inherently addresses the largest climate change 

impacts to drinking water quality by showing potential gaps between science supply and demand using onthe-ground 

experiences and available literature. While the results cannot be universally applied, this study 

does help us in beginning to understand why climate change planning may tend to overlook water quality in 

favor of availability and supply. As a next step, we are conducting case study interviews with drinking water 

managers throughout California to continue the discussion on water quality threats and climate change 

planning. 

130

Seminar: Governance of water and waste: 

a key to sustainable development? 

Photo: SIWI 





131

Seminar: Governance of water and waste: a key to sustainable 

development? 

Contents 

Addressing integrity risks in wastewater management: good and bad practices ..........13133 

Community-based integrated water resources management in Meghalaya ..................13135 

Embedding integrity in water and waste management through social accountability .. 13137 

Governance of sanitation: incentives for turning political will into action ..................... 13139 

Incorporating water governance in the annual monitoring and reporting framework .... 141 

Stakeholder engagement to improve community-scale wastewater system 

governance in Indonesia ........................................................................................................ 143 

Sustainable water governance in industrial symbiosis: the case of Kalundborg ............... 145 

Poster: Local leadership development: An example for locally-driven, sustainable 

waste management ............................................................................................................... 147 

Poster: Non-existent water supply regulators - Implications for sector governance ....... 149 

Poster: Performance measurement for effective regulation - Case of Indian urban 

water supplies ........................................................................................................................ 151 

Poster: Public-civil society incremental involvement in water governance in 

Latin America .......................................................................................................................... 153 

Poster: Tensions in rural water governance in the digital era ............................................. 155 

132

Addressing integrity risks in wastewater management: good and bad 

practices 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Frank van der Valk, Germany, Water Integrity Network 

Ms. Elske Koelman, Germany 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Integrity risks in the wastewater sector received little explicit attention till now. 

Integrity concerns related to urban, industrial and agricultural water pollution, and wastewater 

infrastructure are reviewed. 

Good and bad practices show the need and possibilities for more transparency, ac-countability, 

participation and anti-corruption action in wastewater management. 


Untreated wastewater is often discharged in rivers, lakes, drains or into the groundwater. Such illicit practices 

harm public health, crops and the environment, violate national and in-ternational rules and often occur in 

conjunction with corruption. 

This study provides a review of integrity issues in the wastewater sector, which thus far has received little 

systematic attention. A lack of data exists on the amount of treated and reused water, number of Integrity 

risks in relation to wastewater and treatment plants, including data on these, and good and bad practices in 

their management are documented. 


What are the key integrity concerns that need to be addressed when managing wastewater? How can these 

risks be mitigated? 

In light of the lack of information available on integrity risks in the wastewater sector, this study addresses 

the above stated research questions. Good and bad practices of wastewater management exist, but the 

integrity concerns associated with these cases have often not been studied. Desk research and case studies 

highlight the importance of tackling integrity concerns in the wastewater sector and demonstrate the need 

for more integrity when planning, implementing and monitoring urban, industrial and agricultural 

wastewater developments. 


The overview of integrity risks and case studies from the wastewater sector highlights hotspots in relation 

to urban, industrial and agricultural water pollution and wastewater infrastructure. When looking at 

wastewater governance, treatment and infrastructure development, integrity risks arise with the 

mismanagement of large investments. Corruption related to wastewater treatment projects can not only 

lead to large scale pollution but also to major delays in construction or abandonment of unfinished projects. 

Increasingly, wastewater reuse for agriculture is being institutionalized, yet the lack of trust in wastewater 

providers often inhibits such initiatives. The management of industrial waste also poses integrity concerns: 

industrial development is considered beneficial for local economies, leading to local government officials 

illegally tolerating the discharge of untreated wastewater or discharge of toxic chemicals. Enforcement of 

environmental protection laws can be increased when citizens are better informed about water quality levels. 

Ongoing initiatives promote transparency and participation in the sector. In Peru, INFObras combines 

information from implementing agencies about their physical progress on public works. Similarly, a UN-Water 

133

initiative proposes indicators to monitor progress regarding wastewater, water quality and water efficiency, 

providing a reference point for watchdogs and citizens to flag shortfall with regard to governmental 

commitments. 


Based on a range of good and bad practices, an overview is presented of integrity risks in wastewater 

management, and what can be done about these. It demonstrates that the lack of attention for integrity risks 

is a major impediment to progress. 

Different actors have to act responsibly to ensure wastewater management with integrity. Policy and 

practice coherence needs to be enhanced in governments, transparency and accountability is required from 

businesses demonstrating that they operating sustainably and are compliant with rules and regulations, and 

active citizens need to demand this account-ability and transparency from both government and private 

sector. 

134

Community-based integrated water resources management in Meghalaya 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Arvind Kumar, India, India Water Foundation 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Community-based integrated water resources management coupled with the water-energy-food nexus 

approach and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) to climate change have helped Meghalaya tide over its 

water crisis by harnessing storm water runoff and incur gainful tradeoffs via inward and outward linkages. 


Meghalaya, located in India’s Northeast region, enjoys a unique constitutional status where the ownership, 

control and management of water resources are driven by local customs and traditions of local communities. 

Water related laws and institutions have to be compatible with local communities. This research examines as 

to how participation of local communities have enabled the government institutional mechanism to 

implement various water related laws in managing storm water runoff and tackle the problem of water 

pollution for reuse, ensuring water and energy security. 


The research has adopted comparative and analytical tools of methodology and used mixed qualitative and 

quantitative methods including: a random rural household survey; focus group discussions with members of 

tribal communities, and interviews with water governance stakeholders at community, village and official 

institutional levels. The focus is on to analyse the outcome of IWRM, Nexus and ecosystem-based adaptation 

(EbA) approaches for sustainable development with water being at the core. 


Our findings based on field research and open source material reveal that community members in Meghalaya 

have played vital role in helping implementation of water related legislations through various types of 

institutional mechanism under the integrated water resource management under the flagship programme 

of Integrated Basin Development and Livelihood Programme (IBDLP). Storm water runoff is preserved in 

Jalkunds and multi-purpose reservoirs. Application of water-energy-food nexus approach has helped in 

ensuring security in water, energy and food sectors. Deployment of EbA has enabled the stakeholders to 

become resilient to climate change and water-induced calamities to some extent. Communities’ participation 

in managing water resources through IWRM, Nexus and EbA approaches have seemingly yielded fruitful 

outcomes in terms of conserving runoff storm water, preservation of soil from erosion, recycling polluted 

water for reuse, energy generation though small hydro projects, improvements in livelihoods and 

augmentation in irrigated area for cultivation etc. Increasing resilience to climate change and improved 

agricultural productivity has enhanced Meghalaya’s potentials in trans-boundary cooperation in the 

neighbourhood and Southeast Asia in managing natural resources and speedy realization of SDGs, especially 

SDG-1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7,8,13, 16 & 17. 

135


IWRM alone is not enough and it is to be applied in tandem with Nexus and EbA approaches. Keeping in view 

the unique constitutional status of Meghalaya, increasing role of communities along with their capacity 

building is required. Compatibility between legislation and local tribal customs and traditions is essential in 

managing water and other natural resources is the need of the hour. Undoubtedly, UN agencies and other 

international organizations are supporting Meghalaya; nevertheless, increased support is required to achieve 

the SDGs. 

136

Embedding integrity in water and waste management through social 

accountability 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Monica Chundama, Zambia, Action for Water 

Dr. Nick Hepworth, United Kingdom 

Mr. Tyler Farrow, Canada 

Mr. Gershom Pule, Zambia, Action for Water 

Highlights 

Social accountability for water security emphasises citizen engagement to activate IWRM institutions, hold 

duty bearers to account and advocate for change. Results demonstrate potential to improve services and 

promote integrity in the water and waste sectors. Zambian practitioners share impact, sustainability and 

scalability of the approach. 


Globally, water resource management institutions have been subject to waves of reform and capacity 

building in the wake of IWRM, yet the outcomes of these traditional approaches for equitable and sustainable 

resource use have been underwhelming. In response, social accountability interventions have emerged as a 

‘demand side’ approach towards improving water governance. This paper reports on the methodology and 

outcomes of this approach in Zambia. Results suggest that civil-society oversight and evidence based 

advocacy hold significant potential as mechanisms to improve the accountability of water management 

institutions and embed integrity in waste and water management. 


Social accountability monitoring for improved water security is being piloted in Zambia by Water Witness 

International and Action for Water through the Fair Water Futures initiative. The methodology involves a 

participatory approach to identify and work with vulnerable water users, helping them to understand their 

rights and the statutory duties of WRM institutions, and to ‘activate’ law and policy to ensure protection of 

the water they depend upon. By tracking responses to community activation and analysing how financial and 

human resources are used in the sector, the project provides compelling evidence to advocate for improved 

sector performance. 


The learning centred methodology ensures that changes driven by social accountability monitoring at the 

local and national level are traced from intervention baseline. This approach generates triangulated evidence 

on the efficacy of the approach, and how it can be adapted to drive maximum benefits for sustainable and 

equitable waste and water management. The team, with support through multi-stakeholder validation have 

generated the following results and lessons: 

 

 

 

Fair Water Futures in Zambia has empowered vulnerable people to improve their water security 

status, by helping them demand better services from government duty bearers. 

Activation of water law and policy has generated focused government action to address problems 

identified, ranging from urban groundwater pollution, water quality problems associated with 

mining, severe drought and conflict over water resources. 

Root cause analysis of water security challenges has diagnosed the most severe bottlenecks facing 

effective institutional action on waste and water management. 

137

The dearth of funding and human resources facing institutions such as the Water Resource 

Management Authority and the Zambia Environmental Management Agency stand as key barriers 

to effective waste and water management in Zambia. 

The work generated an evidence base upon which to advocate for system change to improve waste 

and water management. 


In conclusion, social accountability monitoring coupled with budget analysis and evidence-based advocacy 

offers a powerful approach for improving accountability, integrity and delivery in the water and waste subsectors. 

The approach holds considerable potential as means for civil society and communities to support 

government in the implementation of SDG 6. Further analysis of the transferability of such ‘demand-side’ 

approaches is recommended to explore the scalability to other contexts for improved governance and 

implementation of integrated water resources management. 

138

Governance of sanitation: incentives for turning political will into action 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Andrés Hueso, Spain, WaterAid 

Mr. Nathaniel Mason, United Kingdom, ODI 

Highlights 

 

 

To turn political will into action and accelerated sanitation progress, governments need to cascade 

political prioritisation and invest in timely course correction to address bottlenecks. 

Linking sanitation with values of modernity and cultural heritage and political and professional 

return are critical incentives shaping these processes 


In a change from historical trends, more and more governments are voicing their commitment to 

achievement of universal access to sanitation. However, to achieve these ambitions and achieve the 

sanitation target of the Sustainable Development Goals, governments need to move beyond rhetorical 

political will. To do so, one essential step is to translate this high-level political commitment into prioritisation 

of sanitation across government levels and departments, and into course correction processes that enable 

identification of and adaptation to implementation challenges. In this presentation, we analyse the incentives 

that shape these processes and suggest ways to turn political will into action. 


The research presented tried to explore how countries tried to translate high-level political commitment into 

prioritisation and course correction happens. We visited three countries and focused on the role of incentives 

in shaping this process as a way to understand the political economy behind it. We looked at three subsectors 

where there is evidence of a certain degree of high-level political commitment: urban sanitation in Indonesia, 

and rural sanitation in Ethiopia and India. We spent a week in each country, doing key informant interviews 

and field visits. 


Two main types of incentives shape the translation of high-level political commitment into prioritisation. 

First, there are incentives that work by aligning sanitation with the world views of elected leaders, officials 

and implementers through an appealing narrative. They are encouraged to ask themselves “Do I believe in 

this cause?” and to play their part. 

Second, there are incentives that created political buy-in through the prospect of personal and professional 

advantage – “What is in it for me?” – tapping into desires for political gains, career advancement, and 

personal renown. 

Other incentives were hindering prioritisation, such as imbalances in the decentralisation process, and 

differences of power and status between different departments involved in sanitation. 

Turning to course correction, although incentives linked to world views have a positive influence, 

professional and political advantage represent a double-edged sword. They can increase the likelihood of 

stakeholders at lower levels sharing information from the ground for policy review. 

Sector reviews and other formal and informal learning mechanisms then play an important role in ensuring 

the information shared actually results in corrective action. However, interviewees reported that the 

excessive numbers of workshops and meetings disperse “attention and focus, with most stakeholders 

limiting their level of participation”. 

139


Two key recommendations emerge: 

To cascade political prioritisation. How? 

Foster buy-in by aligning with the world views of key stakeholders, linking sanitation with notions of nationbuilding. 

Tap into personal aspirations, ensuring sanitation efforts result in recognition and career progression. 

Enlist influential figures to drive prioritisation. 

Work with the financial, legal and political realities of decentralisation. 

To invest in timely course correction to address bottlenecks. How? 

Invest in reliable verification systems. 

Nurture a culture of learning. 

Use informal sharing and reporting mechanisms that cut across hierarchies and enable a rapid information 

flow. 

Set up review mechanisms, ensuring quality over quantity. 

140

Incorporating water governance in the annual monitoring and reporting 

framework 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Rosemary Nakaggwa , Uganda, GIZ 

Mr. Gilbert Kimanzi, Uganda, Ministry of Water and 

Environment, Uganda 

Ms. Lotte Feuerstein, Germany, Water Integrity Network 

Highlights 

Developing dedicated indicators to measure, analyse and report on the quality of processes used in the sector 

to deliver services was our challenge. We did this through identification of critical areas of concern, raising 

awareness on governance processes that promote service delivery and aligning these with the Sustainable 

Development Goals. 


The Ministry of Water and Environment assigned the Good Governance Working Group to develop dedicated 

governance indicators. GIZ and WIN supported the process. The recognition that the sector needs to engage 

in monitoring the quality of governance propelled the Joint Sector Review of October 2015 and 

recommended the incorporation of governance in the sector’s performance monitoring framework. It 

specifically asked for an indicator to; (i) guide the analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of existing 

processes, (ii) guide the prioritization and targeting of resources by sector players, (iii) identify and make 

informed decisions that promote good governance. 


Our study focused on governance processes and aspects that have significant impact on water service 

delivery. The indicators were developed in a step-wise approach starting with the consultation and 

development of the project approach with the Good Governance Working Group. Establishment of a 

tentative set of indicators and identification of data sources and gaps was done. The final set of indicators 

was prioritised from a larger range of potential indicators in a participatory process. Criteria were established 

of relevancy, ease to identify, collect and monitor, regular availability of information/data, ease to compile, 

analyse and monitor through existing reporting structures. 


Our study resulted in indicators for measuring, monitoring and reporting of governance processes. The trend 

of governance performance can now be monitored and reviewed annually at the Sector Performance 

Review. Reference for capacity development and awareness raising is equally possible. The discussion of 

governance indicators has led to wide dissemination of information on audits, procurements and other 

indicators, as the sector gets more concerned with its spending priorities. Sector and Sub-Sector indicators 

informing on governance aspects are the following: 

1. Percentage implementation of the previous year ś audit recommendations of financial statements 

2. Average weighed procurement performance 

3. Percentage of Districts ́ budgets that reflect Civil Society Organizations ́ contributions 

4. Percentage of annual budget allocations, budget releases and actual expenditures in relation to 

sector funding needs’ priorities 

5. Percentage of Water User Committees/Water Boards/ Environmental management/ Water 

catchment management committees with women holding key positions 

141

6. Percentage of pro-poor facilities that provide water at a price less than or equal to the household 

tariff of the service area. 

7. National Water and Sewerage Corporation ś customer satisfaction index 

8. Percentage of gazetted water schemes and districts whose performance is published annually by 

the Regulation body 

9. Percentage of water for production facilities with actively functioning Water User Committees 

10. Percentage of permit holders complying with permit conditions 


Introducing good governance as one of the topics for discussion in the water sector has greatly promoted 

awareness and concern. Ministry Departments and sector partners are more concerned about their reports 

from the respective entities (Office of the Auditor General, Public Procurement and Disposal Authority) since 

the findings of these reports are further discussed by the sector under the governance indicators. 

Recommendations: Incorporation of governance indicators in the existing monitoring and reporting 

framework gives an added advantage other than creating parallel reporting structures. Similarly, the 

involvement of final custodians and data providers in the development of the indicator enabled streamlining 

for quality, relevant and easy to monitor indicators. 

142

Stakeholder engagement to improve community-scale wastewater system 

governance in Indonesia 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Cynthia Mitchell, Australia, Institute for Sustainable 

Futures, UTS 

Ms. Katie Ross, Australia 

Ms. Prasetyastuti Puspowardoyo, Indonesia, AKSANSI 

Ms. Maren Heuvels, Germany 

Highlights 

Highly collaborative research on community-scale wastewater governance in Indonesia built strong 

stakeholder participation at both national and local levels. This cooperation enabled practical insights that 

shaped the research outcomes. Communities, local and national governments, and NGOs are already using 

these insights to extend the success of decentralised wastewater systems. 


Urban wastewater management in densely populated, low income areas is challenging. Community scale 

wastewater systems serving 50-100 households offer an affordable way to manage public health and 

environmental hazards of untreated urban wastewater, and are a significant element in the Indonesian 

government’s agenda, with about 80,000 systems planned, and more than 15,000 installed over the last 

decade. Historically, the systems have been ‘handed over’ to communities to manage. It is increasingly clear 

that communities struggle to do this and services do not always last. This research sought to assess how best 

to govern these systems in the future. 


This study had three phases. Firstly, we asked what constitutes effective governance of community scale 

wastewater systems? Secondly, we undertook a mixed method, systemic inquiry into practice, examining 

performance, costs, legal arrangements, and management approaches. Thirdly, we developed, tested, and 

widely disseminated innovative capacity building materials targeting local governments and communitybased 

organisations (CBOs) charged with managing these systems. The study took a transdisciplinary action 

research approach, building in deep stakeholder engagement across the sector. Site visits were conducted 

with 30 communities. Our national Project Advisory Group, involving six Ministries, five donors/programs, 

and national NGO supporting CBOs, validated our findings. 


Our global scan revealed four interlocking elements necessary for effective wastewater governance that 

proved useful in field work and practice: 

 

 

 

Functioning technology, 

Sufficient revenue to cover short and long-term costs, 

Accountable and equitable administration/decision making systems, 

Sustained user demand. 

There are diverse funding mechanisms: program design was shown to significantly impact community 

preparedness, performance monitoring and asset ownership, sometimes inadvertently preventing good 

health outcomes. 

Our performance analysis revealed very little is known about the systems: 2% of systems have had one 

effluent quality test. Our cost analysis revealed significant challenges in fee collection and the need for 

volunteer labour/funds to keep systems operating, as well as very limited capacity to meet larger one-of costs 

(e.g., desludging, fixing/replacing hardware). 

143

Our national legal review and political economy analysis revealed important practical gaps and 

misconceptions: local government is legally responsible for providing sanitation, but is not yet held 

accountable. CBOs are typically not legal entities, meaning they can neither own assets like wastewater 

systems, nor easily receive financial support from local government. For local government, there are few 

avenues for allowable actions to support assets they do not own, and existing national guidelines on the 

handover process are ambiguous. 


Ultimately, the scale of wastewater technology should not determine the scale of management. There are 

both practical and human rights reasons for ensuring communities are supported by government to deliver 

ongoing wastewater services. Indonesia has invested more than any other country in community-scale 

wastewater systems, and so represents an important case study globally. National governments should set 

basic principles, such as clear expenditure policies and minimum requirements for local government. Beyond 

that, our research showed there are diverse models for distributing roles and responsibilities, spanning 

community-led, collaborative, and local government-led, all of which include opportunities for private sector 

activities. 

144

Sustainable water governance in industrial symbiosis: the case of 

Kalundborg 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Hans-Martin Friis Møller, Denmark, Kalundborg Utility 

Ms. Pernille Ingildsen, Denmark, Kalundborg Utility 

Ms. Louise Brunsgård Michelsen, Denmark, Kalundborg Utility 

Highlights 

Kalundborg Utility uses innovation as a tool to obtain a sustainable relationship between society and the 

natural water environment, including participation in the Kalundborg Industrial Symbiosis which has 

conducted circular economy for decades. Recently, a heat-pump has been developed to exploit the heat from 

warm industrial wastewater to district heating. 


Wastewater management is often an overlooked subject within the field of sustainability. But in Kalundborg, 

the City facilitates an industrial symbiosis of private and public partners, which uses and re-uses resources, 

including energy and water. For Kalundborg Utility it is crucial to act proactively within the process of water 

usage and wastewater treatment as freshwater resources become increasingly scarce and vulnerable due to 

climate changes and pollution. Innovation and sustainability are key drivers for the company, and 

involvement of stakeholders is a natural part of the business operations. 


First, we consider the water flows in the Kalundborg Symbiosis and how they can be considered sustainable. 

The flows are divided into two categories: 1) supply streams that are necessary for the industrial production 

and 2) wastewater streams that can be considered resource streams. Second, we analyze the foundation of 

the collaboration of the symbiosis in order to map out the outcomes of the symbiosis. 


The utility supplies surface water in two qualities to Novo Nordisk and Novozymes. By using surface water, 

the scarce groundwater resource is preserved. The utility receives wastewater, which is cleaned at one of 

Europe’s most advanced wastewater treatment plants in Kalundborg. Until now, the only by-product from 

the wastewater treatment has been sand and sludge, but as of 2017, the utility will construct a large-scale 

heat-pump, which will transfer heat from the warm industrial wastewater to the local district heating 

network in Kalundborg. Thereby, Kalundborg Utility will supply district heating with a minimum of 

environmental externalities. 

The utility has been engaged in developing microalgae production, as a vehicle to create a new development 

in industrial symbiosis and increased resource reuse, based on the groundbreaking EU FP7 founded E4Water 

project. Presently, the utility operates a state-of-the art algae house as test- and research laboratory open for 

international customers working in the blue bio-economy. This is a platform to further development of a 

water-based bio-economy and a possible new branch of the Kalundborg Industrial Symbiosis. The Kalundborg 

Industrial Symbiosis has proven to be durable. The outcomes of the symbiosis include strong collaborative 

ties among the involved partners leading to continuous optimization of processes and sizable reductions in 

water and energy use. 

145


The symbiosis has proven to be of benefit, both in the economic terms and to the environment. It has 

contributed to the branding of Kalundborg City as a place where ‘green’ industry thrives. Through a culture 

focused on sustainability and innovation in the utility as well as in the surrounding political and societal 

environment, it has been possible to create sustainable water governance, which harnesses the possibilities 

that lie within the water to waste cycle, resulting in competitive advantages and substantial environmental 

improvements. Facilitated by the City, this stakeholder collaboration creates value and responsible 

environmental solutions. 

146

Poster: Local leadership development: An example for locally-driven, 

sustainable waste management 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Janita Bartell, Cambodia, WaterSHED 

Mr. Geoff Revell, Cambodia, WaterSHED 

Highlights 

WaterSHED designed, piloted and scaled up a model to engage local government in the management of 

human waste through local leadership development. The project demonstrated that leadership development 

can be a powerful, cost-effective, and sustainable way to support sub-national government to fulfill their 

mandate to lead effective management of human waste and to reach SDG6. 


Integrity, engagement and strong leadership by local authorities, especially by subnational government, is 

often seen as exogenous to program activities despite their importance for efficiency, effectiveness and 

sustainability. This presentation describes how WaterSHED designed, piloted and scaled up a model to 

engage local government in the management of human waste in their communities. The project is embedded 

in a larger system of activities aimed to build a dynamic, sustainable market for improved sanitation products 

and services in rural Cambodia by facilitating the supply chain and demand generating activities. 


The Civic Champions leadership development project for elected commune councilors uses an iterative model 

of “discovering” new, not WASH-specific leadership skills, “developing” these skills through practice and 

coaching, and “delivering” tangible results on their skills. This cycle repeats every three months over a 9- 

month period. Participants apply and pay a participation fee. 

The project evaluation undertaken in 2016 employs a mixed methods approach, including project data, 

qualitative interviews with stakeholders, observational data and latrine coverage data to document the 

project implementation and lessons learnt for replication as well as to evaluate the project’s performance 

along four dimensions: development impact, scalability, sustainability and cost-effectiveness. 


205 (19% of all eligible) councilors from 105 communes across 16 districts in rural Cambodia participated in the 

Civic Champions leadership development project. During the nine months of implementation the participants 

facilitated 15,320 households to install improved toilets equivalent to a 6.9 percentage point increase in 

sanitation coverage in participating areas at a cost to the project of USD 14.60 per toilet. Six months after the 

end of the project, latrine uptake in the target areas remains 104% higher than in non-target areas. 

The project succeeded in establishing a reward and peer-learning mechanism that fostered innovation and 

motivated participants to excel as leaders. The cascade training model employed to reach greater scale 

meaningfully engaged all levels of subnational government contributed significantly to the project’s impact 

and scalability. Participants apply the generic leadership skills acquired during the project to other areas of 

community development, such as water supply management and planning for fecal sludge management. 

The project provides commune councilors with the necessary tools and skills to lead community engagement 

and find new, locally adapted strategies to promoting improved sanitation and waste management. 

147


Leadership development at local levels is a powerful, cost-effective and sustainable way to support subnational 

governments to fulfill their mandate to lead effective management of human waste and to reach 

SDG 6 by 2030. Participants found innovative, locally adapted solution to addressing the sanitation problem 

in rural Cambodia. Key elements of the project design contributing to its success are the involvement and 

active contribution of all levels of government; the project’s reward and peer-learning mechanism; the focus 

on generic, transferable leadership skills instead of project or WASH-specific skills; and the project’s 9-months 

cyclical approach which facilitates learning, feedback, and development. 

148

Poster: Non-existent water supply regulators - Implications for sector 

governance 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Shaivi Kulshrestha, India, Shiv Nadar University 

Dr. Gopal Das Singhal, India, Shiv Nadar University 

Dr. Tripta Thakur, India, MANIT-Bhopal 

Highlights 

1. This Paper presents a study that details governance issues arising out of non-existing Regulators in 

water-supply operations in most developing-countries. 

2. Study analyses data from 199 Indian municipalities to explore linkages between non-existent 

regulation and issues like political-interference in tariff-determination, inconsistent data-collection, 

lack of sector-planning, poor-services, consumer-dissatisfaction, and derailment of soundgovernance. 


Unlike developed nations where water-supplies are governed by an independent sector Regulator, most 

developing countries have unregulated water-supplies. This paper focuses on unwarranted consequences of 

missing regulation by posing the following questions: 

1. Does absence of a Regulator imply political interference in governance by way of tinkering with 

tariffs leading to loss-making services reflected in large subsidies? 

2. Does absence of Regulator imply lack-of-competition and under-performance due to nonmeasurement 

of relative-performances? 

3. Does linkage between missing Regulation and failure to collect municipal operational-data prevent 

scientific-analysis of sector-issues? 

4. Does absence of a Regulator imply water-sector planning/services are run in adhoc manner leading 

to mis-goveranance? 


1. Water-supply data from 147 municipalities in India with populations more than 0.1 million was 

collected and analyzed 

2. Major water-supply parameters comprised performance indicators such as Water looses (Nonrevenue 

water), Operating Expenditures, Length of Distribution network, Water Produced, Av. hrs 

of supply per day, and Population covered by water supply. 

3. These water-supply indicators were integrated to evolve comprehensive relative performance 

measures using data envelopment analysis 

4. Inferences from the analysis were used to evolve reasons for poor municipal performances in view 

of the fact that sector Regulator is non-existent. 


1. Absence of Regulator implies political interference in governance. Majority of municipalities depend 

on subsidies due to mounting financial losses attributed to political interference wherein electedrepresentatives 

decide to keep tariffs unreasonably low to garner political advantage/votes. A 

dedicated, independent regulator would have otherwise ensured tariffs based on costpricing/scientific-data/municipal-performances/people’s 

capacity-to-pay. 

149

1. Mathematical-model indicated poor municipal-performances with a third of municipalities showing 

efficiencies below 50%. Non-existent regulatory-mechanisms ensure that inefficiencies remain 

unmeasured/unknown, while sector remains intrinsically poorly-performing/mismanaged. 

2. Absence of Regulator implies absence of relative-competition amongst municipalities who remain 

unconnected and unconcerned of sector best-practices 

3. Impact of non-existent sector-regulator spells inconsistencies in data-collection, endemic across 

developing countries. This study revealed that if data was collected on increasing numbers of 

indicators for greater accuracy, data availability decreases drastically. For the 6 indicators employed 

in this study, data was available for only 71 out of 199 municipalities. 

4. Absence of regulator implies water-sector planning and services run in adhoc manner as there 

remains little basis for sector-planning in absence of consistent/regular data-collection. Lack of data 

hinders scientific-analysis of problems that remain unresolved fuelling public discontent. 

5. Results confirmed that absence of water-supply Regulator leads to sector mis-governance, and that 

there needs to be an independent mechanism to regulate water-supplies. 


The study indicates that water-supply operations in developing-economies like India need to incorporate 

provisioning of an independent sector-Regulator for sound governance. 

This will ensure that water-supply operations become efficient, consumers get benefitted, and municipalities 

become self-reliant to shun subsidies. This will also ensure that water-supply operations become transparent, 

and collect operational data regularly in terms of predefined indicators forming a basis for sound planning 

and policy. This will lead to good governance and wide consumer satisfaction resulting in municipalities that 

make profits which can be passed on for connecting the poor to water-supplies for common social good of 

the society. 

150

Poster: Performance measurement for effective regulation - Case of Indian 

urban water supplies 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Mukul Kulshrestha, India, MANIT-BHOPAL 

Ms. Sai Amulya Nyathikala, India, MANIT-Bhopal 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Paper details potential use of performance measures in price-cap regulation of water-supply 

services. 

The case study evaluates scope for setting tariffs under incentive-regulation for 20 urban centers 

where hitherto operations remain unregulated and monopolized by government 

DEA is used to assess performances and productivity growth of municipalities 


Water-supply services have emerged as profitable industries across developed nations wherein water-tariffs 

are regulated and set scientifically by a Regulator. Unfortunately, across several developing economies 

Regulators remain non-existent, with monopoly operations of government whose policies are focused on 

drinking water provisioning for growing populations, with neglect towards making operations efficient and 

profitable. 

The scope of work comprises: 

 

 

 

Reviewing existing water-supply scenario and sectoral reforms for providing valuable lessons to 

other countries of developing world. 

Investigating importance of performance-assessment in regulatory framework 

Developing a quantitative framework for tariff determination to evaluate possible cost-recoveries in 

municipal water-supply operations 


The Methodology focuses on answering the following : 

 

 

 

 

Using DEA analyse the extent of inefficiencies in water supply operations existing in the urban areas 

of Andhra Pradesh State 

Using Productivity Analysis to explore if water-supply operations are improving over time, and if not, 

then what could be the possible causes? 

Using X-factor calculations, evolve a scientific basis of determining water-tariffs in order to 

overcome financial losses in the sector and bypass local politics 

Drawing conclusions and policy outcomes in the context of a possible sector regulation and above 

findings 


The sample mean efficiency was found to be 80%, with individual municipalities performing as low as 32.4%. 

This indicated prevalence of large-scale inefficiencies in the water-supply operations. 

The TFP growth model indicated that over the time period 2005 to 2010 inefficiencies were found to be 

actually increasing over time implying further deterioration in services over time, thereby reflecting an urgent 

need for regulation which may enable the municipalities to gain efficiencies. 

151

Further, X-factors calculated based on weighted mean annual productivity growth of 1.93% obtained from 

TFP model, revealed a maximum X-factor of 3.28% for the most inefficient municipality indicating that 

municipalities may end up increasing tariffs to a maximum of 3.28% per year over 5 year period. This tolerable 

tarrif increase can lead to tremendous increase in efficiencies of water-supply operations. 

DEA analysis also indicated a possibility of saving 22.6% of operating expenditure if the municipalities were to 

adopt appropriate policies and management tools of best practices.This is indicative of the fact that large 

savings are possible in water-supply operations that may result in strengthening of the services and benefits 

for the consumers including the poor 


The illustrated framework comprises a basic step for ushering regulatory-reforms. It further has implications 

for future privatization as private companies would not be forthcoming to sink investments in utilities that 

are highly inefficient. 

X-factors for scientifically increasing tariffs demonstrate how tariffs can be kept out of purview of politics in 

a fair/upright regulatory regime. 

The X-factor calculations may help inefficient municipalities to bridge gap with best-practices, thereby 

effecting savings for financial sustainability and reduction of subsidies. 

Internal cost-savings may be used to expand and improve services in rapidly expanding urban areas and to 

make water-supplies accessible to the poor. 

152

Poster: Public-civil society incremental involvement in water governance in 

Latin America 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Vladimir Arana, Canada, The International Secretariat for 

Water 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

 

A validated methodology to put governments and civil society organizations work together 

An example to governments and civil society organizations in developing countries to create 

synergic water policies decision-making and implementation 

A process to make public budgets planning and goals compliance monitoring accessible to civil 

society organizations 


This paper describes the validated water policy advocacy strategy implemented from 2014 to 2016 in Peru. So 

far, Latin American and developing countries in general have a disintegrated decision-making about water. 

Three main constrains were identified: i) disperse and uncoordinated decision-making on water, ii) 

generalized population abandonment of headwater territories, and iii) wide disregard of civil-society 

organizations and local cultures. So, a new specific advocacy strategy and methodology were needed. The 

goal of this validation experience was to identify an advocacy methodology that could be scaled up in Latin 

America. No similar experience on synergic-advocacy was found in the Region. 


The main question that gave origin to this validation was: what is the best way to facilitate water policy 

advocacy in Latin America? To validate the working hypothesis, a wide literature review and key interviews 

were made. To validate the way to involve several sectors of the government it was used the “Blue Book” 

methodology developed by the International Secretariat for Water with the “synergy benefits analysis”. To 

validate priority water policies and policy reforms, several joint public and civil-society workshops and a basin 

public consultation were developed. To validate the intervention on headwaters territories a management 

plan was elaborated. 


It was first important to put civil society together, before inviting the government in, so the two main national 

water NGO’s networks and other international organizations were invited to participate. The main message 

for the government was that the goal of the process was to create synergy more than to put pressure on 

national policy reforms, and this was seen as a good sign from authorities. A “Synergy opportunities 

evaluation” was made and they were measured in the “synergy benefits analysis” that identified the 

substantial benefit that several sectors of the government could obtain. A process to carry on shared analysis, 

proposals and indicators was implemented by government and civil society representatives, and that had an 

important milestone with the presentation of a shared document called the «Blue Book second generation». 

At the same time, a headwater management plan and the first water consultation at the basin level were 

developed with an Andean community located at 5.000 of altitude to incorporate this learning and policy 

gaps in the Blue Book process. Too, a validation and monitoring committee formed by governmental 

authorities and civil society organizations (universities, associations, donors, NGO’s, etc) called the Blue Book 

National Committee was created. 

153


The best way to facilitate water policy advocacy was made through a win-win strategy. Boosting the 

cooperation between public and civil-society actors that normally work separately begun with a «synergy 

benefits analysis» to develop a joint-synergic water agenda to strengthen the complementarity among the 

actors, instead of just overseeing the role of the State. It also incorporated the new launched SDG’s and the 

citizen’s monitoring issues. The validation process was limited since the consultation processes were just 

carried on in the capital city, in an Andean city and in one indigenous rural community located in a headwater 

territory. 

154

Poster: Tensions in rural water governance in the digital era 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Yola Georgiadou, Netherlands, University Twente 

Dr. Juma Lungo, Tanzania, University Dar es Salaam 

Highlights 

Persistent rural water problems can be addressed with donor-funded development interventions. 

Information systems and mobile phone-based platforms can help if they are adaptive and "work with the 

grain" of local water governance. 


This paper describes persistent governance problems in the rural water sector in Tanzania and their relation 

to projects funded by development partners. It focuses on how tensions revealed during the implementation 

of development projects are related to the inevitable silencing of the social and cultural heterogeneity 

between development partners and their government counterparts during project design. The empirical 

focus is on the Water Point Mapping System (WPMS), a development project of great ambition and potential 

for improving chronic rural water problems in Tanzania. Policy recommendations suggest how some of the 

manifested tensions may be adaptively resolved. 


Tanzania’s rural water woes are chronic and persist despite substantial policy reforms and significant donor 

funding, ever since the first rural water policy in 1971. The paper asks how development projects reveal 

tensions when implemented in the field and suggests how they may be adaptively resolved with information 

technology.In-depth interviews conducted in the course of a five-year action research program in rural water 

supply in Tanzania are the data source. Empirically, the focus is on Water Point Mapping System (WPMS), a 

development project funded by the World Bank and implemented by Tanzania’s Ministry of Water from 2010 

to 2013. 


The Water Point Mapping System (WPMS)development project could be agreed upon because the cultural 

and social hererogeneity between the development partner and the recipient ministry had to be bracketed 

out during project design, else the project could not start at all. But, tensions silenced and bracketed-out 

during project design reappeared forcefully in various forms in the field during field data collection. The first 

type of tensions can be seen as rational tactics of villagers to evade a state that has chronically by-passed 

them in the shaping of rural water schemes ; the second type of tensions originates from data collected in 

the field that were discretionary, ambiguous and subject to multiple contradictory interpretations. 


The study shows that it is rational for development partners and their government counterparts to bracket 

out their cultural heterogeneity and maximize top-down control, when designing a development project. This 

inevitable practice generates tensions between implementers and beneficiaries in the field. Some of these 

tensions may be eased with aid addressing governance constraints. Others may be resolved incrementally 

with carefully designed digital platforms, or by some combination. The key is an adaptive approach that 

leaves room for ways of working with or around the interest conflicts and other unpredictable eventualities 

that development projects typically entail. 

155

Seminar: Understanding the gender 

dimension of water and waste 

Photo: GWP 





156

Seminar: Understanding the gender dimension of water and waste 

Contents 

Are new water interventions gender neutral? A study of Pani-Panchayat in Odisha, India 

................................................................................................................................................. 158 

BRAC’s gender-inclusive approaches for successful implementation of WASH 

interventions ......................................................................................................................... 160 

Enhancing women capabilities in wastewater management: beginning from schools .... 162 

From practical to strategic change: enabling gender transformation in Vietnam ............ 164 

Indigenous Kichwa women lead community water and sanitation management 

in Ecuador .............................................................................................................................. 166 

Mainstreaming gender into IWRM; a catchment learning approach ................................ 168 

Participatory approach for ecologically sustainable sanitation .......................................... 170 

Safe drinking water: does community participation in decision-making affect impact? . 1722 

Women as agents of change in faecal sludge management ............................................... 174 

Women as agents of change in transboundary water and wastewater governance ........ 176 

Poster: Better wash services lead to educational progressions for girls ............................ 178 

Poster: Gender awareness in water and waste in Central Asia .......................................... 180 

Poster: Mainstreaming gender in WASH programmes for social transformation 

and empowerment ................................................................................................................ 182 

157

Are new water interventions gender neutral? A study of Pani-Panchayat in 

Odisha, India 

Presenting 

Author: 

Dr. Basanta Sahu, India, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, 

(Deemed University), New Delhi 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Households tend to use women for ‘labour smoothing’ and ‘consumption smoothing in agriculture and rural 

areas. Inadequate availability and access to water and poor water management affect gender relations and 

halt gender neutrality. New water interventions should make wider access to and use of water by women 

with other critical inputs like land, credit, markets etc. which Pani-Panchayat in India seems fails. 


Water has been increasingly linked with gender and progressive feminisation of agriculture and food 

production. Though access to and use of water remain key development policy issues but much is not known 

about impact of new water interventions like Pani-Panchayat initiated in India to counter drought and 

improve community level access, use and management of water. Our objective is to discuss role of Pani- 

Panchayat on gender and water use with focus on 

 

 

 

impact of pani-panchayat on water governance and management with focus on gender, 

changes in household resource uses, risk coping and gender relations 

how to improve efficiency and gender neutrality in water 


A three-stage approach was followed to assess household and community participation in Pani-Pnachayat in 

Odisha. To understand the new water intervention better our focus is on its impact on gender at household 

level to argue whether it improves access to and use of water across regions and social groups. We also try 

to analyse the changes in gender relations in the context of local adaptations and practices in water 

arrangement and use. Selection of study areas for survey was made on the basis of area based resources 

approach and on the scale of regional development. 


Intervention of Pani-Panchayat in India seems ignores changing farming, resource uses, gender relations, 

socioeconomic set up and it fails to improve access to and use of water by women who are disproportionately 

affected by water distribution. Dominance by few upper castes, rich large land owners and male farmers 

followed by lack of group dynamics, exclusion of local institutions, ill-defined property rights, constraints in 

input supply such as credit and extension services, not only discourage participation of women in water 

management and use but push them harder into distress during water scarcity period. 

Our results show gender inequity in water access and use further lead to unequal intra-household risk sharing, 

poor water management and loss of production and earning opportunity. It also lead to reduction in food 

production and returns of other land based activities where involvement of women found rising in recent 

years. It has serious implication on intra-household gender relations and overall gender equity which remains 

after new intervention like Pani-Panchayat. Water induced distress like loss of crop production and farm 

income, labour migration, multiple informal borrowing evident in study areas found associated with the 

access, use and management of water by women that pose tough challenges for rural livelihood and gender 

equity. 

158


Households tend to uses women members for ‘labour smoothing’ and ‘consumption smoothing’, inadequate 

availability and access to water and other resources affect intra-household gender relations and halt gender 

neutrality. Pani-Panchayats try to make wider access and better use of water fail to arrest gender bias in the 

absence of access to land, credit, other farm inputs and markets by women. The paper suggests that 

strengthening existing local institutions and reforming the role and functioning of women in new water 

institutions will be crucial for better water access and use along with existing public water and irrigation 

system to play the role of facilitator. 

159

BRAC’s gender-inclusive approaches for successful implementation of 

WASH interventions 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Md Akramul Islam, Bangladesh, BRAC 

Ms. Nameerah Khan, Bangladesh 

Dr. Mohammad Moktadir Kabir , Bangladesh 

Mr. Milan Kanti Barua, Bangladesh 

Highlights 

Village WASH Committees were integral to enhancing gender parity. 

BRAC conducted monitoring and research over an 8-year period to assess gender equitable outcomes. 

Results show equitable access to WASH for women and men; hygiene behaviour change including menstrual 

hygiene management; and social transformation, e.g. men and women taking decisions together. 


A gender-inclusive approach to WASH implementation is based on the understanding that for WASH 

interventions to succeed, everyone in a community must play a positive role. Prevalence of traditional gender 

roles leads to women being disproportionately affected by lack of access to water supply and sanitation 

services. Women play a critical role in household decisions on water, sanitation and hygiene but often lose 

out on wider decision-making, especially relating to finances, which are most often controlled by men. This 

approach is necessary to achieve gender-transformative changes, and thus improve the power balance in 

WASH-related decision-making between men and women. 


BRAC seeks to transform gender roles and empower women by involving them in the decision-making 

processes. The WASH programme has done this to a great extent through the introduction of Village WASH 

Committees (six women and five men from various socioeconomic groups in the community), which involve 

women to meaningfully contribute to decision-making. The programme’s behaviour change communication 

has been tailored according to the needs of men, women, adolescent boys, adolescent girls and children, 

with messages to influence gender-transformative changes in the community. Schools are supported to build 

gender-segregated WASH facilities, including menstrual hygiene management facilities for girls. 


According to the programme’s outcome monitoring data, 99% Village WASH Committees (VWCs) in areas 

which received 8 years of intervention and 100% VWCs in areas which received 3 years of intervention were 

existing and functional. All female members attended and participated in the meetings in 100% of these VWCs 

in the 8-year intervention areas, and in 94% VWCs in 3-year intervention areas. 

In the in the 8-year intervention areas, 78% of the households have access to hygienic latrines; and in 3-year 

intervention areas, 57% have access to hygienic latrines. In 97% of these households in the 8-year intervention 

areas, men, women, adolescent boys, adolescent girls and children (above 6 years) use the latrine regularly. 

For 3-year intervention areas this figure stands at 98%. 

Among the BRAC WASH-supported schools, 91% of schools in the 8-year intervention areas, and 100% in the 

3-year intervention areas, had separate latrines for girls that are used only by girls. Menstrual hygiene 

management facilities were available at 71% and 96% of these schools, respectively. In the first five years of 

the programme’s interventions, the school absenteeism rate of girls during menstruation dropped from 44% 

to 33%. 

160


Through this approach, BRAC has contributed to increasing access to WASH in a gender-equitable manner. 

The VWCs, which were formed in every village throughout the programme areas, have been a great example 

of improving gender relations and empowering women. When the programme began in 2006, it was highly 

uncommon for men and women in a rural setting to be meeting and taking decisions together, or to be openly 

discussing issues like menstrual hygiene. Considering this fact, it is clear that great progress has been made 

over the years; not just for the WASH sector, but in society as a whole. 

161

Enhancing women capabilities in wastewater management: beginning from 

schools 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Neetika Sharma, India, Government Department of 

Education, Jammu & Kashmir 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

Study conducted for 5 years in 4 schools regarding wastewater management revealed that incidence of 

diseases reduced by 22.2% in boys and 65.0% in girls, indicating a high imbibing nature of the latter. The girl 

students who had undergone training became good decision makers, household keepers and managers. 


Biologically, men and women have different health needs, but lifestyles and socially ascribed roles arising 

from prevailing social and cultural patterns also play a part. Social factors, such as the degree to which 

women are excluded from schooling, or from participation in public life, affect their knowledge about health 

problems and how to prevent. Environmental conditions arising from inadequate or non-existing wastewater 

management pose significant threats to human health and economic activity. A study was conducted to 

enhance the capability of girl students to wastewater management and water, sanitation and hygiene 

(WASH) to make them responsible in their settled life. 


A study was conducted for five years in four schools, imparting education up to matriculation. The population 

size was 100 students (50 each boys and girls) from each school, out of which 25 each were placed in two 

categories. Category A, imparting training regarding wastewater management and water sanitation and 

hygiene (WASH) and category B, without any training. Lectures were arranged and practical conducted to 

make these students aware of wastewater management to overcome scarcity situation and WASH issues. 

The parameters studied were; per cent students passing matriculation, annual incidence of diarrhea, cholera, 

malaria, typhoid, headache and attitude. 


Study conducted revealed that in category A, among boys; there was a decrease of 25%, 0%, 33%, 0% and 20% 

in the incidence of diarrhea, typhoid, malaria, cholera and headache, respectively, after five years of 

undergoing training. The corresponding decrease was 66%, 0%, 50%, 66% and 60%, respectively, in case of girls. 

The incidence of typhoid remain unchanged, both in boys and girls. The overall incidence of diseases reduced 

by22.2% in boys and 65.0% in girls, indicating a high imbibing nature of the latter. The attitude of the boys 

which was moderately positive in the beginning became positive after 5 years, while in girls it changed from 

positive to highly positive. There was no significant change in the category B students, both in boys and girls, 

however, the disease incidence decreased slightly and attitude improved in this category. This could be 

attributed to contacts between category A and B students after school hours as well as change with the time. 

The study showed that interventions made enhanced the women capabilities in wastewater management 

and reuse as well as encouraged them to have better career in management positions. The girl students who 

had undergone training became good decision makers. 

162


The subordination of women by men results in a distinction between roles of men and women and their 

separate assignment to domestic and public spheres. In developing countries, most studies show preferential 

food allocation to males over females. Due to menstruation, girls cannot clean themselves due to scarcity of 

water. Girls become prone to diseases. Under such conditions, the training on WASH becomes absolutely 

necessary. In India, a majority of the school drop-out children are girls from marginalized families. There is 

strong need to invest in girls’ sanitation and hygiene infrastructure for learning, wastewater management 

and toilets in schools. 

163

From practical to strategic change: enabling gender transformation in 

Vietnam 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Prof. Juliet Willetts, Australia, University of Technology Sydney 

Ms. Caitlin Leahy, Australia 

Mr. John Kelleher, Australia 

Ms. Nghiem Tuyen, Vietnam, Vietnam National University 

Highlights 

 

 

Empirical research case study from Central Vietnam demonstrating how water, sanitation and 

hygiene (WASH) programs can influence gender and power relations between men and women. 

Provides examples of addressing and supporting women’s strategic interests and capabilities (in 

addition to practical needs) through inclusive WASH programming and participatory monitoring. 


Contributing to improved gender equality is an important aspiration for WASH programing and monitoring. 

A twelve-month empirical study in 2016 was undertaken by ISF-UTS, Plan International Australia, Plan Vietnam 

and Vietnam National University through innovation funding from the Australian Government. The research 

was designed to determine the extent to which Plan International’s innovative Gender and WASH Monitoring 

Tool (GWMT) contributed to achievement of strategic gender outcomes. The research revealed the strategic 

(as opposed to practical) gender equality outcomes experienced by women and men in Central Vietnam and 

explored contribution of the GWMT and Plan’s WASH programming to those outcomes. 


The research utilised a quasi-experimental design and mixed method approach to compare experiences of 

different groups of people with varying degrees of exposure to the GWMT. The GWMT comprises a 

participatory, dialogic tool to assist participants assess changes in gender dynamics. A peer-reviewed 

framework on gender outcomes resulting from WASH initiatives underpinned the research and analysis. 

Semi-structured interviews with 48 people and participatory pocket voting with 139 people in 7 villages in 

Central Vietnam were used to uncover strategic gender changes as experienced by women and men across 

stratifying variables of age, ethnicity, and including people living with disabilities. 


Significant strategic gender changes were revealed. The majority (81%) of participants had experienced 

strategic gender outcomes with minor differences between men and of women and between age and ethnic 

groups. Experiences of change at household level were more common than those at community level. 

Changes could be traced to both WASH programming as well as wider societal change dynamics. Of all 

reported changes 31% could be attributed to WASH programs, although not necessarily specifically to the 

GWMT. Key reasons for change included: 

 

 

 

women accessing information and knowledge, either through formal education or community 

meetings (confidence of women was enhanced with greater opportunities to participate in meetings 

and community activities) 

authority figures providing an initial trigger to encourage women to participate more often and more 

actively; 

peer learning and example setting (raising gender awareness of key individuals through meetings 

and activities had a positive flow-on effect) 

164

use of public information to contribute to awareness-raising about gender equality. 

The results also demonstrated that norms set in a local setting or in broader media and society influenced 

people’s values and attitudes, even in the face of traditional gender norms which could provide considerable 

barriers to change. 


This research in the Vietnamese context revealed that WASH programs can positively influence power 

relations between women and men, and can be intentionally designed to do so. Wider societal dynamics need 

to be carefully taken account of by WASH practitioners and have potential to reinforce or to undermine 

improvements in gender equality. Enabling women’s active participation, facilitating conducive roles for 

authority figures and conducting activities that can influence gender norms were found to be important. 

Participatory monitoring tools designed to monitor strategic gender changes, such as Plan International’s 

GWMT, are valuable in identifying and reinforcing gender equality changes. 

165

Indigenous Kichwa women lead community water and sanitation 

management in Ecuador 

Presenting 

Author: 

Ms. Deborah Payne, United States, MedWater 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

 

 

Gender mainstreaming was incorporated into collaboration between MedWater and rural, 

indigenous Kichwa communities in Ecuador to promote community led water, sanitation, and 

hygiene management. 

Institutionalized gender mainstreaming has ensured both women and men are incorporated into 

community water councils, both women and men serve as health promoters, and has informed 

programming. 


MedWater, a non-profit WASH organization, collaborates with communities and other institutions to create 

sustainable water and sanitation programming with rural Kichwa communities in the Napo provence of 

Ecuador. 

MedWater established institutional policies to promote gender mainstreaming within five pilot communities 

between 2014 and 2016. This practice ensured a balance of men and women on community water councils as 

well as the selection of female community health promoters. Objectives for this case study included: 

Observation of continued engagement of women leaders in WASH management 

Observation of relationships between WASH outcomes and the engagement of women in leadership 

positions. 


MedWater created an institutional policy that at least one third of a community’s water management council 

be comprised of women, and both women and men should be considered equally when selecting community 

health promoters. 

Five pilot communities were observed for successes and challenges in community led WASH management. 

MedWater observed the level of engagement of women in WASH management as well as the level of 

implementation of project goals including successful use of a water chlorination system as well as 

construction of latrines within the community. 

MedWater documented anecdotal evidence of impacts of gender mainstreaming on WASH activities. 


Within the five pilot communities, all communities maintained a minimum of one third female leadership and 

all selected community health promoters continue to operate in their selected positions. 

By incorporating gender mainstreaming in water management techniques, MedWater observed both the 

continued leadership of women in water and sanitation programming as well as positive outcomes in water 

and sanitation programming. 

Examples of the benefits of women as community health promoters include the following: 

One health promoter, a matriarch in a household of 17, was strongly aware of the need for toilets due to the 

care she had provided for her granddaughter’s chronic infection of worms. This woman helped champion the 

addition of 10 additional “dry” latrines in her community, cutting the level of open defecation. 

166

Another female health promoter championed for stronger provisions for girls in schools to be able to manage 

female hygiene concerns. 

A third female health promoter, aware of the standard lack of hand washing facilities in the home, installed 

tippy tap hand washing stations at each household where she trained. This practice led to the installation of 

over 75 additional hand washing stations in four communities. 


Establishing institutional policies regarding gender mainstreaming in the creation of water and sanitation 

committees and the selection of community health promoters can ensure women are engaged in WASH 

management in indigenous Kichwa communities. Rural indigenous women are frequently overlooked for 

leadership roles due to limited education. Alternately, life experiences of these women in care taking roles 

provides a highly contextualized skill set that is invaluable to the informed development of appropriate 

WASH programming. Engaging both women and men in the development of water and sanitation 

management activities ensures that goals are achievable and appropriate to the values of the community. 

167

Mainstreaming gender into IWRM; a catchment learning approach 

Presenting 

Author: 

Mr. Christian J. Chonya, Tanzania, World Wide Fund For Nature 

- UK 

Co-Authors: 

Highlights 

IWRM is the official instrument for improving water resources in the Great Ruaha River Catchment. The 

NAWAPO and WRM Act of 2009 recognize the importance of mainstreaming gender in water resources 

management but it doesn’t explain how should be implemented at the ground. Sustainable Water Access, 

Use and Management (SWAUM) pilot identified the need to adopt the catchment learning approach (MSP) 

for mainstreaming gender into water management. The pilot project made a recommendation on how best 

to improve gender mainstreaming in water resource management. 


The Great Ruaha River Catchment (GRRC) in Tanzania is critical to the lives of 2 million people dependent 

upon its freshwater ecosystem services; including livelihood such as agricultural activities and hydropower 

which provides almost half the country’s electricity, and the Ruaha National Park as an important tourist 

attraction. Upstream over-abstraction has led to annual drying of GRR. Earlier initiatives failed to restore the 

year round flow, among other failures is none inclusion of all stakeholders especially women and girls to the 

only thought technical solution. Women often have a wealth of knowledge on the subject, but are often 

overlooked in the formulation of solution/projects and policies due to their lack of inclusion in water 

governance processes. 


SWAUM’s approach has been to pilot a multi-stakeholder catchment learning process (2011-16). Our premise 

was that spaces/opportunities can be created which both bring all stakeholders together and enable them 

(i) to address existing conflicts and reduce disagreements (ii) to identify knowledge gaps and prepare for 

uncertainty, and (iii) to mitigate capacity constraints through better collective working. The approach is 

appropriate to integrating genders issues with water resources issues; it addresses; lack of practices efforts 

on the ground and meaningful integration of gender into the effort of water resources management - 

restoration of river flows. Furthermore, the methodology is in alignment with the principles of national water 

legislation. 


The SWAUM pilot methodology mainly consisted several workshops and collaborative initiatives (CIs); 

involved all stakeholder groups; men and women of different age group and classes through a facilitated 

dialogue and debates. The process of mainstreaming gender starts from proposal writing, planning for the 

workshop and pre-interviews to the communities before inviting them to the workshop. For effective 

mainstreaming gender issues, most cases the first day of the workshop focused on hearing and learning from 

local stakeholders – women and men including tail enders and individuals, while the second days onwards, 

the local participants were joined by other stakeholders. Furthermore, specific interviews; situation and 

stakeholder analysis; institutional relationship interview – trying to understand norms, values and behavior; 

monitoring and evaluation; online communication (the use of project basecamp); and training of staff in 

different aspects both provided better understanding of gender dimension on water resources management. 

The CIs identified and championed by some members of the communities enhanced gender mainstreaming. 

168

According to Land use planning CI, realized that women are negatively affected, as they cannot access 

decision-making structures for land issues as easily as their male counterparts. Land issues are heavily 

influenced by customary and traditional practices, which give low priority to women. 


The process of demonstrating gendered approach to effective water resources management is difficult. The 

multi-stakeholder process (catchment learning approach) is demand – driven approach; allowing free 

dialogue and debate for all stakeholders, has showed its potential to improves mainstreaming gender issues 

to effective water resources management. The approach if adopted by the basins/catchments; improves 

dimension of integration: - the working relation within and cross sectors, integrate freshwater ecosystem 

conservation with WASH, engage and involve all the stakeholders – upstream and downstream users, and 

integrate practices, research and policy-making for improved decision making. Therefore, gender 

mainstreaming efforts is possible through working to those dimensions of integration, with well facilitated 

MSP by gender and water experts. 

169

Participatory approach for ecologically sustainable sanitation 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Khaoula Lamzouri, Morocco, National Office of Electricity 

and Water (ONEE) 

Mr. M. MAHI, Morocco, National Office of Electricity and 

Water(ONEE) 

Prof. M. S. Ouattar and M. H. E. Bartali, Agronomic and 

Veterinary Institute Hassan II 

Prof. L. Maindi, Morocco, Cadi Ayyad University 

Prof. T. MASUNAGA, Japan, Faculty of Life and Environmental 

Science, Shimane University 

Highlights 

Alternative sanitation solution adapted with the variety of situations with a focus on small communities. 

A gender perspective, which seeks to ask for the best way to adapt the wastewater treatment systems for 

small communities. 

Managerial, socio-economic and technical innovations aspects for adapt the wastewater treatment systems 

for small communities. 


Lack of sewerage system, control and environmental awareness are the main factors that cause the spread 

of disease, environmental degradation and gradually bacterial contamination of groundwater surface. 

Therefore, the sewage treatment is the ideal solution to this problem. The wastewater treatment system by 

an on-site could be beneficial to the rural Morocco. 

The objectives of the project are to proposes a scheme covering the different technical aspects, management 

and institutional innovation, to meet the various constraints that characterize the rural areas. The project 

asks for the best way to adapt the wastewater treatment systems for small communities in MENA region. 


Village Talat Marghen, Subject of our study, located a few km from Marrakech. 

Managerial and institutional aspect 

In order to plan the major guidelines of our project to the time scale on the one hand, and identify solutions 

that respond most effectively to different problems and needs identified and the actions and resources 

needed to achieve these results, on the other hand. A methodology was followed taking into account the 

involvement of the population and gender approach (participants who benefited of all events with 50% are 

women), to analyze and identify the main actors and their roles in the field of planning and management of 

sanitation the site subject to our project. 

The current approach involves a series of steps, including: 

Step 1. Diagnosis and description of the inventory knowledge of the environment. 

Step 2. Identification of problems and solutions. 

Step 3. Education / awareness of the people of the environmental challenges and opportunities to act 

on the environment. 

Step 4. Organization management and programming of actions, by strengthening the capacity of nongovernmental 

organizations (NGO) working in the field of the environment in general and in 

particular sanitation. 

During the companion of awareness for programming of the main lines of our project, training on the design 

and operation of our wastewater treatment system (multi-soil-layering), the woman was present during the 

holding of the project activities. Through this approach, women have been able to participate in decisionmaking 

and in the success and sustainability of this project. 

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Technical aspect 

In order to complete a part of our objectives two pilot scale MSL systems have been installed in order to 

adapt the MSL in the Moroccan rural context. 


The companion of awareness was crowned by the acceptance of the entire project by the people. The result 

of planning the technical, institutional, and managerial aspect phase for this project is built upon two 

fundamental principles: direct involvement of stakeholders in the approach used to decide between various 

alternatives and the sustainability of the sanitation service as it stems from the previous principle of direct 

involvement. 

The results of the statistical analysis showed the benefits of setting up an association for the management 

and operation of the sewer system. 

Moreover, and in relation to the technical aspect, the results show, that multi-soil-layering technology 

successfully used in the pilot-scale and full-scale. In effect, excellent efficiency was obtained in the pilot and 

full-scale fed with real wastewater. Multi-soil-layering system could be feasible to apply in full-scale systems 

at rural area in Morocco, if sufficient conditions were supplied. 

We have tried throughout this project based on a participatory approach of the population and especially of 

the woman for the realization of the different phases of the project. After the completion of the project, we 

anticipate that women will benefit from the implementation of this project through the development of 

handicraft associations using treated wastewater by the MSL system and reeds. 


The results emerging from this pilot case can be extrapolated for national use. According to our results, the 

implementation of rural sanitation projects should be based on a participatory approach, organized in an 

integrated manner so as to involve decision makers and users. The basic principles of this approach are: 

Participation, integration, the organization of populations, the organization of populations and the 

partnership and contractual relationships. 

The results show also, that multi-soil-layering technology successfully used in the pilot-scale and full-scale. In 

effect, excellent efficiency was obtained in the pilot and full-scale fed with real wastewater. 

171

Safe drinking water: does community participation in decision-making 

affect impact? 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Anna Tompsett, Sweden, Stockholm University 

Dr. Malgosia Madajewicz, United States 

Mr. Ahasan Habib, Bangladesh, NGO Forum for Public Health 

Highlights 

Evidence from a randomized experiment in Bangladesh shows that delegating decision-making authority to 

communities increases the impact of a program to improve access to safe drinking water, relative to a topdown 

approach, but only when the intervention mandates the involvement of women and the poor; and 

controls the influence of elites. 


Many believe that participation in decision-making by intended beneficiaries of programs to improve access 

to safe drinking water, particularly women, leads to better outcomes: improving project targeting; increasing 

'buy–in’; and generating a 'sense of ownership' over project assets. However, participation is expensive and 

time-consuming, and programs in which communities participate in decision-making may be more 

susceptible to 'capture' by powerful community members. Much of the early evidence in support of this 

hypothesis is probably biased, since the choice of a decision-making structure is likely to be correlated with 

other project characteristics that also influence project impact. Our study uses a randomized experiment to 

provide causal evidence on this question. 


We randomly assigned different decision-making processes to communities receiving an otherwise identical 

intervention, a package of subsidies and technical advice to improve access to safe drinking water. The 

decision-making processes assigned included one top-down process and two participatory processes. Under 

the top-down process, project staff took all decisions, using information from the community. Under one 

participatory process, the 'community participation approach', the community took all decisions using their 

own internal decision-making processes. Under the other, the 'regulated community participation approach' 

the community took all decisions by consensus at a meeting at which women and the poor had to be 

represented. 


Access to safe drinking water increased by 14 percentage points in villages that used the top down approach, 

15 percentage points under the community participation approach, and 26 percentage points, (67% more than 

under the other two treatments), in villages which were assigned to the regulated community participation 

approach. The top down process uses local information less effectively, and installs fewer sources than under 

the two participatory processes. Under the community process, elite control constrains access to safe water 

sources. The regulated community process expands and diversifies the group of people who participate in 

decision-making relative to the other two approaches, including with respect to gender, and it results in 

bargaining that limits the influence of elites. 

172


Our results confirm that involving communities in decision-making can lead to greater project impacts, in 

terms of access to safe drinking water. However, the results also suggest that these greater impacts may not 

be realized, when communities are involved in decision-making without measures to avoid co-option of the 

decision-making process by influential groups or individuals, and without ensuring the representation of the 

poor and women. 

173

Women as agents of change in faecal sludge management 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Maren Heuvels, Germany, BORDA 

Ms. Susmita Sinha, India, The Consortium for DEWATS 

Dissemination (CDD) Society 

Highlights 

Faecal Sludge Management as a men’s domain? While women are highly underrepresented in the sector, the 

case of Devanahalli show that women can be at the core of an innovative and technology-focused project on 

city scale. The case study presents key factors and recommendations for women’s involvement in 

wastewater management. 


Sustainable faecal sludge management is imperative for sustainable urban development. But developing 

economies are lacking significant numbers of water professionals. As countries face the overwhelming 

demand for professionals, the numbers of female water professionals remains low. There is a need to 

acknowledge women as agents of change in the sector. The objective of the case study is to not only give an 

overview of the data on gender representation in the sector, but also explore how women in a specific case 

became key drivers for change. The objective is to identify the enabling factors for women to become 

wastewater champions. 


The case study draws its learnings from a pilot project funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and 

carried out by BORDA and CDD in India 2014-2015. The aim of the project is to ensure efficient treatment of 

faecal sludge in the town of Devanahalli, to ensure safe reuse of treatment by-products, and demonstrate 

possible business opportunities with by-products. The case study focuses on the role of women in project 

development, implementation and now in the operation phase. Main stakeholders have been and still are 

local women, the case study identifies key factors and obstacles for women’s involvement. 


Many recognize the role of women in the water sector mostly as recipients of services or at an unpaid rural 

community management level. In an IWA study covering 15 developing countries, only an average of 16.7% of 

the workforce were female professionals. This is not only a matter of inclusion but also about increasing 

quality and sustainability. Various studies show companies with a higher percentage of women on all levels 

performed significantly better than their all-male counterparts. With the diverse customer base of the water 

sector, a gender-diverse staff structure is a business advantage. The importance of women for professional 

management of water and sanitation is slowly getting recognized on a global level. Despite these 

acknowledgements, the numbers of female water professionals worldwide remains low. Main obstacles lie 

not only within local socio-cultural norms but within gender-based discrimination, unequal opportunities, and 

lack of representation in professional environments. However, the Devanahalli women’s professional 

understanding of the technical, political, and managerial project aspects, the ability to take risks, the ability 

to identify with the problem, empathy and human connectedness, and the ability to see the larger 

environmental and public health benefits are key factors for the project success. 

174


The case study highlights how women can be the key to successful wastewater management on town scale. 

The women’s professional understanding of the subject and their knowhow to provide inputs from design to 

implementation, management and governance, their relatedness and empathy with all stakeholders involved 

in the matter, their ability to sustain behaviour change, and the acknowledgement of the importance of 

relationships are an example of how the sector could look like if women are given the opportunity to be 

water professionals. The main obstacles need to be addressed by all involved stakeholders, from government 

to utilities and implementing partners. 

175

Women as agents of change in transboundary water and wastewater 

governance 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Mark Smith, Director of the IUCN Global Water Programme 

Dr. Isabelle Fauconnier, Switzerland, Global Water Programme 

Safa Fanaian, Research Fellow, SaciWATERs 

Vishwaranjan Sinha, Project Officer, IUCN Asia Regional Office 

Bounthavivanh Mixap, Mekong Regional Water Governance 

Program, Oxfam 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Analyses how women generate behavioural and institutional change in transboundary water and 

wastewater governance 

Contributes case studies on women as agents of change in water governance around the world 

Provides recommendations for monitoring and support of actions of women in transboundary water 

and wastewater governance 


This paper analyses how women play key roles in generating behavioural and institutional change in 

transboundary water and wastewater governance, at multiple levels and scales. Using evidence from practice 

and data around the world, this work will illustrate and analyse the role of women as agents of change in 

transboundary water and wastewater governance. The study will conclude with recommendations to help 

increase women’s active involvement in transboundary water resources and wastewater planning and policy 

making through targeted interventions and improved monitoring tools. 


The study will use (1) literature review; (2) secondary data collection and analysis; (3) case study preparation 

including field visits and key informant interviews; and (4) expert practitioner and policy-maker interviews. 

Cases and data will be sourced from organisations active on the ground and at regional and global levels in 

supporting or researching transboundary cooperation and women’s inclusion in water governance. The cases 

include examples from India/Bangladesh, Honduras/El Salvador, and Cambodia/Vietnam. 


The dimension of gender is not commonly associated with transboundary water governance because 

transboundary issues are often tackled with reasoning at state-to-state levels and in terms of “national 

interests.” In fact, women act as major users of the resource through their productive and domestic activities, 

as knowledge holders about the resource and how it is managed locally and across borders, as champions 

for the resource and the ecosystem services it provides now and for future generations, and as decisionmakers 

around the resource in local to national and regional roles. Yet prevailing cultural and political 

practices in many countries mean that their roles are often overlooked, misunderstood, or constrained. 

Drawing from theory and practice on systemic change processes and gender inclusion, and using evidence 

from the case studies, interviews and data described above, the analysis will delve into each of these 

dimensions: women’s use, knowledge, leadership and decision-making around water and wastewater. It will 

shed light on the levers that women can access to effect change in water and wastewater management at 

the level of their communities, nations and regions and across sectoral boundaries, and on the enabling 

conditions for accelerating women’s drive for change. 

176


The paper will conclude with a set of recommendations on how the roles and leadership of women in 

transboundary water governance can be monitored and supported, making reference to the kinds of 

indicators, project design and institutional design measures that will be most gender-responsive. Improved 

recognition of the role of women as agents of change in TB water governance will help to accelerate the 

desired changes that translate to a more sustainable resource for all humans and for nature. 

177

Poster: Better wash services lead to educational progressions for girls 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Dr. Dorice Agol, Kenya, Independent Consultant 

Peter Harvey 

Javier Maíllo 

Highlights 

The presence of water and sanitation facilities in schools can increase female-to-male enrolment ratios and 

reduce repetition and drop-out-rates for girls. This is because more girls are likely to enrol and are less likely 

to repeat grades and drop-out in schools with water and sanitation facilities. 


Poor water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) is a common barrier to educational progression in developing 

countries. This paper highlights the need for WASH facilities in schools, as an important aspect of promoting 

quality education for girls. The paper aims to explore the relationship between water and sanitation facilities 

and educational progression, mainly for girls. It shows that improved water and sanitation in schools can 

increase learning and educational proficiency for girls. The analyses were conducted on linkages between 

female-to-male enrolment ratios, repetition and dropout rates with sanitation and water supply situation in 

schools and were disaggregated by gender and grade. 


Datasets were obtained from the national Education Management Information System (EMIS) for 

approximately 10,000 schools. The most relevant variables were selected for the analysis, including numbers 

of students enrolled, numbers who repeated and numbers who dropped out, number of toilets and whether 

considered adequate or not, and number and type of available water sources. 

Prior to the analysis, the datasets were sorted and cleaned to remove irregularities. The analysis was 

disaggregated by gender and grade (1-12) 


Lack of WASH facilities negatively influenced girls’ enrolment in schools. Female-to-male ratios were lower in 

schools with no toilets compared to schools with 20 or less students per toilet. At grade 8 more girls had 

enrolled in schools with good toilet provision, most likely due to the critical need for adequate toilet facilities 

during their menstrual cycle. Further results confirmed significant gender differences in drop-out rates, 

particularly between schools with inadequate WASH and those with adequate WASH. Certainly, without 

adequate WASH facilities, girls during their menstrual cycle are more likely to drop out if they repeatedly 

experience difficulties in managing their hygiene every month. Significant disparities were quite obvious in 

grades 6, 7, 8 and 9. Practically, it would be difficult for girls who experience their menstrual cycle to remain 

in class or school and queue up for crowded toilets with no water and most would choose to remain at home 

to manage their personal hygiene. 

178


The benefits of improved WASH in schools have been proven and include better-quality education and 

improved health. To build a good evidence base for WASH interventions in schools, a monitoring system 

should include detailed WASH information on quality of the facilities and services provided. Additional 

information such as proximity of the facilities to schools, whether they are seasonal/permanent (e.g. water 

sources) are very useful. An analysis of WASH facilities gives understanding of its critical role especially for 

girls who need to manage their menstrual hygiene. Certainly, WASH programmes requires serious 

considerations of gender at all levels of learning. 

179

Poster: Gender awareness in water and waste in Central Asia 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Ms. Elena Tsay, Uzbekistan, UNESCO Tashkent Office 

Ms. Oksana Tsay, Uzbekistan, Kh.M. Abdullayev Institute of 

Geology and Geophysics 

Mr. Denis Tsay, Uzbekistan, School №61, "iHoops" company 

Highlights 

The goal of the study is to visualize the comprehensive assessment of the survey results on gender awareness 

of organizations and projects in water sector of Central Asia (CA) using a geographic information system 

(GIS). 


 

An analysis of the current state of gender sensitive issues in the management of water and land 

resources has been undertaken by the Scientific Information Center of the Interstate Coordination 

Water Commission of Central Asia; 

The interpretation of the results of the survey aimed at identifying gender awareness of 

representatives of organizations and projects in the water sector of CA has been made, as well as a 

comparative analysis of the countries. 

This particular case study has shown how gender is incorporated in water in CA. 


To what extent water professionals of CA are competent in gender-sensitive aspects of water management? 

Women are recognized as important actors in water management and gender mainstreaming is an integral 

part of IWRM. 

Since gender is a socially constructed definition of women and men, social survey on gender awareness of 

water specialists in the region was chosen. The survey results are presented visually using GIS which allowed 

to carry out a comparative analysis of the data. GIS is the most effective and innovative means of analysis, 

evaluation and visualization of sociological studies based on demographic and other data. 


Thus, research has shown that water management organizations of CA countries are aware of the gender 

dimension in the management of land and water resources, and most of them supported the need to 

integrate gender issues into the work of the water management organizations, as well as agree on the lack 

of information on gender issues in water resources management. At the same time, gender according to the 

respondents, are being underplayed, with the exception of Kyrgyz Republic. In general, there is the active 

position of the representatives of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyz Republic in the promotion of gender issues in the 

water sector and the relatively passive of the representatives of Turkmenistan. 

180


Analysis of the current state of gender mainstreaming in the management of water and land resources 

showed that, along with the existing problems of gender equality in the water CA sector, expressed by 

women's limitations in decision-making, access to resources, there is a trend change in the situation for the 

better, in particular by carrying out joint projects aimed at increasing awareness of gender issues in water 

resources management at the macro and micro levels. 

This issue needs further research with a focus on gender mainsteaming in water management that will be 

implemented by the UNESCO Tashkent Office within the EU Programme “Sustainable management of water 

resources in Uzbekistan”. 

181

Poster: Mainstreaming gender in WASH programmes for social 

transformation and empowerment 

Presenting 

Author: 

Co-Authors: 

Mr. Riad Imam Mahmud, Bangladesh, Max Foundation 

Mr. M.M. Ahidul Islam Kazal, Program Manager, Max 

Foundation 

Ms. Rabeya Sultana, Gender and Water Training Specialist, 

GWAPB 

Highlights 

 

 

 

Women can be key agents for change when involved in sanitation management. Their involvement 

is crucial for human health and national socio-economic development. 

Empowering women means increasing their economic, social, political and physical strength. 

The process of social transformation needs more research at the individual and structural level. 


Poor sanitation management impacts women’s health, dignity, safety and socio-economic status. Max 

Foundation addresses these challenges in the coastal areas of Bangladesh together with technical advice 

from the Gender and Water Programme Bangladesh in order to streamline gender issues in its WASH 

programmes. In Bangladesh, there is limited research on the social exclusion of women in WASH initiatives 

and most of the research fails to incorporate gender-disaggregated data. This results in a lack of recognition 

for the challenges women face. This case study demonstrates that the integration of multiple dimensions of 

women’s empowerment into WASH management leads to sustainable and advanced development, poverty 

reduction and human rights for all. 


This case study addresses the following research question: How we can catalyse transformative change that 

enables women and girls to empower themselves effectively and sustainably in partnership with men and 

the wider community? Women in Bangladesh are the primary users, providers, and managers of water and 

hygiene in their households. Their empowerment in sanitation can serve as a mechanism for grounding deep 

and broad-based social transformation. In order to ensure in-depth understanding of the specific challenges 

faced by women, a participatory method of rapid rural appraisal was applied to collect data through key 

informant interviews and focus-group discussions. 


Max Foundation’s project interventions show how women leaders strive to overcome physical, economic, 

political and socio-cultural discrimination through their participation in Community Support Groups (CSGs). 

Women are placed at the core of WASH planning, implementation and operations via this village-based 

platform chaired by women in cooperation with male members. The CSG advises union-based government 

committees that oversee progress towards universal latrine and water coverage in the union, thereby 

engaging women at the beginning of the water project cycle and truly improving their political 

empowerment. Improved health (physical empowerment) extends from the women’s individual level to the 

entire village. Latrine construction results in decreased diarrhoea and open defecation and the spread of 

messages on menstrual hygiene management increase the physical empowerment of adolescent girls. The 

women in CSGs have created an environment where women’s leadership is now more socially accepted 

(socio-cultural empowerment). Although economic empowerment is also considered an important factor, it 

182

has not yet been fully incorporated into this project; nevertheless, the time spent by women on water 

collection has been significantly reduced, thus allowing women more time to develop economic activities. At 

present, Max Foundation is developing a women-led social entrepreneur programme to market health 

commodities. 


One of this study’s main conclusions is that in WASH interventions, it is essential to include gender analysis 

and women’s (economical, physical, political and socio-cultural) empowerment in the needs-assessment in 

order to provide appropriate solutions that are effective, sustainable and safe and that restore and promote 

dignity for women. The cooperation with men and local government institutions also needs to be 

emphasised. Although the scope of our project is limited to three Bangladeshi unions, its implications are 

widely applicable given that women’s empowerment is vital to sustainable development and the 

achievement of safe water for all. 

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Abstract Volume 2017

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