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64 Part IV, 11, below.
65 On early psychophysics, see Edwin C. Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology, 2d ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, 1950), pp. 27–49, 275–96; and Roger Daval, Francois Bourricaud, Yves Delamotte, and Roland Doron, Traité de psychologie
sociale (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1963, 1964), vol. 1, chap. 3.
66 Part IV, 11, below; and Tarde, La criminalité comparée, 8th ed. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1924), p. 79.
Boudon has stressed the modernity of Tarde’s formulations on attitude measurement and the similarity of his conceptions to much
contemporary work on trace characteristics. Raymond Boudon, “La ‘statistique psychologique’ de Tarde,” Annales Internationales de
Criminologie 2 (1964): 342–57.
See Paul F. Lazarsfeld, “The Logic and Mathematical Foundation of Latent Structure Analysis,” in Samuel Stouffer et al.,
Measurement and Prediction (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950), pp. 362–412, for an influential discussion of “traces” as an
attribute of attitudes; and Bert F. Green, “Attitude Measurement,” in Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Gardner Lindzey
(Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954), 1:335–69, and Daval et al., Traité de psychologie sociale, 1:191–342, on more
contemporary attitude measurement and scaling.
67 For example, René Worms, Philosophie des sciences sociales, 2d ed. (Paris: Giard & Brière, 1918), 2:98.
68 See Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949), esp. chaps. 13, 16, 18, 19; and Paul F.
Lazarsfeld and Anthony R. Oberschall, “Max Weber and Empirical Social Research,” American Sociological Review 30 (April, 1965):
185–98.
69 We must note, however, that Tarde’s conception of society as an aggregate of individuals led him to neglect group characteristics
that were not the measurable consequence of such an aggreation. He ignored what have subsequently been identified as “structural” and
“global” characteristics. See the articles by Lazarsfeld and Menzel, and by Coleman in Complex Organizations, ed. Amitai Etzioni
(New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961).
70 Part IV, 11, below.
71 On early developments in measurement leading to attitude scales, see Daval et al., Traité de psychologie sociale, 1:191–342;
Theodore M. Newcomb, Ralph H. Turner and Philip E. Converse, Social Psychology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965),
pp. 496–534; and Dorothy C. Adkins, “Louis Leon Thurstone: Creative Thinker, Dedicated Teacher, Eminent Psychologist,” in
Contributions to Mathematical Psychology, ed. Norman Frederiksen and Harold Gulliksen (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1964), pp. 1–40.
72 See Part V, below.
73 Emile Durkheim, Suicide (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1951), p. 148. It may be remarked that in the preface of Suicide (p. 39)
Durkheim comments apropos of the originally computed tables included in the text that his nephew, Marcel Mauss, carried out the
tabulations, and that “these tables have been drawn up from documents of the Ministry of Justice not appearing in the annual reports.
They have been most kindly submitted to us by M. Tarde, Chief of the Bureau of Legal Statistics. His assistance is most gratefully
acknowledged.”
74 Tarde, The Laws of Imitation, p. 106.
75 In Les transformations du pouvoir (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1899), p. 18, Tarde suggests the desirability of creating “bourses
politiques”—literally “political stock markets”—for different political personalities and national governments analogous to financial stock
markets, in order to measure their bases of power over time. But he outlines no specific research methods for carrying out this program.
76 Part IV, 11, below.
77 Tarde, L’opposition universelle (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1897), p. 344.
78 Ibid.
79 Ibid., pp. 345–46. The degree to which the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded to Germany after the 1870 war, were actually
becoming Germanized was a subject of a great deal of public concern and debate near the turn of the century in France. See Claude
Digeon, La crise allemande de la pensée française (1870–1914) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), pp. 255ff.
80 L’opinion et la foule, pp. 152–53.
81 Ibid., pp. 152–54.
82 Ibid., p. 86.
83 Laws of Imitation, p. 101.
84 Ibid.
85 See section x, below.
86 Cf. part V, this volume.
87 Laws of Imitation, p. 114.
88 Part VII, 15, below.
89 Physical scientists who turn a hand to social analysis seem particularly prone to this last fallacy. See, for example, T. J. Rainoff,
“Wavelike Fluctuations of Creative Productivity in the Development of West-European Physics,” Isis 12 (1929): 287–88. Even as
sophisticated an observer as Derek Price is not immune to such difficulties, for example in Science since Babylon (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1962).
90 See “The Origins and Functions of Elites,” this volume.
91 Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore, “Some Principles of Stratification,” American Sociological Review 10, no. 2 (1945):242–49;