RAND_MR1382

intentionally did not bomb Internet service providers or shut down the satellite links
bringing the Internet to Yugoslavia. Policy instead was to keep the Internet open. James
P. Rubin, spokesman for the U.S. State Department, said “Full and open access to the
Internet can only help the Serbian people know the ugly truth about the atrocities and
crimes against humanity being perpetrated in Kosovo by the Milosevic regime.” 3
Indirectly, the Internet may have also affected public support for the war, which in turn
might have affected policy decisions made during the course of the conflict.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore how the Internet is altering the landscape of
political discourse and advocacy, with particular emphasis on how it is used by those
wishing to influence foreign policy. Emphasis is on actions taken by nonstate actors,
including both individuals and organizations, but state actions are discussed where they
reflect foreign policy decisions triggered by the Internet. The primary sources used in
the analysis are news reports of incidents and events. These are augmented with
interviews and survey data where available. A more scientific study would be useful.
The chapter is organized around three broad classes of activity: activism, hacktivism,
and cyberterrorism. The first category, activism, refers to normal, nondisruptive use of
the Internet in support of an agenda or cause. Operations in this area includes browsing
the web for information, constructing web sites and posting materials on them,
transmitting electronic publications and letters through email, and using the Net to
discuss issues, form coalitions, and plan and coordinate activities. The second category,
hacktivism, refers to the marriage of hacking and activism. It covers operations that use
hacking techniques against a target’s Internet site with the intent of disrupting normal
operations but not causing serious damage. Examples are web sit-ins and virtual
blockades, automated email bombs, web hacks, computer break-ins, and computer
viruses and worms. The final category, cyberterrorism, refers to the convergence of
cyberspace and terrorism. It covers politically motivated hacking operations intended to
cause grave harm such as loss of life or severe economic damage. An example would be
penetrating an air traffic control system and causing two planes to collide. There is a
general progression toward greater damage and disruption from the first to the third
category, although that does not imply an increase of political effectiveness. An
electronic petition with a million signatures may influence policy more than an attack
that disrupts emergency 911 services.
Although the three categories of activity are treated separately, the boundaries between
them are somewhat fuzzy. For example, an email bomb may be considered hacktivism
by some and cyberterrorism by others. Also, any given actor may conduct operations
across the spectrum. For example, a terrorist might launch viruses as part of a larger
campaign of cyberterrorism, all the while using the Internet to collect information about
targets, coordinate action with fellow conspirators, and publish propaganda on web
sites. Thus, while this chapter distinguishes activists, hacktivists, and terrorists, an
individual can play all three roles.