PR Campaigns – Theories of communication used in campaigns
PR Campaigns – Theories of communication used in campaigns
PR Campaigns – Theories of communication used in campaigns
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‘Your goal is to w<strong>in</strong> the task <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g a public relations campaign on behalf <strong>of</strong><br />
the Newlandia Education Foundation’<br />
Introduction: Situation and Proposal Overview<br />
Pacific <strong>PR</strong>’s campaign proposal for the Newlandia Education Foundation (NEF) will focus<br />
on rais<strong>in</strong>g general awareness and build<strong>in</strong>g strategic partnerships and philanthropic<br />
relationships with key Newlandia <strong>in</strong>stitutions to achieve the ultimate campaign goals to: raise<br />
enough money so that the NEF can build 3 new schools <strong>in</strong> the Southern Region and have<br />
them function<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> 18 months; and to also raise sufficient money to provide additional<br />
support to the exist<strong>in</strong>g NEF schools <strong>in</strong> Rajan, Cal<strong>in</strong>a and Shalel <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> books,<br />
furniture, stationery and teach<strong>in</strong>g materials. To survive and achieve their desired goals <strong>in</strong> the<br />
relative short-term, philanthropic relationships must be established to satisfy the NEF’s<br />
immediate monetary needs. The longer-term success <strong>of</strong> the NEF relies upon rais<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
companies pr<strong>of</strong>ile amongst the Newlandia adult population, especially <strong>in</strong> the affluent<br />
Northern region, and establish<strong>in</strong>g the NEF as a national <strong>in</strong>stitution. The success story <strong>of</strong><br />
Rangi, a graduate from Cal<strong>in</strong>a Village School, should be utilized to spearhead and focus the<br />
campaign. Rais<strong>in</strong>g awareness <strong>of</strong> the dire state <strong>of</strong> child education <strong>in</strong> the downtrodden South is<br />
critical, especially consider<strong>in</strong>g that research undertaken by the Pacific Research Company,<br />
commissioned jo<strong>in</strong>tly by WorldHelp and the NEF, shows that Newlandian’s are predisposed<br />
to support<strong>in</strong>g charitable organisations with seventy percent <strong>of</strong> survey respondents <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
they had donated to a charity with<strong>in</strong> the last twelve months. However, the study also<br />
revealed the enormity <strong>of</strong> the task, with only one percent <strong>of</strong> respondents aware <strong>of</strong> the NEF’s<br />
charter to provide educational opportunities to all residents <strong>of</strong> Newlandia. Although,<br />
evidence suggested that messages promot<strong>in</strong>g the NEF’s cause would be well received, with<br />
n<strong>in</strong>ety-two percent <strong>of</strong> the survey respondents <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that they felt support<strong>in</strong>g child-<br />
foc<strong>used</strong> charitable organisations is important, and with n<strong>in</strong>ety-five percent <strong>of</strong> the survey<br />
respondents agree<strong>in</strong>g with the statement, “it is every Newlandian’s right to have access to<br />
educational opportunities”. The theories <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> and persuasion discussed as<br />
relevant to the NEF campaign are: Models <strong>of</strong> Public Relations, Stewardship, Management<br />
by Objectives, Message pre-test<strong>in</strong>g, Sponsorship Theory, Agenda Sett<strong>in</strong>g Theory, Semiotics,<br />
1
Grunig and Hunt’s Four Models <strong>of</strong> Public Relations, Situational Theory, Social Learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Theory, Hierarchy <strong>of</strong> Needs, and Communication Theory (sender <strong>–</strong> receiver).<br />
Models <strong>of</strong> Public Relations<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> prom<strong>in</strong>ent public relations plann<strong>in</strong>g models that can be <strong>used</strong> to guide<br />
the development <strong>of</strong> a campaign or program. There is Marston’s RACE model 1 ; Hendrix’s<br />
ROPE model 2 ; The ROSTE model as sited by Park<strong>in</strong>son and Ekachai 3 ; Crifasi’s ROSIE<br />
model 4 ; Wilcox et al’s 8-step plann<strong>in</strong>g model 5 . They all advocate similar plann<strong>in</strong>g steps that<br />
can be condensed <strong>in</strong>to four essential, basic phases, as outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Kendall’s RAISE model:<br />
Research, adaptation, implementation strategy, evaluation. 6 So, therefore, for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
this Pacific <strong>PR</strong> campaign, it is a s<strong>in</strong>gular unique aspect <strong>of</strong> the ROPE(S) plann<strong>in</strong>g model, as<br />
advocated by Kelly, - Stewardship <strong>–</strong> that will be <strong>of</strong> specific and particular importance. 7 As a<br />
non-pr<strong>of</strong>it organisation struggl<strong>in</strong>g to create an identity and public awareness for its cause,<br />
relationship management is critical, and as Kelly advocates through the theory <strong>of</strong><br />
Stewardship, “It is easier to keep a friend than to make a new friend.” 8<br />
Stewardship<br />
Stewardship is the concept <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to nurture exist<strong>in</strong>g strategic relationships even after<br />
their specific usefulness <strong>in</strong> a campaign or program is over, their support will probably be very<br />
helpful <strong>in</strong> future endeavours. Market<strong>in</strong>g studies <strong>in</strong>dicate that it can cost around seven times<br />
1 J.E. Marston, Modern Public Relations, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979<br />
2 J.A. Hendrix, Public Relations Cases, 5 th edn, Belmont California: Wadsworth Thomson Learn<strong>in</strong>g, 2001<br />
3 Michael G. Park<strong>in</strong>son and Daradirek Ekachai, International and Intercultural Public Relations: A<br />
Campaign Case Approach, Boston: Pearson Education, 2006<br />
4 F.P. Seitel, The Practice <strong>of</strong> Public Relations, 10 th edn, New Jersey: Pearson Education International, 2007<br />
5 D.L. Wilcox, P.H. Ault, W.K. Agee and G.T Cameron, Essentials <strong>of</strong> public relations, New York:<br />
Longman, 2001<br />
6 R. Kendall, Public relations campaign strategies: plann<strong>in</strong>g for implementation, 2 nd edn, New York:<br />
Harper Coll<strong>in</strong>s, 1996<br />
7 K.S. Kelly. 2001. ‘Stewardship: The Fifth Step <strong>in</strong> the Public Relations Process’, <strong>in</strong> R.L. Heath, Handbook<br />
<strong>of</strong> Public Relations, CA: Sage, pp. 279-283<br />
8 Ibid, p. 279<br />
2
as much to generate new customers than to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g ones. 9 Fund-rais<strong>in</strong>g theory<br />
states that “the best prospects are previous donors” 10 , that the more an <strong>in</strong>dividual or group<br />
donates (time, money, etc) the more likely they are to give aga<strong>in</strong> 11 , and “it’s very difficult to<br />
turn a non-giver <strong>in</strong>to a giver”. 12 On the same note, effects theory dictates that it is much<br />
more difficult to change ones behaviour than to re<strong>in</strong>force a certa<strong>in</strong> type <strong>of</strong> behaviour. 13<br />
These are all good reasons as to why ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g exist<strong>in</strong>g relationships through stewardship<br />
is vitally important to any public relations activity, especially the not-for-pr<strong>of</strong>it sector. “How<br />
donors are treated after they make their gifts largely determ<strong>in</strong>es future success. It also costs<br />
less to raise gifts from past donors than from new donors.” 14 Furthermore, Barlow adds that<br />
“it is these customers who we look after today who will be loyal to us tomorrow.” 15<br />
Greenfield states that the idea beh<strong>in</strong>d stewardship <strong>in</strong> the not-for-pr<strong>of</strong>it sector is to thank<br />
current/past supporters and to “establish the means for cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>communication</strong> that will<br />
help to preserve their <strong>in</strong>terest and attention to the organisation” and its various causes. 16<br />
Stewardship, as the additional fifth step to the ROPES programm<strong>in</strong>g model, is made up <strong>of</strong><br />
four <strong>in</strong>dividual elements: reciprocity, responsibility, report<strong>in</strong>g, relationship nurtur<strong>in</strong>g. 17<br />
Reciprocity is the concept that states the organisation should demonstrate its gratitude for the<br />
support shown by stakeholders, key publics and strategic partnerships. 18 Positive<br />
relationships need a system <strong>of</strong> give and take. 19 Reciprocity ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s or restores the balance<br />
to a relationship, 20 and accord<strong>in</strong>g to Gouldner, establishes an obligation <strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong><br />
supporters towards future efforts. 21 Howe further attests that “the more prompt and personal<br />
the expression <strong>of</strong> appreciation, the more favourable the carryover toward further giv<strong>in</strong>g.” 22<br />
Responsibility is the concept that states an organisation has an obligation to act <strong>in</strong> a socially<br />
responsible manner towards supporters. 23 Kelly argues the particular importance <strong>of</strong><br />
9 Ibid, p. 283<br />
10 Ibid, p. 282<br />
11 Seymour 1988<br />
12 Lord 1983, p. 85<br />
13 Kelly, p. 282<br />
14 Ibid, p. 283<br />
15 Barlow 1998, p. 21<br />
16 Greenfield 1991, p. 148<br />
17 Kelly, p. 280<br />
18 Ibid, p. 283<br />
19 Becker 1986, p. 83<br />
20 Lombardo 1995, p. 297<br />
21 Gouldner 1960, p. 173<br />
22 Howe 1991, p. 32<br />
23 Kelly, p. 283<br />
3
esponsibility <strong>in</strong> a very practical manner, highlight<strong>in</strong>g that betray<strong>in</strong>g the trust <strong>of</strong> supporters is<br />
expensive, whilst ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g it saves resources. 24 The third element, report<strong>in</strong>g, is described<br />
simply as be<strong>in</strong>g accountable, where organisations should keep supporters/key publics<br />
<strong>in</strong>formed on developments affect<strong>in</strong>g the organisation and particularly those directly related to<br />
the specific cause supporters have backed. 25 As Kelly po<strong>in</strong>ts out <strong>–</strong> “Relationships cannot be<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed if the organisation only communicates with friends when it seeks help.” 26 The<br />
last element <strong>in</strong> stewardship theory, relationship nurtur<strong>in</strong>g, holds to the basic concept that<br />
relationship build<strong>in</strong>g is at the foundation <strong>of</strong> public relations, is what organisations rely upon<br />
to succeeded <strong>in</strong>to the future and makes good bus<strong>in</strong>ess sense because “it’s easier to get a<br />
second gift from a donor who is treated well the first time than it is to get a new gift.” 27<br />
Management by Objectives<br />
Crucial to any theories <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> implemented dur<strong>in</strong>g a <strong>communication</strong>s campaign,<br />
is the theory or system <strong>of</strong> measurement <strong>used</strong> to determ<strong>in</strong>e the success <strong>of</strong> those<br />
<strong>communication</strong> and persuasion theories employed with<strong>in</strong> the strategies and tactics <strong>of</strong> that<br />
campaign. The methods <strong>of</strong> measurement must match appropriately to the objectives outl<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
If the aim <strong>of</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g a range <strong>of</strong> strategic tactical <strong>communication</strong> devices was to<br />
ultimately change the op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> a target pubic, it is not much good simply count<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> articles published or brochures dissem<strong>in</strong>ated. 28 Quantitative methods <strong>of</strong><br />
measurement can be <strong>used</strong> to assess the success <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formational objectives, but motivational<br />
or behavioural objectives rely on qualitative data and means <strong>of</strong> evaluation to assess their<br />
success. 29 As stated by Macnamara, this type <strong>of</strong> assessment is termed ‘measurement by<br />
kilogram’, as the collection <strong>of</strong> press clipp<strong>in</strong>gs is a quantitative measurement, but to gauge the<br />
attitudes <strong>of</strong> the target public, qualitative means <strong>of</strong> evaluation are needed. 30 “A public<br />
relations department that cannot demonstrate its value to the organization will not be <strong>in</strong> a<br />
24<br />
Ibid, p. 285<br />
25<br />
Ibid, p. 285<br />
26<br />
Ibid, p. 286<br />
27<br />
Dundjerski 1994, p. 22<br />
28<br />
Niranjala Weerakkody, Research Methods For Media and Communication, New York: Oxford<br />
University Press, 2009, p. 115<br />
29<br />
J.R. Macnamara. 2002. ‘The “ad value” <strong>of</strong> <strong>PR</strong>?’, CARMA, accessed 17 August 2009,<br />
http://www.carma.com/research/AdValue(A4).pdf., p. 2<br />
30<br />
Ibid, p. 2<br />
4
position to <strong>in</strong>fluence the policy decisions that affect its own fate.” 31 Measurement <strong>in</strong> research<br />
must essentially address two key issues, the validity (does it measure what we say it<br />
measures?) and reliability (does it measure the same way every time?) 32 Pacific <strong>PR</strong> will use<br />
the theory <strong>of</strong> measurement-by-objectives (MBO) to assess the success <strong>of</strong> its various<br />
<strong>communication</strong> and persuasion efforts. MBO <strong>in</strong> public relations <strong>in</strong>volves prepar<strong>in</strong>g agreed<br />
statements on the desired outcome <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>communication</strong> and persuasion objectives,<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>es appropriate units <strong>of</strong> measurement to gauge the success <strong>of</strong> those <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
objectives, and evaluates those objects’ success at a pre-determ<strong>in</strong>ed time based on the<br />
expectations outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the plann<strong>in</strong>g stage. 33 The achievement <strong>of</strong> all objectives <strong>in</strong> Pacific<br />
<strong>PR</strong>’s <strong>communication</strong>s campaign is particularly crucial given the low budget and dire situation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the NEF. Therefore implement<strong>in</strong>g theories <strong>of</strong> campaign evaluation from the <strong>in</strong>ception <strong>of</strong><br />
the campaign will aid <strong>in</strong> the establishment <strong>of</strong> SMART objectives. 34 The basic MBO<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples to be adhered to <strong>in</strong>clude: Work group <strong>in</strong>volvement (all members <strong>of</strong> the campaign<br />
are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>g the objectives); Manager-subord<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>volvement (each team member<br />
should devise a set <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual objectives with the project manager that derive from the<br />
campaign’s overarch<strong>in</strong>g objectives); Determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>termediate objectives (def<strong>in</strong>es<br />
<strong>in</strong>termediary objectives on route to achiev<strong>in</strong>g the ma<strong>in</strong> objective <strong>–</strong> this can provide more<br />
precise <strong>in</strong>-campaign monitor<strong>in</strong>g and allow for more successful mid-course corrections to be<br />
made if necessary); Determ<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> measures <strong>of</strong> achievement (The po<strong>in</strong>t at which the effort<br />
is considered complete should be specified <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> either a time element or the<br />
achievement <strong>of</strong> a stated objective); Review, evaluation and recycl<strong>in</strong>g (Use <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
gathered dur<strong>in</strong>g the evaluation <strong>of</strong> the success <strong>of</strong> each objective to improve the plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
process <strong>of</strong> the next effort). 35 Lastly, Cloze Procedure is particularly useful for measur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the delivery <strong>of</strong> key messages through a range <strong>of</strong> tactical devices <strong>in</strong> a public<br />
relations program or campaign, because it measures both readability and comprehension <strong>of</strong><br />
spoken and visual messages. 36<br />
31 Otis W. Bask<strong>in</strong>, Craig Aron<strong>of</strong>f and Dan Lattimore. 1997. ‘Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g public relations effectiveness’, <strong>in</strong><br />
Public relations: the pr<strong>of</strong>ession and the practice, 4 th edn, Wiscons<strong>in</strong>: Brown & Benchmark, p. 177<br />
32 Don W. Stacks, Primer <strong>of</strong> Public Relations Research, New York: Guilford Press, 2002, p. 127<br />
33 Bask<strong>in</strong> et al, p. 177<br />
34 Betteke Van Ruler, Ana Vercic and Dejan Vercic, Public Relations metrics research and evaluation,<br />
New York: Routledge, 2008, p. 125<br />
35 Bask<strong>in</strong> et al, p. 178<br />
36 Wilson Taylor, ‘Cloze Procedure: A New Tool for Measur<strong>in</strong>g Readability’, Journalism Quarterly 3, Fall<br />
1953, pp. 415-33<br />
5
Message pre-test<strong>in</strong>g: Readability studies (Flesch Formula)<br />
Key messages dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>PR</strong> Pacific’s <strong>communication</strong> campaign for the NEF will be distributed<br />
audiences <strong>of</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g literacy competencies, from backgrounds <strong>of</strong> various different regional<br />
dialects and will conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation on what is a complicated and controversial issue. As<br />
such, message comprehension is <strong>of</strong> upmost importance. Therefore, theories <strong>of</strong> readability<br />
will be utilized throughout a comprehensive message test<strong>in</strong>g phase. Readability tests can<br />
help tailor specific writ<strong>in</strong>g styles most appropriate for target audiences and publications<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g a public relations campaign. 37 “The basic premise <strong>of</strong> these tests is that written copy<br />
will be <strong>in</strong>effective if it is too difficult to read”. 38 The po<strong>in</strong>t at which the “difficulty” level <strong>of</strong><br />
the copy beg<strong>in</strong>s to <strong>in</strong>hibit the impact <strong>of</strong> the message depends on any given situation 39 (given<br />
the aforementioned reasons, <strong>PR</strong> Pacific will have to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> message simplicity as a high<br />
priority). There are a number <strong>of</strong> formulaic theories for determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the readability <strong>of</strong><br />
publications. Pacific <strong>PR</strong> will use a comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g most common readability<br />
tests, as message test<strong>in</strong>g will be a crucial step <strong>in</strong> the successful implementation <strong>of</strong> this<br />
campaign. The Flesch Formula which produces both a read<strong>in</strong>g ease score and a human<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest score. 40 The Gunn<strong>in</strong>g Fog Index focuses purely on determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the read<strong>in</strong>g ease <strong>of</strong><br />
copy. 41 The Dale-Chall Formula calculates sentence length and the number <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frequently<br />
<strong>used</strong> words to determ<strong>in</strong>e read<strong>in</strong>g ease. 42 Whilst these theories provide good guidel<strong>in</strong>es and<br />
ground<strong>in</strong>g for the development <strong>of</strong> clear and concise <strong>communication</strong>s, material can be<br />
oversimplified and hence its mean<strong>in</strong>g lost. 43 The key is to “match the written message to the<br />
publication and audience for which it is <strong>in</strong>tended whilst avoid<strong>in</strong>g ‘talk<strong>in</strong>g-over’, or<br />
patronis<strong>in</strong>g them. 44<br />
37 Bask<strong>in</strong> et al, p. 180<br />
38 Ibid, p. 179<br />
39 John Pavlik, John Vastyan, and Maj. Michael F. Maher, ‘Us<strong>in</strong>g Readership Research to Study Employee<br />
Views’, Public Relations Review, 1990, pp. 50-60<br />
40 Rudolph Flesch, How to Test Readability, New York: Harper and Row, 1951.<br />
41 Robert Gunn<strong>in</strong>g, The Technique <strong>of</strong> Clear Writ<strong>in</strong>g, New York: McGraw Hill, 1968<br />
42 Edgar Dale and Jeanne Chall. 1948. ‘A Formula for Predict<strong>in</strong>g Readability’, Educational Research<br />
Bullet<strong>in</strong> 27, January<br />
43 Bask<strong>in</strong> et al, p. 180<br />
44 Ibid, p. 180<br />
6
Sponsorship Theory<br />
Sponsorship theory will be a crucial element or ‘model’ <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> utilized <strong>in</strong> Pacific<br />
<strong>PR</strong>’s NEF campaign. “Sponsorship is an <strong>in</strong>vestment, where the sponsor provides f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
assistance or stages an event to aid an organisation <strong>in</strong> atta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g their goals <strong>in</strong> return for<br />
communicat<strong>in</strong>g a corporate message so that the sponsor can achieve” their goals. 45 Benefits<br />
for the sponsored party <strong>in</strong>clude: substantial money to fund their cause; prestige <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
highly sought-after team or event; association with sponsor; public acknowledgement <strong>of</strong><br />
stand<strong>in</strong>g (raise awareness: acknowledgement <strong>of</strong> themselves and the cause they are fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for); the ability to ga<strong>in</strong> considerable publicity. 46 The benefits for the sponsor can <strong>in</strong>clude: the<br />
ability to create, re<strong>in</strong>force or ‘fix’ a company/organisation name; shape public op<strong>in</strong>ion and<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> a company/organisation; provide sell<strong>in</strong>g/promotion opportunities; improve their<br />
image generally; identify a company/organisation with a particular lifestyle or po<strong>in</strong>t-<strong>of</strong>-view<br />
(eg: noble cause); be a cost-effective option for self-promotion when compared to other<br />
avenues and forms <strong>of</strong> media. 47 Chung provides a useful ‘checklist’ for prepar<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
sponsorship proposal and attract<strong>in</strong>g sponsorship: Identify your project and def<strong>in</strong>e the<br />
benefits; Def<strong>in</strong>e the timel<strong>in</strong>e, costs and resources required; Identify a potential list <strong>of</strong><br />
sponsors and shortlist based on their ‘match’ to your organisation; Prepare a proposal based<br />
on your needs and the benefits the sponsor could derive; Personally present the proposal;<br />
Follow-up (Stewardship); Put what is agreed up between sponsor and sponsored <strong>in</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g. 48<br />
Agenda Sett<strong>in</strong>g Theory<br />
Agenda sett<strong>in</strong>g theory was first identified <strong>in</strong> the 1970s by Maxwell McCombs and Donald<br />
Shaw. 49 “Agenda sett<strong>in</strong>g theory is concerned with the media and the way news is selected by<br />
45<br />
Kay Chung. 1999. ‘Promotional products, hospitality and sponsorship’, <strong>in</strong> Go<strong>in</strong>g Public: communicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the public and private sectors, Alexandria, NSW, p. 199<br />
46<br />
Ibid, p. 199<br />
47<br />
B. Pritchard, Complex Market<strong>in</strong>g Made Simple, Sydney: Milner Books, 1995, pp. 122-123<br />
48<br />
Chung, p. 204<br />
49<br />
M.E. McCombs and D.L. Shaw. 1972. ‘The agenda-sett<strong>in</strong>g function <strong>of</strong> mass media’, Public Op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 1<br />
7
media outlets for consumption by the public.” 50 That is, McCombs and Shaw contend that<br />
media content sets the agenda for public discussion. 51 Public relations practitioners should be<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ually research<strong>in</strong>g their operational environment (environmental scann<strong>in</strong>g) to<br />
proactively anticipate the rise <strong>of</strong> potential issues, identify and solve them, before they<br />
become problems. 52 This leads to the crucial role <strong>of</strong> agenda sett<strong>in</strong>g. If issues are proactively<br />
dealt with, this enables the public relations practitioner to frame the issue or ensu<strong>in</strong>g<br />
discussion on their terms to avoid unfavourable media coverage and issue <strong>in</strong>terpretation or<br />
misrepresentation by the media. 53 Conversely, public relations practitioners are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
attempt<strong>in</strong>g to set the agenda by ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g positive and visible new coverage for their client. 54<br />
Agenda-sett<strong>in</strong>g theory can be <strong>used</strong> to shift the focus from potentially damag<strong>in</strong>g situations. 55<br />
This is particularly true <strong>in</strong> the new digital age <strong>of</strong> news production, where the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
electronic media stories <strong>of</strong> the day are likely to be about the new agenda, rather than the old<br />
one, because <strong>of</strong> its <strong>in</strong>stantaneous nature. 56 “Readers learn not only about a given issue, but<br />
also how much importance to attach to that issue… that is, the media set the ‘agenda’ <strong>of</strong> the<br />
campaign.” 57 As Mackey suggests, “although the news media do not tell you what to th<strong>in</strong>k,<br />
they do strongly <strong>in</strong>fluence what you th<strong>in</strong>k about.” 58 The news media focuses public thought<br />
and op<strong>in</strong>ion on certa<strong>in</strong> issues, and simultaneously, issues that do not receive this coverage are<br />
forgotten and “drop <strong>of</strong>f the public agenda”. 59 Because the NEF has failed to ga<strong>in</strong> news<br />
coverage with its activities, it as an organisation had dropped <strong>of</strong>f the public agenda. The use<br />
<strong>of</strong> Agenda sett<strong>in</strong>g theory is crucial <strong>in</strong> Pacific <strong>PR</strong>’s campaign to shape the NEF as a<br />
topic/<strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>of</strong> public <strong>in</strong>terest and discussion. Agenda sett<strong>in</strong>g theory po<strong>in</strong>ts out the<br />
relationship between the public relations sector and the news media and highlights the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> a strategic <strong>communication</strong>s effort where the correct message is sent to the<br />
correct public, through the correct media at the right time to achievement coverage<br />
50<br />
Bronwyn Kirby, ‘From education to practice’, <strong>in</strong> M Sheehan and R. Xavier, Public relations <strong>campaigns</strong>:<br />
an Australian and New Zealand perspective, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press, p. 9<br />
51 th<br />
D.L. Wilcox and G.T. Cameron, Public Relations Strategies and Tactics, 9 edn, New York: Pearson<br />
Education, 2009, p. 219<br />
52<br />
Stacks, p. 13<br />
53<br />
McCombs and Shaw, p. 176<br />
54<br />
Ibid, p. 176<br />
55<br />
Stephan Tanner, Journalism Investigation and Research, NSW: Pearson Education, 2002, p. 179<br />
56<br />
Ibid, p. 179<br />
57<br />
Ibid, p. 176<br />
58<br />
Steve Mackey. 2004, ‘Theoretical perspectives’, <strong>in</strong> Public relations : theory and practice, Crows Nest: Allen<br />
and Unw<strong>in</strong>, 2004, p. 45<br />
59 Ibid, p. 45<br />
8
prom<strong>in</strong>ence, relevance and acceptance. 60 ‘Second-level’ agenda-sett<strong>in</strong>g effects, explored by<br />
Wanta, f<strong>in</strong>ds evidence that the media not only set an agenda, but also convey a set <strong>of</strong><br />
attributes about the subject <strong>of</strong> the news. 61 These positive or negative attributes are<br />
remembered and colour public op<strong>in</strong>ion. 62 For example, “a number <strong>of</strong> news stories regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the disappearance <strong>of</strong> Alabama high school student Natalee Holloway have foc<strong>used</strong> on the<br />
potential danger for tourists <strong>in</strong> Aruba, when <strong>in</strong>deed the island has a relatively low rate <strong>of</strong><br />
crime compared to other countries <strong>in</strong> the region. This may lead to the public perception that<br />
travel to Aruba is ill-advised.” 63 As public relations is concerned with ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the maximum<br />
attention possible for a client or organisation, practitioners need to understand the news<br />
values (what makes news) that govern the media agenda and media rout<strong>in</strong>es and process to<br />
ga<strong>in</strong> maximum achievable coverage. 64 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Gandy, public relations plays a major<br />
role <strong>in</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>g the media agenda by supply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation to the media: “Public relations<br />
represents one means <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g the decisions <strong>of</strong> others by structur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
environment <strong>in</strong> which those decision are made.” 65<br />
Semiotics<br />
Semiotics or semiology is a study <strong>of</strong> signs and symbols and their associated and derived<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs and significance. 66 The concept <strong>of</strong> semiotics <strong>in</strong> <strong>communication</strong> theory was<br />
developed <strong>in</strong> the 1960s and refers to the construction <strong>of</strong> textual mean<strong>in</strong>g by the process <strong>of</strong><br />
signification <strong>–</strong> the <strong>in</strong>teraction <strong>of</strong> signs with their referents and with the readers/producers who<br />
use them. 67 These symbols can be words, pictures, sounds and signs, or fashion items, etc. 68<br />
“These representations <strong>–</strong>these images, designs, words or sounds <strong>–</strong> all draw on the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
language understand<strong>in</strong>gs which we hold <strong>in</strong> our heads <strong>in</strong> order to deliberately cause us to<br />
60 Ibid, p. 45<br />
61 Wilcox and Cameron, p. 221<br />
62 Ibid, p. 221<br />
63 Ibid, p. 221<br />
64 R. Tench and L. Yeomans, Explor<strong>in</strong>g Public Relations, Essex: Pearson Education, 2006, p. 118<br />
65 O.H. Gandy Jr. 1992. ‘Public relations and public policy: the structuration <strong>of</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation age’, <strong>in</strong> E.L. Toth and R.L. Heath, Rhetorical and critical approaches to public relations, New<br />
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, p. 141<br />
66 Mackey, p. 48<br />
67 Ina Bertrand and Peter Hughes, Media Research Methods: Audiences, Institutions, Texts, Hampshire:<br />
Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, p. 6<br />
68 Mackey, p. 48<br />
9
trigger certa<strong>in</strong> thoughts.” 69 The theory <strong>of</strong> semiotics expla<strong>in</strong>s how our understand<strong>in</strong>gs, views<br />
and thoughts towards issues, organisations, products and so on, can be manipulated through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> cultural/language symbols. 70 For example, use <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> colours or images<br />
can conjure particular associations, elicit feel<strong>in</strong>gs and thoughts. Us<strong>in</strong>g the colours <strong>of</strong> green<br />
and gold or the Box<strong>in</strong>g Kangaroo on the packag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Australian goods can convey notions<br />
<strong>of</strong> national pride and patriotism. Also, western newsreaders are dressed <strong>in</strong> suits because they<br />
are cultural symbols that convey notions <strong>of</strong> respect, reliability and pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism. 71 These<br />
techniques will be vital to establish the NEF as a Newlandia <strong>in</strong>stitution by attach<strong>in</strong>g feel<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> nationalism to the organisation <strong>in</strong> order w<strong>in</strong> wide-spread public support. Research is vital<br />
to use semiology successfully, as it is culturally sensitive and specific. 72 The colour red has<br />
different political connotations <strong>in</strong> the west as opposed to eastern cultures. White is also the<br />
colour <strong>of</strong> mourn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> some Asian cultures, as opposed to black for western cultures. 73<br />
Semiotics as a <strong>communication</strong> and persuasion theory, assumes that all <strong>communication</strong> occurs<br />
by the exchange <strong>of</strong> signs, with each sign hav<strong>in</strong>g one or more signified (a mental concept) and<br />
at least one signifier (a physical aspect). 74 For example, the signifier ‘dog’ (a word, written<br />
on a page or spoken) br<strong>in</strong>gs signifieds to the reader’s m<strong>in</strong>d (associations which draw on<br />
previous experience). 75 The theory <strong>of</strong> semiotic <strong>communication</strong> also states that signs operate<br />
on two levels: The denotation (as near as possible to a literal mean<strong>in</strong>g), and the connotation<br />
(the value added to the literal mean<strong>in</strong>g). 76 For example, “‘green’ denotes a particular colour<br />
response <strong>of</strong> our ret<strong>in</strong>as, and connotes nature, permission to move forward, the Irish, jealousy,<br />
illness, etc. You can change the connotation <strong>of</strong> a sign by chang<strong>in</strong>g the signifier while<br />
reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the signified (for <strong>in</strong>stance, a photo <strong>of</strong> the same girl <strong>in</strong> clear light and hard focus or<br />
<strong>in</strong> dim light and s<strong>of</strong>t focus).” 77 In the end, culture (and ideology) is the decid<strong>in</strong>g factor that<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>es our responses to signs. 78<br />
69 Ibid, p. 48<br />
70 Ellen Seiter. 2004. ‘Semiotics, structuralism, and television’, <strong>in</strong> Sue Turnbull, Research<strong>in</strong>g Media<br />
Audiences, La Trobe University, 2006, p. 35<br />
71 Ibid, p. 35<br />
72 Bertrand and Hughes, p. 6<br />
73 Mackey, p. 50<br />
74 Bertrand and Hughes, p. 202<br />
75 Ibid, p. 202<br />
76 Ibid, p. 204<br />
77 Ibid, p. 204<br />
78 Ibid, p. 204<br />
10
Grunig and Hunt’s Four Models <strong>of</strong> Public Relations<br />
Grunig and Hunt’s four models <strong>of</strong> public relations expla<strong>in</strong> the different <strong>communication</strong>s<br />
approaches that public relations practitioners and <strong>campaigns</strong> can take to reach their target<br />
publics. 79 Press agentry/publicity (ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g attention for your client or organisation); Public<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation (one-way dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation to target publics on behalf <strong>of</strong> the<br />
organisation); Two-way asymmetric (<strong>in</strong>volves a two-way flow <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation, but is<br />
designed to aid <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g more persuasive messages to deliver to the target public to<br />
conv<strong>in</strong>ce them <strong>of</strong> the organisation po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, rather than respond<strong>in</strong>g to messages from the<br />
target public); Two-way symmetric (the ideal form <strong>of</strong> public relations <strong>communication</strong><br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to Grunig and Hunt <strong>–</strong> it promotes a balanced two-way <strong>communication</strong> flow<br />
between the organisation and publics <strong>in</strong> an attempt to adapt to each others needs). 80 Grunig<br />
and Hunt describe the press agentry model <strong>of</strong> public relations as ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g exposure for an<br />
organisation’s cause via sensationalist means to attract attention rather than to communicate<br />
any mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>in</strong>formation. 81 This model does not seek any public feedback <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />
contributory dialogue. 82 Grunig and Hunt describe the public <strong>in</strong>formation model as the<br />
“dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation, not necessarily with a persuasive <strong>in</strong>tent.” 83 The objective here<br />
is to report <strong>in</strong>formation about the organisation to the target public(s), this is simple<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation to create awareness about a situation, product or issue. 84<br />
Grunig and White <strong>in</strong> their paper <strong>–</strong> The effect <strong>of</strong> worldviews on public relations theory and<br />
practice <strong>–</strong> agree with many critics <strong>of</strong> the two-way symmetric model <strong>of</strong> public relations,<br />
stat<strong>in</strong>g that most public relations efforts operate at an asymmetric level, pr<strong>in</strong>cipally aimed at<br />
advanc<strong>in</strong>g the objectives and goals <strong>of</strong> the organisation or client to a greater extent than that <strong>of</strong><br />
those <strong>of</strong> targeted publics. 85 The two-way symmetric model is, <strong>in</strong> reality, optimistically<br />
idealist. 86 However, Grunig still notes that when achievable, it is still the most effect and<br />
79<br />
Mackey, p. 53<br />
80<br />
Ibid, p. 53<br />
81<br />
J. Grunig and T. Hunt, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Public Relations, New York: Holt, R<strong>in</strong>ehart and W<strong>in</strong>ston, 1984, p. 21<br />
82<br />
Ibid, p. 21<br />
83<br />
Ibid, p. 22<br />
84<br />
Ibid, p. 22<br />
85<br />
J Grunig and J. White. 1992. ‘The effect <strong>of</strong> worldviews on public relations theory and practice’, <strong>in</strong> James<br />
Grunig, Excellence <strong>in</strong> Public Relations and Communication Management, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum,<br />
p. 46<br />
86<br />
Ibid, p. 46<br />
11
ethical method <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong>. 87 Leitch and Neilson argue that the two-way symmetric<br />
model can only be truly practiced if all participat<strong>in</strong>g parties share equal power and status, and<br />
that <strong>in</strong> most situations, particularly those between large mult<strong>in</strong>ational corporations and<br />
unskilled labour forces <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, this is simply unatta<strong>in</strong>able. 88 L’Etang argues<br />
that the very nature <strong>of</strong> public relations means that a symmetric model <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong><br />
cannot be achieved <strong>–</strong> “There is a problem <strong>in</strong> the attempt which some make to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> ‘symmetry’ alongside the role <strong>of</strong> public relations as advocates. Surely symmetry and<br />
advocacy are <strong>in</strong> opposition.” 89 Tench and Yeomans also warn <strong>of</strong> the cultural specificity <strong>of</strong><br />
Grunig and Hunt’s four models <strong>of</strong> public relations, and that they are not necessarily adaptable<br />
to different cultural sett<strong>in</strong>gs. 90 Pacific <strong>PR</strong> will use all these forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> to<br />
implement various aspects <strong>of</strong> the NEF’s strategic <strong>communication</strong>s campaign. The two-way<br />
models <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> will be particularly crucial for strategic relationship/partnership<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Situational Theory<br />
Situational theory, as posited by Grunig and Hunt, suggests that target public reaction to an<br />
issue, and hence the most appropriate/effective forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong> to use <strong>in</strong> reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them, can be determ<strong>in</strong>ed based on the situation which they are <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> relation to the issue <strong>in</strong><br />
question. 91 The theory can help classify target publics based on their level <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement/care <strong>in</strong> relation to specific issues so that more effect messages can be crafted to<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> people on that basis. 92 Grunig and Hunt <strong>in</strong> their 1984 text, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Public<br />
Relations, say that situational theory classifies publics <strong>in</strong>to four dist<strong>in</strong>ct groups: Publics that<br />
are active on all issues <strong>of</strong> public concern; Publics that are apathetic on all issues; Publics that<br />
are active only on issues that <strong>in</strong>volve nearly everyone <strong>in</strong> the population; Publics who are<br />
merely concerned with s<strong>in</strong>gle/specific issues (<strong>of</strong>ten personalised <strong>–</strong> situations by which they<br />
87 J. Grunig and L. Grunig. 1992. ‘Models <strong>of</strong> public relations and <strong>communication</strong>’, <strong>in</strong> James Grunig,<br />
Excellence <strong>in</strong> Public Relations and Communication Management, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, p. 308<br />
88 S. Leitch and D. Neilson. 1997. ‘Refram<strong>in</strong>g public relations: new directions for theory and practice’,<br />
Australian Journal <strong>of</strong> Communication, Vol. 24, No. 2, p. 19<br />
89 J. L’Etang. 1996. ‘Corporate responsibility and public relations ethics’ <strong>in</strong> Jacquie L’Etang and Magda<br />
Pieczka, Critical Perspectives <strong>in</strong> Public Relations, London: International Thomson, pp. 96-97<br />
90 Tench and Yeomans, p. 148<br />
91 Mackey, p. 62<br />
92 Ibid, p. 62<br />
12
are directly effected). 93 Situational theory claims people/publics can be categorized as<br />
aforementioned on the basis three factors: Problem recognition (do they perceive and th<strong>in</strong>k<br />
about someth<strong>in</strong>g as a problem that needs to be addressed); Constra<strong>in</strong>t recognition (do they<br />
feel that there is little that they can do to address/solve the problem on an <strong>in</strong>dividually or<br />
reasonably accessible level); Level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>volvement (the extent to which they are personally<br />
affected, or feel like they are affected, by the problem). 94 Kirby po<strong>in</strong>ts out that a more<br />
contemporary and popular categorization <strong>of</strong> target publics based on situational theory is to<br />
group them as: Latent publics (people affected by a situation created by an organisations<br />
actions but do not realize it); Aware publics (those who know that a situation exists); Active<br />
publics (<strong>in</strong>dividuals or groups who are aware <strong>of</strong> the situation created, view the issue as<br />
concern worthy, and act on that concern to become actively <strong>in</strong>volved). 95 So, situational<br />
theory states that people’s level <strong>of</strong> problem recognition, issue <strong>in</strong>volvement and their<br />
perceived ability to mean<strong>in</strong>gfully affect the situation, determ<strong>in</strong>es their active and passive<br />
<strong>communication</strong> behaviour and classification as a target public <strong>–</strong> that is, whether and how they<br />
protest and whether and how they gather <strong>in</strong>formation on the problem. 96 Kirby <strong>in</strong>dicates that<br />
it “is wise public relations practice to address a situation when publics are at the latent or<br />
aware stage, rather than wait until the active publics have begun to react”. 97 It is a far more<br />
labour <strong>in</strong>tensive process to persuade active publics’ to an alternative po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, as they<br />
have progressed to the belief stage <strong>of</strong> cognitive recognition and <strong>in</strong>ternalised their stance on<br />
the issue <strong>in</strong>to their belief-system. This theory will be important <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g likely<br />
sponsors and philanthropists for the NEF, and for identify<strong>in</strong>g the level <strong>of</strong> issue <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />
<strong>of</strong> target publics (those directly <strong>in</strong>volved and affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the South, and those removed from<br />
the immediacy <strong>of</strong> the issue <strong>in</strong> the North).<br />
Social Learn<strong>in</strong>g Theory<br />
93<br />
Grunig and Hunt 1984, p. 160<br />
94<br />
Ibid, p. 160<br />
95<br />
Kirby, pp. 5-6<br />
96<br />
J. Grunig. 1997. ‘A situational theory <strong>of</strong> publics: conceptual history, recent challenges and new research’,<br />
<strong>in</strong> D. Moss, T. McManus and D. Vercic, Public Relations Research: An <strong>in</strong>ternational perspective, London:<br />
Thompson Bus<strong>in</strong>ess Press, p. 9<br />
97<br />
Kirby, p. 6<br />
13
Social learn<strong>in</strong>g theory was developed by Stanford psychologist Albert Bandura <strong>in</strong> the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> television as an <strong>in</strong>fluence on children’s personality development from experiences and<br />
<strong>in</strong>teractions with culture, subculture, family and peers. 98 Bandura theorised that modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
played a uniquely important role <strong>in</strong> the child’s social development, stat<strong>in</strong>g that the best and<br />
most effective way to teach children novel ways <strong>of</strong> act<strong>in</strong>g and their consequences is to show<br />
them the behaviour you wish them to learn and display: 99 “While play<strong>in</strong>g with toys that<br />
stimulate imitation <strong>of</strong> adults, children frequently reproduce not only the appropriate adult-<br />
role behaviour patterns but also characteristics <strong>of</strong> idiosyncratic parental patterns <strong>of</strong> response,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g attitudes, mannerisms, gestures, and even voice <strong>in</strong>flections, which the parents have<br />
certa<strong>in</strong>ly never attempted directly to teach.” 100 This theory can be extended to the general<br />
adult population.<br />
Social learn<strong>in</strong>g theory suggests that people modify their attitudes and behaviour to fit <strong>in</strong> with<br />
a desired social group 101 , and may also respect, modify or adopt their behaviour and attitudes<br />
to mirror respected op<strong>in</strong>ion leaders or ‘idols’ who are analogous or seen as representative <strong>of</strong><br />
their desired social group. 102 “This theory deals with how people observe and model the<br />
behaviours, attitudes and reactions <strong>of</strong> others.” 103 Social learn<strong>in</strong>g theory is a series <strong>of</strong> events<br />
that states people see a particular type <strong>of</strong> behaviour, see it as desirable, and so adopt it. 104 If<br />
we like the adopted behaviour, “we <strong>in</strong>tegrate it <strong>in</strong>to our be<strong>in</strong>g.” 105 Television advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
employs social learn<strong>in</strong>g theory as a persuasive <strong>communication</strong> method, attempt<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
associate brands, products and services with socially desirable attributes such as<br />
popularity. 106 Advertisers hope that consumers will “model the behaviour and buy the<br />
product <strong>in</strong> the advertisement.” 107 Organisations also use celebrities frequently and effectively<br />
to ga<strong>in</strong> support for causes or promoted products and is another prime example <strong>of</strong> social<br />
98<br />
Rohut M. Liehert and Joyce Sprafkim, The Early W<strong>in</strong>dow, London: Rugamon Press, 1998, p. 65<br />
99<br />
Ibid, p. 65<br />
100<br />
Ibid, p. 66<br />
101<br />
G. Kearsley. 2003. ‘Social Learn<strong>in</strong>g Theory’, http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html, accessed August<br />
26, p. 20<br />
102 nd<br />
M.P. McElreath, Manag<strong>in</strong>g Systematic and Ethical Public Relations <strong>Campaigns</strong>, 2 edn Boston:<br />
McGraw Hill, 1997, p. 155<br />
103 Mackey, p. 65<br />
104 McElreath 1997, p. 155<br />
105 Kirby, p. 8<br />
106 Kearsley, p. 22<br />
107 Mackey, p. 66<br />
14
learn<strong>in</strong>g theory <strong>in</strong> action. 108 Pacific <strong>PR</strong> will position Cal<strong>in</strong>a Village School graduate Rangi as<br />
a relatable model for the campaign and will further utilize the support <strong>of</strong> other credible<br />
Newlandian identities and associate them with the NEF’s cause. Kearsley highlights two key<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> social learn<strong>in</strong>g theory: That <strong>in</strong>dividuals are more likely to “adopt a modelled<br />
behaviour if it results <strong>in</strong> outcomes they value”; and that the likelihood <strong>of</strong> someone adopt<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
modelled behaviour is greater “if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status<br />
and the behaviour has functional value.” 109 As noted by Kearsley, the similarity <strong>of</strong> the model<br />
to ones self is likely to positively affect the likelihood <strong>of</strong> adopt<strong>in</strong>g the models behaviour or<br />
agree<strong>in</strong>g with their attitude. Burgoon, Dunbar and Segr<strong>in</strong> also <strong>in</strong>dicate that the physical<br />
attractiveness <strong>of</strong> a model is likely to <strong>in</strong>crease persuasiveness also. 110 An advertis<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
market-research example is useful here.<br />
Much research has foc<strong>used</strong> around the potential <strong>of</strong> avatars as a key advertis<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
promotions creative strategy/tool to boost sales and sales potential. In traditional media,<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g agents will select a spokesperson to best connect with their target market.<br />
Advertis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> virtual onl<strong>in</strong>e worlds allows advertisers to personalise the spokesperson/sales<br />
person to suit <strong>in</strong>dividual consumers. 111 A review <strong>of</strong> the literature on digital commerce<br />
reveals that a lack <strong>of</strong> consumer trust is “the ma<strong>in</strong> reason why the enormous growth potential<br />
<strong>of</strong> end customer service has yet to be utilized by electronic commerce”. 112 Therefore,<br />
without trust, development <strong>of</strong> onl<strong>in</strong>e or virtual-commerce cannot reach its potential <strong>–</strong> one<br />
approach to combat this customer distrust with web-based shopp<strong>in</strong>g is to use avatars. 113<br />
Research <strong>in</strong>dicates that people are most receptive to avatars that resemble themselves; and<br />
that avatars positively <strong>in</strong>fluence the trust <strong>of</strong> a consumer toward the supplier and consequently<br />
present themselves as an effective <strong>in</strong>strument for establish<strong>in</strong>g trust with<strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong><br />
onl<strong>in</strong>e virtual worlds. 114 An onl<strong>in</strong>e experiment with 2,223 participants conducted by Bauer et<br />
108 McElreath 1997, p. 155<br />
109 Kearsley, p. 23<br />
110 Kirby, pp. 450-451<br />
111 T. Wood; Solomon Natalie; Michael R. Englis and G. Basil. 2005. ‘Personalization <strong>of</strong> onl<strong>in</strong>e avatars: is<br />
the messenger as important as the message?', International Journal <strong>of</strong> Internet Market<strong>in</strong>g and Advertis<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 143-161<br />
112 S.J. Yoon. 2006. “The Antecedents and Consequences <strong>of</strong> Trust <strong>in</strong> Onl<strong>in</strong>e Purchase Decisions”, Journal<br />
<strong>of</strong> Interactive Market<strong>in</strong>g, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 47-63<br />
113 T. Wood; Solomon Natalie; Michael R. Englis and G. Basil. April 2008. “Personalization <strong>of</strong> the Web<br />
Interface: The Impact <strong>of</strong> Web Avatars on Users’ Response to E-commerce Sites”, Journal <strong>of</strong> Website<br />
Promotion, Vol. 2, Iss. 2, pp. 53-69<br />
114 Ibid, pp. 53-69<br />
15
al found that us<strong>in</strong>g avatars <strong>in</strong>creases the customer’s trust towards the supplier; The<br />
employment <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dividually chosen avatar leads to a higher trust <strong>in</strong> the supplier than the<br />
employment <strong>of</strong> an assigned avatar; The employment <strong>of</strong> an avatar leads to a higher<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ment value <strong>of</strong> the website; The employment <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dividually chosen avatar leads to<br />
a higher enterta<strong>in</strong>ment value <strong>of</strong> the website than the employment <strong>of</strong> an assigned avatar; The<br />
employment <strong>of</strong> an avatar leads to more positive attitude toward the product; The employment<br />
<strong>of</strong> an avatar leads to a higher buy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tention; The employment <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dividually chosen<br />
avatar leads to a higher buy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tention than the employment <strong>of</strong> an assigned avatar. 115<br />
Holzwarth, Janiszewski and Neumann identify the impersonal nature <strong>of</strong> web-based shopp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
as the major impediment to sales. 116 Their study on the usefulness <strong>of</strong> avatars <strong>in</strong> overcom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this hurdle shows that us<strong>in</strong>g an avatar sales agent lead to more satisfaction with the retailer; a<br />
more positive attitude toward the product and a greater purchase <strong>in</strong>tention; that an attractive<br />
avatar is a more effective sales agent at moderate levels <strong>of</strong> product <strong>in</strong>volvement and an expert<br />
avatar is a more effective sales agent at high levels <strong>of</strong> product <strong>in</strong>volvement. 117<br />
Hierarchy <strong>of</strong> needs: Self-<strong>in</strong>terest<br />
Maslow’s hierarchy <strong>of</strong> needs is a method that can be utilized to establish an <strong>in</strong>dividual’s or<br />
group’s self-<strong>in</strong>terest; this particularly crucial to public relations message creation, as people<br />
generally pay closer attention to messages that appeal to their direct psychological and<br />
physiological needs. 118 Abraham Maslow identified humans as hav<strong>in</strong>g different motivat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
factors beh<strong>in</strong>d their actions, and so established a hierarchy <strong>of</strong> needs upon which appeals to<br />
self-<strong>in</strong>terest can be constructed. 119 Maslow’s five-level hierarchy that helps expla<strong>in</strong> the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> motivation, and therefore attitude change, is as follows: Physiological needs, the<br />
most basic level, <strong>in</strong>cludes an <strong>in</strong>dividuals basic physical needs such as food, water, sleep,<br />
exercise and shelter; Safety needs, the second level, <strong>in</strong>cludes the need for protection, peace,<br />
115<br />
Hans H. Bauer and Marcus M. Neumann, “Investigat<strong>in</strong>g The Effects Of Avatars As Virtual<br />
Representatives In Electronic Commerce”, presented at ANZMAC 2005 Conference on Electronic<br />
Market<strong>in</strong>g, pp. 26-34<br />
116<br />
Mart<strong>in</strong> Holzwarth; Chris Janiszewski and Marcus Neumann. October 2006. “The Influence <strong>of</strong> Avatars<br />
on Onl<strong>in</strong>e Consumer Shopp<strong>in</strong>g Behaviour”, Journal <strong>of</strong> American Market<strong>in</strong>g, Vol. 70, Iss. 4, pp. 19-36<br />
117<br />
Ibid, pp. 19-36<br />
118<br />
Kirby, p. 8<br />
119 th<br />
Fraser P. Seitel, The Practice o f Public Relations, 10 edn, New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2007, p. 69<br />
16
and security; Social needs, the third level, <strong>in</strong>cludes the need for peer-group acceptance, sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> belong<strong>in</strong>g, love and friendship; Self-esteem needs is the fourth level and <strong>in</strong>cludes the need<br />
for status, success, recognition, <strong>in</strong>telligence and leadership opportunities; Self-actualisation is<br />
the highest level <strong>of</strong> atta<strong>in</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> Maslow’s hierarchy and is the need for self-development,<br />
reach<strong>in</strong>g ones potential for the purpose <strong>of</strong> challenge, accomplishment and self-satisfaction. 120<br />
The theory states that <strong>in</strong>dividuals can only move upwards towards higher levels <strong>of</strong> needs<br />
once their lower preced<strong>in</strong>g needs have been fulfilled <strong>–</strong> therefore basic physiological needs<br />
have to be satisfied before higher-level esteem issues can be affectively addressed. 121 So<br />
public relations <strong>communication</strong>s must appeal to target publics most basic relevant needs <strong>in</strong><br />
any given situation to engage that audiences at the most effect level possible by tapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
their self-<strong>in</strong>terest. If a target public is concerned with satisfy<strong>in</strong>g the basic needs <strong>of</strong> food and<br />
shelter, messages appeal<strong>in</strong>g to self-esteem will be <strong>in</strong>effective. 122 Recent research <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that Maslow’s categorisation <strong>of</strong> needs is more crucial for develop<strong>in</strong>g target public<br />
<strong>communication</strong>s then their particular order: whilst sex is categorised as a basic physiological<br />
need at the base <strong>of</strong> Maslow’s hierarchy, the urge can be suppressed or related to higher-order<br />
needs such as love and self-esteem. 123 Understand<strong>in</strong>g target public self-<strong>in</strong>terest is crucial <strong>in</strong> a<br />
public relations campaign so that people can behaviour as desired. Additionally, whilst<br />
charitable organisations do not sell products, they do need donations and volunteers, so<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g the self-<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>of</strong> self-gratification that persuades them to donate their money<br />
or time is vital. 124 These motivat<strong>in</strong>g factors may <strong>in</strong>clude self-esteem, recognition form peers<br />
and the community and ego gratification. 125 “Public relations people understand<br />
psychological needs and rewards, and that is why there is constant recognition <strong>of</strong> volunteers<br />
<strong>in</strong> newsletters and at award banquets.” 126 The Pacific <strong>PR</strong> campaign will communicate to a<br />
vast array <strong>of</strong> publics who are <strong>in</strong> very different comparative situations <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> needs - The<br />
affluent Newlandians <strong>in</strong> the North as opposed to the poor <strong>in</strong> the South. Different appeals to<br />
self-<strong>in</strong>terest will be appropriate for communicat<strong>in</strong>g the NEF’s position to those <strong>in</strong> the South<br />
to those <strong>in</strong> the North.<br />
120<br />
A. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row, 1954<br />
121<br />
Ibid<br />
122<br />
D.L. Wilcox, P.H. Ault and W.K. Agee, Public Relations: Strategies and Tactics, New York: Longman,<br />
1998, p. 220<br />
123 nd<br />
Ronald D. Smith, Strategic Plann<strong>in</strong>g for Public Relations, 2 edn, London: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005, p.<br />
56<br />
124 Wilcox and Cameron 2009, p. 230<br />
125 Ibid, p. 230<br />
126 Ibid, p. 230<br />
17
Communication Theory: Sender <strong>–</strong> Receiver<br />
There are many theories <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong>. The process, or l<strong>in</strong>ear, school <strong>of</strong> <strong>communication</strong><br />
theory, as theorised by Lasswell <strong>in</strong> 1948, suggests that <strong>communication</strong> occurs when certa<strong>in</strong><br />
messages are created and pass between senders (encoders) and receivers (decoders) via a<br />
<strong>communication</strong> channel (signal), produc<strong>in</strong>g feedback, which may <strong>in</strong>fluence the transmission<br />
<strong>of</strong> the next message. 127 This model also acknowledges possible <strong>in</strong>terference or distortion <strong>of</strong><br />
the message by outside forces, describ<strong>in</strong>g ‘noise’ with<strong>in</strong> the model as any <strong>in</strong>terference<br />
encountered between the sender and receiver, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g actual noise or semantic noise (such<br />
as unfamiliarity with a specific dialect be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>used</strong> with<strong>in</strong> a particular <strong>communication</strong>). 128<br />
Significant noise can result <strong>in</strong> the message be<strong>in</strong>g misread, and <strong>communication</strong> failure, where<br />
the decoder misunderstands the encoded mean<strong>in</strong>g. 129<br />
Conclusion<br />
A strategic <strong>communication</strong>s campaign firmly grounded <strong>in</strong> <strong>communication</strong> and persuasion<br />
theory will ensure that the scarce resources <strong>of</strong> the NEF are <strong>used</strong> with maximum effect and<br />
that the key objectives outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the plann<strong>in</strong>g stage <strong>of</strong> the campaign are deliverable and<br />
delivered.<br />
127 J. Fiske, Introduction to Communication Studies, London: Methuen, 1982, pp. 6-40<br />
128<br />
Bertrand and Hughes, p. 6<br />
129<br />
Ibid, p. 6<br />
18
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21