Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films
Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films
OKAKURA, TENSHIN • 195 These islands include Chijijima, Hahajima, and Iwojima. Shipwrecked sailors from Japan, such as Manjiro Nakahama, have landed on the Ogasawara Islands since the 1600s, but the first permanent residents were Americans and Europeans who settled on Chijijima in 1830. Commodore Matthew Perry and his ships briefly stopped at Chijijima before sailing to Edo in July 1853. The islands came under formal control of the Japanese government in 1876, and were an area of heavy fighting between Japanese and American military forces during World War II, especially the Battle of Iwojima. After World War II, the Ogasawara Islands were administratively controlled by the United States military until returned to the Japanese government in 1968. See also PACIFIC WAR. OIL SHOCK. The oil shock (or oil crisis) was a worldwide economic depression because of shortages of oil and a rapid rise in the oil price in 1973–1974. Because Japan depended heavily on imported oil especially from the Middle East, it suffered from a severe economic crisis. The oil crisis was a turning point in postwar Japanese rapid high economic growth. When the fourth Middle East war broke out in October 1973, the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) and the Organization of Pacific Economic Cooperation (OPEC) resorted to reducing crude oil production, to restricting exports of oil to pro-Israeli nations, including the United States, and to quadruple oil prices. Following pro-Israeli U.S. policy, Tokyo had been very close to Jerusalem. The oil shock demonstrated the decline of U.S. hegemony and pushed Japan to adopt more flexible foreign policies and to majorly revise its Middle East policy in particular. In November 1973, the Kakuei Tanaka administration decided to recognize the rights of the Palestinian people and it promised to review its policies toward Israel. Moreover, OPEC’s continuous increase of the crude oil price and disruption of crude oil exports because of the Iranian Revolution in 1979 precipitated the second oil shock (oil crisis). OKAKURA, TENSHIN (ALSO KNOWN AS KAKUZO OKAKURA; 1862–1913). Influenced by American professor Ernest Fenellosa at Tokyo University, Okakura studied and promoted Japanese art and culture. Okakura established two art academies, promoted Japanese art and culture to the West through writings, such as The Book of Tea,
196 • OKAWARA, YOSHIO and worked for several years as the curator of Oriental Art at the Boston Museum of Art. OKAWARA, YOSHIO (1919– ). In 1942, Yoshio Okawara graduated from Faculty of Law of Tokyo University and entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. After holding a series of official posts, he served as ambassador to the United States from 1980 to 1985. He was one of the few ambassadors to the U.S. who had not previously served as deputy minister for foreign affairs. In the 1980s, Japan faced serious trade conflicts with the United States. Ambassador Okawara carried out skillful negotiations with his counterpart in the U.S. and actively dealt with U.S. congressmen in order to establish a better U.S.–Japan relationship. OKINAWA. The largest island in the Ryuku Island archipelago. Okinawa and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands were a nominally independent kingdom, partly controlled by Satsuma domain since the early 1600s, and were formally annexed as part of Japanese territory in 1879 and named Okinawa Prefecture. Commodore Matthew Perry stopped at Okinawa during his 1854 voyage to Japan, and former American President Ulysses S. Grant mediated a dispute over Okinawa between Japan and China in 1879 and decided in Japan’s favor. Okinawan culture and people have been influenced throughout history by China, Korea, the South Pacific, Japan, and since 1945 by the United States military. From early April to late June 1945, United States and Japanese military forces fought the devastating Battle of Okinawa. The United States military was formally in charge of Okinawa from the fall of 1945 until 1972, and still maintains substantial bases and numbers of personnel on the islands. See also PACIFIC WAR. OKINAWA, RESTITUTION OF. U.S. forces began to land on mainland Okinawa in April 1945. The United States and Japan fought horrific battles, but in the end, the organized resistance by the Japanese forces ended in late June. As soon as the U.S. forces occupied Okinawa, America declared the enforcement of military governance. On 15 December 1950, the U.S. forces abolished U.S. military government and established the U.S. Civil Administration of the
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196 • OKAWARA, YOSHIO<br />
and worked for several years as the curator <strong>of</strong> Oriental Art at the<br />
Boston Museum <strong>of</strong> Art.<br />
OKAWARA, YOSHIO (1919– ). In 1942, Yoshio Okawara graduated<br />
from Faculty <strong>of</strong> Law <strong>of</strong> Tokyo University and entered the Ministry <strong>of</strong><br />
Foreign Affairs <strong>of</strong> <strong>Japan</strong>. After holding a series <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial posts, he<br />
served as ambassador to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> from 1980 to 1985. He was<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the few ambassadors to the U.S. who had not previously<br />
served as deputy minister for foreign affairs. In the 1980s, <strong>Japan</strong><br />
faced serious trade conflicts with the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong>. Ambassador<br />
Okawara carried out skillful negotiations with his counterpart in the<br />
U.S. and actively dealt with U.S. congressmen in order to establish a<br />
better U.S.–<strong>Japan</strong> relationship.<br />
OKINAWA. The largest island in the Ryuku Island archipelago. Okinawa<br />
and the rest <strong>of</strong> the Ryukyu Islands were a nominally independent<br />
kingdom, partly controlled by Satsuma domain since the early<br />
1600s, and were formally annexed as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>Japan</strong>ese territory in<br />
1879 and named Okinawa Prefecture. Commodore Matthew Perry<br />
stopped at Okinawa during his 1854 voyage to <strong>Japan</strong>, and former<br />
American President Ulysses S. Grant mediated a dispute over Okinawa<br />
between <strong>Japan</strong> and China in 1879 and decided in <strong>Japan</strong>’s favor.<br />
Okinawan culture and people have been influenced throughout history<br />
by China, Korea, the South Pacific, <strong>Japan</strong>, and since 1945 by the<br />
<strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> military.<br />
From early April to late June 1945, <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> and <strong>Japan</strong>ese<br />
military forces fought the devastating Battle <strong>of</strong> Okinawa. The<br />
<strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> military was formally in charge <strong>of</strong> Okinawa from the<br />
fall <strong>of</strong> 1945 until 1972, and still maintains substantial bases and numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> personnel on the islands. See also PACIFIC WAR.<br />
OKINAWA, RESTITUTION OF. U.S. forces began to land on mainland<br />
Okinawa in April 1945. The <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> and <strong>Japan</strong> fought<br />
horrific battles, but in the end, the organized resistance by the <strong>Japan</strong>ese<br />
forces ended in late June. As soon as the U.S. forces occupied<br />
Okinawa, America declared the enforcement <strong>of</strong> military governance.<br />
On 15 December 1950, the U.S. forces abolished U.S. military<br />
government and established the U.S. Civil Administration <strong>of</strong> the
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