Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films
Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films Historical Dictionary of United States-Japan ... - Bakumatsu Films
GENTLEMEN’S AGREEMENT • 89 GHQ/SCAP continued until the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into force on 28 April 1952. See also PACIFIC WAR; WORLD WAR II. GENEVA NAVAL CONFERENCE (1927). Held from 28 June to 4 August 1927, the Geneva Naval Conference was a failed attempt on the part of the United States, Great Britain, and Japan to extend the naval limitations agreements originally reached at the Washington Conference of 1921–1922. In the years after the Washington Conference of 1921–1922, Japan and Great Britain had concentrated their efforts on building those vessels that remained outside the system of naval limitation, namely cruisers, destroyers, and submarines. U.S. President Calvin Coolidge—who was no less fiscally minded than was Congress—had refrained from building these vessels, and by 1927, was alarmed at the prospect of losing parity with Britain and superiority over Japan. Not wishing to be drawn into an arms race, President Herbert Hoover sought instead to fix limits for auxiliary craft, and he invited Britain, Japan, France, and Italy to meet in Geneva in the summer of 1927. The Geneva Naval Conference was a conspicuous failure. France and Italy refused to attend. The American and British delegates wrangled over large versus small cruisers, and the conference broke down because of their inability to compromise. Convinced of the need to avoid a ruinous naval arms race with the United States and Great Britain, Plenipotentiary Admiral Makoto Saitō made every effort to make the conference a success, mediating between his British and American counterparts. He had entered the conference informed by the objective of avoiding any increase in the actual existing strength of each power, and aimed at a 70-percent ration in surface vessels vis-à-vis the United States and Great Britain. The American–British split threatened these objectives. This was amply evidenced by an immense naval authorization bill that the United States Navy General Board submitted to the House of Representatives in 1929. Although the bill was ultimately withdrawn, it called for the construction (over a nine-year period) of 25 heavy cruisers, nine destroyer flotilla leaders, 32 submarines, and five aircraft carriers. GENTLEMEN’S AGREEMENT (1908). In February 1908, President Theodore Roosevelt and Japanese ambassador Viscount Aoki Keikichi concluded the so-called gentlemen’s agreement. A cooperative
90 • GIRARD INCIDENT attempt to curb Japanese immigration to the United States—which, it was hoped, would remove a cause of Japanese–American friction—it continued in force until 1924, when the United States Congress passed the prohibitive National Origins Act, better known as the Oriental Exclusion Act. The gentlemen’s agreement was a response to racist, anti-Japanese (anti-Asian) sentiment that raged in California as Japanese nationals in the early 1900s entered the United States in considerable numbers. The matter came to a head when, in 1906, the San Francisco school board barred Japanese school children (along with their Chinese and Korean counterparts) from the city’s regular public schools, requiring that they attend a segregated oriental public school. Chafing at the segregation of its citizens, the Japanese government lodged an official protest with Washington. In his annual message of 1906, President Roosevelt called the board’s act a “wicked absurdity.” He subsequently summoned San Francisco school officials to the White House and dictated a deal: rescind the segregation order in return for a Japanese promise to curb immigration to the United States. It took 18 months before he finalized with Japanese officials the gentlemen’s agreement on 18 February 1908. Its key provisions stipulated that Japan would refuse passports to laborers going to the mainland United States (which it had been doing since 1900); and it would make no objection if Japanese nationals were barred from entering the mainland United States from intermediate points, such as Hawaii, Canada, or Mexico. Put into effect by an executive order, the gentlemen’s agreement succeeded—in the short term—in pouring oil over the turbulent waters of race and immigration. GIRARD INCIDENT. The Girard Incident of 1957 was a criminal case in which a 46-year-old Japanese housewife, named Naka Sakai, was collecting scrap metal on an off-limits U.S. Army shooting range located in Somogahara, Gunma Prefecture. She was shot and killed on 30 January 1957 by a 21-year-old non-commissioned American officer, William S. Girard. According to Girard’s testimony, he lured Sakai closer to him and shot her close up, at about 10 meters, with an empty cartridge case from a grenade launcher. At first, the U.S. forces insisted that the United States has jurisdiction over such incidents.
- Page 80 and 81: ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE • 39 tain
- Page 82 and 83: ANTI-COMINTERN PACT • 41 1858. Pr
- Page 84 and 85: ARITA, HACHIRO - • 43 Yōsuke Mat
- Page 86 and 87: ATLANTIC CONFERENCE • 45 ASIAN CU
- Page 88 and 89: ATOMIC ENERGY BASIC LAW • 47 ATOM
- Page 90 and 91: BASEBALL • 49 and be educated in
- Page 92 and 93: BATTLE OF OKINAWA • 51 1942, the
- Page 94 and 95: BINGHAM, JOHN A. • 53 served as p
- Page 96 and 97: BOXER UPRISING • 55 quiring the p
- Page 98 and 99: BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS • 57 BROT
- Page 100 and 101: BURMA ROAD • 59 the common people
- Page 102 and 103: CAPRON, HORACE • 61 verse populat
- Page 104 and 105: CHIANG KAI-SHEK • 63 Castle argue
- Page 106 and 107: CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN • 65 of Mot
- Page 108 and 109: CHURCHILL, WINSTON S. • 67 Church
- Page 110 and 111: CONFUCIANISM • 69 population, whi
- Page 112 and 113: the extradition. When the Tokyo Hig
- Page 114 and 115: DEFENSE • 73 Mutual Security Agre
- Page 116 and 117: DEJIMA • 75 Keizai Dantai Rengoka
- Page 118 and 119: DOLLAR DIPLOMACY • 77 As it relat
- Page 120 and 121: DUTCH LEARNING • 79 Washington Un
- Page 122 and 123: ECONOMIC STABILIZATION BOARD • 81
- Page 124 and 125: FOREIGN EXCHANGE ALLOCATION SYSTEM
- Page 126 and 127: GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TR
- Page 128 and 129: GENERAL HEADQUARTERS/SUPREME COMMAN
- Page 132 and 133: GOVERNMENT AID AND RELIEF IN OCCUPI
- Page 134 and 135: GREATER EAST ASIAN CO-PROSPERITY SP
- Page 136 and 137: GREW, JOSEPH C. • 95 GREW, JOSEPH
- Page 138 and 139: during contingencies.” The Guidel
- Page 140 and 141: HARRIS, TOWNSEND • 99 death in 18
- Page 142 and 143: HAWAII OR HAWAI’I • 101 as the
- Page 144 and 145: HEPBURN, JAMES CURTIS • 103 ties.
- Page 146 and 147: HIROHITO • 105 port emphasizes
- Page 148 and 149: HOOVER, HERBERT • 107 After an ex
- Page 150 and 151: HULL, CORDELL • 109 HOUSE, EDWARD
- Page 152 and 153: IKEDA-ROBERTSON TALKS • 111 catin
- Page 154 and 155: INDUSTRY FORUM FOR SECURITY COOPERA
- Page 156 and 157: INTERNMENT • 115 The ICU is a chi
- Page 158 and 159: IWAKURA MISSION • 117 IRWIN, ROBE
- Page 160 and 161: JAPAN-AMERICA STUDENT CONFERENCE
- Page 162 and 163: JAPAN IS DIFFERENT ARGUMENT • 121
- Page 164 and 165: JAPAN-U.S. AGREEMENT ON TRUST ISLAN
- Page 166 and 167: JAPAN-U.S. BUSINESSMEN’S CONFEREN
- Page 168 and 169: JAPAN-U.S. FLEET LOAN AGREEMENT •
- Page 170 and 171: JAPAN-U.S. JOINT DECLARATION ON SEC
- Page 172 and 173: JAPAN-U.S. SECURITY CONSULTATIVE CO
- Page 174 and 175: JAPAN-U.S. SECURITY TREATY, 1960
- Page 176 and 177: JAPAN-U.S. SECURITY TREATY, REVISIO
- Page 178 and 179: JAPAN-U.S. STATUS-OF-FORCES AGREEME
90 • GIRARD INCIDENT<br />
attempt to curb <strong>Japan</strong>ese immigration to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong>—which,<br />
it was hoped, would remove a cause <strong>of</strong> <strong>Japan</strong>ese–American friction—it<br />
continued in force until 1924, when the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> Congress<br />
passed the prohibitive National Origins Act, better known as<br />
the Oriental Exclusion Act.<br />
The gentlemen’s agreement was a response to racist, anti-<strong>Japan</strong>ese<br />
(anti-Asian) sentiment that raged in California as <strong>Japan</strong>ese nationals<br />
in the early 1900s entered the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> in considerable numbers.<br />
The matter came to a head when, in 1906, the San Francisco school<br />
board barred <strong>Japan</strong>ese school children (along with their Chinese and<br />
Korean counterparts) from the city’s regular public schools, requiring<br />
that they attend a segregated oriental public school. Chafing at the<br />
segregation <strong>of</strong> its citizens, the <strong>Japan</strong>ese government lodged an <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
protest with Washington.<br />
In his annual message <strong>of</strong> 1906, President Roosevelt called the<br />
board’s act a “wicked absurdity.” He subsequently summoned San<br />
Francisco school <strong>of</strong>ficials to the White House and dictated a deal: rescind<br />
the segregation order in return for a <strong>Japan</strong>ese promise to curb<br />
immigration to the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong>. It took 18 months before he finalized<br />
with <strong>Japan</strong>ese <strong>of</strong>ficials the gentlemen’s agreement on 18 February<br />
1908. Its key provisions stipulated that <strong>Japan</strong> would refuse passports<br />
to laborers going to the mainland <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> (which it had<br />
been doing since 1900); and it would make no objection if <strong>Japan</strong>ese<br />
nationals were barred from entering the mainland <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> from<br />
intermediate points, such as Hawaii, Canada, or Mexico. Put into effect<br />
by an executive order, the gentlemen’s agreement succeeded—in<br />
the short term—in pouring oil over the turbulent waters <strong>of</strong> race and<br />
immigration.<br />
GIRARD INCIDENT. The Girard Incident <strong>of</strong> 1957 was a criminal<br />
case in which a 46-year-old <strong>Japan</strong>ese housewife, named Naka Sakai,<br />
was collecting scrap metal on an <strong>of</strong>f-limits U.S. Army shooting range<br />
located in Somogahara, Gunma Prefecture. She was shot and killed<br />
on 30 January 1957 by a 21-year-old non-commissioned American<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer, William S. Girard. According to Girard’s testimony, he lured<br />
Sakai closer to him and shot her close up, at about 10 meters, with an<br />
empty cartridge case from a grenade launcher. At first, the U.S. forces<br />
insisted that the <strong>United</strong> <strong>States</strong> has jurisdiction over such incidents.
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