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ENDNOTES 01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW eng/2015_02_13_New_milestone_for_natural_gas_in_Brazil_ biomethane_is_now_r_eng.pdf. 236 Huib van Essen, CE Delft, personal communication with REN21, 18 February 2016. 237 Cornie Huizenga, SLoCaT, personal communication with REN21, 22 December 2015. 238 Tesla is one such company actively expanding its supercharger network, per Tesla, “Supercharger,” https://www.teslamotors. com/supercharger, viewed 21 April 2016. 239 Victoria Ho, “China starts building its largest electric car solar charging complex,” Mashable, 21 October 2015, http://mashable. com/2015/10/21/china-electric-car/#cdMqrx6HmaqE; EV gridbased solutions from Barbara Finamore, “Big plans for integrating renewable energy into China’s electricity grid,” Huffington Post, 9 March 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/barbara-afinamore/big-plans-for-integrating_b_9421864.html. 240 Kyocera, “Kyocera expands number of solar recharging stations in Japan as electric vehicle use grows,” press release (Kyoto: 10 December 2015), http://global.kyocera.com/news/2015/1203_ bhds.html. 241 Junko Movellan, “100 percent renewable energy charged EV stations allow driving on sunshine,” Renewable Energy World, 25 August 2015, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/ articles/2015/08/100-percent-renewable-energy-charged-evstations-allow-driving-on-sunshine.html. 242 Jeff St. John, “Southern California utilities to deploy 5,000 EV chargers in first of their kind pilots,” Greentech Media, 1 February 2016. https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/southerncalifornia-utilities-to-deploy-5000-ev-chargers-in-first-of-a-kind. 243 Laith Abou-Ragheb, “Sun shines on Jordan’s EV dream,” Venture, 3 November 2015, http://www.venturemagazine.me/2015/11/ sun-shines-on-jordans-ev-dream/. 244 Nancy Owano, “Electric car charging put to test in Marshall islands,” TechXplore, 21 October 2015, http://techxplore.com/ news/2015-10-electric-car-marshall-islands.html. 245 Peter Nuttall, University of the South Pacific, Fiji, personal communication with REN21, 18 February 2016. 246 Korean development from Wingship Technology Corps website, http://www.wingship.com, viewed 21 March 2016; German development from Nuttall, op. cit. note 245; biomethane applications from van Essen, op. cit. note 236. 247 Siemens, “Finland’s first battery-powered ferry represents milestone towards clean shipping,” press release (Nuremberg: 7 March 2016), http://www.siemens.com/press/en/ pressrelease/?press=/en/pressrelease/2016/processindustriesdrives/pr2016030188pden.htm. 248 Julian Turner, “Running on wind: the Dutch rail network’s renewable revolution,” Railway-Technology.com, 20 August 2015, http://www.railway-technology.com/features/featuremichelkerkhof-of-eneco-discusses-the-dutch-rail-networks-renewablerevolution-4647194/. 249 Sophie Vorrath, “Canberra light rail to run on 100% renewable energy,” RenewEconomy, 23 June 2015, http://reneweconomy. com.au/2015/canberra-light-rail-to-run-on-100-renewableenergy-69471; Sydney from Giles Parkinson, “NSW seeks renewable energy to power northwest rail line,” RenewEconomy, 22 January 2016, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2016/nsw-seeksrenewable-energy-to-power-north-west-rail-line-63247. 200
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS - BIOMASS ENERGY BIOMASS ENERGY 1 International Energy Agency (IEA) Bioenergy, Bioenergy: A Sustainable and Reliable Energy Source, Executive Summary, prepared by the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), E4tech, Chalmers University of Technology and the Copernicus Institute of the University of Utrecht (Utrecht: 2009), http://www.ieabioenergy.com/publications/bioenergy-asustainable-and-reliable-energy-source-executive-summary/. 2 Ibid. 3 For a description of the various bioenergy options and their maturity, see, for example, IEA, Biofuels for Transport Roadmap (Paris: 2011), http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/ publication/technology-roadmap-biofuels-for-transport.html, and IEA, Bioenergy for Heat and Power Roadmap (Paris: 2012), http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/ technology-roadmap-bioenergy-for-heat-and-power-.html. 4 For enhanced competition with other renewable sources of electricity, see IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2015 (Paris: 2015), http://www.iea.org/bookshop/708- Medium-Term_Renewable_Energy_Market_Report_2015. The costs of other renewable electricity technologies, specifically wind and solar PV, have been falling rapidly and consistently. The capital costs of bio-electricity have at best remained stable, and there is less potential for scale effects and innovation to bring costs down. In some cases the biomass fuels required are also becoming more costly. Bio-electricity also faces increased economic competition from low-priced fossil fuels (e.g., natural gas in the United States). 5 After a long period of debate and policy uncertainty, the EU finally reached a compromise decision on issues relating to indirect land-use change with its 2015 announcement to cap “food-based” biofuels within the 2020 target at 7% of transport fuel needs; see European Commission Directorate General for Energy, “Land use change,” http://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/ topics/renewable-energy/biofuels/land-use-change. Research, analysis and debate on this topic continues; see, for example, Hugo Valin et al., The Land Use Change Impact of Biofuels Consumed in the EU: Quantification of Area and Greenhouse Gas Impacts (Utrecht, The Netherlands: Ecofys, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and E4tech, August 2015), https:// ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/Final%20 Report_GLOBIOM_publication.pdf. There also is continuing concern amongst some non-governmental organisations about the carbon balances and timing of CO 2 savings from using forestbased biomass, which also is a subject of research and debate. See, for example, IEA Bioenergy, Conclusions from Workshop on Bioenergy and Land Use (Paris: 1 October 2015), http://www. ieabioenergy.com/publications/exco74-bioenergy-land-useand-mitigating-iluc-summary-and-conclusions-01-10-15/, and Alessandro Agostini, Jacopo Giuntoli, and Aikaterini Boulamanti, Carbon Accounting of Forest Bioenergy: Conclusions and Recommendations from a Critical Literature Review (Brussels: European Commission Joint Research Centre, 2014), http:// publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC70663. 6 IEA, Renewables Information 2015 (Paris: 2015), http://www.iea. org/bookshop/668-Renewables_Information_2015 7 Projections for 2014 and 2015 produced from a linear extrapolation based on data (2005–13) from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2015 (Paris: 2015). 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Figure 6 based on the following sources: total 2014 final energy consumption (estimated at 8,561 Mtoe) based on 8,480 Mtoe for 2013 from IEA, World Energy Statistics and Balances, 2015 Edition (Paris: 2015), https://www.iea.org/statistics/relateddatabases/ worldenergystatisticsandbalances/ and escalated by the 0.95% increase in global primary energy demand from 2013 to 2014, derived from BP, Statistical Review of World Energy 2015 (London: 2015), http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/ energy-economics/statistical-review-2015/bp-statistical-reviewof-world-energy-2015-full-report.pdf. Traditional biomass use in 2014 of 760 Mtoe assumes an increase of 1 Mtoe from 2013 based on 2013 value of 759 Mtoe from IEA, op. cit. note 2, pp. 348–49; 2012 value of 758 Mtoe from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2014 (Paris: 2014), p. 242; 2013 value “estimated at around 32 EJ” from IEA, op. cit. note 4, p. 244. Modern bio-heat energy values for 2013 (industrial, residential, and other uses, including heat from heat plants) of 321.7 Mtoe (13.468 EJ) based on combined value of 14.8 EJ estimated for all renewable heat, of which around 91% is biomass, from idem, p. 243. Bio-power generation of 36.9 Mtoe (429.3 TWh), based on data from idem, p. 139, except for the following country sources: United States from US Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Monthly, Table 1.1.A, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher. cfm?t=epmt_1_01_a, viewed 20 March 2016, and corrected for difference between net and gross electricity generation; Germany preliminary statistics from Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland, Daten zur Entwicklung im Jahr 2015 (Berlin: February 2016), https://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/E/erneuerbareenergien-in-zahlen-2015,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,spra che=de,rwb=true.pdf; United Kingdom from UK Department of Energy & Climate Change (DECC), “Energy Trends Section 6 – Renewables” (London: March 2016), Table 6.1, https://www.gov. uk/government/statistics/energy-trends-section-6-renewables; India from Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), “Physical progress (achievements) – up to the month of December 2015,” http://www.mnre.gov.in/missionand-vision-2/achievements/, viewed 1 February 2016, and from MNRE, “Physical progress (achievements) – up to the month of December 2014,” http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-andvision-2/achievements/, viewed 21 January 2015; total electricity generation adjusted to electricity in final energy consumption to account for in-plant losses and transmission losses, etc., using the ratio of total electricity generation to total electricity in final energy consumption (83%); total final energy consumption based on 2013 data from IEA, op. cit. note 7. 11 Figure 7 data for 2015 calculated using a linear extrapolation based on IEA, “Statistics: World: Renewables and Waste 2008–2013,” http://www.iea.org/statistics/statisticssearch/ report/?country=WORLD&product=RenewablesandWaste&- year=2013. Municipal solid waste (MSW) values were assumed to be only 50% renewable, consistent with IEA assumptions. Calculations exclude industrial waste. 12 Traditional use of biomass refers to the use of fuelwood, animal dung and agricultural residues in simple stoves with very low combustion efficiency. There are no precise universally accepted definitions for what comprises traditional use of biomass. The definition adopted by the IEA (op. cit. note 7) is “the use of solid biomass in the residential sector of non-OECD member countries, excluding countries in non-OECD Europe and Eurasia”. This, however, does not take into account the efficient use of biomass in developing countries nor the inefficient use within residential heating in some OECD countries. A discussion on this and other methodological issues associated with biomass can be found in Sustainable Energy for All, Progress Toward Sustainable Energy: Global Tracking Framework Summary Report (Washington, DC: June 2015), http://trackingenergy4all. worldbank.org/~/media/GIAWB/GTF/Documents/GTF-2015- Summary-Report.pdf. 13 Projections for 2014 and 2015 from a linear extrapolation based on data (2005–13) from IEA, op. cit. note 7. Estimates of traditional biomass use vary widely, given the difficulties of measuring or even estimating a resource that often is traded informally. For example, one source (Helena Chum et al., “Bioenergy,” in Ottmar Edenhofer et al., eds., IPPC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), http://www.ipcc. ch/pdf/special-reports/srren/Chapter%202%20Bioenergy.pdf) suggests that the national databases on which the IEA statistics rely systematically underestimate fuelwood consumption, and applied a supplement of 20–40% on these estimates based on country-specific analyses in over 20 countries. 14 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), “Forest Products Statistics,” http://www.fao.org/forestry/ statistics/80938/en/, viewed 18 March 2016. 15 Based on a linear extrapolation to 2015 of charcoal production data (2010–14) in FAO, FAOSAT database, http://faostat3.fao.org/ download/F/FO/E, viewed 18 March 2016. 16 Total modern biomass use in 2015 based on IEA, estimate of total modern renewable heat in 2013 of 14.8 EJ, 91% of which was bioenergy (13.5 EJ) and assuming continuing growth at 3.5%/ year, from IEA, op. cit. note 4, p. 242. Considerable uncertainties surround bioenergy use in industry, as some countries that are known to have significant uses of residues, for example in the paper industry, do not report this in statistical returns. Industrial 02 RENEWABLES 2016 · GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 201
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RENEWABLES 2016 GLOBAL STATUS REPOR
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GSR 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword
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Figures Figure 1. Estimated Renewab
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FOREWORD The year 2015 was an extra
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RENEWABLES GLOBAL STATUS REPORT (GS
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Note: Some individuals have contrib
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Sweden Robert Fischer (University o
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REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Sh
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY GLOBAL OVERVIEW A
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RENEWABLE ENERGY INDICATORS 2015 IN
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TOP FIVE COUNTRIES Annual investmen
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SOLAR PV: Record deployment and rap
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INVESTMENT FLOWS A new record high;
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01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW The year 2015 wa
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markets, policy changes and uncerta
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Sidebar 1. Regional Spotlight: Sout
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Figure 4. Renewable Power Capacitie
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also are growing, as are wind turbi
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n Latin America: Biomass-based heat
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n Africa: Although biofuel producti
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JOBS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY Table 1. E
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02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS BIOMA
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BIOMASS ENERGY Figure 7. Shares of
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China, the third largest ethanol pr
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concluded long-term offtake agreeme
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GEOTHERMAL POWER Figure XX. Figure
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GEOTHERMAL INDUSTRY Low natural gas
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HYDROPOWER Figure 12. Hydropower Gl
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OCEAN ENERGY OCEAN ENERGY MARKETS O
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Country of Spain, the first commerc
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7.3 GW was installed, for a total o
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Figure 16. Solar PV Capacity and Ad
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SOLAR PV INDUSTRY The solar PV indu
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Sharp - in the storage market by in
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CSP INDUSTRY It was a watershed yea
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SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING F
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SOLAR THERMAL HEATING/COOLING INDUS
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WIND POWER WIND POWER MARKETS Wind
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WIND POWER Figure 23. Wind Power Gl
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WIND POWER INDUSTRY The wind power
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Sidebar 3. Renewable Power Technolo
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Investment Cost R USD min max wa Ca
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Investment Cost R USD min max wa Ca
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03 DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR
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through renewables-based mini-grids
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India Tanzania Kenya Ethiopia 661,6
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INVESTMENT AND FINANCING The year 2
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The market for PAYG solar - micro-p
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in 2015. In 2014, GACC projected th
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04 INVESTMENT FLOWS Global new inve
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INVESTMENT BY ECONOMY The shift in
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INVESTMENT BY TECHNOLOGY Solar powe
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SOURCES OF INVESTMENT Debt makes up
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05 POLICY LANDSCAPE Nearly all coun
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spearheaded by UNIDO, is designed t
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Specific commitments to renewable h
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Figure 39. Countries with Renewable
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Three US states took steps to expan
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volume requirements that were an in
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Table 4. Renewable Energy Support P
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Table 4. Renewable Energy Support P
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06 ENERGY EFFICIENCY GLOBAL OVERVIE
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MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS BUILDING
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States, new dishwashers use 40% les
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1990 and 2008, design-related effic
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The Green Climate Fund included in
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appliances, and the country also ha
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07 FEATURE: COMMUNITY RENEWABLE ENE
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ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES Organisat
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e a successful means for addressing
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Table R2. Renewable Electric Power
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Table R4. Geothermal Power Global C
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Table R6. Solar PV Global Capacity
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Table R8. Solar Water Heating Colle
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ENDNOTES 05 POLICY LANDSCAPE 2015,
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ENDNOTES 06 ENERGY EFFICIENCY blog_
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ENDNOTES 06 ENERGY EFFICIENCY go.jp
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ENDNOTES 07 FEATURE Programme, 2013
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ENDNOTES REFERENCE TABLES 2016); so
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ENDNOTES REFERENCE TABLES FTI Consu
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NOTES 4. Bio-power Data Given exist
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GLOSSARY projects vary in technolog
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GLOSSARY Labelling. System in which
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GLOSSARY Vehicle fuel standards. Ru
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PHOTO CREDITS page 9 SAIREC, South
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