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Introduction be to go from a system of “risk” assessment – where potential hazard is weighed in terms of likelihood of actual exposure and contamination – to a purely “hazard” based assessment – only potential harm is evaluated, with no consideration of actual likelihood of exposure. 6 1.1.1 Impact of pesticide application on groundwater sources One of the most worrisome effects of pesticide use is water contamination. About 65% of drinking water primary sources in Europe rely on ground waters, making the possible groundwater contamination extremely dangerous. EUREAU, the European union of national associations of water suppliers and waste water services, published a report in 2001 stating that the areas at greatest risk in Europe where those containing lowland rivers, in particular in north-western Europe in countries bordering the Netherlands such as Belgium and Germany. Germany was among six countries listed as one of the “most affected countries” which have between 5-10% of their water resources regularly contaminated by pesticides over the EU established maximum of 0.1 µg/l (EUREAU 2001). The ECNC, European Centre for Nature Conservation, confirmed this in 2003 with environmental risk assessment, stating the risk for aquatic contamination from pesticides. The highest contamination was monitored in northern Italy and the area around the Netherlands and northwest Germany. The highest concentrations of herbicides were generally found during the spraying season (Kudsk and Streibig 2003). Because of the varying types of pesticides and methods of application in use today, pollution can occur in many ways. These ways include leeching into underground rivers, waste disposal and wash down of equipment, and atmospheric deposition (EUREAU 2001). The costs of monitoring and removing pesticides from drinking water are extremely high. For example, during the period from 1991-2000 244 mil Euro were spent by the Dutch water industry on analysis, protection, and purification of water, due to pesticide contamination. Nearly 130 mil Euro were the estimated annual cost of pesticide use in Germany, taking into account monitoring costs, production losses, and labour (Waibel and Fleischer 1998).
Introduction The loss of biodiversity, in Germany in particular, is another effect of pesticide use. A study carried out in Austria compared the population and biodiversity on areas which had practiced organic farming for the previous 25 years and areas that practiced conventional agriculture with pesticides. It was pointed out that 79% of animals in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species could be found on organic fields, while on conventional fields only 29% of animals from the same list were present (Frieben 1990). 1.2 Organic farming Sir Albert Howard (1873-1947) primarily initiated the organic farming movement and with anthroposophic agricultural lectures given by Rudolf Steiner in the early 1920’s, the main foundations of organic agriculture were laid (Steiner 1985; Barton 2001; Haneklaus et al. 2002). In 1930’s and 1940’s organic agriculture was developed and practiced in Switzerland and Japan (Yussefi and Willer 2002). Since then organic farming has grown and different private associations have developed to control the demands and regulations. In the European Union, contemporary organic farming is defined by the EU- Regulation 2092/91 which is the minimum standard for organic farming systems. It is important to understand that controlled production by meaning of organic principles completely differs from the conventional farming based on the rules of good agricultural practice (GAP). Surveying recent literature it is possible to ascertain that land under conventional farming would have to be decreased up to 50% to reach the level of the nitrate leaching of organic farms. However, organic farms would realise 25% more yield at the same level of nitrate leaching. According to the overall balance of organic farms, it is possible to comprehend that it can reduce nutrient losses to the environment (Stolze et al. 2000). Therefore, conversion from conventional to organic farming could decrease the negative impact of agriculture on the environment. From the guidelines given by EU-Regulation 2092/91 different effects on issues of water protection can be anticipated. The synthetic pesticides and plant growth regulators are mostly banned, pharmaceuticals for livestock are strictly 7
Page 1 and 2: Institut für Landtechnik der Rhein
Page 3 and 4: Development of a novel mechatronic
Page 5 and 6: Kurzfassung Entwicklung eines neuar
Page 7 and 8: Acknowledgements Acknowledgements M
Page 9 and 10: Table of contents Table of contents
Page 11 and 12: Glossary of abbreviations and symbo
Page 13 and 14: Symbol Unit Description Mmmax Nm Ma
Page 15 and 16: Symbol Unit Description Glossary of
Page 17: ωold ωout rad s -2 Latest rotatio
Page 20 and 21: Introduction The most frequently us
Page 22 and 23: Introduction application that had p
Page 26 and 27: Introduction limited and environmen
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Page 30 and 31: Introduction techniques. It is know
Page 32 and 33: Introduction Sowing and planting al
Page 34 and 35: Introduction Inter-row weeding syst
Page 36 and 37: Introduction 18 Figure 1.3 Inter-ro
Page 38 and 39: State of the art 20 Figure 2.1 a) F
Page 40 and 41: State of the art cylinder rotates a
Page 42 and 43: State of the art 1998). This device
Page 44 and 45: State of the art 26 2.2 Detection o
Page 46 and 47: State of the art The fluorescence s
Page 48 and 49: Definition of the problem and resea
Page 51 and 52: 4 Materials and methods 4.1 Detecti
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Page 55 and 56: Materials and methods Figure 4.3 a)
Page 57 and 58: 4.1.2 Data acquisition 4.1.2.1 Hard
Page 59 and 60: 4.1.4 Test objects Materials and me
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Page 65 and 66: Materials and methods dimensions ne
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Page 73: Materials and methods Another tool
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Results and discussion 58 Figure 5.
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Results and discussion objects. Acc
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Results and discussion Plant positi
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Results and discussion Plant positi
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Results and discussion 70 5.1.4 Dis
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Results and discussion Connection b
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Results and discussion 76 5.2.1 Opt
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Results and discussion xmi1 = ( RLA
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Results and discussion With the inv
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Results and discussion 82 Horizonta
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Results and discussion 84 5.2.4 Sel
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Results and discussion 86 5.2.5 Dis
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Results and discussion Conventional
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Results and discussion Since the fi
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Results and discussion To avoid con
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Results and discussion As the size
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Results and discussion 96 5.3.4 Alg
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Results and discussion 98 V = zc( t
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Results and discussion corresponds
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Results and discussion 102 5.3.6 Me
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Results and discussion hoeing accur
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Results and discussion between the
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Results and discussion distance fro
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Results and discussion Distribution
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Results and discussion cuts are ran
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Results and discussion Forward spee
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Results and discussion x [mm] Distr
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Results and discussion The experime
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6 Summary Summary Neither a mechani
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Summary The third part of the work
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7 Conclusions Conclusions The prese
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8 References References Agrios, G.
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References in California's Sacramen
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References Johnson, W C and Mullini
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References Schans, D. v. d. et al.
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List of figures List of figures Fig
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List of figures Figure 5.24 Scheme
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Plant position 9 Appendix Table 9.1
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Plant position Table 9.3 Detection
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Personal data Education About the a
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