Focus on Environment

<strong>Focus</strong> on Environment 

Challenges and Perspectives 

for Sustainable Development 

Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu, Editors


Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development 

Proceedings of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and 

Health 2016’ & ‘World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016)’ events held 

on the campus of AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia 

Editors 

Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu 

2016



Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu (Editors) 

Published by AIMST University 

2016 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5 (Print version) 

eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 (e-Book version)

Financial support for the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable 

Environment and Health 2016’ and ‘WED-2016’ events 

was provided by: 

• AIMST University 

• OTA Tunnel Squad Sdn. Bhd. 

• SKiWealth Sdn. Bhd. 

• Merchantrade Asia Sdn. Bhd. 

• Lembaga Sumber Air Negeri Kedah 

• Mutaiya Group of Companies 

• Poliklinik Sakthi N Sheila Sdn Bhd, Kulim 

Conference and WED-2016 events were organized by:

Published by 

AIMST University 

Printed by 

AIMST University 

Copyright 

© 2016 by the authors; editors; AIMST University, Malaysia. This 

book is an open access book distributed under the terms and 

conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license 

(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 

CC BY license is applied which allows users to download, copy, reuse and distribute 

data provided the original article and book is fully cited. This open access aims to 

maximize the visibility of articles, reviews, perspectives and notes, much of which is 

in the interest of national, regional and global community. 

Disclaimer: The information provided in this book is designed to highlight the views, 

perspectives and or research findings of respective contributors. While the best 

efforts have been used in preparing this book, Editors and or Publisher make no 

representations or warranties of any kind and assume no liabilities of any kind with 

respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents and specifically disclaim 

any implied warranties. Neither the Editors nor Publisher of this book shall be held 

liable or responsible to any person or entity with respect to any loss or incidental or 

consequential damages caused, or alleged to have been caused, directly or 

indirectly, by the information highlighted herein. Readers should be aware that the 

information provided in this book may change. 

All articles, reviews, and notes published in this book are deemed to reflect the 

individual views of respective authors and not the official points of view, either of the 

Editors or of the Publisher. 

Edited by 

Dr. Subhash J. Bhore (Senior Associate Professor) 1 , and 

Dr. K. Marimuthu (Professor) 2 

Address for Correspondance: 

1 Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, 

Bedong-Semeling Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; Telephone 

No.: +604 429 8176; e-mail: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com 

2 Chancellery, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah 

Darul Aman, Malaysia; Telephone No.: +604 429 1054; e-mail: 

marimuthu@aimst.edu.my 

Edition 

First; December 23, 2016

Dedication 

This book is dedicated to all researchers 

working in various domains of science and 

technology, and to all stakeholders those 

are working for the global sustainable 

development to improve the health of the 

people and planet.

World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering 

Committee* 

Chairperson 

Prof. Dr. Kasi Marimuthu 

Co-chairpersons 

Mr. Christapher Parayil Varghese 

Dr. Gokul Shankar 

Mr. Arunagiri Shanmugam 

Secretary 

Ms. Kalaiselvee Rethinam 

Secretariat 

Dr. Shalini Sivadasan 

Dr. Rohini Karunakaran 

Ms. Elil Suthamathi 

National Seminar 

Dr. Subhash J. Bhore 

Dr. Anthony Leela 

Dr. Lee Su Yin 

Dr. V. Ravichandran 

Dr. S. Parasuraman 

Dr. Venkateskumar 

Dr. Sunitha Namani 

Dr. Jawahar Dhanavel 

Dr. Saurabh Prakash 

Dr. Durga Prasad 

Dr. Ajay Jain 

Mr. Maheswaran 

Mr. Nithiananthan 

Mr. Girish Kumar 

Ms. Veni Chandrakasan 

Mr. R. Rizhi 

Mr. Elanchezhian 

Ms. Vijayananthinee Arumugam 

Ms. Ponnarasy Ganasen 

Mr. Jeevandran Sundarasekar 

Ms. Mangalarani 

Publicity and Sponsors 

Dr. Sivachandran Parimannan 

Mr. Anthony Tee 

Mr. Siventhiran 

Treasurer 

Mr. G. Prabhakaran 

Mr. Halikhan 

Safety 

Mr. S. Maheswaran 

IT & AV 

Mr. Gobinath 

Logistics 

Mr. D.S Muraly Velavan 

Mr. Neeraj Paliwal 

Ms. Musalinah Buzri 

Facilities 

Mr. S. Krishnan 

Mr. V. Krishnan 

Ms. Yoganandhi 

*of/at AIMST University 

Slogan writing, Quiz, Debate, Trash to 

treasure competitions 

Ms. Faustina Lerene Dominic 

Ms. Rebecca Jayamalar 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 

i

Foreword 

It is a great honor and pleasure to write this foreword 

message for this proceedings; because, I had attended this 

seminar and witnessed the success of the World Environment 

Day (WED) awareness campaign. 

The WED is the biggest event and globally celebrated 

on June 5 each year to promote awareness about preservation 

of environment and to take positive actions. The WED is 

engaging millions of people across the globe through events 

and celebrated over 100 countries. Every year, participants, 

several organizations, organize clean-up campaigns, art 

exhibits, tree-planting, concerts, dance recitals, recycling 

drives, social media campaigns and different contests with 

various themes for preservation of environment. AIMST University, strongly belives in 

the need of increasing understanding and creating more awareness among students sothat 

they can appreciate the values of biodiversity and the clean environment. 

First of all, I would like to thank all the invited speakers, delegates, young 

researchers and participants of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and 

Health’ for their participation, and sharing their views and perspectives on environmental 

issues and conservation. 

Thirteen (13) leading and eminent researchers and environmentalists delivered 

their talk on the various environmental issues important for sustainable development. The 

seminar brought together the researchers, students, entrepreneurs those are working in the 

areas of environment and health. National seminar provided a magnificent opportunity 

for all the participants to interact with eminent colleagues. I wish to thank all the speakers 

and participants, environmental NGOs, students from various schools and universities for 

participating in the seminar and WED events. I also wish to thank all supporters for 

supporting the seminar and events. 

I am really happy to know that full-length articles received from the invited 

speakers of the Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health are being published in 

this proceeding. I would record my special thanks to Professor Dr. K. Marimuthu, a 

highly committed organizing Chairman, and Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash 

Bhore, a leading Editor of this book for their efforts in bringing out this book to 

document the conference and WED-2016 events. I also thank the purpose driven 

organizing committee members and volunteers for their contribution and support. 

I am very sure that content of this proceeding will serve as a reference to students, 

researchers, scientists, public and all other stakeholders those have concern about 

environment. 

Thank you, 

Senior Professor Dr. M. Ravichandran 

Chief Executive & Vice-Chancellor, AIMST University, Malaysia 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 

ii

Preface 

Globally, World Environment Day (WED) is a great 

annual event celebrated each year on June 5, to engage 

millions of people from different countries to draw the 

attention of several organizations and public to implement 

some effective actions and create positive awareness to 

preserve the environment and planet earth. This year’s 

theme for WED was “Go Wild for Life” that highlights the 

fight against the illegal trade in wildlife, which erodes 

precious biodiversity and threatens the survival of 

elephants, rhinos and tigers, as well as many other species. 

This event is also helpful in encouraging to explore all 

those species under threat and take action and help safeguard them for future generations. 

To commemorate and celebrate the WED, AIMST University hosted a one day 

seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health, planting trees, slogan writing 

competition, environmental quiz, debate, trash to treasure - a innovation competition, and 

cycling event. The main aim of these events was to create awareness about the global 

environmental issues among school students, university students, staff, and common 

public. 

Dato Dr. Leong Yong Kong, Exco Environment, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia 

had officiated the opening ceremony of the seminar. In a keynote address, Prof. Sultan 

Ismail Eco-science Research Foundation, India highlighted importance of the traditional 

farming systems, the applications of vermin-compost and foliar sprays to control pests. 

There were 13 invited speakers who delivered talks on various aspects of the 

environmental challenges, conservation and natural farming systems. This proceeding is 

the compilation of conference papers and WED events. However, four additional articles 

submitted by respective authors are also added in this book. 

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to Dato' Seri Utama Dr. S. 

Samy Vellu, Chancellor and Chairman, AIMST University and Senior Prof. Dr. M. 

Ravichandran, Chief Executive and Vice-Chancellor of AIMST University, Malaysia for 

their full support to organize this WED events. Specially, I wish to thank my colleague, 

Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash Bhore for playing a major role in bringing out 

this book to document the national conference and various events of WED-2016. 

I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciation to all the invited 

speakers from various institutions and universities from India and Malaysia for sharing 

their views by participating in the conference. Last but not least, I would like to thank 

wholeheartedly to all the WED committee members for their commitment, cooperation 

and support provided to execute various events. 

Thank you, 

Dr. K. Marimuthu 

Chairman WED-2016 Events, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Academic and International 

Affairs, AIMST University, Malaysia 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 

iii

Contents 

World Environment Day (WED 2016) Events Steering Committee ........................ i 

Foreword ....................................................................................................................... ii 

Preface ......................................................................................................................... iii 

Contents ....................................................................................................................... iv 

For Earth’s Sake 

Sultan Ahmed Ismail .................................................................................................. 1 

Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable Agriculture 

M. Aminur Rahman, Md. Shamim Parvez and Kasi Marimuthu ............................. 16 

Molecular Marker Techniques in Environmental Forensic Studies 

Narayanan Kannan .................................................................................................. 31 

Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case in Paddy Farming in 

Peninsular Malaysia 

Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan ..................................................................... 38 

Environmental Legislations in Malaysia: A Protection to Public Health 

Haslinda Mohd Anuar.............................................................................................. 51 

The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region: Emerging 

Prospects, Potentials, Culture and Utilization 

M. Aminur Rahman and Fatimah Md. Yusoff .......................................................... 60 

Environment and Its Impact on Human Health 

Sridevi Chigurupati, Jahidul Islam Mohammad and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan 

Selvarajan ................................................................................................................ 74 

Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing Food Web Connectivity 

Debashish Mazumder............................................................................................... 89 

Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity 

Umaiyal Munusamy ................................................................................................. 95 

World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global Sustainable Development 

Subhash Janardhan Bhore ..................................................................................... 107 

Basics for Sustainable Environment: Reduce Wastage, Reuse, and Recycle 

Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam, Samudhra Sendhil and Aarthi Rajesh.. 116 

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iv

Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience 

N V Subbarow ........................................................................................................ 120 

Abstracts ................................................................................................................... 123 

Appendices ................................................................................................................ 129 

Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers ......................................................... 129 

Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University ................................. 137 

Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world? ............................................ 148 

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v

“The earth, the air, the land and the water are not an 

inheritance from our fore fathers but on loan from our 

children. So we have to handover to them at least as it 

was handed over to us.” 

--- Mahatma Gandhi 

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vi



<strong>Focus</strong> Environ (2016), P1-15 


Sultan Ahmed Ismail 

Ecoscience Research Foundation, 98, Baaz Nagar, 3/621 East Coast Road, Palavakkam, 

Chennai 600041, India; Phone No.: +91 9384898358; Email: sultanismail@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the tremendous activity of micro and macro organisms 

supported by availability of organic matter. A vast number of organisms engineer a myriad of 

biochemical changes as decay of organic matter takes place in the soil. Based on my continuous 

research on earthworms made me write “earthworms are the pulse of the soil, healthier the 

pulse, healthier the soil”. Fresh casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid which are rich in the 

worm-worked soil and burrows act as stimulant for the multiplication of dormant 

microorganisms in the soil and are responsible for constant release of nutrients into it, which then 

facilitates root growth and a healthy appropriate sustainable rhizosphere. Compost and 

vermicompost as well as a number of foliar sprays such as Panchagavya, FEM and Gunapaselam 

along with pest repellents can be a healthy choice for a sustainable ecosystem which shall be 

environmentally compatible and economically viable. 

Keywords: Compost; foliar sprays; organic farming; soils; sustainability; vermitech; 

vermicompost; vermiwash 

INTRODUCTION 

The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the 

tremendous activity of micro and macro 

organisms supported by availability of 

organic matter. It is this life in the soil that 

lends its name to soil as “living soil”. A vast 

number of organisms engineer a myriad of 

biochemical changes as decay of organic 

matter takes place in the soil. Among the 

organisms, which contribute to soil health, 

the most important are the earthworms. 

Based on my continuous research on 

earthworms made me write “earthworms are 

the pulse of the soil, healthier the pulse, 

healthier the soil”. 

Soil is a living dynamic system 

whose functions are mediated by diverse 

living organisms which in agriculture 

requires proper management and 

conservation. Unfortunately, in today’s 

chemical agriculture importance is shown on 

soil fertility and not on the holistic soil 

health which provides an integrated 

sustainable mechanism to the soil to sustain 

its “living” fabric of nature. 

Among the myriad of soil organisms, 

earthworms are one of the most vital 

components of the soil biota in terms of soil 

formation and maintenance of soil structure 

and fertility. They are extremely important 

in soil formation, principally through 

activities in consuming organic matter, 

fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with 

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<strong>Focus</strong> Environ (2016) 


mineral particles to form water stable 

aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding, 

earthworms promote microbial activity by 

several orders of magnitude, which in turn 

accelerate the formation of organic matter as 

microorganisms are the ultimate 

decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus 

food chain and in organic matter 

decomposition. Fresh casts, urine, mucus 

and coelomic fluid which are rich in the 

worm-worked soil and burrows act as 

stimulant for the multiplication of 

microorganisms in the soil and are 

responsible for constant release of nutrients 

into it, which then facilitates root growth 

and a sustainable rhizosphere. 

Darwin’s pioneering work on 

earthworms (The Formation of Vegetable 

Mould through the Action of Worms) 

published by John Murray in October 1881 

remains one of the pioneering works of 

modern science, though ancient Indian 

literature has often quoted the benefits of 

earthworms. As one who pioneered the 

culture of local earthworms Perionyx 

excavatus and Lampito mauritii in India and 

also extensively worked with Eudrilus 

eugeniae after it was introduced by 

Professor Dr. Radha D Kale of University of 

Agriculture Sciences, Hebbal, Bengaluru, 

into India; my students and I have done 

immense research. I do agree that I have not 

worked with Eisenia fetida or Eisenia 

andrei, though I do have enough 

information about them. 

EARTHWORMS 

Earthworms belong to the order Chaetopoda 

under Class Oligochaeta, Phylum Annelida 

and Division Invertebrata. Indian 

earthworms mostly are Megascolecids, 

though Lumbricids also coexist. Several 

European Lumbricid earthworms found their 

way into India when the British brought 

Ismail 

potted plants to their residences especially 

into the cooler parts of India. 

Earthworms are one of the chief 

components of the soil biota in terms of soil 

formation and maintenance of soil structure 

and fertility. They are extremely important 

in soil formation, principally through 

activities in consuming organic matter, 

fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with 

mineral particles to form water stable 

aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding, 

earthworms promote microbial activity by 

several orders of magnitude, which in turn 

also accelerate the rates of break down and 

stabilization of humic fractions or organic 

matter. Microorganisms are the ultimate 

decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus 

food chain and in organic matter 

decomposition. Earthworms are the 

facilitators for the dormant microorganisms 

in soils providing them with organic carbon, 

optimum temperature, moisture and pH in 

their gut for their multiplication. 

Microorganisms are excreted in their casts 

and also harbored in the drilospheres. Fresh 

casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid 

which are rich in the worm-worked soil and 

burrows act as stimulant for the 

multiplication of dormant microorganisms in 

the soil and are responsible for constant 

release of nutrients into it, which then 

facilitates root growth and a healthy 

appropriate sustainable rhizosphere. 

Though more than 3500 species of 

earthworms are in the world with India 

having about 500 species in its diversity, it 

is easier to recognize earthworms based on 

their ecological strategies… that is based on 

the nature of the position in the ecosystem 

(Figure 1). Based on this classification three 

broad based categories are listed though 

there are possibilities of some trespass 

between these categories. 

The surface feeders are the epigeic 

worms. These worms may or may not 

consume soil. The Indian blue Perionyx 

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excavatus, P. sansibaricus are excellent 

earthworms. Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia 

fetida, though exotic, also belong to the 

epigeic category. The anecis or the 

intermediates are those who create 

predominantly vertical burrows in the soil. 

Lampito mauritii is an anecic so is 

Lumbricus terrestris in Europe. The 

endogeics are the predominant horizontal 

burrowers. 

Soils exposed to the veracities of 

nature and without mulch may not harbor 

epigeics. The anecic are those who have 

regained the mastery of aestivation or 

summer sleep. A good aerated soil with 

optimal conditions generally harbor all these 

three types of earthworms. 

Ismail 

A healthy soil (in Indian condition) 

should at least have 5% organic matter, but 

conditions presently after the green 

revolution are poor with a national average 

of about 0.5%. 

A good healthy soil generally should 

have air (about 25%), water (about 25%), 

organic matter consisting of humus, roots, 

organisms (about 5%) and mineral matter 

(about 45%). This enables a large 

biodiversity of soil organisms as well; 

enabling soil as a living “organism”. 

The burrows created mostly by the 

anecic earthworms are called as drilospheres 

(Figure 2), though other organisms may also 

contribute to them. These act as the 

circulatory and respiratory systems of the 

soil. 

Figure 1: Earthworms based on their ecological strategies. 

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Ismail 

Figure 2: Drilospheres created by anecic earthworms. 

EARTHWORMS USED 

About 500 species of earthworms are found 

in India. Earthworms that are brought in 

from other countries are called exotic. 

Internationally 3 species of earthworms have 

largely been used for vermicomposting, they 

being Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae, 

which are exotic, and Perionyx excavatus, 

which is endemic. Local species of 

earthworms used for vermicomposting in 

India generally are Perionyx excavatus and 

Lampito mauritii. 

Succession of microorganisms in the 

process of composting and the quality of 

microorganisms in compost and 

vermicompost 

The process of composting, although shows 

the occurrence of different microorganisms 

such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, 

phosphate solubilizers and the 

microorganisms involved in the nitrogen 

cycle; succession is shown in the quantity of 

microbes depending upon the nature of the 

substrate, the age of the compost, the 

ambience created by the existing microbes 

to its successors and also the physical and 

chemical characteristics. 

The majority of the microorganisms 

in the initial stages of the composting are the 

heterotrophic bacteria, which rely on the 

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oxidation of the large amount of organic 

carbon. It reduces during the thermophilic 

phase till the formation of the biodung 

compost. This then increases in 

vermicompost due to the passage of the 

material through the earthworm and the 

presence of the assimilable C, in the gut and 

the cast of the earthworms (Lavelle et al., 

1992). 

The role of microorganisms in the 

nitrogen cycle is very prominent. There is 

increased presence of ammonifiers in the 

initial stage of composting, which correlates 

with the high amount of protein degradation 

and the microbial contribution to reduce 

C:N. Nitrifiers however increase from the 

initial to the final stages. The products of the 

ammonifiers create an environment for the 

multiplication of nitrifiers which utilize 

ammonia and convert it to nitrite and nitrate. 

To substantiate this extra-cellular ammonia 

nitrogen decreases steadily from the initial 

higher values during the entire composting 

process. The ammonification process is 

reported to increase due to high temperature 

(Prasad and Powar, 1997). 

Nitrification potential as indicated by 

NO2- N decreases with composting time. 

The NO2 production drops and stabilizes to 

low levels during the later stages of 

composting till no further decomposition 

can take place, as the C: N ratio gets 

stabilized (Tiquia et al., 2002). 

The NO3 production increases till 

about the 14 th day of composting thereafter 

declining till the 35 th day. This drop could 

be due to high temperature, as nitrification is 

inhibited by high temperature and could also 

indicate microbial immobilization. The 

dominance of the extra-cellular production 

of NO3 on the worm worked vermicompost 

could be the result of the enhanced nitrifier 

activity. 

Amount of phosphate in compost 

samples throughout the process and 

vermicompost records a steady increase 

Ismail 

from the initial phase of composting till 

vermicompost. This is due to the increased 

phosphatase activity in vermicompost as 

earthworm casts and feces exhibit higher 

phosphatase activity (Mansdell et al., 1981 

and Satchel and Martin, 1984). It is also 

observed that PO4 production shows a 

decline at about the 21 st day of composting 

which correlates with the reports of Gupta 

(1999) that high NH4 + concentration retards 

P fixation. Phosphate solubilizers also 

steadily increase throughout the process. So 

in terms of succession ammonifiers which 

are the major organic N decomposers are 

succeeded by the nitrifiers and phosphate 

solubilizers. 

Oxidation of sulfur and sulfate 

compounds is elaborated by aerobic obligate 

autotrophs. Thiobacillus thiooxidans and 

Thiobacillus thioparus, recorded in 

vermicompost attribute to the reason for 

vermicompost being capable of ameliorating 

sodic soils. The population density of the 

actinomycetes increases from the initial 

phase of composting till the maturation 

phase except for a period of decline in the 

thermophilic phase. 

Actinomycetes occur after readily 

available substrate disappears in the early 

stages and colonize in the humification stage 

as the compost reaches maturity. It is also 

found that the optimum temperature of 

actinomycetes is 40-50 o C, which is also the 

temperature for lignin degradation in 

compost (Tuomela et al., 2000). 

Fungal density decreases as the 

composting process progresses. 

Mucoraceous group of fungi commonly 

referred to as sugar fungi are observed in the 

initial and early phases of composting. 

Species of Aspergillus dominate and are 

responsible for major degradation of initial 

organic carbon as they are known to 

elaborate cellullases and hemicellulases. A 

lignolytic fungi, Coprinus spp. are 

predominantly found to colonize the 

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compost only towards the end when 

complex organic matter is biodegraded. 

The thermophilic fungi record an 

increase in density and diversity during the 

thermophilic phase and these are known to 

bring about degradation of cellulose, lignin 

and pectin at a faster rate in conjunction 

with high temperature. The presence of 

Trichoderma viridae and Trichoderma 

harzianum, both potential biocontrol agents, 

during the composting process and to a 

larger magnitude in the vermicompost is 

noteworthy. 

The density and diversity of algae 

increases progressively and maximum 

recorded in the vermicompost. Of special 

significance are the presences of algae such 

as Oscillatoria spp., Anabaena spp., and 

Nostoc spp. which are known to enhance 

soil fertility. For information of those using 

earthworms or desirous of using 

compost/vermicompost/in-situ composting 

the material generally has the following 

microorganisms (Priscilla, 2006; 

Dhakshayani, 2008). Generally microbial 

population in compost is reported to be ― 

heterotrophic bacteria:463.11±162.26 × 10 6 ; 

fungi population: 13.46 ± 2.07 × 10 4 ; and 

actinomycetes: 44.05 ± 17.11 × 10 6 . 

BACTERIAL SPECIES COMMONLY 

FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST 

 

 

 

 

 

Bacillus spp. 

Pseudomonas spp. 

Serratia spp. 

Klebsiella spp. 

Enterobacter spp. 

FUNGAL SPECIES COMMONLY 


 

 

 

 

Absidia spp. 

Rhizopus stolonifer 

Aspergillus flavus 

Aspergillus fumigatus 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Aspergillus flavipes 

Aspergillus nidulans 

Aspergillus niger 

Aspergillus ochraceus 

Aspergillus tamarii 

Chrysosporium pannorum 

Emericella nidulans 

Dreschslera australiensis 

Fusarium oxysporum 

Monilia sitophila 

Penicillium citrinum 

Penicillium oxalicum 

Mucor racemosus 

Trichoderma viride 

Ismail 

ALGAL SPECIES COMMONLY 


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cladophora spp. 

Oscillatoria spp. 

Anabaena anomala 

Anabaena ambigua 

Arthrospira spp. 

Westiellopsis prolifiea 

Nostoc spp. 

Protococcus spp. 

Cladophora spp. 

Schizothrix spp. 

Chaetonema spp. 

Stigonema spp. 

Though we have identified presence 

of actinomycetes in earthworm casts in our 

laboratory, researchers from other 

laboratories have identified species of 

actinomycetes in castings (Kumar et al., 

2012. Sreevidya et al., 2016). Association of 

actinomycetes confers many advantages to 

plants like production of antibiotics, 

extracellular enzymes, phytohormones, 

siderophores and phosphate solubilization, 

protects plant against biotic and abiotic 

stress. 

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ACTINOMYCETES COMMONLY 


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Streptomyces spp. 

Streptosporangium spp. 

Saccharoployspora spp. 

Actinomadura spp. 

Nocardia spp. 

Nocardiopsis spp. 

Planobispora spp. 

Micromonospora spp. 

Actinomadura spp. 

Microbispora spp. 

Thermobifida spp. 

We may have apprehensions on other 

technologies, but each has been time tested 

and none of the “non-chemical” 

practitioners have forced their technology on 

anyone or talk evil of the other. To be 

organic is to first “decolonize our minds”. 

Biodynamic farming does suggest several 

components of the BD category. One of 

their excellent tools is the biodynamic 

chromatography. We have applied this on 

analysis of composts from several sources 

and have been a good functional tool. 

Thanks to Dr. Dhakshayani for trying this 

for her research programme (presented in 

2007. submitted 2008). This technique did 

reveal that the vermicompost prepared by 

the endemic (local) earthworms’ P. 

excavatus and L. mauritii which we call as 

vermitech is indeed superior to that 

produced by exotic (foreign) earthworms 

(Figures 3A & B). There is no doubt about 

it. But at the same time there is no adverse 

information about compost by exotic 

varieties. 

Most foliar sprays especially the 

organic ones have several components 

similar to plant growth promoter substances 

in them. Vermiwash is one such excellent 

liquid fertiliser (Ismail, 2005). Studies in our 

laboratory by Sheik Ali (2009) have 

revealed the presence of substances (Table 

Ismail 

1) which invariably are associated with plant 

growth. 

There are about 3 isomers of indole 

compounds separated in Vermiwash, 2-(4- 

methylphenyl) indolizine is an alkaloid 

which has a significant role in plant growth 

promotion. At retention time of 19.70 min 

capric acid was separated, which is a fatty 

acid, obtained from the castings of 

earthworms which is also reported to have a 

significant role in plant growth promotion in 

lower concentrations (Imaishi and Petkova- 

Andonova, 2007). Maleic acid which was 

identified is a well-established plant growth 

promoter (Delhaize et al., 1993). Methyl 2- 

4(-tert-butylphenoxy) acetate belongs to the 

ring-substituted phenoxy aliphatic acids 

generally exhibiting a strong retarding effect 

on abscission in turn promote plant growth. 

Vermiwash by its instinctive quality might 

probably promote humification, increased 

microbial activity to produce the plant 

growth promoting compounds and enzyme 

production (Haynes and Swift, 1990). All 

the compounds present in vermiwash (Table 

1) may not individually help in plant growth 

but perhaps act synergistically along with 

the beneficial soil microbes found in 

vermiwash. 

Experiments applying Vermiwash 

with Panjagavya etc. by Thangaraj (2006) 

on plants and their chromosomes have 

shown significant results of enhanced xylem 

vessels (Figure 4) and no chromosomal 

damage; and these can be prepared by 

farmers in their farms without paying 

anything. 

In organic farming practice we do 

not nurse the plant, we nurse the soil. The 

soil in turn promotes its group of biotic 

elements who churn the nutrients as desired 

by the plant. Recently (2016) yet another 

student of mine Ramalakshmi has come out 

with a unique medium to multiply 

microorganisms by the farmer in non-sterile 

non-laboratory conditions which will enable 

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Ismail 

Figure 3: A & B) Biodynamic chromatograms of vermicompost from earthworms. 

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Ismail 

Table 1: Components of Vermiwash. 

No Compound 

1 

GC 

Retention 

Time 

(min) 

Chemical 

Formula 

CAS registry 

Number 

Molecular 

Weight 

(g/mol) 

2- (4-methyl phenyl) indolizine 19.33 C15H13N 7496-81-3 207.27 

2 Decanoic acid, ethyl ester 19.70 C12H24O2 110-38-3 200.318 

3 1-methyl-2-phenyl-indole 27.10 

C15H13N 3558-24-5 207.27 

4 2-methyl-7-phenyl-1H-indole 29.83 C15H13N 1140-08-5 207.27 

5 Pentadioic acid, dihydrazide 

N2,N2'-bis(2-furfurylideno)* 

6 Methyl 2-(4-tert- butyl 

phenoxy) acetate* 

*(presumed) 

31.16 

C15H16N4O 

4 

324012-36-4 316.312 

33.44 C13H18O3 88530-52-3 222.28 

Figure 4: Anatomical changes in xylem vessels; C: control; V: vermiwash; P: Panchagavya; VP: 

combination of vermiwash and Panchagavya. 

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a farmer to bioremediate the soil without 

industrial intervention. She has assured to 

share the technology freely with farmers’ 

after her thesis defense. 

Phytonutrients, such as polyphenols 

and antioxidants, protect both people and 

plants. Several insecticides, herbicides, and 

fungicides actually block a plant's ability to 

manufacture these important plant 

compounds. In a study of antioxidants in 

organic and conventionally grown fruits, 

scientists have recorded higher 

concentrations of vitamin C, vitamin E, and 

other antioxidants in organic foods 

(Coghlan, 2001). It appears that organically 

grown fruits develop more antioxidants as a 

defense and repair mechanism against 

insects when grown without the use of 

pesticides. 

Most changes in agricultural 

technology especially after the green 

revolution have ecological effects on soil 

organisms that can affect higher plants and 

animals, including man. Concentrating just 

on productivity has robbed human care for 

the soil. 

Traditional songs in Tamil state that 

in a plant, especially in cereals, “the roots 

are for the soil, the stems for the cattle, and 

the pinnacles for human consumption”. 

Following the holistic practice of organic 

farming takes care of the soil which in turn 

takes care of the plant and not as in chemical 

farming where we may tend to ignore the 

soil and take care of the plant. A plant taken 

care, nursed and nourished by the soil has 

excellent potential and potency for the 

consumer (Ismail, 2005). 

Though animal wastes are largely 

used in organic farms unfortunately 

intensive farming activities have eliminated 

the need of animals on farm. 

Organic farming is not a system of 

farming but a culture by itself. It is not 

addition of manure or botanical extracts that 

enables organic farming, but a way of life. 

Ismail 

There are several such practices that today 

are classified as alternative systems of 

farming in contrast to the conventional 

farming alias-chemical farming. These 

alternative systems are named as nonpoisonous 

farming, biodynamic farming, 

permaculture, natural farming, low external 

input farming, eco-farming, biological 

farming, or just organic farming. Such 

systems consider soil health as their 

prerequisite. In organic farming apart from 

the use of manure/compost for soils, 

botanical extracts for protection from pests, 

bio-foliar sprays, native seed wealth, 

biodiversity, mixed cropping, crop rotation, 

gender participation, and associating animal 

heads in farming form important 

components. Foliar sprays like vermiwash 

and Panchagavya have proved to be very 

effective as excellent liquid sprays on any 

crop. Traditional wisdom advocates the use 

of cow dung and cow’s urine for manure and 

pest control. Today there is an enormous 

demand for organic food throughout the 

world. Organically grown tea, coffee, spices, 

flowers, fruits and several other end 

products are in demand overseas. Organic 

food provides wholesome meal including 

essentials like Salicylic Acid, which is the 

precursor of Aspirin. 

EFFICIENT FOLIAR SPRAYS CAN BE 

PREPARED AS A PART OF PLANT 

GROWING PRACTICES 

VERMIWASH 

Worm worked soils have burrows formed by 

the earthworms. Bacteria richly inhabit these 

burrows, also called as the drilospheres. 

Water passing through these passages 

washes the nutrients from these burrows to 

the roots to be absorbed by the plants. This 

principle is applied in the preparation of 

vermiwash. Vermiwash is a very good foliar 

spray. 

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Vermiwash units can be set up either 

in barrels or in buckets or even in small 

earthen pots. It is the principle that is 

important. The procedure explained here is 

for setting up of a 250 litre barrel. An empty 

barrel with one side open is taken. On the 

other side, a hole is made to accommodate 

the vertical limb of a 'T' jointed tube in a 

way that about half to one inch of the tube 

projects into the barrel. To one end of the 

horizontal limb is attached a tap. The other 

end is kept closed. This serves as an 

emergency opening to clean the 'T' jointed 

tube if it gets clogged. 

Setting up of a vermiwash unit 

The entire unit is set up on a short pedestal 

made of few bricks to facilitate easy 

collection of vermiwash. Keeping the tap 

open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or 

pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer of coarse 

sand then follows the layer of bricks. Water 

is then made to flow through these layers to 

enable the setting up of the basic filter unit. 

On top of this layer is placed a 30 to 45 cm 

layer of loamy soil. It is moistened and into 

this is introduced about 50 numbers each of 

the surface (epigeic) and sub-surface 

(anecic) earthworms. Cattle dung pats and 

hay is placed on top of the soil layer and 

gently moistened. The tap is kept open for 

the next 15 days. Water is added every day 

to keep the unit moist. 

On the 16th day, the tap is closed 

and on top of the unit a metal container or 

mud pot perforated at the base as a sprinkler 

is suspended. Five (5) litres of water (the 

volume of water taken in this container is 

one fiftieth of the size of the main container) 

is poured into this container and allowed to 

gradually sprinkle on the barrel overnight. 

This water percolates through the compost, 

the burrows of the earthworms and gets 

collected at the base. The tap of the unit is 

opened the next day morning and the 

Ismail 

vermiwash is collected. The tap is then 

closed and the suspended pot is refilled with 

5 litres of water that evening to be collected 

again the following morning. Dung pats and 

hay may be replaced periodically based on 

need. The entire set up may be emptied and 

reset between 10 and 12 months of use. 

Vermiwash is diluted with water 

(10%) before spraying. This has been found 

to be very effective on several plants. If 

need be vermiwash may be mixed with 

cow's urine and diluted (1 litre of 

vermiwash, 1 litre of cow's urine and 8 litres 

of water) and sprayed on plants to function 

as an effecting foliar spray and pest 

repellent. Instead of a drum the same can 

also be prepared in plastic buckets or even in 

flower pots as containers. 

PANCHAGAVYA 

Requirements: 

Biogas slurry or cow dung 

Cow’s urine 

Cow’s milk 

Curd from cow’s milk 

Ghee from cow’s butter 

Sugarcane juice 

Tender coconut water 

Banana 

5 kg 

3 litres 

2 litres 

2 litres 

1 litre 

3 litres 

3 litres 

12 numbers 

First mix cow dung with ghee and 

small quantity of cow’s urine. Leave this 

dough for 3 days. Then place this in a broad 

mouthed mud pot or a cement tank and add 

the remaining ingredients. Mix well by hand 

and without closing with lid keep in shade. 

Daily morning and evening mix well by 

hand. In about 10 days panchagavya will be 

ready. If you mix it daily with hand or with 

a wooden ladle it would keep well for a 

month. For use prepare a 3-5% solution. 

Spray as foliar spray only in the morning or 

evening. 

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GUNAPASELAM 

Requirements: 

Fish (unused raw parts) - 1 kg 

Jaggery- 1 kg 

Water - 5 litres 

Container - 10 litre 

Mix first two in container. Cover 

with gunny or cloth tightly, prevent from 

flies. Second day add about 5 litres of water 

and mix well. Mix well 3 times a day for 

first 5 days. Leave undisturbed then for 10 

days. Decant, dissolve 100 to 150 ml of this 

in 10 litres of water and use as soil 

conditioner as well as foliar spray. 

Concentrate can be stored for three months 

FARMERS’ EM 

Requirements: 

Pumpkin 3.0 kg 

Banana 3.0 kg 

Papaya 3.0 kg 

 

Molasses or Jaggery 3.0 kg 

(non-chlorinated) 

Eggs 5.0 numbers 

(optional) 

Water 10 liters (nonchlorinated) 

 

25-liter plastic container with a lid 

Cut the three vegetables into small 

pieces. Transfer these pieces into the 

container – mix Molasses or Jaggery (nonchlorinated) 

in little water and add – to this 

add 10 liters of water – break and add the 5 

eggs into it. Mix all the contents. Leave the 

container well closed with the lid. Open lid 

after ten days there should be white foam on 

top, if not there add some more Molasses or 

Jaggery. Check after 20 days, again after 30 

days. Mix well after 30 days and leave it 

closed. After a total of 45 days decant the 

solution this is Farmer’s EM. Dissolve 200 

Ismail 

ml in 10 liters of water and spray or mix 10 

liters in water for one acre. 

WHY ORGANIC FARMING? 

Organic agriculture is defined as "a holistic 

food production management system, which 

promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem 

health, including biodiversity, biological 

cycles and soil biological activity. It 

emphasizes the use of management practices 

in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, 

taking into account that regional conditions 

require locally adapted systems. This is 

accomplished by using, where possible, 

agronomic, biological and mechanical 

methods, as opposed to using synthetic 

materials, to fulfill any specific function 

within the system." (FAO/WHO Codex 

Alimentarius Commission). 

Through its holistic nature, organic 

farming integrates wild biodiversity, agrobiodiversity 

and soil conservation, and takes 

low-intensity, extensive farming one step 

further by eliminating the use of chemical 

fertilizers, pesticides and genetically 

modified organisms (GMOs), which is not 

only an improvement for human health, but 

also for the fauna and flora associated with 

the farm and farm environment. Organic 

farming enhances soil structures, conserves 

water and ensures the conservation and 

sustainable use of biodiversity. Agricultural 

contaminants such as inorganic fertilizers, 

herbicides and insecticides from 

conventional agriculture are a major concern 

all over the world. Eutrophication, the 

suffocation of aquatic plants and animals 

due to rapid growth of algae, referred to as 

"algal blooms", are literally killing lakes, 

rivers and other bodies of water. Persistent 

herbicides and insecticides can extend 

beyond target weeds and insects when 

introduced into aquatic environments. These 

chemicals have accumulated up the food 

chain whereby top predators often consume 

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toxic dosages. Organic agriculture as 

defined by IFOAM restores the 

environmental balance and has none of these 

or other such deleterious effects on the 


Pesticides have been in use in 

agriculture since Second World War and, 

from the very beginning, there have been 

concerns about the commercialization of 

chemical pesticides. Rachel Carson’s book 

“Silent Spring” published in 1964 brought 

out the scientific certainties of the impacts 

of pesticides on environment. The very first 

insecticide of World War-II vintage, DDT 

was banned in the developed world in the 

1970s but continued to be used in India till 

the 1990s. The infamous Bhopal tragedy of 

1984 in India was an eye opener to a larger 

section of people in India and abroad. 

According to research on health 

disorders resulting from petroleum-based 

chemicals used in consumer products and 

job environments are available from the link 

http://www.chem-tox.com/. Petroleum based 

chemicals are being found to cause 

significant attritional effects to the nervous 

system and immune system after prolonged 

exposure. Illnesses identified in the medical 

research include adult and child cancers, 

numerous neurological disorders, immune 

system weakening, autoimmune disorders, 

asthma, allergies, infertility, miscarriage, 

and child behavior disorders including 

learning disabilities, mental retardation, 

hyperactivity and ADD (attention deficit 

disorders). Petroleum based chemicals are 

believed to cause these problems by a 

variety of routes including - impairing 

proper DNA (Gene) expression, weakening 

DNA Repair, accelerating gene loss, 

degeneration of the body's detoxification 

defenses (liver and kidneys) as well as 

gradual weakening of the brain's primary 

defense - (the Blood Brain Barrier). 

For nearly five decades, the public 

and farmers have been told that chemical 

Ismail 

pesticides are essential for modern farming 

and to feed the world's population, when this 

isn't true. Pesticides weaken the ecosystem 

which had sustained human agriculture for 

thousands of years, damaging soil microbes 

and eliminating beneficial insects and 

predators. In addition, pests continually 

mutate to become pesticide resistant. 

Despite a 10-fold increase in insecticide use 

in recent years, studies have shown a 

proliferation in types of pests by 30%. 

Governments are marking heavy 

budgets towards medical expenditures, when 

concentrating on healthy food can be an 

answer. “Prevention is better than cure” and 

hence the policy of the Governments 

towards agriculture should be suitably 

modified to promote as well as protect nonchemical 

farming. The question frequently 

asked is as to where to get the quantity of 

manure. The answer here lies in composting. 

Large quantities of organic wastes from 

agriculture as well as market wastes can 

easily be converted to manure, without 

much investment costs. This also promotes 

local based industry for composting. 

Organic foliar sprays as well as pest 

repellents can also be prepared at the local 

level. It can also generate opportunities for a 

large number of youth and women at rural 

centres. 

Organic agriculture contributes to 

food and environment security by a 

combination of many features, most notably 

by: 

‣ increasing yields in low-input areas. 

‣ conserving biodiversity and natural 

resources on the farm and in 

surrounding area. 

‣ increasing income by reducing input 

cost. 

‣ recycling organic waste for manure 

production, solving waste 

management. 

‣ boosting micro-enterprises and rural 

economy. 

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‣ protecting the health of the farmers 

and the consumers. 

‣ producing safe and varied food. 

‣ being sustainable in the long term. 

Organic agriculture should therefore be 

an integral part of any agricultural policy 

aiming for food security, and it is time that 

the Government takes positive action in this 

direction. 

Healthy soils support healthy produce. 

Personal observations and research have 

indicated that not just addition of organic 

inputs but the presence of soil biota in the 

soil, in fact, enhances the produce in its 

quantity and quality. Thus it is very much 

confirmed that “earthworms are the pulse of 

the soil, healthier the pulse, healthier the 

soil”. Let’s put our hands together for 

earth’s sake. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Sincere thanks and acknowledge the 

contributions of all my students who built up 

the entire theme of VERMITECH since 

1978 to 2016. Most data here have been 

quoted from the works of my former 

research scholars whom I had supervised, Dr 

Priscilla Jebakumari, Dr Dhakshayani 

Ganesh, Dr Thangaraj, Mr. Sheik Ali, Mr. P 

Jeyaprakash and Ms. Ramalakshmi; and a 

large number of practicing farmers, my 

sincere thanks to all of them. 

REFERENCES 

Delhaize, E., Ryan, P.R. and Randall, P.J. 

(1993). Aluminum tolerance in Wheat 

(Triticum aestivum L.) (II. Aluminumstimulated 

excretion of malic Acid 

from root apices). Plant Physiology 

103, 695-702. 

Dhakshayani, C. (2008). Microbeearthworm 

interactions and impact of 

the exotic earthworm (Eudrilus 

Ismail 

eugeniae Kinberg) on endemic 

earthworms (Perionyx excavatus 

Perrier and Lampito mauritii Kinberg) 

based on microbial community 

structure. Ph.D., Thesis, University of 

Madras, India. 

Gupta, P.K. (2001). Handbook of soil, 

fertilizer and manure. Pub. Agro 

Botanica, India, p 258-307. 

Haynes, R.J. and Swift, R.S. (1990). 

Stability of soil aggregates in relation 

to organic constituents and soil water 

content. J. Soil Sci. 41, 73-83. 

Imaishi, H. and Petkova-Andonova, M. 

(2007). Molecular cloning of 

CYP76B9, a cytochrome P450 from 

Petunia hybrida, catalyzing the 

omega-hydroxylation of capric acid 

and lauric acid. Biosci. Biotechnol. 

Biochem. 71, 104-113. 

Ismail, S.A. (2005). The Earthworm Book. 

Other India Press, Goa, India, p. 101. 

Jeyaprakash, P. (2009). Biocontrol of the 

white grub (Leucopholis coneophora) 

in vegetable plantation - an applied 

biotechnological approach. MSc 

Dissertation. University of Madras, 

India. 

Lavelle, P., Melendez, G., Pashanasi, B., 

Szott, L. and Schaefer, R. (1992a). 

Nitrogen mineralization and 

reorganization in casts of the 

geophagous tropical earthworm 

Pontoscolex 

corethurus 

(Glossoscolecidae). Biol. Fertil. Soil 

14, 49-53. 

Lavelle, P., Blanchart, E., Martin, E., 

Spain, A.V. and Martin, S. (1992b). 

Impact of soil fauna on the properties 

of soils in the humids tropics. In: 

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Segoe S (ed) Myths and sciences of 

soils of the tropics. Soil Sci Soc Am 

Spec Publ. 29, 157–185. 

Parle, J.N. (1963a). Microorganisms in the 

intestines of earthworms. J. Gen 

Microbiol. 31, 1-11. 

Parle, J.N. (1963b). A micribiological study 

of earthworm casts. J. Gen Microbiol, 

31, 13-22. 

Prasad, R. and Power, F.J. (1997). Soil 

fertility for sustainable agriculture. 

Lewis Publishers. p 110-127. 

Priscilla J. (2006). Studies on the 

“microbiogeocoenose” 

of 

vermicompost and its relevance in soil 

health. Ph.D., Thesis, University of 


Satchell, J.E. and Martin, K. (1984). 

Phosphatase activity in earthworm 

faeces. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 191- 

194. 

Ismail 

Sheik, A. (2009). Molecular studies in 

identifying the potential of Vermiwash 

- an organic liquid biofertilizer. MSc 

Dissertation. University of Madras, 

India. 

Thangaraj, R. (2006). Studies on the 

influence of “fauna based” 

biofertilizers (vermiwash, effective 

microorganisms, panchagavya) on 

plants. Ph.D., Thesis, University of 


Tiquia, S.M., Wan, J.H.C. and Tam, 

N.F.Y. (2002). Microbial population 

dynamics and enzyme activities during 

composting. Compost Science and 

Utilization, 10, 150–161. 

Tuomela, M., Vikman, M., Hatakka, A. 

and Itavaara, M., (2000). 

Biodegradation of lignin in a compost 

environment, a review. Bioresource 

Technology 72, 169-183. 

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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable 

Agriculture 

M. Aminur Rahman 1, * , Md. Shamim Parvez 1 and Kasi Marimuthu 2 

1 Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 

UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2 Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, 

AIMST University, 08100 Bedong, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia 

*Corresponding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

Rice and fish are the key components of global food security. They are the main protein sources 

in the daily diets of around three billion peoples, especially in Asia. Integrated fish farming is a 

technique of fish culture with other organisms i.e. plants or animals to get maximum output 

through minimum input supply in a shorter time frame. The production of rice and fish do not 

need to be integrated by always producing the two crops simultaneously, but may be done by 

alternating production: rice can be grown in the rainy season and fish in the dry season, or the 

other way round. In areas where rice production is not profitable in all seasons, fish production 

forms an alternative source of income from the field. However, in order to meet the global demand 

of food and nutrition for the increasing populations, there is therefore a need to increase 

rice and fish production simultaneously. Integrated rice-fish farming can play an important role 

in increasing food production as this system is better than rice monoculture in terms of resource 

utilization, crop diversity, farm productivity in biomass or in economics, and both the quality and 

quantity of the food products. Integration of fish in paddy fields is ecologically sound because 

fish improves soil fertility by generating nitrogen and phosphorus. Fish also control weeds by 

feeding on weed roots and offer an extra service by tilling the soil around the rice plants. The 

fish feces are used as organic manure that provide essential nutrients required to grow healthy 

rice plants. Furthermore, integrated rice and fish culture optimizes the benefits of scarce land and 

water resources through complementary use, and exploits the synergies between fish and plant. 

Hence, it could be concluded that integrated rice-fish farming can help the global communities 

keep pace with the current demand for food authenticity through sustainable rice and fish production 

in an ecofriendly environment. 

Keywords: Environment; food authenticity; integrated farming; rice-fish; sustainability 

INTRODUCTION 

Rice-based fish farming is the main source 

of earning in many parts of the world, despite 

it is not widely practiced around the 

world. Most information comes from Asian 

countries, particularly Philippines, Indonesia 

and Japan where traditional rice farming 

methods have been refined over centuries. 

There is an estimated 81 million ha of irri- 

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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming 

gated rice lands worldwide, with an additional 

11 million ha of flood prone land under 

rice cultivation (Halwart and Gupta, 

2004). Presently the system of rice-fish is 

being practiced in Bangladesh, Cambodia, 

China (1.2 million ha), Egypt (173000 ha), 

Indonesia (138,000 ha), Republic of Korea, 

Madagascar (13,000 ha), Thailand (3 million 

ha) and Vietnam (40,000 ha) (Halwart and 

Gupta, 2004). The practice supports a large 

share of the rural population in South, 

Southeast and East Asia and in parts of West 

Africa. In these places, rain-fed rice fields 

are designed to store water for extended periods, 

creating aquatic ecosystems with 

many similarities to natural floodplains 

(BRKB, 2010). These floodplain habitats of 

rice are later stocked by fish and grown 

throughout the wet season. Fishing from 

these rice-based farming systems is often 

carried out on regular, occasional or parttime 

basis, making a significant contribution 

to livelihoods of poor farmers. However, 

the input cost in terms of feed, labor and infrastructure 

for rice-based fish farming is 

often a barrier for poor and marginal 

farmers. There exist many possible 

suggestive approaches to overcome one or 

more such type of barriers, but all these are 

still in conceptual form. However, Apatani 

farmers from Lower Subansiri district in 

Arunachal Pradesh, India have practiced a 

very unique traditional rice-based fish farming 

practice in their waterlogged rice-fields, 

which not only gives good economic return 

to support their families’ demands but also 

exposes a very low-cost fish farming technology 

for the rest of the world (Saikia et 

al., 2008). 

Rice-based fish farming is the main 

source of earning in many parts of Asia. The 

lands and water resources of many countries 

are not fully utilized; however, there exists 

tremendous scopes for increasing fish production 

by integrating aquaculture with agriculture 

(Nhan et al., 2007). Earlier, this 

Rahman et al 

practice began to receive attention in the 

1980s. However, the new technology was 

perceived to have potential for multiple environmental 

benefits in Asia. Integrated ricefish 

farming is also being regarded as an important 

element of integrated pest management 

(IPM) in rice crops (Halwart and Gupta, 

2004; Nabi, 2008). Moreover, fish plays 

a significant role in controlling aquatic 

weeds, algae and snails, and hence, reduces 

the need for chemical spray leading to better 

farm economics within ecologically-sound 

low-cost, low-risk option 

for poor rice farmers in Bangl a- 

desh and elsewhere. Thus, integration 

of fish with rice farming improves 

diversification, intensification 

and productivity of farms (Ahmed et al., 

2008; Berg, 2001). The multiple benefits of 

the integration between rice and fish have 

been globally documented and could be 

summarized in enhancing farm productivity 

either in biomass or in economics. Fish in 

rice field improves soil fertility through their 

organic waste. Many reports suggest that 

integrated rice-fish farming is ecologically 

sound because fish improves soil fertility by 

generating nitrogen and phosphorus (Parvez 

et al., 2006). More importantly, the integrated 

rice-fish leads to the production of a more 

balanced diet (rice) as a main source of carbohydrate 

and fish which is an important 

animal protein source required for the health 

and well-being of rural households. The integration 

of aquaculture can increase rice 

yields by 8 to 15% with an additional average 

fish production of 260 kg/ha (Lightfoot, 

1992). Based on field surveys and studies, it 

has been observed that farmers’ households 

usually inclined to eat small fish than sell 

them in the market and hence, fish consumption 

contributes significantly in the nutrition 

of children and lactating mothers to avoid 

child blindness as well as to reduce infant 

mortality. 

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Rice and fish have been essential 

part of the life of Asian people from the prehistoric 

time. In respects to Bangladesh, rice 

is the main agricultural crop with an annual 

production of 29 million tons per year 

(BRKB, 2010), while annual fish production 

is 2.7 million tons (DoF, 2010). The demand 

for rice and fish is constantly rising in Bangladesh 

with nearly three million people being 

added each year to its population 

(Chowdhury, 2009). Nevertheless, integrated 

rice-fish farming offers a solution to this 

problem by contributing to food and income. 

Although rice-fish technology has been 

demonstrated successfully and a considerable 

number of farmers have been trained 

through various projects. Traditionally wild 

fish have been harvested from rice fields, 

but the introduction of high yielding varieties 

(HYV) of rice and accompanying pesticides 

have reduced fish yields (Gupta et al., 

2002). However, important changes have 

taken place through IPM that has reduced 

the use of pesticides in rice fields (Berg, 

2001; Lu and Li, 2006). 

ADVANTAGES AND BENEFITS 

Fish is the main source of animal protein, 

providing an average of 8.4 g per day, or 

13.3 % of the average per capita total intake 

of protein (63 g) (BBS, 2011). Not only the 

adequate supply of carbohydrate, but also 

the supply of animal protein is significant 

through rice-fish farming. Fish, particularly 

small fish, are rich in micronutrients and vitamins, 

and thus human nutrition can be 

greatly improved through fish consumption 

(Kunda et al., 2008; Frei and Becker, 2005). 

It can optimize the utilization of resources 

through the complementary use of land and 

water (Giap et al., 2005). Integrated rice-fish 

farming is also ecologically sound because 

fish can improve soil fertility by increasing 

the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus 

(Dugan et al., 2006). The natural aggrega- 

Rahman et al 

tion of fish in rice fields inspires the combination 

of rice farming with fish to increase 

productivity (Gurung and Wagle, 2005). It 

has been found from several studies that 

rice-cum-fish culture becomes able to enhance 

the net benefit by 64.4% and yield by 

5% (Parvez et al., 2012). Therefore, it has 

been evidenced that the rice-fish integration 

is quite attractive both in environmental and 

economic point of view. Fish in rice-based 

agriculture system can enhance income at a 

higher rate than crops alone thereby it can 

reduce poverty, malnutrition and 

vulnerability 

reduce gap between supply vs demand 

of food fish 

lessen pressure on capture fisheries 

generate foreign exchange earnings 

provide employment and career opportunities 

provide additional food/alternative 

income to fishermen and farmers 

provide business & investment opportunity. 

control mollusks and insects which 

are harmful to rice 

METHODS AND PRACTICES 

a) Traditional practices: 

Integrated fish farming is a technique of fish 

culture with other organisms (animal/s or 

plant/s). More production can be achieved in 

rice-fish culture in comparison to the rice 

culture alone. The history of Rice fish culture 

is quite old and first started in an ancient 

China about 200 years ago. In course 

of time, this practice was introduced to Indonesia, 

Vietnam, Thailand, India, Bangladesh 

and many other countries of the world. 

Lately, azolla is cultured with rice-fish in 

China. In traditional system, several small 

ditches were prepared in the rice field and 

tree branches or bushes were placed for creating 

suitable artificial habitat to attract wild 

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fishes (Figure 1). Sometimes fry of Cyprinus 

carpio was stocked. Production was much 

low and it was about 50kg/ha. 

b) Modern practices 

Since nineties, several NGOs have been 

working on rice fish culture and both nursery 

and table fish are produced through these 

techniques. Prawn species Macrobrachium 

rosenbergii is now also stocked for more 

profit and diversified product. Major fish 

species are used Labeo rohita (rui), Catla 

catla (Catla), Cirrhina mrigala (Mrigel), 

Cyprinus carpio (Common carp), Hypophthalmichthys 

molitrix (silver carp), Tilapia 

sp. (Tilapia), Puntius gonionotus (Thai 

barb) and M. rosenbergii (giant fresh water 

prawn). The different fish species, suitable 

and practicing nowadays in rice-fish integration, 

are shown in Figure 2. In this system, 

the production of fish is much higher than 

traditional system which is about 200 kg/ha 

(http://en.bdfish.org/2010). 

Fish culture with rice can be practiced in 

two waysi. 

Concurrent system – culture of ricefish 

together 

ii. Alternative system – Fish culture after 

harvesting rice 

i. Concurrent systems 

Rahman et al 

Concurrent rice-fish farming is generally 

practiced during wet (aman) season in moderate 

to low paddy fields where water logging 

exists for 4-5 months naturally (Fig. 3). 

Rearing of fish is possible by this way until 

rice plantation in the next season. Carp and 

barb species (either singly or with different 

combinations and ratios) are suitable for 

stocking but grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon 

idella) can also be stocked. In case of grass 

carp stocking, precaution must be taken so 

that this fish cannot eat young paddy. 

ii. Alternative culture system 

In alternative culture system (Figure 4), 

fishes are stocked in the paddy fields after 

harvesting rice from the land. Rearing of 

fishes up to 6-8 months (until plantation for 

the next crop season) is possible in this system. 

Carp and barb species are suitable but 

grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) can 

also be stocked as a candidate in this composite 

culture system. 

OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT 

Management activities for fish culture in 

rice fields include site selection, developing 

infrastructure, shading/sheltering, stocking, 

Figure 1: Pictures showing traditional system of rice-fish culture. 

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Rahman et al 

Puntius gonionotus 

Clarias batrachus 

Oreochromis niloticus 

Cyprinus carpio 

Labeo rohita 

Labeo calbasu 

Cirrhinus mrigala 

Anabas testudineus 

Channa striatus 

Figure 2: Pictures showing different cultivable fish species for rice-fish integration. 

Figure 3: Pictures showing concurrent culture system of fish in rice fields. 

and feeding, water quality control, harvesting 

and restocking. Practices used for selecting 

fish species as well as number of fishes 

to be stocked depending on the locations and 

availability of fish species. 

a) Site selection 

Water holding capacity of the selected plot’s 

soil must be good enough so that soil can 

hold water easily. Loamy or clay-loamy 

soils are suitable for rice fish culture. Select- 

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ed plot should be low land and should contain 

water naturally for 7-10 months but 

must be secured from flooding. 

b) Developing infrastructure 

Traditional rice paddies normally require 

modification for concurrent culture of fish. 

One important modification is the deepened 

part of the paddy field to serve as a fish shelter 

and harvest area (Figure 5). The depended 

areas are called trenches, canals, channels 

or sumps. Construction and placement may 

vary, but these deepened areas provide several 

critical elements for successful rice-fish 

culture: 

‣ Refuge when the water level is lowered 

‣ Passage ways for fish to find food 

‣ Easier harvest of fish when the paddy 

is drained. 

At least a single ditch must be excavated 

in the rice fields. Ditch or trenches should be 

about 0.5 m to 1.0 m water depth and at least 

Rahman et al 

1.0 m wide. Ideally, no part of the paddy 

should be more than 10.0 m away from the 

trench. To maximize rice production, the 

trench area should not be more than 10% of 

rice plot area. Adequate water should be 

available to maintain a depth of 10 to 15 cm 

in planted areas with rice once fish have introduced. 

This ditch will serve as shelter 

during hot season and make the harvesting 

easier. Several canals should be dug connecting 

ditch for free movement of fishes 

(Figure 6). Enough space must be left from 

land boundary so that dyke would not be 

broken. Ditch can be excavated in different 

positions of the plot; some models are 

shown in Figure 6. 

c) Sheltering for prawn 

In prawn culture, it is essential to provide 

some sort of substances which will serve as 

shelter for prawn (http://en.bdfish.org/2010). 

As prawn change its shell as growth advances 

(i.e. molting), it remains very 

Figure 4: Pictures showing alternative culture system of fish in rice fields. 

Figure 5: Pictures showing preparation of set-up for the rice-fish integrated plot. 

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Rahman et al 

Figure 6: Pictures showing different canaling systems for fish and prawn in rice field. 

susceptible to attack by other animals during 

molting period. Substances like coconut 

branches, palm leafs or other tree branches 

are used in the water for sheltering of 

prawns (Figure 7). 

e) Rice plot preparation 

Border, dyke of the land needs to be constructed 

(if necessary) and weeds must be 

controlled and excess bottom mud should be 

removed (Figure 9). Predatory or unwanted 

fish species or other animals will be removed 

from the culture plot. Lime (1 

kg/decimal; 2-3kg/decimal for red soil) and 

fertilizers (usually cow dung, urea and TSP) 

should be applied at a proper dose. 

Figure 7: Pictures showing shelter made 

for fish and prawn in rice field. 

d) Shading 

Shading is essential during high temperature 

and excess rainfall to save stocked species 

from unfavorable condition. Bamboo splits 

made mat, coconut or palm branch, cultivation 

of vegetables on rack on dyke (Figure 8) 

can provide shade for the fishes 


Figure 8: Pictures showing shad set-up for 

fish and prawn in rice field ditch. 

f) Nursery program in the rice fields 

It is an optional measure to prepare nursery 

area for temporary rearing of prawn or 

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shrimp PL. Around 10-15% area of the total 

field can be used as nursery (Fig. 10). 

Nursery is often referred to as “Pocket 

Gher”. Generally, shrimp or prawns PL are 

reared in the nursery for 20-25 days. Stocking 

density should be 1500-2000 PL (1.5-2 

cm in size) per decimal area 


g) Stocking of fish fry/fingerlings/prawn 

PL in rice fields 

Rahman et al 

Prawn PL needs to be stocked during evening 

as they are more sensitive than the fin 

fish fry that can tolerate sudden changes in 

temperature and dissolve oxygen level in 

water (Figure 11). If they are stocked during 

evening, the released PL will get more time 

at night to adapt with the environment. 

Stocking density will be 10000-15000 PL/ 

hectare area (http://en.bdfish.org/2010). 

In case of finfish, fry can be stocked in 

the morning or in the afternoon (Figure 11). 

Figure 9: Pictures showing preparation of rice-fish plots. 

Figure 10: Pictures showing nursery of fish and prawn PL in rice fields. 

Figure 11: Stocking of fish fingerlings and prawn PL in rice plots. 

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Rahman et al 

Stocking density will be maintained at 20-25 

individuals/decimal for monoculture depending 

on the level of water and related 

factors. In case of mixed or polyculture, 

stocking density should be maintained at 20 

individuals / decimal. Stocking size should 

be 5-8 cm depending on the types of fish 

species. One thing should be kept in mind 

that it would not be very wise decision to 

stock prawn and other bottom dweller fin 

fish species together as they can make competition 

each other for food and space. 

h) Management of rice field wild fisheries 

Wild fish can be encouraged to enter into 

rice fields by keeping the entrances of the 

fields open, and bunds low (Figure 12). 

They can be attracted by placing branches in 

the field which provide shelter for the fish or 

by placing buffalo or cow skins to attract 

catfish and eels. Wild fish may be harvested 

from rice fields by netting, hooking, trapping, 

harpooning, throwing nets, or by 

draining out the field. As water levels fall, 

fish may be channeled into adjacent trap 

pond areas where they can be held alive until 

required. Black fish from trap ponds are 

often marketed live in local markets. 

Figure 12: Management of fishes in rice 

fields. 

i) Management of rice-fish culture 

If water sources are more secured and the 

risk of flooding is low, farmers may invest 

in fish stock for their paddies or adjacent 

pond areas. Fish can be stocked at rates of 

0.25−1 fish/m 2 . In Cambodia, for example, 

stocking rate is usually maintained at 2,500 

common carp, 1,250 silver barb and 1,250 

tilapias per hectare. Predatory fish, particularly 

snakehead, should be absent from the 

system when fish seed is introduced. If 

available and economic, feed supplements 

such as duckweed, termites, earthworms, 

and rice bran can be supplied. Similar harvesting 

methods as for rice field fisheries 

can be used. Harvests usually include a percentage 

of wild fish that have entered into 

the system by themselves. 

j) Paddy management 

Naturally grown weeds in the field must be 

eradicated and other harmful insect must be 

controlled by IPM (Integrated Pest Management). 

Water for rice-fish culture must 

be free from toxicants such as insecticides. 

In many areas of the world, concurrent ricefish 

culture has abandoned because toxic 

chemicals are used. Agricultural extension 

specialists should be contacted for advice 

before stocking fish in paddies supplied with 

water from a communal irrigation source. 

Irrigation water can easily be contaminated 

by other farmers using chemicals in their 

rice fields. 

Rice husbandry practices that should be 

followed include rat control, weeding, proper 

spacing of seedlings, and proper fertilization. 

Normal weeds control and fertilization 

chemicals are not harmful to fish. Paddy 

dikes should be high and strong enough to 

hold water without leaking. Dikes made of 

good quality clay are best. 

k) Application of supplementary feed: 

Supplementary feed needs to be supplied for 

faster growth of stocked species (Figure 13). 

Supplementary feed can be applied at 3-5% 

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weight of stocked biomass. If phytoplankton 

feeder fish like silver carp stocked in the rice 

field, no extra feeds will be required for fish. 

Rahman et al 

much possible by draining out (dewatering) 

the water of the field. 

n) Harvesting 

Approximately 4–5 months of culturing, the 

farmers usually harvest the rice first, and 

then drain the rice field to gather the fish 

into the ditch (Figure 16). Fish are harvested 

from these places and then processed for 

marketing and consuming. 

Figure 13: Application of feed in the ditches 

of the rice and fish or rice-fish rice fields 

during rice fish integration. 

l) Dyke cropping 

Vegetables can be planted on dyke or by 

making rack made of available materials 

such as bamboo sticks, vegetables branches 

without leaves, etc. (Figure 14). 

m) Growth and health monitoring of fish 

Regular sampling of stocked fish species is 

very much necessary to monitor the growth, 

or to test disease (Figure 15). This can be 

done by using seine net in ditch after gathering 

the fish there (in ditch). For maximum 

benefit, stocked species must be harvested in 

proper time. Harvesting (100%) is very 

Figure 14: Dyke cropping in rice-fish fields. 

o) Other considerations 

Water control is crucial and rice 

fields cannot be allowed to dry up 

while fish stocks are present. 

Stocked fish may escape if fields are 

flooded. Flood control can be difficult 

in rain fed rice systems. 

Areas of rice fields deepened for fish 

culture may result in less rice growing 

area. 

Having fish present in rich fields 

may help dissuade farmers from us- 

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ing pesticides. Pesticides have the 

potential for poisoning fish and some 

types can be absorbed by the fish and 

then ingested by humans. 

Rahman et al 

would cause no transport problems and 

would be mostly fresh and healthy. 

The production of a fish crop between 

the two rice crops provides the farmer 

with an off-season job (Hora and Pillay, 

1962). This can increase the income without 

increasing expenses (Hickling, 1962). Apart 

from the additional income available from 

rizi-pisciculture (rotational culture of fish 

and rice), the combined culture leads to a 

reduction of labour in weeding and an increase 

in the yield of paddy by 5 to 15%. 

Figure 15: Fish health and growth 

monitoring. 

ECONOMICS AND BENEFITS 

The benefits of rice-fish integration in terms 

of productivity and economics are diverged 

and well-documented. Coche, (1967) discusses 

the socio-economic importance of 

fish culture in rice fields and pointed out and 

the deficit of animal protein in densely populated 

rice growing areas. The fish grown in 

the paddy fields will be ideal use of land and 

would also be an easy source of cheap and 

fresh animal proteins. Thus fish culture can 

greatly contribute to the socio-economic 

welfare, especially for rural populations of 

developing countries. An added advantage 

also is that unlike sea fish or other animal 

proteins, the fish from local paddy fields 

Figure 16: Pictures showing harvesting of 

rice and fish. 

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The increasing rice production in the ricefish 

integration is attributed to various factors 

(Coche, 1967), namely, 

a) reduction in the number of harmful insects, 

such as paddy stem borers, whose 

larvae are eaten by fish. 

b) reduction in rat population due to increase 

in the water level. 

c) increase in organic fertilization by fish 

excreta and remains of artificial feed. 

d) better tilling of the rice seedlings due to 

the activity of the fish. 

e) increased mineralization of the organic 

matter and increased aeration of the soil 

resulting from the puddling of mud by 

benthic feeders. 

f) control of algae and weeds (by phytophagous 

fish) which compete with rice for 

light and nutrients. 

g) fish stir up soil nutrients making them 

more available for rice. This increases 

rice production. 

STEPS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVEL- 

OPMENT 

Wet (rain-fed) rice cultivation has been 

practiced for at least 4000 years ago, and its 

history indicates that rice farming is basically 

sustainable. What is less certain is whether 

the dramatic increases of rice production 

made possible by the “green revolution” are 

sustainable (Greenland, 1997). Global 

warming, sea level rise, increased ultraviolet 

radiation and even unavailability of water 

are all expected to have an adverse impact 

on rice production. However, such scenarios 

are far the foreseeable future can be assumed 

that rice farming will continue. Further, 

it seems likely that the culture of fish in 

rice farming makes the rice field ecosystem 

more balanced and stable. With fish removing 

the weeds and reducing the insects’ pest 

population to tolerable levels, the poisoning 

of the water and soil may be curtailed. In 

Rahman et al 

regards of sustainability of rice fish farming, 

there should be needed - 

• grant support 

• ensuring Inputs (seeds, feeds, fish 

fry/fingerlings) supply 

• capacity building training 

• technology dissemination 

• value chain development 

• creating marketing channel 

• co-ordination, collaboration and 

networking 

• creating net-mapping among different 

actors 

• creating policy, dialog, scale in and 

up 

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT 

There is a need to refine rice-fish farming, 

where the thrust is on improving fish production 

without affecting rice production. 

De La Cruz et al. (1992) had identified possible 

areas and tropics for research for various 

countries (De La Cruz et al., 1992). 

Tropics common to several countries where 

rice-fish farming is practiced or has high 

potential are: 

‣ Ecological studies specially on food 

webs and nutrient cycle in a rice field 

ecosystem; 

‣ Determination of the carrying capacity 

and optimum stocking densities; 

‣ Development of rice field hatchery 

and/or nursery system; 

‣ Development of rice-fish farming models 

species to different agroclimatic 

zones; 

‣ Optimum fertilization rates and fertilization 

methods; 

‣ Evaluation of new fish species for rice 

field culture; 

‣ Evaluation of different fish species in 

control of rice pests and diseases; 

‣ Development of fish aggregating and 

fish harvesting techniques for rice fields; 

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and optimal rice planting patterns for 

rice-fish farming. 

Other tropics identified are not necessarily 

specific to rice-fish farming and may 

be covered by regular aquaculture research 

such as fish nutrition and feed development, 

or in agronomy e.g. weed ecology and management. 

Long-term “wish list” research includes 

the development of new rice varieties 

for different rice-fish systems. 

CONCLUSION 

To meet the increasing demand of food for 

the over-increasing populations, there 

should be needed to more increased rice and 

fish productions. This document accomplishes 

that rice-fish integration could be a 

practical opportunity for farm diversification. 

Such divergence will enhance food security. 

Rice-fish integration makes the rice 

field ecosystem with an efficiently and environmentally 

comprehensive production system 

for rice and fish. Rice monoculture cannot 

alone provide a sustainable food supply, 

while integrated rice-fish farming will be the 

best in terms of resource utilization, productivity 

and food supply. It should therefore be 

recommended that integrated rice-fish farming 

could be a sustainable alternative to rice 

monoculture as more production and benefits 

can be achieved in rice-fish culture 

compared to the rice farming alone. 

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Giap, D. H., Yi, Y. and Lin, C. K. (2005). 

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of rice farming. GAB International, 

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Gupta, M. V., Sollows, J. D., Mazid, M. 

A., Rahman, A., Hussain, M. G. and 

Dey, M. M. (2002). Economics and 

adoption patterns of integrated ricefish 

farming in Bangladesh. In: Edwards, 

P., Little, D.C. and Demaine, 

H. (Eds.), Rural aquaculture. Oxford: 

CABI International, pp. 41–54. 

Gurung, T. B. and Wagle, S. K. (2005). 

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of rice-fish integrated farming 

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benefits. Our Nature 3, 1–12. 

Halwart, M. and Gupta, M. V. (2004). 

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Hickling, C. F. (1962). Fish culture. Faber 

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Molecular Marker Techniques in Environmental Forensic 

Studies 

Narayanan Kannan 

Institute for Graduate Studies, Taylor's University (Lakeside Campus), 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor 

Darul Ehsan, Malaysia 

Phone No.: +60 14 338 5307; Email: drnkannan@yahoo.com 

ABSTRACT 

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are anthropogenic contaminants found globally in water, ice, 

soil, air and sediment. Modern analytical techniques allow us to determine these chemicals in 

environmental matrices at parts per trillion levels or lower. Environmental forensic on PCBs 

opens up new avenues of investigation such as transport and fate of water masses in oceans, sedimentation, 

onset of primary production, migration of marine mammals, their population distribution 

and pharmacokinetics of drugs inside organisms. By virtue of persistence, bioaccumulation, 

bioconcentration and structure-activity relationship PCBs emerge as unconventional chemical 

tracers of new sort. 

Keywords: Anthropogenic contaminants; environmental forensic; metabolic slope; risk assessment; 

PCBs; sea water; sediment; suspended particulate matter; TEQs; tracers 

INTRODUCTION 

Since the beginning of industrial revolution 

the number of synthesized chemicals keeps 

increasing. Currently it is beyond three million 

and is growing at a rate of several hundred 

thousand a year of which 300-500 

reach the stage of commercial production. It 

is estimated that up-to one third of the total 

production of these chemicals reaches the 

environment. When out of place in the environment 

these chemicals are called pollutants. 

Measurement of these chemicals after 

integrating with environmental matrix such 

as sediment, biota, suspended particulate 

matter (SPM) and even in water becomes 

extremely complex demanding sophisticated 

analytical techniques (Duinker et al., 1988; 

Kannan et al., 1993; Li et al., 2007; Wang et 

al., 2007). 

PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLU- 

TANTS (POPS) 

Hence, environmental analytical chemists 

focused mostly on a selected number of persistent 

organic chemicals such as agrochemicals 

(Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, 

Chlordane, Chlordecone, Hexabromobiphenyl, 

Hexabromocyclododecane 

(HBCD), Hexabromodiphenyl ether and 

heptabromodiphenyl ether, Hexachlorobenzene 

(HCB), Hexachlorobutadiene, Alpha 

hexachlorocyclohexane, Beta hexachlorocyclohexane, 

Lindane, Mirex, Pentachlorobenzene, 

Pentachlorophenol and its salts and 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 31


Molecular Marker Techniques in Environ…… 

esters; Technical endosulfan and its related 

isomers, Toxaphene), industrial chemicals 

(Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Polychlorinated 

naphthalenes (PCN), Polybrominated 

diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), Perfluorooctanesulfonic 

acid (PFOs) and/or unwanted 

by-products of industrial processes 

or combustion (Polychlorinated dibeno-pdioxins 

(PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans 

(PCDFs) that are bioaccumulative 

and have the potential to disturb biological 

processes (EPA, 2002). 

POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS 

(PCBS) AS MODEL SUBSTANCES 

Among these persistent organic pollutants 

(POPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) 

(Figure 1) are well characterized with reference 

to their physico-chemical properties, 

biological potencies and environmental occurrence/transport 

and fate (Kannan, 2000; 

Fiedler (UNEP site)). 

Kannan 

Figure 1: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). 

Thus, PCBs emerged as model substances, 

representing a whole range of POPs. 

PCBs are extremely bioaccumulative and 

used in the study of migration of oceanic 

wildlife such as whales (Subramanian et al., 

1988; Wania, 1998), their population distribution 

(Mossner and Ballschmiter, 1997; 

Bruhn et al., 1999) and their nursing activities 

(Addison and Brodie, 1987; Beckmen et 

al., 1999) (Figure 2). 

Figure 2: Biplot of principal 

components 1 and 2 

derived from correlation 

matrix of mol% contributions 

of CBs in the blubber 

tissue of male and female 

immature as well as male 

mature harbour porpoises 

from the Baltic Sea (B)., 

North Sea (N)., and Arctic 

waters (A). The CB numbers 

represent the loadings 

and B, N, A represent the 

scores (from Bruhn et al., 

1999). 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 32



PCBs are widely used in understanding 

the trophic and reproductive transfer of 

persistence chemicals (Aguilar and Borrell, 

1994; Kannan et al., 1995; Jackson and 

Schindler, 1996; Kim et al., 2002). Fugacity 

models are widely used in understanding the 

hemispheric transfer of PCBs and the dynamics 

behind long range transport (Wania 

and Mackay, 1996). The structure biological 

activity relationship based on the inherent 

planar and globular nature of PCBs is useful 

Figure 3: A) Vicinal atoms in the meta and 

para positions. Overlapping covalent radii 

for two ortho-Cl show that a planar configuration 

is highly improbable when three or 

four ortho-Cl are present. B) Vicinal H atoms 

in the ortho and meta positions. Nonoverlapping 

covalent radii for ortho-Cl and 

ortho-H show that a planar configuration 

causes a much lower energy barrier when 

chlorine atoms do not oppose each other 

(from Boon et al., 1992). 

Kannan 

in understanding the phase I and phase II 

metabolism in organisms including humans, 

the enzyme induction and in-vitro and invivo 

toxicities (Safe et al., 1985; Kannan et 

al., 1989ab; Boon et al., 1992; Ishii and 

Oguri, 2002) (Figure 3). 

PCBs production history in the US is 

also the history of industrial openness towards 

safety issues and US chemical regulation 

(Anonymous, 2007). Improvement in 

the analytical chemistry of PCBs supported 

the development of finger printing techniques, 

chemometrics and over all awareness 

on environmental forensic (Kannan et 

al., 1992, 2007; Peré-Trepata et al., 2006). 

The space and time integrated sampling 

of surface sea water over oceanic transects 

reveal pollution source, the physical 

and biological status of the region (biological 

blooms etc.) and prevailing currents that 

bring the contaminants to that region 

(Schulz-Bull et al., 1995; Kannan et al., 

1998; Yamashita et al., 2008; Kannan et al., 

2011). Deep water sampling devices when 

applied for PCB studies help to understand 

ocean structure and circulation (Schulz et al., 

1988; Petrick et al., 1996; Schulz-Bull et al., 

1998; Kannan et al., 1998). 

A study on the vertical profile of 

East Sea (Japan Sea) revealed the intrinsic 

stratification of those deep waters, otherwise 

revealed only by conventional tracers (radio 

isotopes) (Figure 4). This unexpected finding 

PCBs at a depth of 3000 m demonstrated 

that our oceans are much more dynamic than 

it was thought before and the entire ocean 

circulation has speeded up in recent years 

due to global warming (Kannan et al., 1998). 

Passive air samplers when deployed northsouth 

in open oceans or oceanic islands 

and/or systematic water sampling in the 

open ocean in north-south directions will 

greatly enhance such predictions. 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 33



Kannan 

Figure 4: Presence of PCBs at 3500 m in Japan Sea indicates faster movements (using convection 

and horizontal currents) of these chemicals in ocean circulation (Kannan et al., 1998). 

REFERENCES 

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ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 34



Boon, J.P., van Arnhem, E., Jansen, S., 

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G. (1988). Multidimensional gas 

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2016). 

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Ishii, Y. and Oguri, K. (2002). Liver Proteins 

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Like Toxic Compound, Coplanar Polychlorinated 

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215. 

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and Duinker, J.C. (1993). Chromatographic 

techniques in accurate analysis 

of chlorobiphenyls. J.Chromatgr. 642, 

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Kannan, N., Reusch, T.B.H., Schulz-Bull, 

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compounds for metabolism in food 

chain organisms and their potential use 

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application of the metabolic slope 

concept. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, 

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Kannan, N.., Yamashita, N.., Petrick, G. 

and Duinker, J.C. (1998). Polychlorinated 

Biphenyls (PCBs) and 

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Kannan, N. (2000). Non-ortho and monoortho 

substituted PCBs. In: The Handbook 

of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 

3: Anthropogenic compounds. 

Paasivirta, J. (eds.). Springer-Verlag, 

Berlin. pp. 127-156. 

Kannan, N., Hong, S.H., Shim, W.J. and 

Oh. J.R. (2007). A congener-specific 

survey for Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins 

(PCDDs) and Polychlorinated 

dibenzofurans (PCDFs) contamination 

in Masan Bay, Korea. Chemosphere 

68, 1613–1622. 

Kim, M, Jin Y, Han, G. M, Jung, J. H, 

Hong, S. H, Yim, U. H, Shim WJ, 

Choi, D. L and Kannan, N. (2016). 

Origins of suspended particulate matter 

revealed by the sterol distribution 

in the low salinity water mass observed 

in the offshore East China Sea. 

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281–288. 

Kannan 

Li, D.H., Dong, M., Shim, W.J. and Kannan, 

N. (2007). Application of pressurized 

fluid extraction technique in 

the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry 

determination of sterols from 

marine sediment samples. J. Chromat. 

A. 1160, 64-70. 

Kim, S. K., Lee, D. S. and Oh, J. R. (2002). 

Characteristics of trophic transfer of 

polychlorinated biphenyls in marine 

organisms in Incheon North Harbor, 

Korea. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21, 

834-841. 

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Marine mammals as global pollution 

indicators for organochlorines. Chemosphere 

34, 1285-1296. 

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A., Caixach, J. and Tauler, R. (2006). 

Chemometrics modelling of organic 

contaminants in fish and sediment river 

samples. Sci. Total Environ. 371, 

223-237. 

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Duinker, J. C. (1996). An in-situ filtration/extraction 

system for the recovery 

of trace organics in solution 

and on particles tested in deep ocean 

water. Mar. Chem. 54, 97-105. 

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L., Safe, L., Parkinson, A., 

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L.M., Levin, W., Denomme, M.A. 

and Fujita, T. (1985). PCBs: Structure-function 

relationships and mechanism 

of action. Environ. Hlth. Perspect. 

60: 47-56. 

Schulz, D. E., Petrick, G. and Duinker, 

J.C. (1988). Chlorinated biphenyls in 

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north Atlantic surface and deep water. 

Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19, 526-531. 

Schulz-Bull, D.E., Petrick, G., Bruhn, R. 

and J.C. Duinker. (1998). Chlorobiphenyls 

(PCB) and PAH in water 

masses of the northern North Atlantic. 

Mar. Chem. 61, 101–114. 

Schulz-Bull, D.E., Petrick, G., Kannan, N. 

and Duinker, J.C. (1995). Distribution 

of individual chlorobiphenyls 

(PCB) in solution and suspension in 

the Baltic Sea. Mar. Chem. 48, 245- 

270. 

Subramanian, A., Tanabe, S. and Tatsukawa, 

R. (1988). Estimating some biological 

parameters of Baird’s beakesd 

whales using PCBs and DDE as tracers. 

Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19, 284-287. 

Kannan 

Wania, F. (1998). The Significance of Long 

Range Transport of Persistent Organic 

Pollutants by Migratory Animals. 

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Chemists Corp. Toronto, Canada. 

pp. 1-17. 

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wnload?doi=10.1.1.598.9838&rep=rep 

1&type=pdf (last accessed on August 

31, 2016). 

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N. and Li, D.H. (2007). Improved 

cleanup technique for gas chromatographic–mass 

spectrometric determination 

of alkylphenols from biota extract. 

J. Chromat. A. 1171, 15-21. 

Wania, F. and Mackay, D. (1996). Tracking 

the Distribution of Persistent Organic 

Pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 

30, 390A-396A. 

Yamashita, N., Taniyasu, S., Petrick, G., 

Wei, S., Gamo, T., Lam, P.K.S. and 

Kannan, K. (2008). Perfluorinated acids 

as novel chemical tracers of global 

circulation of ocean waters. Chemosphere 

70, 1247-1255. 

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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development <strong>Focus</strong> Environ (2016), P38-50 

Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case 

in Paddy Farming in Peninsular Malaysia 

Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan* 

School of Technology Management and Logistic, College of Business, Universiti Utara 

Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman. Malaysia 

*Corresponding author; Tel. No.: +604-928-7062; Email: quamrul@uum.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

Many researches have proven that the sustainable agriculture has many advantages such as 

providing cost effectiveness (e.g., using less amount of water); balancing the ecosystem; and, 

most importantly, its practice is environment-friendly. It helps to increase the crop’s resistance 

towards diseases, protect the soil from losing its natural fertility and helps in maintaining the 

diversity of the microflora in soil. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is an innovative 

methodology being used for sustainability in social development. It is widely recognized as a 

suitable model for creating environmental, economic and social sustainability in agriculture for 

the 21 st century. In addition, by paying attention to environment, SRI is an organic farming 

management system, which results in higher quality yield with better taste and health benefits. 

Therefore, this study was undertaken to understand about the SRI as the sustainable paddy 

farming practice in the two selected areas on Peninsular Malaysia. This study has used a 

qualitative research approach. Data was collected through field work observations and 

interviews. The findings of this study showed that there were similarities mostly in the practice 

of paddy farming (only with a minor difference on the days) in Sik (Kedah) and Bandar Baru 

Tunjong (Kelantan). Furthermore, it showed that the proposed model of sustainable paddy 

farming practices, which was a result of this study, could be explained well under three key 

areas: 1) sustainable characteristic; 2) sustainable paddy farming practices; and 3) challenges in 

sustainable farming. More research is required on the sustainable agriculture and organic farming 

for better understanding and to addressing the agricultural sustainability related issues. 

Keywords: Environment; organic farming; paddy; sustainable agriculture; system of rice 

intensification (SRI) 

INTRODUCTION 

Sustainability in agriculture refers to the 

farmer’s ability to maintain crop production 

and obtain benefits as well by accelerating 

social growth, stabilizing economy and 

remaining commercially competitive 

without causing significant damage to nature 

and environment (Ismail, 2006). Sustainable 

agriculture has some advantages such as: 1) 

providing cost effectiveness; 2) balancing 

ecosystem; and 3) being environmental 

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Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming 

friendly. 

The focus of this study is on the 

management practice in sustainable 

agriculture and organic farming by paying 

attention on the environment. The 

management of sustainable agricultural 

practice in Malaysia paddy farming is still in 

its preliminary stage (Othman and 

Muhammad, 2011; Othman et. al, 2016). 

Currently, a popular system in organic 

farming in Asia is the System of Rice 

Intensification (SRI) (Uphoff, 2006), which 

has been practiced in Malaysia since 2009 

by starting at Bandar Baru Tunjong, 

Kelantan, and Sik, Kedah. In the context of 

SRI management, the Sri Lovely Farm at 

Sik (which is one of the two cases in this 

study) was one of the few certified organic 

farms in Malaysia in 2013. The knowledge 

in implementing the SRI in paddy 

cultivation is still limited and, therefore, 

more studies are necessary to establish it. 

This study is undertaken to understand the 

SRI as a sustainable paddy farming practice 

by selecting two farms from different states 

of West Malaysia. It explores the two 

experienced farmers’ practices in managing 

their paddy farms by employing the SRI. As 

the main objective of the research was to to 

understand and identify the sustainable 

agricultural practices in organic paddy 

farming in Malaysia. 

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION 

SRI is a method to manage organic farming. 

It was developed in Madagascar in 1983 as a 

revolutionary paddy cultivation method to 

achieve very high yields with reduced 

resources such as irrigation water, fertilizers 

and chemicals. The SRI is implemented in a 

number of rice-growing countries, including 

in China, India, and Myanmar. It is found 

that the existing rice varieties have more 

genetic potential than that of the previously 

Othman and Hasan 

thought which can be tapped by altering the 

management practices. So far, the SRI 

planting tests have been carried out in a total 

of 48 countries including in Asia, Africa and 

Latin America. Many SRI users reported 

benefits such as a reduction in pests, 

diseases, grain shattering, unfilled grains 

and lodging. Additional environmental 

benefits stem from the reduction of 

agricultural chemicals, water use and 

methane emissions that contribute to global 

warming. SRI is also suitable for highland 

paddy farming, and its application has 

already been expanded to other types of 

crops such as sugar cane. 

According to Uphoff (2006), paddy 

farming application using the SRI is based 

on six main principles as follows: (1) When 

(if) transplanting, to start with young 

seedlings (two-leaf stage); (2) Plants to be 

set out carefully and gently in a square 

pattern of the size 25x25cm or wider if the 

soil condition is very good, but this size can 

be even wider if the soil is fertile enough, or 

once it becomes more fertile after the SRI 

practices; (3) Seedlings are to be 

transplanted singly; (4) Rice paddies are to 

be irrigated intermittently by keeping 

minimum of water rather than continuously 

flooded; (5) Weeding is to be carried out for 

at least twice though the best result can be 

obtained from multiple weeding with a 

‘rotating hoe’ that actively aerates the soil at 

the same time churning weeds back into the 

soil to decompose, thereby conserving their 

nutrients; and (6) Basic organic fertilizers, 

compost or any decomposed biomass are to 

be used. 

CURRENT ISSUES IN RICE 

PRODUCTION 

Global warming, environmental crisis, plant 

diseases and pests are the main causes in 

disrupting the food production in many 

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countries around the world. At this time, 

when the world’s population is increasing 

rapidly resulting in to higher demand of 

food, these problems have threatened food 

security and people’s health worldwide. 

Every day 24,000 people are dying due to 

hunger-related causes including one child 

every five seconds. 

Rice is the staple food for more than 

three billion people from all around the 

world. At least, 114 countries grow rice and 

more than 50 countries have at least an 

annual production of 100,000 tonnes. As 

rice is the main food for most countries in 

Asia, about 90% of the global rice 

production and consumption are in Asia. At 

this time, when the world's population is 

already reeling from higher food prices, 

many countries have banned or restricted 

their rice exports, which pushes up the price 

of rice even higher. Since 1990s, the 

increase in rice production has become 

slower as compared with population growth. 

Indeed, it is anticipated that rice production 

should be increased by 30% by 2025 in 

order to cater for the world’s growing 

population. Among many other countries, 

Malaysia has not yet achieved selfsufficiency 

in food production. 

SUSTAINABLE AND ORGANIC RICE 

FARMING IN MALAYSIA 

Organic rice farming in West Malaysia 

began in the early 1990’s under the guidance 

of a Non-Governmental Organization 

(NGO), working with small holder farmers 

on rice storage in the state of Selangor. They 

found that the system was not sustainable 

due to a number of factors, such as poor 

production technology support, marketing 

issues, certification, and farmers’ 

commitment. In 1999, Kahang Organic Rice 

Eco Farm (KOREF) pioneered the organic 

method of rice farming practice in West 


Malaysia. Other locations that fully 

integrated sustainable paddy fields were in 

Bandar Baru Tunjong, Sabak Bernam, 

Ledang and Bario (Sarawak). 

According to the National Green 

Technology Policy Malaysia, effective 

promotion and public awareness are two of 

the main factors that would affect the 

success of sustainable development through 

the green technology agenda (National 

Green Technology Policy 2009, Malaysia, 

Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and 

Water). This is particularly significant as 

such adoption requires a change of mindset 

of the public through various approaches, 

including effective education and 

information dissemination to increase public 

awareness of sustainable agriculture and on 

ways to conserve the environment. Mustafa 

and Mohd Jani (1995) stated that greater 

public awareness about environmental 

pollution and depletion of resources can help 

Malaysia to develop sustainable agriculture. 

More intensive monitoring and investigating 

agricultural practices would enable Malaysia 

to achieve sustainability in agriculture 

(Murad et. al., 2008). 

There have been many strategies to 

increase production in the sustainable 

contexts; such as creation of paddy estate, 

Malaysia Organic Scheme (Skim Organic 

Malaysia - SOM) and Malaysia Good 

Plantation Resources Practices System 

(Sistem Amalan Ladang Baik Malaysia - 

SLAM) certificate, good agriculture 

practices and promoting organic farming in 

Malaysia. However, there are very limited 

information is available on organic paddy 

farming using the SRI specifically in 

Malaysia. 

The Department of Agriculture 

(DOA) is the agency under the Malaysian 

Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based 

Industry involved in activities related to 

quality and productivity of crops. This 

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department introduced the SOM to promote 

sustainable development. SOM is a 

certification programme to recognize farms 

which cultivate crops organically according 

to the criteria and requirement described in 

the scheme. The standard is based on the 

Malaysian Standard, MS 1529: 2001. In the 

context of paddy farming, KOREF and Sri 

Lovely Farm are the two certified organic 

farms in Malaysia. 

METHODOLOGY 

This study employed a qualitative research 

using the observation and interview 

approaches. The observations and interviews 

were carried out at Sik, Kedah and Bandar 

Baru Tunjong, Kelantan during 23 July 2009 

until 14 September 2013. Some of the 

interviews, by the interviewees who 

allowed, were recorded by videotaping. 

However, all the interview answers were 

written down by the researcher in notebook. 

Also, the phone calls were used to obtain 

further information from the respondents. 

The selected respondents were the farmers 

of different levels including supervisor and 

managing director. One of the respondents’ 

philosophies was stated as “the farming 

ought to safeguard the eco-system bestowed 

by God.” 

The first location of this field study 

was Bandar Baru Tunjong in Kelantan 

owned by the Sunnah Tani Sdn. Bhd. It was 

started as a pilot project in May 2009 with 8 

hectares of land at Kampung Tunjong in 

Bandar Baru Tunjong by adopting the SRI 

method as its paddy farming practice. 

The second location of this field 

study was at the Sik area in Kedah owned by 

the Koperasi Agro Belantik Berhad (a local 

cooperative organization). The project was 

aimed to enhance the income of the local 

people through the development of vacant 


land. This project was kicked off on 

December 24, 2009 using 32 hectares of 

land of Kampung Lintang, Kampung 

Kubang, Kampung Surau, Kampung Pinang, 

Kampung Bukit Batu, Kampung Belantik 

Dalam and Kampung Belantik Luar. The 

interviews were conducted with the 

managing director (Farmer 1) and his two 

assistants (Farmer 2 and Farmer 3). 

The main questions asked during the 

interviews were related to the steps involved 

in paddy farming practices including land 

preparation, seed selection, water 

management, fertilizer use, weed, pest and 

disease control, and harvesting. Data related 

to paddy farming, mainly in sustainable 

practices were compared and analyzed the 

adaption criteria of SOM. It is a standard 

that sets out the requirements for the 

production, the labeling and claims for 

organically produced foods. The 

requirements cover all stages of production, 

including farm operations, preparation, 

storage, transport, and labeling. Further 

details are explained below: 

i. Land and soil management 

■ Farms shall take reasonable and 

appropriate measures to minimize loss of 

topsoil through minimal tillage, contour 

plowing, crop selection, maintenance of 

cover crops and other management practices 

that conserve soil. 

■ Land clearing and preparation through 

burning vegetation, e.g. slash and burn, shall 

only be allowed and restricted to the 

minimum when other measures are not 

feasible. 

■ Burning of crop residues, e.g. straw 

burning is prohibited except in case of need 

to control a serious insect or disease 

infestation. 

■ The fertility and biological activity of the 

soil should be maintained or increased, 

using appropriate methods by a) cultivation 

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of legumes, green manures or deep-rooting 

plants in an appropriate multi-annual 

rotation programme, b) incorporation in the 

soil of organic material, composted or not, 

from holdings produced in accordance with 

this standard. 

. 

ii. Water management 

■ Operators shall take reasonable and 

appropriate measures to prevent excessive 

and improper use of water. 

■ Operators shall take reasonable and 

appropriate measures to prevent the 

pollution of ground and surface water. 

■ Organic handlers shall install systems that 

permit the responsible use and recycling of 

water without pollution or contamination, 

either by chemicals, or by animal or human 

pathogens. 

■ Untreated sewage water is prohibited for 

use. 

iii. Seeds and planting material 

■ Use of genetically modified organisms 

(GMOs) and products thereof is prohibited 

in all aspects of organic production and 

handling without exception. 

■ Seeds and vegetative reproductive 

material should be from plants grown in 

accordance with the provisions of this 

standard for at least one generation or in the 

case of perennial crops, two growing 

seasons. 

■ Use of conventional seed and planting 

material is only allowed where there is no 

organic seed or propagation material of the 

appropriate sort available. 

■ Seeds and propagation material shall not 

be treated with prohibited substances. 

Exceptions should be allowed where there is 

no untreated seed or propagation material of 

the appropriate sort available. 

■ Where varieties protected under the Plant 

Variety Protection Act are used, the farm 

shall respect intellectual property rights 

legislation 


iv. Fertility management 

■ Crop production systems shall return 

nutrients, organic matter and other resources 

removed from the soil through harvesting by 

recycling, regeneration and addition of 

organic matter and nutrients with respect to 

the nutrient requirement of crops and the 

nutrient balance of the soil. 

■ Operators shall plan their fertility 

management to maximize the use of plant 

and animal organic matter produced within 

the farm and minimized the use of broughtin 

organic materials or mineral fertilizers. 

■ Where applicable, in annual crop 

production, an appropriate green manure 

crop shall be included in the crop rotation 

plan to maintain organic matter content and 

soil fertility. 

■ Organic materials and mineral fertilizers 

shall not be used if their production and use 

have an unacceptable impact on the 


■ Allowance on the maximum amount of 

brought-in organic materials and mineral 

fertilizers used in the farm shall be 

established on a case by case basis taking 

into account local conditions and the nature 

of the crop. 

■ Imported microbial inoculums used for 

enhancing soil fertility shall undergo 

quarantine procedures before use. 

v. Soil conditioners and fertilization 

material 

■ The permitted organic materials and 

mineral fertilizers are listed in SOM. 

■ Use of organic material (plant and animal) 

from conventional systems should be 

allowed where there is no organic material 

from organic systems available. 

■ Organic industrial by-products should be 

allowed if they are not contaminated with 

non-permitted substances or other 

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contaminants exceeding applicable health 

and sanitary regulations. 

■ Animal manures shall not be used directly 

on food crops, unless they have been 

composted or measures are taken to prevent 

risk of contamination exceeding applicable 

health and sanitary regulations. 

■ Use of human and pig excrement is 

prohibited. 

■ Poultry manure from battery production 

systems should be allowed if manure from 

non-battery based production systems (e.g. 

free range) is not available. 

■ Use of trace elements should only be 

allowed as supplements and only where 

exhaustive measures to maximize the use of 

plant and animal organic matter produced 

within the farm as well as brought-in 

organic materials have been taken. 

vi. Prevention and control of pests, 

diseases and weeds 

■ Pests, diseases and weeds shall be 

controlled by cultural, mechanical, physical 

and biological methods. 

■ Use of inputs for pest, disease, weed 

control and plastic mulch material shall be 

allowed only where cultural, biological and 

mechanical measures are ineffective under 

the production condition in question. Spent 

plastic mulch material shall be disposed 

properly and not ploughed back into the soil. 

■ Use of plant waste material from 

conventional systems shall be allowed for 

mulching where there is no plant material 

from organic systems of the appropriate sort 

available. e.g.: paddy straw, grasses, oil 

palm leaves etc. Where the substances are 

restricted, the conditions of use as set by the 

certification body shall be strictly adhered 

by the farm. 

■ All substances used for pest control shall 

comply with the relevant national 

regulations. 


■ Farms shall use the approved substances 

with care and abide with their conditions of 

use, so as to avoid altering the ecosystem of 

the soil and farm. 

vii. Harvest 

■ The crop must be harvested at proper 

maturity. 

■ Waste from handling shall be managed so 

as to have minimum effect on the 

environment. Where appropriate, organic 

waste shall be used for nutrient recycling in 

production fields 

DATA ANALYSIS 

Traditional and computer-based qualitative 

methodologies were used to analyze the data 

for emerging themes and to compare and 

contrast the observation obtains from the 

participants. The data from video-tapes 

(interview) and written notes were also 

transcribed. All the data were first reviewed 

and coded. The only data related to 

understanding and identifying organic paddy 

farming practices were used in the analysis 

of this study. Then, the data were 

categorized. The primary analysis helped the 

researcher to focus on the data that could be 

used to understand SRI management 

practices. The data analysis revealed that the 

process of understanding and identifying 

organic paddy farming practices presented 

three major areas: (1) sustainability 

characteristics, (2) sustainable paddy 

farming practices; and (3) challenges in 

sustainable farming. Lastly, the text and 

visualization data were validated by an 

expert reviewer. 

FINDING AND DISCUSSION 

Data related to paddy farming from the two 

locations were compared and analyzed 

based on the principles stated in the SOM. 

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Both similarities and differences (though the 

differences were minor and limited to the 

days of treatment only) were found in the 

practice of paddy farming in the two 

selected locations. The findings are divided 

in to three main areas (Sustainability 

characteristics, Sustainable paddy farming 

practices and Challenges in Sustainable 

Farming) and illustrated in Figure 1 as a 

proposed model. 

Sustainability characteristics 

The characteristics of sustainability in 

practical paddy farming as observed in Sik 

and Bandar Baru Tunjong were: (1) 

balancing the ecosystem; (2) input from 

sustainable resources; (3) no chemical or 

synthetic fertiliser and pesticide used; and 

(4) natural control of pests, diseases and 

weeds (Othman, 2012). 

The first is balancing the farm 

ecosystem. The farmers from both farms-Sik 

and Bandar Baru Tunjong agreed that the 

farm should observe a natural control to 

create balance in the ecosystem. This is 

evident in the statements from Farmer 4 and 

5 as recorded in the interview session: 

“The ecosystem is complete, let’s look at 

this farm, we see it complete. There are 

living things. There is an eel (fish) ... There 

must be life. Then there is growth…and 

the paddy will grow well”, -(Farmer 

5, personal communication, July 23, 2009). 

This feature is also evident in the 

availability of living creatures such as fish, 

eel sand shrimp in the paddy fields. 

Sustainable paddy farming practices 

Overall, there are eight major steps in 

sustainable paddy farming practices at the 


two locations of this study (Othman, 2012). 

These are listed below. 

a) Land preparation 

Sik and Bandar Baru Tunjong farms recycle 

the rice straws by incorporating them into 

the soil during the preparation of the land. 

They apply one or two rounds of dry 

ploughing and two times wet ploughing by 

tractors. However, they had preferred less or 

no tilling of land. 

Initially, the soil was ploughed by 

tractor. Subsequently, water was let to enter 

in to help in the decay of grass, rice straw 

and stubble. After two days, drains were 

constructed on the edge of a paddy plot, so 

that the paddy field rice was always flooded 

and the soils moisten. Then, the soil was 

flattened with a flattening tool called a 

‘ruler’ or pembaris. After that a ‘distance 

tool’ or penjarak was used, which 

functioned as a means of determining the 

distances between the seedings to be 

planted. 

b) Seeds 

Planting begins with soil treatment. In this 

trial project, five to seven tonnes of organic 

fertiliser were placed into the soil a week 

before planting was carried out. It began 

with the selection of high quality seeds. The 

seed selection procedure at Bandar Baru 

Tunjong was similar to Sik. Then, the seeds 

were planted at the nursery. After that, they 

were transplanted to the paddy field 

manually. The method required time and a 

bountiful workforce in comparison to the 

direct scattering technique or through the 

use of machine transplanting. The farmers 

planted paddy twice a year, once in the main 

season and once in the off season. All the 

farmers in the two selected study areas used 

high quality seeds obtained from the 

MARDI. The farmers from Bandar Baru 

Tunjong used the SRI method in which the 

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seedlings were widely spaced (25cmx25cm), 

while farmers at Sik used more widely space 

(35cmx35cm) to plant a paddy. 

c) Water management 

The efficiency of irrigation is necessary for 

high yields. However, the organic method 

(SRI) uses less water compared to the 

conventional farming method. The farm in 

Sik obtained its supply of water from 

surrounding rivers.Water at Bandar Baru 

Tunjong was obtained from the nearby river 

through drain. Water was drained into a 

nearby pool of water and allowed to stagnate 

and drained to the paddy field when it was 

required. 

d) Fertilizers 

The farmers of Bandar Baru Tunjong and 

Sik applied only compost, organic fertilizers 

and natural minerals.Organic fertiliser was 

self-made by the farmers themselves. Local 

Micro-organism (MOL) was used as the 

main component for the fertilizer. This 

MOL can be used as an activator in the 

preparation of compost. Other than being 

used as compost, it was mixed with water 

and sprayed directly to the soil. This was 

done for the purpose of fertilizing the soil 

and increasing the nutrients. Self-made 

fertilizer can reduce the cost of production, 

apart from preserving the sources. 

According to one farmer, the main 

(mother) fertiliser is made from tender 

bamboo shoots or the soft base of the banana 

tree stump. All these were crushed and 

mixed with sugar which contributed to a 

type of fertiliser. Following this, the 

materials were soaked with water for up to 

day 14 days. Later, one litre of this fertiliser 

was added to 10 litres of water (25 litres can 

be used for one acre of the land area). The 

similar method was used to produce other 

types of fertilisers by mixing animal dung 


with paddy straw, tree leaves and limes 

which were left to soak for a duration of 14 

days. 

e) Weed control 

Basically, the Bandar Baru Tunjong and Sik 

farmers control the weeds manually and by 

rotary weeding. The control of weedy rice 

needs to be carried out directly right after 

the harvesting season.The porcupine is an 

equipment to plough the soil and discard 

grass at Bandar Baru Tunjong. It also 

functions as a tool to loosen the soil. This 

method of discarding the grass is employed 

from the time when the paddy seedlings 

were 10- 40 days old. 

f) Pest and disease control 

Bandar Baru Tunjong and Sik farmers 

adopted an ecological system with 

conservation of natural predators, and IPM 

practices to control pests and diseases. The 

IPM practices included biological pest 

control, proper cultivation methods, 

effective application of pesticides and 

mechanical traps. Some of the biological 

practices implemented by the Department 

include integrated fish rearing, integrated 

Muscovy duck rearing, and rat controlled by 

Tyto Alba bird, a type of owl. 

g) Harvest 

Paddy was ready for harvesting in 105-125 

days, and all the farmers in the two selected 

areas of this study used the harvester 

machine for harvesting. 

In summary, both the similarities and 

differences were found in the practice of 

paddy farming in the two study locations, 

which were also reported earlier (Othman et. 

al., 2010). A comparative summary on the 

organic paddy farming, using the SRI, in 

two different farms are shown in Table 1 

and Table 2. 

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Table 1: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at Sik 

Method of SRI farming (Sik) 

Day (D) Note Activity 

D1- D14 

Ploughing by tractor 

D10 

Release water into the paddy field 

Preparation 

D11 

Ploughing by small tractor 

of soil / land 

D13 

Third cycle, making lanes 

D14 

Scattering of organic fertilizer 

D16 Planting Soak seeds for planting 

Day After 

Planting Note Activity 

(DAP) 

DAP 5 - 8 Planting Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy 

fields 

DAP 90 Water 

management 

Drain out the water 

DAP 110 -115 Harvest Harvesting 

Note: Weeding is carried out as much as four times from the 10 th to the 40 th day. 


Table 2: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at BBT 

Method of SRI farming (BBT: Bandar Baru Tunjong) 

Day (D) Note Activity 

D1- D14 Preparation Ploughing by tractor 

D10 

of soil / land Release water into the paddy field 

D11 

Ploughing by small tractor (kabota) 

D13 

Third cycle, making lanes 

D14 

Scattering of organic fertilizer 

D24 Planting Soak seeds for planting 

Day After 

Planting Note Activity 

(DAP) 

DAP 8 - 12 Planting Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy 

fields 

DAP 90 Water Drain out the water 

management 

DAP 110 - Harvest Harvesting 

115 

Note: 1. Organic fertilizer is put into the soil one week before planting; 2. Weeding 

is carried out as much as four times from the 10 th to the 40 th day. 

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Challenges in sustainable farming 

This study also showed that there were three 

challenges in implementing sustainable 

paddy farming. These were: awareness and 

early education in sustainable paddy 

farming, management transition, and high 

work commitment as shown in Figure 1. 

These are further explained below. 

Awareness and education 

Awareness and early education of 

sustainable paddy farming is vital. It is 

hoped that innovations through ICT would 

provide meaningful contributions. 

During this study, it was found that 

most paddy farmers were lacking in 

awareness and education regarding organic 

farming practices. Therefore it is pertinent 

that farmers and youth could be educated on 

the immense benefits of sustainable 

practices in paddy farming. 

According to Mustapha and Mohd 

Jani (1995), agricultural projects must 

prioritize social interest and long-term 

economic goals rather than short-term 

interests by implementing programmes that 

minimizes the destruction of resource. 

Nevertheless, any attempt to make the 

society aware requires the intervention from 

the government because of two factors. 

Firstly, the policy formulation which 

supports sustainable agricultural 

development and secondly, government 

intervention in implementing laws relating 

to the maintenance and control of agriculture 

resource utilization. Therefore, a 

government policy which supports 

agricultural development that takes into 

account sustainability factors is the 

prerequisite that determines the success or 

failure of a sustainable agricultural 

development programme. 

Management transition 

The next challenge is management transition 

from conventional farming to organic 

farming. In reality, there are several 

challenges in the current implementation of 

rice management, among them are: 

i. Unsatisfactory outcome 

Most farmers are categorized under 

low incomes. A study conducted in 

1990 showed that 60 percent of the 

household or rice field employees 

were either poor or extremely poor. 

After 10 years, however research 

showed farmer’s poverty rate had 

reduced to 40 percent. 

The income of rice farmers is 

low due to the uneconomical size of 

the fields which is mainly unprofita- 

Sustainable characteristic 

1. Balancing ecosystem 

2. Input from sustainable 

resources 

3. No chemical or synthetic 

fertiliser and pesticide 

4. Natural control (pest, 

disease and weed) 

Sustainable Paddy Farming 

Practices 

1. Land preparation 

2. Seeds preparation 

3. Water management 

4. Fertilizers 

5. Control (weed, pest and disease) 

6. Harvest 

Challenges 

1. Awareness and education 

2. Management transition 

3. High work commitment 

Figure 1: The proposed model describing the key areas of sustainable and organic paddy 

farming practices. 

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ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

-ble. The majority of farmers 

acquired the fields through 

inheritance, and poverty forces most 

farmers to find other jobs to increase 

their income. Thus, most small scale 

rice farmers with low income make 

paddy farming as their part time 

jobs. 

This opinion is supported by 

MADA (2005) whereby many low 

income rice farmers face financial 

difficulty and need loans to support 

the family. Unfortunately, loans 

become a burden and three quarter of 

MADA farmers are classified as 

debtors. 

Demand exceeds production 

Rice production in Malaysia is 

insufficient to cater to the country’s 

needs, and around 30% of rice is 

imported from Thailand and 

Vietnam. According to MADA, on 

average, paddy production yield in 

Malaysia is 4.2 tonnes per hectare 

per season (MADA, 2009), which is 

considered low. Thus, the country 

cannot meet its own demand. 

High production cost 

Production cost of rice in Malaysia is 

high and this has compelled the 

government to intervene by offering 

incentives. Accordingly if the 

various types of input given by the 

government in the form of subsidies, 

such as seed, fertilizer and price 

subsidies, were to be taken away, it 

would be difficult to attract a person 

to venture into rice agriculture. 

Labor shortage 

The rice farming sector in Malaysia 

faces a problem of labor shortage. 

The youth are keen to migrate to the 


cities and work in the manufacturing 

and other sectors than growing rice. 

Therefore, the present Malaysian rice 

farmers’ average age has actually 

exceeded retirement age. Due to old 

age and low income, they work on 

their rice fields just to fulfill their 

basic daily needs. 

v. Incomplete infrastructure, water 

shortage 

Lack of infrastructure and weak 

irrigation system are also the main 

problems faced by many rice farmers 

in Malaysia. 

High work commitment 

Organic paddy farming requires a high 

commitment from farmers. This is supported 

by information extracted from an interview 

with an organic farmer who believes that 

farming organically require sacrifice and 

patience. 

“To ensure that this (pointing to his 

paddy field) is good, more sacrifice is 

required. It requires wisdom. By doing this, 

the outcome is better. - (Farmer 4, personal 

communication, July 23, 2009). 

Farmers who consider organic rice 

cultivation as a part-time job will not be able 

to run it effectively. This is because waste 

from agricultural products need to be 

recycled, for example it should be turned 

into compost. Apart from that, pest, disease 

and weed control should be done naturally. 

This will be difficult if the farm 

environment is damaged or polluted. 

According to organic farmers in Bandar 

Baru Tunjong, they face environmental 

problems and an in balanced ecosystem 

because of long term usage of chemical 

fertilizer. 

Ismail (2006) also agrees that the 

transition from conventional to organic 

farming requires a high level of 

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commitment. According to him, this 

conversion is a difficult move because the 

positive impact, if there is any, can only be 

gained in the long term. 

CONCLUSION 

SRI is an innovative system for the organic 

agricultural practices aimed at preserving 

the nature and environment. SRI is also a 

methodology in organic paddy farming 

practices. Our study outcome suggests that 

for a sustainable organic paddy farming the 

proposed model, as shown in Figure 1, the 3 

key areas are: 1) sustainability 

characteristics; 2) sustainable paddy farming 

practices; and 3) challenges in sustainable 

farming. This study made a significant 

contribution in the agricultural sector, in line 

with the objective of Agro Makanan Policies 

(2011-2020) which is to guarantee adequate 

and safe supply of food for consumption. 

However, other factors such as good 

perceptions (Bagheri et. al, 2008); 

interactive and cooperation between farmer; 

government, research institution; and the 

role of the policy-maker are important 

factors in achieving sustainable agriculture 

(Murad et al, 2008; Sharghi et al, 2010). 

More research is required on the sustainable 

agriculture and organic farming in Malaysia 

for the better understanding and addressing 

the issues. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

The authors would like to express their 

gratitude to Captain Zakaria Kamantasha, 

Managing Director of Sri Lovely Farm, Sik, 

Kedah for extending his cooperation to write 

this paper. 

REFERENCES 


Bagheri, A., Fami, H. S., Rezvanfar, A., 

Asadi, A., and Yazdani, S. (2008). 

Perceptions of Paddy Farmers towards 

Sustainable Agricultural Technologies: 

Case of Haraz Catchments Area in 

Mazandaran province of Iran. 

American Journal of Applied Sciences, 

5(10), 1384-1391. doi: 

10.3844/ajassp.2008.1384.139. 

Ismail, M. R. (2006). Pertanian Lestari. 

Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan 

Pustaka. (p.35) 

Murad, M. W., Mustapha, N. H. N., and 

Siwar, C. (2008). Review of 

Malaysian Agricultural Policies with 

Regards to Sustainability. American 

Journal of Environmental Sciences, 

4(6), 608-614. 

Mustapha, N. H. and Mohd Jani, M. F. 

(1995). Pembangunan Pertanian 

Lestari.Selangor:Penerbit UKM. (p.25) 

National Green Technology Policy (2009). 

Ministry of Energy, Green Technology 

and Water, Malaysia. 

Othman, Z., Muhammad, A. and Abu 

Bakar, M. A. (2010). A Sustainable 

Paddy Farming Practice in West 

Malaysia.The International Journal of 

Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(2), 

425-438. 

Othman, S. N., Othman, Z. and Yaacob, 

N. A. (2016). The Value Chain of 

System of Rice Intensification (SRI) 

Organic Rice of Rural Farms in 

Kedah. International Journal of 

Supply Chain Management, 5(3), 111- 

120. 

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Othman, Z. and Muhammad, A. (2011). 

Design strategies to persuasive 

learning for promoting sustainable 

practices in paddy farming. American 

Journal of Economics and Business 

Administration, 3(1), 197-202. 

Sharghi, T., Sedighi, H., and Eftekhari, 

A. R. (2010). Effective Factors in 

Achieving 

Sustainable 

Agriculture.American Journal of 

Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 


5(2), 235-241. doi: 

10.3844/ajabssp.2010.235.24. 

Uphoff, N. (2006). The System of Rice 

Intensification (SRI) as a Methodology 

for Reducing Water Requirements in 

Irrigated Rice Production. 

International Dialogue on Rice and 

Water: Exploring Options for Food 

Security and Sustainable 

Environments, Philippines, March 7-8, 

2006. 

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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development <strong>Focus</strong> Environ (2016), P51-59 

Environmental Legislations in Malaysia: A 

Protection to Public Health 

Haslinda Mohd Anuar 

School of Law, College of Law, Government and International Studies (COLGIS), Universiti 

Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia 

Phone No.: +6 04-9288106; Email: haslinda@uum.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

The importance between human and environment was first recognized by Stockholm Declaration 

in 1972. This interdependent was further developed by Rio Declaration 1992 whereby the 

concept of sustainable development was widely introduced. Although the main theme was 

‘development’, Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration proclaims that ‘Human beings are at the 

centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life 

in harmony with nature’. Rio Declaration 1992 was further strengthened with Rio +20 in 2012 

whereby more agenda have been defined ‘to a safer, more equitable, cleaner, greener and more 

prosperous world for all’. In Malaysia, various legislations and national policies have been 

implemented to achieve sustainable development including with enactment of Environmental 

Quality Act 1974; Dasar Alam Sekitar Negara; and Dasar Perubahan Iklim Negara as the basis 

of environmental management. However, there are more than forty environmental related 

legislations been enforced by various government agencies in Malaysia. Furthermore, in 2013, 

during the Third Ministerial Regional Forum on Environment and Health in South East and East 

Asian Countries held in Kuala Lumpur member countries agreed to cooperate to develop and 

implement National Environmental Health Action Plans (NEHAP) that aims ‘to put sustainable 

environment and health at the centre of development, and that will result in sustainability and 

improvements in environmental quality, and enhancement of public health, and ensure the health 

of the future generations in the region’. This chapter will discuss primarily the development of 

environmental legislations including the national policies in Malaysia which aim to protect the 

public health. 

Keywords: Environment; health; legislation; policy. 

INTRODUCTION 

Clean air, clean water, fertile soil and 

functioning ecosystems are the integral part 

of human survival and well-being, and it 

was argued by many scholars that these 

elements should be considered as part of 

rights to life and health (Boyd, 2011; 

Weissbrodt, 2007; Dowdeswell, 1994). 

According to the World Health 

Organization, approximately one-quarter of 

the entire burden of disease globally is 

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Environmental Legislations in Malaysia 

attributable to environmental risk factors (A. 

Pruss-Ustun, 2006). Human activity is the 

major threat to environment and every 

component of the environment is constantly 

threatened due to destruction of natural 

resources due to increasing human demand 

and development activities. In this situation, 

laws are essential in guiding enforcement 

efforts and in the formulation of subsequent 

policies in carrying out environmental 

requirements (Rahman, 2010). 

Malaysia faces numerous diverse 

range of environmental issues and problems. 

There are: air pollution; water pollution; 

sound and noise pollution; agro-chemical 

pollution; degradation of ground water level; 

filling of lakes abd water bodies; acid rain; 

deforestaion; soil pollution; land 

degradation; biodiversity degradation; 

global warming; terrorist activities; politics 

and political parties; corruptions in 

adminstration; solid waste management; 

unplanned urbanisation; hazardous waste; 

water crisis; disease outbreak; landslides and 

landslips; polythene use; and sectoral 

environmental problems (Mohammad, 

2011). 

This paper will give an overview on 

right to live in healthy environment or 

‘environmental rights’ with particularly 

focus on environmental health. Various 

international instruments will be discussed 

including the Stockholm Declaration 1972 

and the Rio Declaration 1992. At National 

level, the Articles in Federal Constitution 

and the Environmental Quality Act 1974 

will be examined accordingly. To further 

strengthen the laws by way of action 

National Environmental Health Action Plan 

(NEHAP) was documented and 

implemented by the Ministry of Health. All 

these legislations are enforced to ensure that 

the sustainable development is achieved for 

a better standard of healthy living for 

present and future generations. 

Mohd Anuar 

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS 

ON ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS AND 

HEALTH 

International instruments 

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 

was adopted in 1948 by the General 

Assembly of the United Nations. Human 

rights are derived from the principle of 

Natural Law whereby ‘Human (person) 

possesses rights because of the very fact that 

it is a person, a whole, a master of itself and 

of its acts…by natural law, the human 

person has the right to be respected, is the 

subject of rights’ (Shradha Sinha, 2005). 

Asia Pacific Forum on Human 

Rights and the Environment (2007) defined 

that environmental rights as right to 

environment, a ‘right of the people to a 

healthful environment’, a right to live in an 

‘environment and surroundings which are 

condusive to health’, and a right to ‘use 

natural resources in accordance with 

customary traditions and practices which 

encourage community-based sustainable 

natural resource management’. According 

to Mukherjee (2002), ‘‘environmental 

rights’ have been defined as both individual 

and collective, both substantive and 

procedural’, and the contents of 

‘environmental rights’ have been ‘derived 

from the existing universally recognised 

rights, both with regard to substantive rights 

(such as the rights to life, health and 

privacy) and procedural rights (namely, 

access to information and due process of 

law)’. Environmental Science Dictionary 

defined the environmental rights as a right 

enjoyed by all members of society that 

people can live and work in healthy, safe 

and comfortable environment. It also states 

that it includes the right to life and healthy, 

the right of property security and the right of 

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comfortable environment for living and 

working. 

The words ‘clean’ and ‘healthy’ 

environment is interconnected. It may be 

stated that a clean environment is a human 

right; and health is a state of complete 

physical, mental and social well-being and 

not merely the absence of disease or 

infirmity. The scope of creating a healthy 

environment is clealy not limited to 

hospitals and doctor’s surgeries, but includes 

the myraid factors that influence to health, 

agriculture and food, education, employment 

status, and working envirinment, water and 

sanitation, and health care services 

(Mohammad, 2014). 

Stockholm Declaration 1972 has 

recognized the relationship between human 

and development. Principle 1 of the 

Stockholm Declaration declared that, ‘man 

has the fundamental right to freedom, 

equality and adequate condition of life, in an 

environment of quality that permits a life of 

dignity and well-being, and he bears a 

solemn responsibility to protect and improve 

the environment for present and future 

generations’. Stockholm Declaration 1972 

referred to ‘an environment of a quality that 

permits a life of dignity and well-being’. 

Then, the United Nations Conference 

on Environment and Development 1992, 

known as the Earth Summit, produced Rio 

Declaration on Human Environment and 

Development (the Rio Declaration) that 

stressed the principle of sustainable 

development, that is, development that 

meets the developmental and environmental 

needs of present and future generation. 

Principle 1 of the Rio Declaration states that, 

“Human beings are at the centre of concerns 

for sustainable development. They are 

entitled to a healthy and productive life in 

harmony with nature”. 

In 1994, the report of the UN Special 

Rapporteur on Human Rights and the 

Mohd Anuar 

Environment included the proposed right to 

secure, healthy and ecologically sound 

environment. Since then, many countries 

have inserted the right to healthy 

environment in their Constitutions (Boyd, 

2011). According to Law (2011), in total 

there are more than 100 countries that have 

recognized the right to live in a healthy 

environment either explicitly or through 

judicial interpretation of other provisions. 

These include Norway, Albania, Spain, 

Argentina, Jamaica, Mexico, Paraguay, 

Azerbaijan, Indonesia, Thailand, Venezuela, 

Burundi, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa and 

many more. 

Besides the state constitution, there 

are also a number of regional agreements 

that explicitly recognized the right to a 

healthy environment. Among the 

instruments are the African Charter on 

Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Additional 

Protocol to the American Convention on 

Human Rights, the Arab Charter on Human 

Rights, and the Aarhus Convention on 

Access to Information, Public Participation 

in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in 

Environmental Matters. 

Some international courts and 

tribunals like the European Court of Human 

Rights (ECHR), the European Committee of 

Social Rights, the International Court of 

Justice (ICJ) and the Inter-American 

Commission on Human Rights have 

interpreted international treaties and 

conventions to include the right to a healthy 

environment. For example, ICJ in the case 

of Hungary v Slovakia opined that, ‘The 

protection of the environment is… a vital 

part of contemporary human rights doctrine, 

for it is a sine qua non for numerous human 

rights such as the right to health and the 

right to life itself…damage to the 

environment can impair and undermine all 

the rights spoken of in the Universal 

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Declaration and other human rights 

instruments’. 

Malaysian legislations 

An ‘environmental right’ is not expressly 

provided for under Malaysian Federal 

Constitution or any law. Fundamental 

liberties or human rights such as liberty of a 

person, freedom of speech, freedom of 

movement and right to property are secured 

under the Malaysian Federal Constitution, 

and ‘environmental rights’ or right to a 

healthy environment are yet to be explicitly 

included as one of the constitutional rights. 

In Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya 

Perkhidmatan Pendidikan, Court of Appeal 

ruled that, ‘…the expression ‘life’ appearing 

in Article 5(1) does not refer to mere 

existence. It incorporates all those facets 

that are an integral part of life itself… it 

includes the right to live a reasonably 

healthy and pollution free environment’. 

Similarly, in Adong bin Kuwau & Ors v 

Kerajaan Negeri Johor & Anor, the case was 

decided based on Article 13 of the Federal 

Constitution which provides for right to 

property. The court although pronounced 

that the plaintiffs (the aborigines) have 

propriety rights over the Linggui valley and 

the defendants had deprived them the rights, 

failed to make any reference that such 

deprivation was tantamount to denial to 

healthy and decent environment to live for 

the aborigines. This is the effect of nonexplicit 

provision on the right to healthy 

environment under the Federal Constitution. 

The Court of Appeal has interpreted the 

right to life broadly as extending beyond 

mere existence to the quality of life, and 

‘[including] the right to live in a reasonably 

healthy and pollution free environment’. 

Although the Federal Constitution 

does not mention about ‘environment’ in 

any of its Article, the legislative lists in the 

Mohd Anuar 

Federal Constitution contain all different 

components of the environments. For 

example, matters of federal responsibility 

include the development of mineral 

resources; pest control; and many industrial 

and infrastructural activities. Matters of state 

responsibility include land; agriculture and 

forestry; and state work and water. Matters 

of concurrent list include public health; town 

and country planning; and drainage and 

irrigation. 

There are moves to insert the right to 

healthy and clean environment in the 

Federal Constitution. The Environmental 

Law Review Committee in 1992 was 

reported to make such recommendation 

(Ministry of Science, Technology and 

Environment, 1992), and in 1996 CAP-SAM 

National Conference of the Environment in 

Malaysia stated that, ‘Since environmental 

protection is crucial to ensure the survival 

of mankind and other living things, as had 

been acknowledged by world leaders during 

the Rio Conference, it is timely that Part II 

of the Constitution which deals with 

fundamental liberties be amended to provide 

for the right to a clean and safe 

environment’. 

The main environmental legislation 

in Malaysia is the Environmental Quality 

Act 1974. It covers a wide range of 

environmental problems such as air 

pollution, noise pollution, pollution on land, 

and pollution of inland water. Besides that, 

there are other legislations enacted on 

matters relating to the environment such as 

Land Conservation Act 1960, Wildlife Act 

1972, National Park Act 1980, National 

Forestry Act 1984, and Fisheries Act 1985. 

The existence of these legislations indicates 

the importance of environmental protection 

and management in Malaysia. 

The Department of Environment was 

created in 1975 under the Ministry of 

Science, Technology and the Environment 

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to manage and administer the environmental 

quality in Malaysia. As a federal agency, it 

does not appear to be full control over 

environmental resources. As mentioned 

earlier, matters relating to land, forest and 

water resources are under the jurisdiction of 

the state and enacted under different 

legislations, which are not under the charge 

of the Department of Environment. For an 

effective environmental management and 

implementation, total cooperation between 

the state and federal authorities are required. 

Some environmental initiatives have 

been made to achieve sustainable 

development. Malaysian Plan provides a 

road map of socio economic aspects of the 

country. The Seventh Malaysian Plan clearly 

states that clean, safe, and healthy living 

environment are to be achieved for our 

present and future generations. Besides the 

Department of Environment which was 

established under the Environmental Quality 

Act 1974, the local governments has been 

performing a wide range of services such as 

public health and cleansing, enforcement 

and licensing, and public amenities and 

social services. Malaysia has also actively 

participating and implementing various 

provisions of international instruments for 

example Amendment to the Montreal 

Protocol on Substances that Deplete the 

Ozone Layer in (Date of Ratification: 14 

September 1993); The United Nations 

Conventions on Biological Diversity 1992 

(Date of Ratification: 22 September 1994); 

and The Basel Convention on the Control of 

Transboundary Movements of Tropical 

Timber Agreement 1994 (Date of 

Ratification: 1994). These initiatives, again, 

requires full cooperation from all 

stakeholders to ensure the aim of sustainable 

development is achieved. 

NEHAP 

Mohd Anuar 

Environmental protection and public health 

goals are in general replenishing each other. 

The term environmental health, as defined 

by World Health Organisation, addressed all 

physical, chemical, and biological factors 

external to a person, and all the related 

factors impacting behavior. It encompasses 

the assessment and control of those 

environmental factors that can potentially 

affect health. It is targeted towards 

preventing disease and creating healthsupportive 

environments (NEHAP Malaysia, 

2016). In other word, environmental health 

is the branch of public health that is 

concerned with all aspects of the natural and 

built environment that may affect human 

health (NEHAP Malaysia, 2016). 

The NEHAP has been developed and 

implemented by many countries to address 

environmental health problems and needs 

for action. In the Third Ministerial Regional 

Forum on Environmental and Health in 

South East and East Asian Countries held in 

Kuala Lumpur in September 2013, the 

Kuala Lumpur Declaration was affirmed to; 

“Agree to cooperate to develop and 

implement national environmental health 

action plans (NEHAPs), or equivalent plans, 

that aims to put sustainable environment 

and health at the centre of development, and 

that will result in sustainability and 

improvements in environmental quality, and 

enhancement of public health, and ensure 

the health of the future generations in the 

region; Agree to work for the development 

and implementation of mechanism to enable 

mire effective sharing of information 

between the health and environment sectors 

and other sectors through the 

Environmental Health Country Profiles 

(EHCP) and Environmental Data Sheets 

(EHDS)” (Figure 1). 

Based on the National Policy on 

Environment which aims at continued 

economic, social and culture progress and 

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Mohd Anuar 

Figure 1: A schematic diagram depicts the mechanism adopted in Malaysia’s National 

Environmental Health Action Plan (NEHAP) (Source: NEHAP Malaysia, 2016). 

enhancement of the quality of life of 

Malaysians through environmentally sound 

and sustainable development, the Economic 

Planning Unit of the Prime Minister’s 

Department was agreed that NEHAP was to 

be developed in the 9 th Malaysia Plan by the 

Environment and Health in Southeast and 

East Asian Countries (NEHAP Malaysia, 

2016): 

1. Air Quality 

2. Water, sanitation and hygiene 

3. Solid and hazardous waste 

Ministry of Health. The main objectives to 4. Toxic chemicals and hazardous 

NEHAP are; (1) To strengthen collaboration 

and cooperation between various sectors for 

effective use of resources in improving 

human health and sustainable development; 

(2) To develop and maintain human health 

and sustainable development through the 

substances 

5. Climate change, ozone depletion and 

ecosystem change 

6. Contingency planning, preparedness 

and response in environmental health 

emergencies 

management of environmental health with a 7. Environmental health impact 

systematic and holistic manner in the 

country. 

assessment 

The followings are environmental 

health areas of concern which have been 

identified on the Regional Initiative on 

The implementation mechanism comprises 

of a three-tier approach and lead agency to 

implement it has been identified (Figure 2). 

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Mohd Anuar 

Figure 2: A schematic diagram showing the responsibilities of lead agencies (NEHAP) (Source: 

NEHAP Malaysia, 2016). 

CONCLUSION 

effectively implemented without 

cooperation from all players. 

Environment rights and environmental 

health are definitely important issues that REFERENCE 

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including the authorities, private sectors, Pruss-Ustun. A. (2006). Preventing Disease 

public and non-governmental organizations 

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Towards an Estimate of the 

affecting the present generation but also will 

Environmental Burden Disease. 

have impact on future generations. In line 

World Health Organization. 

with United Nations policies, Malaysia have 

a long list of environmental legislations; Aarhus Convention on Access to 

however, these instruments could not be 

Information, Public Participation 

in Decision-Making and Access to 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 57



Justice in Environmental Matters 

(Aarhus, 25 June 1998). 

Additional Protocol to the American 

Convention on Human Rights (San 

Salvador Protocol, 17 November 

1988). 

Adong bin Kuwau & Ors v Kerajaan 

Negeri Johor and Anor (1997) 1 MLJ 

418 (High Court); (1998) 1 CLJ 

Supp. 419. 

African Charter on Human and Peoples’ 

Rights (Banjul, 27 June 1981). 

Arab Charter on Human Rights (Tunis, 

22 May 2004). 

Asia Pacific Forum on Human Rights and 

the Environment. (2007). Final 

Report and Recommendations. 

Sydney. 

Boyd, D. R. (2011). The Implicit 

Constitutional Right to Live in a 

Healthy Environment. Review of 

European Community & 

International Environmental Law 

2(20), 171. 

Dowdeswell, E. (1994). Development of 

International Law. Juridisk & 

Forlag. 

Hungary v Slovakia (1997). ICJ Rep. 151 

at 206 

Law, D. (2011). The Evolution and 

Ideology of Global 

Constitutionalism. California Law 

Review, pp.1163-1257. 

Ministry of Science, Technology and 

Environment. (1992). Report of 

Mohd Anuar 

Environmental Law Review 

Committee, Department of 

Environment. Kuala Lumpur: 

Ministry of Science, Technology and 

Environment. 

Mohammad, N. (2011). Urban 

Environmental POllution in 

Malaysia: A Case Study. British 

Journal of Humanities and Social 

Sciences 3(1), 46. 

Mohammad, N. (2014). Environmental 

Rights for Administering Clean ad 

Healthy Environments Towards 

Susainable Development in 

Malaysia: A Case Study. 

International Journal of Business 

and Management 9(8), 191. 

Mukherjee, R. (2002). Environmental 

Management and Awareness Issues. 

New Delhi: Sterling Publishers 

Private Limited. 

NEHAP Malaysia. Retrieved from 

nehapmalaysia on 15 Ogos 2016: 

www.nehapmalaysia.moh.gov 

Rahman, H. A. (2010). Human Rights to 

Environment in Malaysia. Health 

and the Environment Journal 1(1), 

59. 

Shradha Sinha, m. s. (2005). A Text Book 

of Environmental Studies. New 

Delhi: AITBS Publishers & 

Distributors. 

Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya 

Perkhidmatan Pendidikan (1996) 2 CLJ 

771, at 801. 

Weissbrodt, D. (2007). International 

Human Rights Law: An Introduction. 

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Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. 

Mohd Anuar 

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The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the Indo- 

Pacific Region: Emerging Prospects, Potentials, Culture and 

Utilization 

M. Aminur Rahman 1, * and Fatimah Md. Yusoff 1, 2 

1 Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 

UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2 Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti 

Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 

*Corresponding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

Echinoderms belong to the bottom-dwelling sessile invertebrates are considered as the highvalued 

marine bioresource, having profound biological, ecological, aquacultural, conservational, 

nutritional and pharmaceutical significance. The phylum Echinodermata is divided into five extant 

classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand 

dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars) and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers). Among them, 

the sea cucumbers are both commercially fished and heavily overexploited. The principal product 

in the sea cucumber, is the boiled and dried body-wall or ‘beche-de-mer’ for which there is 

an increasing demand in many tropical and subtropical countries and also have long been considered 

as a priced delicacy and medicinal cure for the peoples of Asia over many decades. In the 

nutritional point of view, sea cucumbers are enriched with valuable nutrients such as Vitamin A, 

Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially 

calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc. A comprehensive number of unique biological and pharmacological 

activities including anti-angiogenic, anticoagulant, anticancer, anti-hypertension, antiinflammatory, 

antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antitumor and wound healing have 

been attributed to various species of sea cucumbers. They have also long been well recognized as 

a tonic and traditional remedy in Chinese and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness against, 

asthma, rheumatism, tuberculosis, stomach and duodenum ulceration, diabetes, aplastic anaemia, 

cuts and burns, impotence and constipation. In order to meet up the increasing market demands, 

the collection of sea cucumbers from the wild has seen a depletion of this resource in the traditional 

fishing grounds close to Asia and more recently the expansion of this activity to new and 

more distant fishing grounds. Presently, there has been documented that, sea cucumbers fisheries 

are harvesting around most of the resource range areas, including the remote parts of the Pacific, 

the Galapagos Islands, Chile and the Russian Federation. This review shows that sea cucumber 

stocks are under intense fishing pressure in many parts of the world and need effective aquaculture 

management and conservation measures. It also shows that sea cucumbers provide an important 

contribution to economies and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most commercially 

important fishery and non-finfish export in many countries. Reconciling the need for 

conservation with the socio-economic importance of sea cucumber fisheries is shown to be a 

challenging endeavour, particularly for the countries with limited management capacity. Current 

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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Region 

Rahman and Yusoff 

research directions are looking at diversifying technology to increase success in a range of 

coastal conditions, better understanding the social and biophysical conditions required for success, 

and finding ways of effectively scaling-out developed systems and culture technology. 

Moreover, no single management measure will work optimally due to the many eccentricities of 

these important fisheries, which are outlined in this document through a brief review of their biological, 

ecological, aquacultural, biomedicinal, conservational, economic and social dimensions. 

Keywords: Aquaculture; beche-de-mer; biomedicine; breeding; larval rearing; life cycle; 

nutraceuticals; sea cucumber 

PROSPECTS AND POTENTIALS 

In the recent decades, invertebrate fisheries 

have expanded in catch and value worldwide 

(Anderson et al., 2011). One increasingly 

harvested marine invertebrates group is sea 

cucumbers, belong to the class Holothuroidea 

under the phylum Echinodermata, 

which usually occur in the shallow benthic 

areas and deep seas across the world 

(Bordbar et al., 2011). Sea cucumbers are 

elongated tubular or flattened soft-bodied 

marine benthic invertebrates, typically with 

leathery skin, ranging in length from a few 

millimetres to a metre (Backhuys, 1977; 

Lawrence, 1987). Holothuroids encompass 

14000 known species (Pawson, 2007) and 

occur in most benthic marine habitats 

worldwide, in temperate and tropical oceans, 

and from the intertidal zone to the deep sea 

(Hickman et al., 2006). The fisheries of sea 

cucumber have expanded worldwide in 

catch and value over the past two to three 

decades (Conand, 2004; FAO, 2008). Global 

sea cucumber production increased from 

130,000 t in 1995 to 411,878 t in 2012 

(Rahman et al., 2015). Among other aquatic 

animals, overall production of dried sea cucumbers 

has increased rapidly (Figure 1). 

However, sea cucumber fisheries in Asian 

countries (China, Japan, India, Philippines, 

Indonesia and Malaysia) have been depleted 

due to overexploitation as well as lack of 

effective management and conservation 

strategies. The major product in the sea cucumber 

is the boiled and dried body-wall, 

familiarly known as ‘beche-de-mer’ or 

‘gamat’, for which there is an increasing 

demand for food delicacy and folk medicine 

in the communities of Asia and Middle East 

(Yaacob et al., 1997; Huizeng, 2001; 

Bordbar et al., 2011). There is also a trade in 

sea cucumbers for home aquaria and biomedical 

products (Bruckner et al., 2003). 

Sea cucumber fisheries had rapidly grown 

and expanded due to the growing beche-demer-related 

international market, supported 

by continuing demand of these organisms 

for aquaculture and biomedical research 

programs (Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al., 

2011). They have high commercial value 

coupled with increasing global production 

and trade and therefore, commercially fished 

and heavily overexploited in some areas 

(Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al., 2011). The 

widespread and growing interest in this 

commodity is indicative of strong marketbased 

drivers to increase production of sea 

cucumber (Brown et al., 2010). It also 

shows that sea cucumbers provide an important 

contribution to economies and livelihoods 

of coastal communities, being the 

most economically important fishery and 

non-finfish export in many countries (Toral- 

Granda et al., 2008). Reconciling the need 

for conservation with the socio-economic 

importance of sea cucumber fisheries is 

shown to be a challenging endeavour, particularly 

for the countries with limited management 

capacity. Moreover, no single management 

measure will work optimally due to 

the many idiosyncrasies of these fisheries. 

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Many sea cucumber fisheries still have no 

management system or restrictions, and for 

those that do, the scenario for catches to 

continue even at a reduced level is poor 

(Kelly, 2005). Cultivation of these species 

increasingly becomes a necessity, both for 

stock enhancement programs and as a means 

to meet up market demand. 

BREEDING, SEED PRODUCTION AND 

CULTURE 


The species of sea cucumber targeted for 

culture, belong to two families, the depositfeeding 

Aspidochirotida, which includes the 

Holothuriidae and the Stichopodidae, and 

the suspension feeding Dendrochirotida, 

which includes the genus Cucumaria. The 

cultivatable species of sea cucumbers are 

dioecious, broadcast spawners, the fertilized 

eggs developing into planktonic larvae before 

settling and undergoing metamorphosis 

to the juvenile sea cucumber. The average 

life span of a sea cucumber is thought to be 

5–10 years and most species first reproduce 

at 2–6 years. A number of species are reported 

to reproduce asexually by fission, and 

this has been examined as a technique to 

propagate commercially important species 

(Reichenbach et al., 1996). They also have 

the capability to eviscerate part or all of their 

internal organs as a defence against predation, 

the shed organs being rapidly regenerated. 

Cultivation of sea cucumbers originated 

in Japan in the 1930s and juveniles of 

the temperate species Stichopus japonicus 

(Figure 2A) were first produced in 1950 

(Battaglene et al., 1999). During the last 15 

years, commercial production in Japan has 

accelerated, where annually an estimated 2.5 

million juveniles are released. In China, cul- 

Figure 1: World sea cucumber fisheries production from 1950 to 2012 (Rahman et al., 2015). 

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tured rather than fished S. japonicus now 

account for around 50% of the country’s estimated 

annual production of dry sea cucumber 

(Kelly, 2005). Procedures for mass 

culture of the tropical Holothuria scabra 

(Figure 2B) are now well established and 

practiced in Australia, India, Indonesia, the 

Maldives and the Solomon Islands 

(Battaglene et al., 1999). Other tropical species 

in culture include Actinopyga mauritania 

(Figure 2C) and H. fuscogilva (Figure 

2D), with the focus of the research effort 

centered on the production of juveniles in 

hatcheries for the restoration and enhancement 

of wild stocks (Ramofafia et al., 1996, 

2000). 

Brood stock of Stichopus japonicus 

is usually collected from the wild in spring, 

when they attain appropriate sexual maturity 

(Kelly, 2005). The broodstock is most commonly 

induced to spawn through thermal 

stimulation, by increasing the seawater temperature 

in holding tanks by 3–5°C for 1 h. 

Generally, H. scabra has a biannual peak in 

gonadosomatic index, indicating two spawning 

periods a year, but closer to the equator a 

proportion of the population spawns yearround 

(Battaglene et al., 1999; Kelly, 2005). 

Fertilization occurs spontaneously once the 

gametes are allowed to mix in seawater; the 

fertilized eggs are held in suspension by aer- 

A 

B 

C 

D 

Figure 2: Major commercially important species of sea cucumbers in aquaculture: A) Stichopus 

japonicas, B) Holothuria scabra, C) Actinopyga mauritania and D) Holothuria fuscogilva 

(Rahman, 2014a, b). 

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-ation and egg development is rapid. Larval 

life cycle of H. scabra is almost around 14 

days at 28°C, including the feeding or auricularia 

stage, the doliolaria or non-feeding 

stage and settling pentacula stage (Figure 3 

and 4). As with many other larval Echinoderms, 

sea cucumber larvae are fed a mixture 

of microalgal species, with the number 

of algal cells provided gradually being increased 

over the larval life to be completed. 

Holothuria scabra larvae can feed and grow 

well on a diet of the red microalgae 

Rhodomonas salina and the brown diatom 

Chaetoceros calcitrans (Battaglene et al., 

1999; Kelly, 2005). 

Metamorphosis and settlement are 

critical stages in the development and culture 

of sea cucumber larvae. High survival is 

dependent on the larvae being competent to 

metamorphose and then responding to settlement 

cues. Competent pentacula (Figure 

4C) larvae are provided with a substrate of 

bacteria and diatoms, which provide the appropriate 

settlement cues, and to which they 

adhere with their buccal podia. Typically, 

Figure 3: Spawning, fertilization and a 14-day larval life-cycle of a cultured sea cucumber (Holothuria 

scabra) at a water temperature of 28 o C (FAO, 2008; Bruckner et al., 2003). 

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A 

B 

C 

Figure 4: Developmental stages of Holothuria scabra: A) Auricularia; B) Doliolaria; C) Pentactula; 

and D) Early juvenile. 

D 

S. japonicus settles on PVC plates coated 

with small periphytic diatoms such as Navicula, 

Amphora, Achnanthes and Nitzchia 

sp. The plates are coated in outdoor tanks in 

direct sunlight, although the light intensity, 

nutrient enrichment and copepod levels must 

be controlled to produce suitable plates 

(Kelly, 2005). Leaves of the sea grass (Thallassia 

hemprichii) are the preferred settlement 

substrate of H. scabra and soluble extracts 

of the leaves have been shown to induce 

settlement onto clean plastic surfaces 

(Kelly, 2005). Post-settlement juvenile sea 

cucumbers are grown either on diatomcoated 

plates, held in fine mesh bags in 

tanks or on the bottom of tanks, where juveniles 

of 10–20 mm are transferred to a fine 

sand substrate and fed a diet supplemented 

by algal extracts or powdered algae. Newly 

settled juveniles (Fig. 4D) attach firmly to 

settlement surfaces and can be difficult to 

detach. Throughout the juvenile stage it is 

necessary to periodically detach the juveniles 

from the substrate for grading, transfer 

between tanks or to supply fresh substrates. 

KCl (0.5–1%) in seawater is an effective 

agent for detaching H. scabra from settlement 

surfaces (Kelly, 2005). The use of KCl 

does not harm juvenile sea cucumbers but 

does effectively kill some tropical copepods 

(Battaglene et al., 1999). 

After a nursery phase of 6-month, 

when the juvenile S. japonicus grows to a 

length of 4–8 cm, are released to managed 

areas of the seafloor. They are recovered 

after 1 year when they measure approximately 

20 cm (Kelly, 2005). There is a lack 

of information on growth rates and survivorship 

in tropical species, and, as with all Holothuria, 

measurements of growth are complicated 

by their ability to change shape, 

eviscerate and retain water and sediment in 

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the gut and coelomic cavity (Kelly, 2005). 

However, Battaglene et al. (1999) suggest 

there should be no impediment to the largescale 

production of juvenile H. scabra for 

stock enhancement programs provided they 

can be released at a size of 6 cm and with a 

weight of 20 g. The three months it takes to 

reach juvenile H. scabra of this size (Figure 

5) and the ease of rearing them under active 

consideration for grow-out culture and stock 

enhancement (Battaglene et al., 1999). 

Figure 5: Three-month old juveniles of H. 

scabra for grow-out culture and stock enhancement. 


Aquaculture, sea ranching and re 

stocking have been evaluated as possible 

solutions to wild sea cucumber overexploitation, 

and some countries have started such 

ventures (e.g. Australia, China, Kiribati, 

Philippines, Viet Nam and Madagascar). 

Restocking has been considered an expensive 

remedy to overfishing. Currently, China 

is successfully producing an estimated 

10,000 tons, dry weight, of Stichopus japonicus 

from aquaculture, mainly to supply local 

demand. Due to the prawn diseases happened 

in 1990s, a lots of prawn ponds are 

unused, so the farmers started pond culture 

of sea cucumber in Shan Dong province and 

Dalian. Currently pond culture has become 

the most suitable method of sea cucumber 

farming (Figure 6). In the Asia Pacific region, 

aquaculture is still in the early development 

stages, with one species of sea cucumber 

(Holothuria scabra) in trials to ascertain 

the commercial viability of culture 

and farming options. Many additional 

threats have been identified for sea cucumber 

populations worldwide, including global 

warming, habitat destruction, unsustainable 

fishing, the development of fisheries with 

little or no information on the species, and 

lack of natural recovery after overexploitation. 

Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported 

(IUU) fisheries are widespread in all regions, 

representing an indirect threat as it 

fuels unsustainable practices and socioeconomic 

demand. The critical status of sea 

cucumber fisheries worldwide is compounded 

by different factors including i) the lack 

of financial and technical capacity to gather 

basic scientific information to support management 

plans, ii) weak surveillance and 

enforcement capacity, and iii) lack of political 

will and socio-economic pressure exerted 

by the communities that rely on this fishery 

as an important source of income. The 

fast pace of development of sea cucumber 

fisheries to supply the growing international 

demand for beche-de-mer is placing most 

fisheries and many sea cucumber species at 

risk. The pervasive trend of overfishing, and 

mounting examples of local economic extinctions, 

urges immediate action for conserving 

stocks biodiversity and ecosystem 

functioning and resilience from other stressors 

than overfishing (e. g. global warming 

and ocean acidification), and therefore sustaining 

the ecological, social and economic 

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benefits of these natural resources (Toral- 

Granda et al., 2008). 

HIGH-VALUED BIOACTIVES AND 

THERAPEUTICS 


Majority of the recently available functional 

foods and therapeutic agents are derived either 

directly or indirectly from a wide variety 

of terrestrial plants and marine organisms. 

Owing to the richest oceanic biodiversity, 

marine organisms are valuable sources of 

nutritious foods as well as represent novel 

reservoirs of biologically active compounds 

with biomedical applications. Sea cucumbers 

are one of the benthic marine invertebrates 

which are important as human food 

source, particularly in some parts of Asia. 

Sea cucumbers have been well recognized as 

a tonic and traditional remedy in Chinese 

and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness 

against hypertension, asthma, rheumatism, 

cuts and burns, impotence and constipation 

(Weici, 1987; Yaacob et al., 1997; 

Wen et al., 2010). Nutritionally, sea cucumbers 

have an impressive profile of valuable 

nutrients such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 

(thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin 

B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially calcium, 

magnesium, iron and zinc (Tian et al., 

2005). A number of unique biological and 

pharmacological activities including antiangiogenic 

(Tian et al., 2005), anticancer 

(Roginsky et al., 2004), anticoagulant (Nagase 

et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2011), antihypertension 

(Hamaguchi et al., 2010), antiinflammatory 

(Collin, 2004), antimicrobial 

(Beauregard et al., 2001), antioxidant (Althunibat 

et al., 2009), antithrombotic 

(Mourao et al., 1998), antitumor (Zou et al., 

2003) and wound healing (San Miguel-Ruiz 

and García-Arrarás, 2007) have been attributed 

to various species of sea cucumbers. 

Therapeutic properties and medicinal 

benefits of sea cucumbers can be linked to 

the presence of a wide array of bioactive 

compounds, especially triterpene glycosides 

(saponins) (Kerr and Chen, 1995), chondroitin 

sulfates (Vieira et al., 1991), glycosaminoglycan 

(Pacheco et al., 2000), sulfated 

polysaccharides (Mourao, and Pereira, 

1999), sterols (glycosides and sulfates) 

(Goad et al., 1985, phenolics (Mamelona et 

al., (2007), (Sugawara et al., 2007), lectins 

(Mojica and Merca, 2005), peptides 

(Rafiuddin et al., 2004), glycoprotein, glycosphingolipids 

and essential fatty acids 

Figure 6: Pictures showing some successful aquaculture practices of sea cucumbers in earthen 

ponds at Shan Dong province and Dalian in China (Rahman, 2014b). 

ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 67




(Bordbar et al., 2011). This review is mainly 

designed to cover the high-value components 

and bioactive compounds as well as 

the multiple biological and therapeutic properties 

of sea cucumbers with respect to exploring 

their potential and significant uses 

for functional foods, nutraceutical and 

pharmaceutical products human health benefits 

(Rahman et al., 2014; Zulfaqar et al., 

2016a, b). So far, numerous studies have 

been conducted on sea cucumbers, however, 

profound potentials still exist to isolate, 

identify and characterize new compounds 

from different parts of various species of 

this high-valued marine invertebrate for 

their chemical structure and detailed biological 

properties using spectroscopic and biomedical 

approaches and bioactivity-directed 

assays to a greater extent. 

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS 

AND CONCLUSIONS 

We are aware of active research programs in 

the Philippines (hatchery, nursery systems, 

sea ranching, co-culture, pond culture), Vietnam 

(hatchery, pond culture, co-culture, 

sea ranching), Thailand (pond culture, sea 

ranching) and Malaysia (hatchery, sea 

ranching). Strong institutional support, as 

well as donor-funded programs, in particular, 

will ensure continued development of 

sea-ranching and pond-culture systems. Current 

research in these countries is focusing 

on technology and system development to 

diversify options for producers, and on further 

understanding the optimal socioeconomic 

and biophysical preconditions for 

successful enterprises. Models for scaling 

out technology and catalyzing uptake by 

small-scale producers are being tested across 

broad geographic regions. The pond-culture 

industry in Vietnam, for example, is currently 

growing ‘organically’, with around a dozen 

farmers involved. This provides good opportunities 

for future research in partnership 

with industry. In the Philippines, a major 

focus in the near future will be capacity 

building among local institutions to support 

early entrants into the sea-ranching industry. 

The establishment of model enterprises is 

expected to provide a strong basis for technology 

uptake. 

Generally, aquaculture operations for 

marine species do not start until the wild 

capture has been diminished to a point 

where incomes and lifestyle of the people 

involved are affected when the wild stocks 

decline, high market demand for food, 

nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals raises the 

price of the product and, as a result, culturing 

is most likely to become viable commercially. 

As this article shows, there have been 

dramatic advances in the culture methods of 

sea cucumbers in the last 15–20 years, we 

can conclude that currently the major obstacles 

to successful cultivation are indeed financial 

rather than biological and ecological 

(Kelly, 2005; Rahman et al., 2015). Therefore, 

the fate of the sea cucumber industry is 

narrowly linked to that of the fisheries, 

whose fate will ultimately determine the 

market forces that will shape this rising industry 

in a very productive, significant and 

worthwhile manner. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The authors would like to express their sincere 

thanks and appreciations to Universiti 

Putra Malaysia (UPM) for providing financial 

supports through Research Management 

Centre (RMC) under the Grant Putra (GP-I) 

grant vide [Project No. GPI/2014/9450100] 

to successfully carry out this work. 

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in Malaysia. International Journal of 

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Sridevi Chigurupati 1 *, Jahidul Islam Mohammad 2 and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan 

Selvarajan 3 

1 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 

08100, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia 

2 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Cyberjaya University College of Medical 

Sciences, CUCMS, Cyberjaya, 63000, Malaysia 

3 Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Hail, Hail, 

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. *Corresponding author; Email: sridevi.phd@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines “health” as a state of complete physical, mental 

and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. There always exists a 

permanent relationship between humans and his environment, our health is to a considerable 

extent determined by the environmental quality. The connotations between environmental 

pollution and health outcome are, however, complex and often poorly described. Stages of 

exposure are often uncertain or unknown because of lack of detailed observations and 

predictable variations within any population group. Exposures may occur through a range of 

pathways and exposure processes. This book chapter discusses the impact of few important 

environmental factors and their impact on human health. 

Keywords: Environment; human health; pollutants; pollution 

INTRODUCTION 

The relationship between human health and 

the physical environment is both obvious 

and obscure. The environment in which 

human beings survive, work and relax, is 

determining his health and well-being. 

Mentally and physically many facets of 

environment like physical, chemical as well 

as microbiological factors can have 

repercussions on our health, both physically 

and mentally (Daughton and Ternes, 1997; 

Halden, 2008; Halden, 2010). However, the 

relation between environment and health is 

extremely complicated. Despite many health 

problems are believed to be associated with 

environmental pollution, it is difficult to 

measure the seriousness, extent, significance 

and causes of environment-related diseases. 

Besides environmental-related factors, there 

are other causes which can directly or 

indirectly lead to the same health issues 

(Blumenthal and Ruttenber, 1995; 

Nadakavukaren, 1995; Moeller, 1997; 

Morgan, 1997). 

The term environment also covers 

the influences of external living and nonliving, 

factual and non-factual factors that 

surround human. In its modern concept, 

environment includes not only the water, air 

and soil that form our environment, but also 

the communal and commercial conditions 

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under which we live (ReVelle and ReVelle, 

1992; Wildavsky, 1995). 

For expressive purpose, environment 

has been dispersed into three main 

components as follows: 

a) Physical: Water, air, soil, wastes, 

radiation, etc. 

b) Biologic: Plant and animal life 

including bacteria, viruses, insects, rodents 

and animals, and 

c) Social: Customs, culture, habits, 

income, occupation, religion etc. 

The fundamental to man's health lies 

mostly in his environment. In fact, much of 

man's ill-health can be outlined to hostile 

environmental factors such as water 

pollution, soil pollution, air pollution, poor 

housing conditions, presence of animal 

reservoirs and insect vectors of diseases 

which stance a constant threat to man's 

health. However, often a man is responsible 

for the pollution of his environment through 

urbanization, industrialization and other 

human activities (Park, 2011). 

The fundamental connection between 

human health related effects and distribution 

of specific substances in that specific 

environment had been often tough or not 

perceptible. The specific contribution of 

each of the different causes of health 

problems is difficult to determine. 

Sridevi et al 

and mud) and microscopic organisms also 

contaminate the water. These impurities are 

generally derived from the atmosphere, 

catchment area and the soil. However, the 

urbanization and industrialization are the 

main causes of the water pollution. The 

sources of pollution resulting from 

urbanization and industrialization are: (a) 

sewage, which contains decomposable 

organic matter and pathogenic agents, (b) 

industrial and trade wastes, which contain 

toxic agents ranging from metal salts to 

complex synthetic organic chemicals, (c) 

agricultural pollutants, which comprise 

fertilizers and pesticides, and (d) physical 

pollutants, via heat (thermal pollution) and 

radioactive substances (Abdel-Shafy et al., 

2016). 

WATER POLLUTION 

Pure sterilized water does not occur in 

nature. It contains numerous of impurities as 

well as natural and man-made (Figure 

1A&B) environmental water pollutants. The 

natural impurities are not fundamentally 

dangerous. These consist of dissolved gases 

(e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen 

sulphide, etc.) and dissolved minerals (e.g. 

salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.) 

which are natural elements of water. 

Suspended impurities (e.g. clay, silt, sand 

Figure 1(A&B): Examples of man-made 

water pollution. 

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Effects on human health 

Men's health may be affected by the 

ingestion of contaminated water either 

directly or through food, and by the use of 

contaminated water for purpose of personal 

hygiene and recreation (Table 1). The term 

water-related disease includes the classical 

waterborne diseases. Developing countries 

carry a heavy burden of water-related 

diseases, the heaviest being the diarrhoeal 

diseases (Li et al., 2016). 

Table 1: Classification of water-related 

diseases 

Infective 

agent / Water-borne diseases 

Aquatic host 

A. Those caused by the presence of an 

infective agent 

a. Bacterial Typhoid and Paratyphoid 

fever, Bacillary dysentery, 

Diarrhoea, cholera 

b. Helminthic Roundworm, Threadworm, 

Hydatid disease 

c. Leptospiral Weil's disease 

d. Protozoal Amoebiasis, Giardiasis 

e. Viral Viral hepatitis A, Hepatitis 

E, Poliomyelitis, Rotavirus 

diarrhoea in infants 

B. Those due to the presence of an aquatic 

host 

a. Cyclops Guinea worm, Fish tape 

worm. 

b. Snail Schistosomiasis 

Chemical pollutants from industrial 

and agricultural wastes are progressively 

finding their way into community water 

supplies. These pollutants include detergent 

solvents, cyanides, heavy metals, minerals 

and organic acids, nitrogenous substances, 

bleaching agents, dyes, pigments, sulphides, 

ammonia, toxic and biocidal organic 

compounds of great variety. Chemical 

pollutants may affect a men's health not only 

directly, but also indirectly by accumulated 

Sridevi et al 

pollutants in aquatic life (e.g. fish) used as 

human food. The concern about chemical 

pollutants in water relates not so much as to 

their acute toxic effects on human health as 

to the possible long-term effects of low level 

exposure, which are often non-specific and 

difficult to detect (Vrzel et al., 2016). 

In addition to the above, water 

quality is also linked with the following: 

(a) Dental health: The presence of 

fluoride at about 1 mg/L in drinking water is 

known to protect against dental caries; but, 

high levels of fluoride cause mottling of the 

dental enamel. 

(b) Cyanosis in infant: High nitrate 

content of water is associated with 

methemoglobinemia. This is a rare 

occurrence, but may occur when surface 

water from farmland, treated with a 

fertilizer, gain access to the water supply. 

(c) Cardiovascular diseases: 

Hardness of water appears to have a 

beneficial effect against cardiovascular 

diseases. 

(d) Some diseases are transmitted 

because of inadequate use of water like 

shigellosis, trachoma and conjunctivitis, 

ascariasis, scabies. 

(e) Some diseases are related to the 

disease carrying insects breeding in or near 

water, like: malaria, filaria, arboviruses, 

onchocerciasis, and African trypanosomiasis 

(also known as sleeping sickness). 

While water pollution seems to be an 

inevitable consequence of modern industrial 

technology, currently, the challenge is to 

determine the level of pollution that permits 

economic and social development without 

presenting hazards to health. The evaluation 

of the health effects of environmental 

pollutants is currently being carried out by 

researchers as part of the WHO’s 

environmental health criteria programme 

(Giudice, 2016). 

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SOIL POLLUTION 

Soil is a dynamic part of the natural 

environment. It is just as important as 

plants, animals, rocks, landforms and rivers. 

It affects the distribution of plant species and 

provides an environment for a wide range of 

organisms (Adriano et al., 1999, Gardiner 

and Miller 2008; Rajesh et al., 2016). It 

controls the movement of water and 

chemical substances between the 

atmosphere and the earth, and acts as both a 

source and store for gases like oxygen and 

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Soils not 

only record human activities both at present 

and in the past, but also reflect natural 

processes. Soil together with the plants and 

animals life it supports, the rock on which it 

develops its position in the landscape and 

the climate it experiences, form an 

amazingly intricate natural system powerful 

and complex than any machine that human 

being has created. Soil pollution does cause 

huge disturbances in the ecological balance 

and the health of the organisms. 

To celebrate the importance of soil 

and its vital contributions to human health 

and safety, the International Union of Soil 

Sciences established ‘the World Soil Day’ in 

2002 (Pierzynski et al., 2005). On December 

20, 2013, the 68 th UN General Assembly 

recognized December 5 th , 2014 as World 

Soil Day and 2015 as the International Year 

of Soils. 

Reasons for soil pollution 

Soil pollution is the reason for fall in the 

productivity of soil. Soil pollutants have a 

hostile effect on the physical, chemical and 

biological properties of the soil that leads to 

the reduction in soil productivity. Increasing 

urbanization, disposal of unprocessed 

wastes, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals, 

irrational mining, dumping industrial wastes, 

unintentional and accidental 

Sridevi et al 

pollution/leakages, out-of-date technology, 

inadequate treatment and safety 

management of chemicals or waste materials 

and also the lack of engineer designed 

landfills, pesticides, fertilizers, organic 

manure, chemicals, radioactive wastes, 

discarded food, clothes, leather goods, 

plastics, paper, bottles, tins-cans and 

carcasses - all contribute towards causing 

soil pollution. Chemicals like iron, lead, 

mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminium, 

cyanides, acids, and alkalis etc. are present 

in industrial wastes that reach the soil either 

directly with water or indirectly through the 

air (e.g. through acid rain). The improper 

and continuous use of herbicides, pesticides 

and fungicides to protect the crops from 

pests, fungi, etc. alter the basic composition 

of the soils and make the soil toxic to plant 

growth. Organic insecticides like DDT, 

aldrin, benzene hexchloride, etc. are used 

against soil borne pests. All these practices 

also contribute to soil pollution. 


Generally, people can be exposed to 

contaminants in soil through ingestion, 

dermal exposure or inhalation. Soil 

contamination leads to health risks due to 

direct and indirect contact with 

contaminated soil. Path of human exposure 

to a soil contaminant is different with the 

contaminant and with the conditions and 

events at a particular site. The effects of 

pollution on soil are quite alarming and can 

result in huge disorders in the ecological 

balance and health of man on earth. Crops 

cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil; 

however, if some crops manage to grow, 

then these crops might have absorbed the 

toxic chemicals in the soil and might 

lead to serious health problems in people 

consuming them. Sometimes, the soil 

pollution is in the form of increased salinity 

of the soil. In such a case, the soil becomes 

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unhealthy for vegetation. When soil 

pollution modifies the soil structure, deaths 

of many beneficial soil organisms (e.g. 

Earthworms) in the soil could take place. 

Other than further reducing the ability of the 

soil to support life, this occurrence could 

also have an effect on the larger predators 

(e.g. Birds) and force them to move to other 

places, in the search of food. Figure 2 shows 

an example of man-made soil pollution. 

People living near polluted land tend 

to have higher incidences of migraines, 

nausea, fatigue, skin disorders and even 

miscarriages. Depending on the pollutants 

present in the soil, some of the longer-term 

effects of soil pollution include cancer, 

leukaemia, reproductive disorders, kidney 

and liver damage, and central nervous 

system failure. These health problems could 

be a result of direct poisoning of the polluted 

land (e.g. children playing on land filled 

with toxic waste) or indirect poisoning (e.g. 

eating crops grown on polluted land, 

drinking water polluted by the leaching of 

chemicals from the polluted land to the 

water supply, etc.). 

Figure 2: Man-made soil polluted 


Creating a clearly defined 

management framework is critical to the 

establishment of a national soil protection 

management system, for consensus building 

Sridevi et al 

and joint effort of stakeholders. 

Consequently, a soil management 

framework that is consistent with the 

national vision for soil environment 

protection and reflects the comprehensive 

‘Soil Environment Protection Act’ is 

recommended to be established (Policy, 

1993). 

AIR POLLUTION 

The term "air pollution" signifies the 

presence in the ambient (surrounding) 

atmosphere of substances (e.g., gases, 

mixtures of gases and particulate matter) 

generated by the activities of man in 

concentrations that interfere with human 

health, safety or comfort, or injurious to 

vegetation and animals and other 

environmental media resulting in chemicals 

entering the food chain or being present in 

drinking-water and thereby constituting 

additional source of human exposure 

(Lancet, 2016). The direct effect of air 

pollutants on plants, animals and soil can 

influence the structure and function of 

ecosystems, including self-regulation ability, 

thereby affecting the quality of life. In the 

past, ‘air pollution’ meant smoke pollution 

(Besis et al., 2016). Today, ‘air pollution’ 

has become subtler and recognizes no 

geographical or political boundaries. Air 

pollution is one of the present-day health 

problems throughout the world (Cai et al., 

2016). The diseases caused by air pollution 

are shown in Table 2. 

The following are the Sources of air 

pollution 

a. Automobiles: Motor vehicles are 

a major source of air pollution throughout 

the urban areas. They emit hydrocarbons, 

carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides and 

particulate matter. 

b. Industries: Industries emit large 

amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere. 

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Table 2: Diseases caused by air pollution. 

Airborne 

Cause/Remark 

disease 

Asthma 

Inhaling various 

attacks 

poisonous gases and 

Chronic 

constant suffocation 

Obstructive owing to polluted air 

Pulmonary 

Disease 

(COPD) 

Autism That is tendency to live 

Birth defects 

and immune 

system defects 

Bronchitis 

Cardiovascular 

problems 

Emphysema 

Leukaemia 

Liver and other 

types of cancer 

Mesothelioma 

Neurobehavior 

al disorders 

in isolation 

Due to constant 

breathing in polluted air. 

The inflammation and 

swelling of the air 

passages between nose to 

lungs and throat to lungs. 

Bad air quality and lot of 

poisonous gases and 

particulate matter 

suspended in the air 

cause heart diseases and 

stroke. 

It’s a state of lungs when 

tiny air sacs in them. 

Exposure to benzene 

vapours causes this 

disease which is a type 

of blood cancer. 

Suspended carcinogenic 

(cancer causing) matter 

in the air is main cause 

of all types of cancer 

related to respiratory 

system. 

Another type of lung 

cancer because of 

inhaling asbestos 

particles suspended in 

the air 

Inhaling polluted air that 

directly affects your 

neuro system. 

Pneumonia 

Premature 

death 

Pulmonary 

cancer 

Weakening of 

lung function 

Sridevi et al 

An infection of lungs 

because of breathing 

inside bacteria flying in 

wind pressure and moves 

into the respiratory 

system of a person who 

inhales polluted air. 

The ultimate outcome of 

constant inhaling of 

polluted air. 

Inhaling various 

carcinogenic stuff 

through polluted air 

Constant inhaling of 

contaminated air 

Combustion of fuel to generate heat and 

power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide, 

nitrogen oxides and fly ash. Petrochemical 

industries generate hydrogen fluoride, 

hydrochloric acid and organic halides. 

c. Domestic sources: Domestic 

combustion of coal, wood or oil is a major 

source of smoke, dust, and sulphur dioxide 

and nitrogen oxides. 

d. Smoking: The most direct and 

important source of air pollution that affects 

the health of many people is tobacco smoke. 

Even those who do not smoke may inhale 

the smoke produced by others ("passive 

smoking"). 

e. Miscellaneous: The following 

various sources also contribute to air 

pollution. These comprise burning refuse, 

incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural 

sources (e.g. windborne dust, fungi, moulds, 

and bacteria) and nuclear energy 

programmes (Chiang et al., 2016; Huang et 

al., 2016; Daneshparvar et al., 2016). 

Various air pollutants are as follows: 

i) Carbon monoxide: Carbon 

monoxide is one of the most common and 

widely distributed air pollutants. It is a 

product of incomplete combustion of carbon 

containing materials such as incomplete 

combustion of fuel by automobiles, 

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industrial process, heating facilities and 

incinerators. Estimates of man-made carbon 

monoxide emission vary from 350 - 600 

million tonnes per annum. 

ii) Sulphur dioxide: Domestic fires, 

power generation and motor vehicles can 

also produce emissions containing sulphur 

dioxide. It is one of the several forms in 

which sulphur exists in the air. The others 

include H 2 S, H 2 SO 4 and sulphate salts. 

Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is a colourless gas 

with a sharp odour, results from the 

combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuel, 

the smelting of sulphur-containing ores, and 

other industrial processes. When SO 2 

combines with water, it forms sulphuric 

acid; this is the main component of acid rain 

which is a cause of deforestation. A SO 2 

concentration of 500μg/m 3 should not be 

exceeded over average periods of 10 min 

duration. 

iii) Lead: The combustion of alkyl 

lead additives in motor fuels accounts for the 

major part of all lead emissions into the 

atmosphere. An estimated 80-90 % of lead 

in ambient air is derived from the 

combustion of leaded petrol. The mining of 

lead ores creates pollution problems. 

iv) Carbon dioxide: Enormous 

amount of it in combustion process using 

coal, oil and gas its global concentration is 

rising above the natural level by an amount 

that could increase global temperature 

enough to affect climate markedly. 

v) Hydrocarbons: Man-made 

sources of hydrocarbons include 

incineration, combustion of coal, wood, 

processing and use of petroleum. 

Hydrocarbons exert their pollutant action by 

taking part in the chemical reactions that 

cause photochemical smog. 

vi) Cadmium: The steel industry, 

waste incineration, volcanic action and zinc 

production seem to account for the largest 

emissions. Tobacco contains cadmium, and 

smoking may contribute significantly to the 

Sridevi et al 

uptake of cadmium. Cigarettes may contain 

from 0.5 to 3 μg cadmium/gram of tobacco. 

vii) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen 

sulphide is formed during coke production, 

in viscose rayon production, waste-water 

treatment plants, wood pulp production 

using the sulphate method, sulphur 

extraction process, oil refining and in the 

tanning industry. Hydrogen sulphide is the 

main toxic substance involved in livestock 

rearing systems with liquid manure storage. 

viii) Ozone: The highest levels of 

ozone pollution occur during periods of 

sunny weather. It is formed by the 

photochemical reaction of sunlight with 

pollutants such as nitrogen oxides from 

vehicle, industry emissions and volatile 

organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by 

vehicles, solvents and industry. The 

previously recommended limit, which was 

fixed at 120 μg/m 3 of 8-hour mean, has been 

reduced to 100 μg/m 3 based on recent 

conclusive associations between daily 

mortality and ozone levels occurring at 

ozone concentrations below 120 μg/m 3 . 

ix) Oxides of nitrogen: Emission of 

oxides of nitrogen occurs predominantly in 

the form of nitric oxide, which comprises 

around 95 % of nitrogen oxides from a 

combustion source. Coal is the most 

important fuel in this context; other sources 

are road traffic and electricity generation. 

The current air quality guidelines of WHO 

the value is 40 μg/m 3 (WHO Air quality 

guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, 

nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, 2006) 

(Kim et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Singh et 

al., 2016). 

The detrimental health effects of air 

pollution have always attracted intense 

interest among researchers from around the 

world. In 2010, WHO estimated that more 

than 6 million people die prematurely every 

year because of air pollution (Brunekreef 

and Holgate, 2002). Both ambient air 

pollution and indoor air pollution have been 

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linked to various adverse health outcomes, 

especially in people with pre-existing 

medical conditions. Such controlled human 

exposure studies might also enable a better 

understanding of the underlying mechanisms 

leading to possible adverse outcomes. 

Ambient air contains many pollutants, 

including gases such as ozone, oxides of 

nitrogen, and Sulphur dioxide along with 

particles of different sizes. Because of the 

complexity of the composition of air 

pollutants and the difficulty of precisely 

measuring exposure, identifying the role of 

different pollutants in respiratory morbidity 

is no simple task. Among the various 

pollutants, particulate matter with an 

aerodynamic diameter of less than 2·5 μm 

(PM2·5) have received a lot of attention 

recently (Lim et. al., 2012). These small 

particles are able to penetrate deep into the 

small airways, alveoli, and blood stream, 

where they can lead to subsequent 

inflammation and vasoconstriction. WHO 

has estimated that PM2·5 contributes to 

roughly 800000 premature deaths per year 

globally (Shah et al., 2013). 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND 

ENVIRONMENT 

Infectious diseases emerging throughout 

history have included some of the most 

feared plagues of the past. Several factors 

contribute to the emergence of infectious 

diseases (Table 3). New infections continue 

to emerge today, while many of the old 

plagues are with us still (Ameli, 2015) and 

are considered as a global problem. As 

demonstrated by influenza epidemics, under 

suitable circumstances, a new infection first 

appearing anywhere in the world could 

traverse entire continents within days or 

weeks. Examples of emerging diseases in 

various parts of the world include 

HIV/AIDS; classic cholera in South 

America and Africa; cholera due to Vibrio 

Sridevi et al 

cholerae O139; Rift Valley fever; hantavirus 

pulmonary syndrome; Lyme disease; and 

haemolytic uremic syndrome, a foodborne 

infection caused by.certain strains of 

Escherichia coli (Kamarulzaman et al., 

2016). 

Most emerging infections appear to 

be caused by pathogens already present in 

the environment, brought out of obscurity or 

given a selective advantage by changing 

conditions and afforded an opportunity to 

infect new host populations (on rare 

occasions), a new variant may also evolve 

and cause a new disease. The process by 

which infectious agents may transfer from 

animals to humans or disseminate from 

isolated groups into new populations can be 

called “microbial traffic”. A number of 

human activity increase microbial traffic and 

as a result promote the emergence and 

epidemics. In some cases, including many of 

the most novel infections, the agents are 

zoonotic those transfer from their natural 

hosts into the human population. In other 

cases, pathogens already present in 

geographically isolated populations are 

given an opportunity to disseminate further. 

Surprisingly often, disease emergence is 

caused by human actions; however, natural 

causes, such as changes in climate, can also 

at times be responsible. Although this 

discussion is confined largely to human 

diseases, similar considerations apply to 

emerging pathogens in other species. 

Ecological interactions can be complex, with 

several factors often working together or in 

sequence. For example, population 

movement from rural areas to cities can 

spread a once-localized infection. The strain 

on infrastructure in the overcrowded and 

rapidly growing cities may disrupt or slow 

public health measures, perhaps allowing the 

establishment of the newly introduced 

infection. Finally, the city may also provide 

a gateway for further dissemination of the 

infection. Most successful emerging 

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Sridevi et al 

Table 3: Factors in emergence of infectious diseases*. 

Factor Examples of specific factors Examples of diseases 

Ecological Agriculture; dams, changes in water Schistosomiasis (dams); Rift Valley 

changes ecosystems; deforestation / fever (dams, irrigation); Argentine 

(including reforestation; flood / drought; hemorrhagic fever (agriculture); 

those due to famine; climate changes 

Hantaan (Korean hemorrhagic fever) 

economic 

(agriculture); hantavirus pulmonary 

development 

and land use) 

syndrome, southwestern US, 1993 

(weather anomalies) 

Human 

demographics, 

behavior 

International 

travel and 

commerce 

Technology 

and industry 

Microbial 

adaptation and 

Change 

Societal events: Population growth 

and migration (movement from rural 

areas to cities); war or civil conflict; 

urban decay; sexual behavior; 

intravenous drug use; use of Highdensity 

facilities. 

Worldwide movement of goods and 

people; air travel 

Globalization of food supplies; 

changes in food processing and 

packaging; organ or tissue 

transplantation; drugs causing 

immunosuppression; widespread use 

of antibiotics 

Microbial evolution, response to 

selection in environment 

Introduction of HIV; spread of dengue; 

spread of HIV and other sexually 

transmitted diseases. 

‘Airport’ malaria; dissemination of 

mosquito vectors; rat borne 

hantaviruses; introduction of cholera 

into South America; 

Dissemination of O139 V. cholera. 

Haemolytic uremic syndrome (E. coli 

contamination of hamburger meat); 

bovine 

spongiform encephalopathy; 

transfusion-associated hepatitis 

(hepatitis B, C); opportunistic 

infections in immunosuppressed 

patients; 

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease from 

contaminated batches of human growth 

hormone (medical technology) 

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria; “antigenic 

drift” in influenza virus 

Breakdown 

public health 

measures 

in 

Curtailment or reduction in 

prevention programs; inadequate 

sanitation and 

vector control measures 

Resurgence of tuberculosis in the 

United States; cholera in refugee 

camps in Africa; 

resurgence of diphtheria in the former 

Soviet Union 

*Adapted from Institute of Medicine (1992) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1994). 

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Sridevi et al 

infections, including HIV, cholera, and 

dengue, have followed this route (Shima et 

al., 2016). 

NATURAL IONIZING RADIATION 

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy 

released by atoms in the form of 

electromagnetic waves or particles. People 

are exposed to natural sources of ionizing 

radiation, such as in soil, water, and 

vegetation, as well as in human-made 

sources, such as x-rays and medical devices. 

Living beings are exposed to natural 

radiation sources as well as human-made 

sources on a daily basis. Sixty naturallyoccurring 

radioactive materials found in soil, 

water and air are one of the reasons for the 

natural radiation. A naturally-occurring gas, 

radon which emanates from rock and soil is 

the main source of natural radiation. People 

inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, 

food and water. People are also exposed to 

natural radiation from cosmic rays, 

particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003). 

Exposure to radiation from humanmade 

sources ranging from nuclear power 

generation to medical usage of radiation for 

diagnosis or treatments is considered 

hazardous to the human health. Today, the 

most common human-made sources of 

ionizing radiation are medical devices, 

including X-ray machines. 

NATURAL IONIZING RADIATION 

Ionizing radiation is a type of energy 

released by atoms in the form of 

electromagnetic waves or particles. People 

are exposed to natural sources of ionizing 

radiation, such as in soil, water, and 

vegetation, as well as in human-made 

sources, such as x-rays and medical devices. 

Living beings are exposed to natural 

radiation sources as well as human-made 

sources on a daily basis. Sixty naturallyoccurring 

radioactive materials found in soil, 

water and air are one of the reasons for the 

natural radiation. A naturally-occurring gas, 

radon which emanates from rock and soil is 

the main source of natural radiation. People 

inhale and ingest radionuclides from air, 

food and water. People are also exposed to 

natural radiation from cosmic rays, 

particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003). 

Exposure to radiation from humanmade 

sources ranging from nuclear power 

generation to medical usage of radiation for 

diagnosis or treatments is considered 

hazardous to the human health. Today, the 

most common human-made sources of 

ionizing radiation are medical devices, 

including X-ray machines. 


Acute health effects such as skin burns or 

acute radiation syndrome can occur when 

doses of radiation exceed certain levels. The 

effect of cellular response of an organism’s 

to ionizing radiation exposure at various 

time intervals is shown in Figure 3. Low 

doses of ionizing radiation can increase the 

risk of long term effects such as cancer. 

Pregnant women and children are especially 

sensitive to radiation exposure. The cells in 

children and fetuses divide rapidly, 

providing more opportunity for radiation to 

disrupt the process and cause cell damage. 

Radiation damage to tissue and or organs 

depends on the dose of radiation received, or 

the absorbed dose which is expressed in a 

unit called the Gray (Gy). Beyond certain 

thresholds, radiation can impair the 

functioning of tissues and or organs and can 

produce acute effects such as skin redness, 

hair loss, radiation burns, or an acute 

radiation syndrome. These effects are more 

severe at higher doses and higher dose rates. 

If the radiation dose is low, but, over a long 

period of time, there is still a risk of longterm 

effects such as cancer; however, that 

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Sridevi et al 

Figure 3: Effect of ionizing radiation on cellular tissue damage. In seconds, it can break DNA 

strands and cause oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, lipids, and other biomolecules; in 

minutes, its exposure can alter the gene expression and modify some proteins. Long exposures 

(days to years), results in acute organ failure leading to mortality or instability of gene that 

causes cancer and birth defects and affects forthcoming generations. 

may appear slowly over a long period of 

time. This risk is higher for children and 

adolescents, as they are significantly more 

sensitive to radiation exposure than adults. 

An organism’s response to ionizing 

radiation consists of a complex set of 

physical, chemical, and biological events. 

Within seconds, radiation produces damage 

to DNA and oxidizes proteins and DNA, 

lipids, and other biomolecules. Within 

minutes, the cell responds by changing the 

activation of certain genes and modifying 

some proteins. At high radiation doses, the 

result may be acute organ failure leading to 

death or genomic instability that causes 

cancer and birth defects and affects future 

generations (Fischbein et al., 1997; Aarkrog, 

2003; Bréchignac, 2003; Alamri et al., 

2012). 

CONCLUSION 

When the question arises, what does the 

future hold for our planet's natural 

environment? Well, we have no crystal ball 

to tell exactly what lies ahead, but we can 

look at past data and current trends to make 

future forecasts. This chapter has linked 

environmental pollution to human health 

with a hope that individuals of the society 

should be aware of future consequences of 

environmental pollution. It’s the 

responsibility of every individual to 

understand the seriousness of environmental 

issues and to find the solution to break the 

development of pollution hazards. 

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Authors are very thankful to editors for 

giving an opportunity to share our views 

with the scientific community and public in 

the form of this article. 

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Health 13.pii: E845. 

Moeller, D. W. (1997). Environmental 

Health (Revised Edition), Harvard 

University Press, MA. 

Morgan, M. T. (1997). Environmental 

Health (2 nd Edition). Brown and 

Benchmark Publishers. Dubuque, 

IA. 

Sridevi et al 

Nadakavukaren, A. (1995). Our Global 

Environment: A Health Perspective 

(4 th Edition). Waveland Press. 

Prospect Heights, IL. 

Park, K. (2011). Park's Textbook of 

Preventive and Social Medicine, 

Banarsidas Bhanot. 

Pierzynski, G. M., Vance, G. F. and Sims, 

J.T. (2005). Soils and Environmental 

Quality. Taylor & Francis: 2 nd edition. 

Policy (1993). Committee on Long-Range 

Soil and Water Conservation Policy, 

Board on Agriculture, National 

Research Council. Soil and Water 

Quality: An Agenda for Agriculture, 

National Academies Press. 

Rajesh, K.M, Naseer, M. and 

Roychoudhury, N. (2016). Soil 

pollution: Causes, effects and 

control. Van Sangyan 3, 1-13. 

ReVelle, P. and ReVelle, C (1992). The 

Global Environment: Securing a 

Sustainable Future, Jones and 

Bartlett. 

Shah, A.S., Langrish, J.P., Nair, H., 

McAllister, D.A., Hunter, A.L., 

Donaldson, K., Newby, D.E. and 

Mills, N.L. (2013). Global association 

of air pollution and heart failure: a 

systematic review and meta-analysis. 

Lancet 382, 1039-1048. 

Shima, K., Coopmeiners, J., 

Graspeuntner, S., Dalhoff, K. and 

Rupp, J. (2016). Impact of microenvironmental 

changes on respiratory 

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tract infections caused by intracellular 

bacteria. FEBS Lett. 590, 3887-3904. 

Singh, D., Kumar, A., Kumar, K., Singh, 

B., Mina, U., Singh, B.B. and Jain, 

V.K. (2016). Statistical modeling of 

O(3), NOx, CO, PM(2.5), VOCs and 

noise levels in commercial complex 

and associated health risk assessment 

in an academic institution. Sci Total 

Environ. 572, 586-594. 

Vrzel, J., Vuković-Gačić, B., Kolarević, 

S., Gačić, Z., Kračun-Kolarević, M., 

Kostić, J., Aborgiba, M., 

Farnleitner, A., Reischer, G., Linke, 

R., Paunović, M. and Ogrinc, N. 

Sridevi et al 

(2016). Determination of the sources 

of nitrate and the microbiological 

sources of pollution in the Sava River 

Basin. Sci Total Environ. 16, 31666- 

31667. 

WHO (2006). Europe. Air Quality 

Guidelines: Global Update 2005: 

Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen 

Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide, World 

Health Organization. 

Wildavsky, A. (1995). But is it True? A 

Citizen's Guide to Environmental 

Health and Safety Issues, Harvard 

University Press. 

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Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing 

Food Web Connectivity 

Debashish Mazumder 

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO), Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee 

DC, NSW 2232, Australia 

Phone No.: +61 2 9717 9219; Email: debashish.mazumder@ansto.gov.au 

ABSTRACT 

Stable isotope analysis has increasingly been used in water resource management. Water is a 

vital resource crucial to sustain the natural ecosystems upon which we all rely. Understanding 

the source and fate of energy and nutrient dynamics in aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the 

sustainable management of aquatic resources to ensure food supply for the increasing world 

population. This article provides an example of how analysis of naturally occurring carbon and 

nitrogen stable isotopes were used to model the estuarine food web and quantify energy and 

nutrient flows from estuarine wetland habitats to fish, an important source of animal protein for 

millions of people worldwide. 

Keywords: Aquatic; food web; management; stable isotope 

INTRODUCTION 

The United Nations predict that the world’s 

population will reach to 9.7 billion in 2050 

and 11.2 billion in 2100. This means the 

competition for land, water and energy will 

increase many folds. Growing competition 

for natural resources would affect long term 

sustainability of agricultural production to 

ensure food security for the people (Charles 

et al., 2010). Water resource is central to 

agriculture and rural development and 

crucial in sustaining the natural ecosystems 

upon which we all rely. Understanding the 

source and fate of energy and nutrients in 

aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the 

sustainable management of aquatic 

resources. Aquatic foods play an important 

role in human nutrition and global food 

supply (Tacon and Metian 2013). Fish, for 

example, currently represents the major 

source of animal protein for about 1.25 

billion people within 39 countries worldwide 

(Khan et al., 2011), as well as a source of 

livelihood for millions of people worldwide. 

The Food and Agricultural Organisation of 

the United Nations reported that around 80% 

of the world fish stocks are either fully 

exploited or overexploited. This signifies the 

importance and urgency of effective 

management (SOFIA, 2009) for 

conservation and sustainability of fish 

stocks. 

Every ecosystem is driven by 

nutrients and energy, whether it is small or 

big, whether wetlands, rivers or ocean. 

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Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios… 

Understanding energy and nutrient dynamics 

are fundamental for resource conservation 

for future generations. If we are able to 

determine the energetic links among animals 

within a food web and their links with 

primary resources, then we will be able to 

quantify the impact of disturbances (i.e., 

anthropogenic and climate related) on 

species of our interest, or on a community 

level as well as the functionality of 

ecosystems which we are dependent on for 

our survival. Food web inter-connections are 

very complex and often influenced by the 

dynamics of physico-chemical processes, 

biodiversity, habitat type, spatial extent and 

degree of disturbance. Integrating cutting 

age isotopic techniques such as analysis of 

naturally-occurring carbon and nitrogen 

stable isotope ratios ( 13 C/ 12 C and 15 N/ 14 N) 

provide an important tool to model food 

chain connectivity within food webs. 

STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND 

INTERPRETATION 

Over the last decade, stable isotopes have 

been increasingly used in environmental 

studies, and the stable isotopes of carbon 

and nitrogen became a powerful way to trace 

diet sources of aquatic animals (Peterson 

and Fry 1987). Stable isotopes are different 

naturally occurring forms of elements. There 

are two stable atomic forms of carbon ( 13 C 

and 12 C) and nitrogen ( 15 N and 14 N). Biota 

assimilate both forms of C and N, and the 

ratio of 13 C/ 12 C (δ 13 C) and 15 N/ 14 N (δ 15 N) 

compared to a reference standard can be 

determined by an analysis of sample. In the 

laboratory, very small amounts of samples 

(microgram to milligram level) are oven 

dried at 60 o C for 48 hours then ground to a 

fine powder. Powdered and homogenised 

tissue samples are loaded into tin capsules, 

and are analysed with a continuous flow 

isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS) 

to obtain the isotopic ratios of the samples. 

Mazumder 

The isotopic value of a consumer 

tissue is tightly linked with its food 

(Mazumder et al., 2016), when an animal 

consumes a food the carbon and nitrogen 

isotope ratios from food are transferred to 

the consumer tissues. There is an increase in 

the relative proportion of carbon-13 content 

( 13 C/ 12 C ratio) and nitrogen-15 content 

( 15 N/ 14 N ratio) of the animal due to selective 

metabolic loss of the lighter isotopes during 

assimilation, excretion and growth. An 

animal is typically enriched in heavier 13 C 

and 15 N relative to its diet by approximately 

1‰ (DeNiro & Epstein, 1978) 3 to 4‰ 

(Minagawa & Wada, 1984) respectively. 

This process is called trophic fractionation 

or enrichment. Carbon isotope signatures are 

used to trace the sources of diet, whilst 

nitrogen isotope ratios reflect the relative 

trophic position of organisms in the 

ecosystem (Fry 2006, Post et al., 2002). 

Stable isotope (δ 13 C and δ 15 N) analyses 

provide chemically validated data from 

which mathematical models about food web 

connectivity can be developed. When δ 13 C 

and δ 15 N signatures of organisms are plotted 

together on a carbon and nitrogen ‘bi-plot’ 

(δ 13 C – X axis and δ 15 N – Y axis) trophic 

relationships can be visualized, whereby an 

organism’s position on the X axis indicates 

their food source and Y axis indicates their 

trophic level (Figure 1). Further to identify 

food web relationships between animals, 

source mixing calculation (i.e., IsoSource 

mixing model; Phillips and Gregg, 2003) is 

also used to quantify the contribution of diet 

sources to consumer animal (Boecklen et al., 

2011). 

ESTUARINE FOOD WEB 

Estuaries are ecologically important places 

due to their high productivity and provision 

of a number of functional services. Estuaries 

are nursery habitats for many species of fish, 

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Figure 1: Schematic diagram of food chain 

connections between primary producers and 

consumer species. Trophic fractionation 

factors are in bold. 

prawn and crabs (Blaber, 2000; Nagelkerken 

et al., 2008). Some species spend the 

majority of their life in the estuary, some 

move regularly into estuaries, and others are 

short-term visitors from the inshore marine 

waters. The abundance of animals in 

estuaries and their ecosystem services are 

linked to the primary productivity, the 

spatial coverage of various substrates and 

the availability of wetland habitats such as 

seagrass, mangrove and saltmarshes. 

Mangroves and saltmarshes have long been 

linked with productive fisheries based on the 

regional-scale comparisons of fisheries 

landings data (Meynecke et al., 2008; 

Saintilan et al., 2014). Understanding the 

energy and nutrient pathways, trophic 

linkages between estuarine animals and 

wetland (seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh) 

carbon sources are important for the 

conservation of food webs vital to ensure 

healthy ecosystem services for human 

wellbeing. 

To quantify the trophic connectivity, 

Mazumder et al., (2011) used stable isotope 

Mazumder 

techniques and analysed carbon and nitrogen 

isotope values of primary producers and 

consumers collected from seagrass, 

mangrove and saltmarsh wetlands. Their 

work also analysed isotopic values of a 

range of fish species collected from estuary 

and quantified food chain linkages (Figure 

2). 

Research conducted in temperate 

estuaries in Australia found that Grapsid 

crabs living in saltmarsh and mangrove 

habitats are keystone species in the estuarine 

ecosystem. These crabs produce a huge 

quantity of larvae during spring tides which 

are exported to estuarine water through ebb 

tides (Mazumder et al., 2006; Mazumder et 

al., 2009; Platel and Freewater 2009). 

Glassfish (Ambassid jacksoniensis) is one of 

the abundant species in the estuary that 

relies on crab larvae exported from the 

saltmarsh through ebb tides (Mazumder et 

al., 2006; Hollingsworth and Connolly 

2006). Crabs living in the saltmarsh rely on 

autotrophic production, mostly C4 carbon 

and benthic organic materials for their diets 

(Guest et al., 2004; Saintilan and Mazumder 

2010; Alderson et al., 2013). Crabs produce 

larvae which are significant sources of 

energy for estuarine glassfish. Subsequently, 

the glassfish has significant food chain links 

with two top-order predatory fish species 

such as bream (Acanthopagrus australis) 

and mulloway (Argyrosomus japonicas) 

(Mazumder et al., 2011). This is an example 

that illustrates the significance of trophic 

relay (Kneib 1997) between the estuarine 

wetlands and commercially valuable fish 

species in estuary. Food web models based 

on isotopic data (Figure 2) help identify 

trophic linkages between species, the 

importance of autotrophic carbon to benthic 

macro-invertebrates (crabs) and energy and 

nutrient flow from estuarine habitats to toporder 

fish species in the food webs. Thus 

conservation of commercially valuable fish 

species in the estuary is related to the 

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Mazumder 

Figure 2: Energy and nutrient flow model of an estuarine food web (Adopted from Mazumder et 

al., 2011). 

conservation of wetlands. Without 

understanding these dynamics, ecosystem 

services of ecosystems cannot be protected 

for human wellbeing. 


The author is thankful to Dr. Jagoda 

Crayford (ANSTO) for helping to draw 

Figure 2 using Ecopath. 

REFERENCES 

Alderson, B., Mazumder, D., Saintilan, 

N., Zimmerman, K. and Mulry, P. 

(2013). Application of isotope mixing 

models to discriminate dietary sources 

over small-scale patches in saltmarsh. 

Marine Ecology Progress Series 487, 

113-122. 

Blaber, S. J. M. (2000). Tropical Estuarine 

Fishes Ecology, Exploitation and 

Conservation. Fish and Aquatic 

Resources Series 7, Blackwell 

Science, 372pp. 

Boecklen, W. J., Yarnes, C. T., Cook, B. 

A. and James, A. C. (2011). On the 

Use of Stable Isotopes in Trophic 

Ecology. Annual Review of Ecology, 

Evolution, and Systematics 42(1), 411- 

440. 

DeNiro, M. J. and Epstein, S. (1978). 

Influence of diet on the distribution of 

carbon isotopes in animals. 

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Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 

42(5), 495-506. 

Fry, B. (2006). Stable Isotope Ecology. 

Springer, New York 

Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., 

Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, 

D., Muir, J. F., Pretty, J., Robinson, 

S., Thomas, S. M., and Toulmin, C. 

(2010). Food security: the challenge of 

feeding 9 billion people. Science 

327(5967), 812-818. 

Guest, M. A., Connolly, M. R. and 

Loneragan, R. N. (2004). Carbon 

movement and assimilation by 

invertebrates in estuarine habitats at a 

scale of metres. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 278, 27-34. 

Khan, M., A., Khan, S., Miyan, K. (2011). 

Aquaculture as a food production system: 

a review. Biology and Medicine 3 (2), 

291-302. 

Kneib, R. T. (1997). The role of tidal 

marshes in the ecology of estuarine 

nekton. Oceanography and Marine 

Biology Annual Review 35, 163-220. 

Mazumder, D. and Saintilan, N. (2010). 

Mangrove Leaves are Not an 

Important Source of Dietary Carbon 

and Nitrogen for Crabs in Temperate 

Australian Mangroves. Wetlands 

30(2), 375-380. 

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and 

Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic 

relationships between itinerant fish 

and crab larvae in a temperate 

Australian saltmarsh. Marine and 

Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199. 


Williams, R. J. (2009). Zooplankton 

inputs and outputs in the saltmarsh at 

Mazumder 

Towra Point, Australia. Wetlands 

Ecology and Management 17(3), 225- 

230. 


Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic 

relationships between itinerant fish 

and crab larvae in a temperate 

Australian saltmarsh. Marine and 

Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199. 

Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N., Williams, R. 

J. and Szymczak, R. (2011). Trophic 

importance of a temperate intertidal 

wetland to resident and itinerant taxa: 

evidence from multiple stable isotope 

analyses. Marine and Freshwater 

Research 62(1), 11-19. 

Mazumder, D., Wen, L., Johansen, M. P., 

Kobayashi, T. and Saintilan, N. 

(2016). Inherent variation in carbon 

and nitrogen isotopic assimilation in 

the freshwater macro-invertebrate 

Cherax destructor. Marine and 

Freshwater Research 67(12), 1928- 

1937. 

Meynecke, J. O., Lee, S. Y., and Duke, N. 

C. (2008). Linking spatial metrics and 

fish catch reveals the importance of 

coastal wetland connectivity to inshore 

fisheries in Queensland, Australia. 

Biological Conservation 141(4), 981- 

996. 

Minagawa, M. and Wada, E. (1984). 

Stepwise enrichment of 15N along 

food chains: Further evidence and the 

relation between δ15N and animal age. 

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 

48(5), 1135-1140. 

Nagelkerken, I., Kirton, L. G., Meynecke, 

J. O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H. M., 

Blaber, S. J. M., Bouillon, S., Green, 

P., Haywood, M., Sasekumar, A. 

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and Somerfield, P. J. (2008). The 

Habitat Function of Mangroves for 

Terrestrial and Marine Fauna: A 

Review. Aquatic Botany 89, 155-185. 

Peterson, B. J. and Fry, B. (1987). Stable 

Isotopes in Ecosystem Studies. Annual 

Review of Ecology and Systematics 18, 

293-320. 

Phillips, D. L. and Gregg, J. W. (2003). 

Source partitioning using stable 

isotopes: coping with too many 

sources. Oecologia 136(2), 261-9. 

Platell, M. E. and Freewater, P. (2009). 

Importance of saltmarsh to fish species 

of a large south-eastern Australian 

estuary during a spring tide cycle. 

Marine and Freshwater Research, 

60(9), 936-941. 

Post, D. M. (2002). Using stable isotopes to 

estimate trophic position: models, 

methods, and assumptions. Ecology 83 

(3), 703–718. 

Mazumder 

Saintilan, N., Wilson, N.C., Rogers, K., 

Rajkaran, A., and Krauss, K.W. 

(2014). Mangrove expansion and salt 

marsh decline at mangrove poleward 

limits. Global change biology 20(1), 

147-157. 

SOFIA, (2009). The state of world fisheries 

and aquaculture 2008. FAO Fisheries 

and Aquaculture Department. Food 

and Agriculture Organization of the 

United Nations, Rome. 

Tacon, A. G. J. and Metian, M. (2013). Fish 

Matters: Importance of Aquatic Foods in 

Human Nutrition and Global Food 

Supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science 

21(1), 22-38. 

United Nations Department of Economic 

and Social Affairs, Population 

Division (2015). World Population 

Prospects: The 2015 Revision. New 

York: United Nations. 

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Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity 

Umaiyal Munusamy 

Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture (CEBAR), Level 3, Research Management 

& Innovation Complex, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 

Email: yal23@um.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

Climate change drives yield reduction in most of the crops. Industrialized agricultural systems 

are becoming unsustainable due to climate change. Research findings in the areas of plant microbe 

interactions suggest that the usage of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) has the possibility 

to improve crop productivity in the coming years. Therefore, application of PGPB which 

creates a step forward towards sustainable agricultural systems is recommended to replace the 

dependence on chemical and synthetic fertilizers. This article presents an overview of PGPB and 

their potential applications in enhancing agricultural crop productivity. 

Keywords: Agriculture; bacteria; environment; plant growth regulators; sustainability 

INTRODUCTION 

According to the United Nations and 

the U.S. Census Bureau, the current world 

population (total number of humans currently 

living) is estimated to be at 7.4 billion as 

of September 2016 and expected to reach 8 

billion people in the spring of 2024 and 10 

billion in the year 2056. The FAO (2016) 

highlighted that the food supply needs to be 

increased by 70 percent to feed this population. 

Even though, industrialized farming 

has become more intensive through artificial 

fertilizers and chemical pesticides, it has resulted 

into undesirable environmental impacts 

such as destruction of virgin forests, 

deterioration of water quality, overuse of 

manure, in efficient monoculture strategies 

and finally increasing of greenhouse gas 

emissions (Abbamondi et al., 2016; Compant 

et al., 2005). Furthermore, in this current 

climate changes industrialized farming 

strategies to enhance crop productivity are 

becoming unsustainable. In addition, climate 

change through higher temperatures, precipitation 

changes, increased weeds, pests and 

disease pressure has affected the agriculture 

production in most of the countries. For instance, 

the article reported by STAR (2016 

A, B) and New Sunday Times (2016) (Figure 

1) shows that vegetables are wilted and 

the vegetable’s qualities are dropped due to 

the heat wave and these changes will have 

severe impacts on all the components of the 

food security (Kang et al., 2009) if the global 

mean surface temperature is projected to 

rise in a range from 1.8°C to 4.0°C by 2100 

(IPCC, 2007). 

Therefore, current research objectives 

are mainly focusing on a sustainable 

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Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria 

agricultural production which will be efficient 

in terms of natural resources need and 

more consumer consciousness (Dawwam et 

al., 2013). 

A 

B 

Munusamy 

In another words it should be sustainable 

both environmentally and socially (Carvajal- 

Munoz and Carmona-Garcia, 2012). One of 

the latest techniques that falls in the above 

preference will be through the application of 

plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) 

(Lucy et al., 2004). It is mainly found in 

soil, rhizosphere region and also associated 

inside the plant cells (Gagne-Bourque et al., 

2015). In the soil, PGPB will be living 

freely, while in the rhizosphere region it will 

colonize the plant interior roots and allows 

some bacteria to migrate towards the aerial 

parts of the seedlings and promote the 

growth of the plants (Figure 2A, B) (Compant 

et al., 2005). 

C 

Figure 2: A) A schematic diagram showing 

Figure 1(A, B & C): Media reports highlighting 

challenges in agriculture sector moting bacteria (PGPB); B) types of PGPB. 

plant’s association with plant growth pro- 

(Star, 2016A, B; New Sunday Times, 2016). 

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The differences between PGPB and 

biofertilizers are commonly debateable as 

the biofertilizers also can promote plant 

growth. However, biofertilizers require special 

care for long term storage because they 

are live cultures (Youssef and Eissa, 2014) 

and it must be used before its expiry date. In 

addition, it should not be contaminated with 

other bacteria (Carvajal-Munoz and Carmona-Garcia, 

2012). 

Biofertilizers are also unable to show 

promising results in the hot climates, unfavourable 

soil pH conditions and in pathogenic 

bacteria infected soils (Mishra, 2014). 

Apart from the higher cost, the leaches of 

the biofertilizer inoculants such as organic 

matter, phosphates and nitrates are also another 

problem that need to be managed (Abbamondi 

et al., 2016). The leached nitrates 

and phosphates that enter the water systems 

will lead to eutrophication in the water reservoirs 

and cause death of many aquatic organisms 

(Brar et al., 2012). In addition, the 

organic material derived from the biofertilizers 

will increase the carbon content in the 

soil and hence will contribute to the greenhouse 

gasses (Saeed et al., 2015). Since food 

production needs to be increased without 

negative impacts to the environment, PGPB 

are the obvious choice to be utilized (Lucy 

et al., 2004). 

PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING 

BACTERIA (PGPB) 

As depicted in figure 2, it is the free living 

bacteria that present in the soil (Compant et 

al., 2005). Bacteria that are located around 

the roots are known as rhizobacteria. While, 

bacteria that are able to colonize the internal 

tissues of plant organs escape the competition 

from rhizosphere microorganisms are 

called as endophyte (Figure 2A, B) (Gagne- 

Bourque et al., 2016). The reason for the 

presence of various kinds of bacteria in the 

Munusamy 

soil is due to the various type of discharges 

such as amino acids, sugars and organic acids 

that are released from the plant roots 

(Tak et al., 2013) and also due to different 

soil conditions (drought, flood, salinity and 

metal toxicity) (Inagaki et al., 2015). The 

PGPB strains have different degree of capability 

to attract to the root exudates (Ma et 

al., 2016). However, the non-PGPB or phytopathogens 

do not have this capability (Yuan, 

2015). 

TYPES OF PGPB 

Plant growth promoting bacteria belong to 

diverse genera such as Acetobacter, Achromobacter, 

Anabaena, Arthrobacter, 

Azoarcos, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, 

Frankia, Hydrogenophaga, Microcoleus, 

Phyllobacterium and Pseudomonas. 

They are endophytes that are non-pathogenic 

to plants (Gagne-Bourque et al., 2016). They 

are also classified based on the plant species 

(Compant et al., 2005), plant organs and tissues 

such as from phyllosphere (Gagne- 

Bourque et al., 2016), anthosphere (Berg et 

al., 2014) or spermosphere (Sivasakthivelan 

and Stella, 2012). The presence of PGPB in 

the soils are also depends on the types of soil 

such as dry, cold, muddy and also determined 

by the types of climate region such as 

tropical, dry, mild Mediterranean, continental 

and polar climates (Souza et al., 2015; 

Nihorimbere et al., 2011). 

FUNCTION OF PGPB 

Facilitating resources 

Endophytic bacteria exchange nutritions, 

enzymes (lipase, catalase and oxidase), functional 

agents (siderophores, biosurfactants) 

and signals (Abbamondi et al., 2016) efficiently. 

The PGPB are known to promote 

root development by increasing the water 

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absorption in plant root cells (Vacheron et 

al., 2013). They can also produce phytohormones 

such as indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic 

acid (GA) and cytokinins (Gupta et 

al., 2015). Different PGPB produce different 

phytohormones (Pontes et al., 2015). In addition, 

it is also capable of inducing modifications 

in plant gene expression, increasing 

drought resistance associated genes like 

ERD15 (early response to dehydration) or 

DREB (dehydration responsive element protein) 

(Gagne-Bourque et al., 2015). Inoculation 

of PGPB will increase the uptake of 

NH4 + , HPO4 2- /H2PO4 - by the roots, mineralize 

organic soil and induce tolerance or resistance 

to the biotic stress (Nkebiwe et al., 

2016). Most PGPB can also facilitate the 

uptake of environmental nutrients such as 

sulphur, magnesium and calcium. It has 

shown to solubilise and mineralize organic 

soil (Calvo et al., 2014) these will induce 

biochemical changes in the plant which will 

lead to beneficial effects on the plant health, 

growth and also in decreasing plant disease 

(Tak et al., 2013). 

Phosphate solubilisation 

Phosphorus is a major macronutrient needed 

by plants; however, it is present in unavailable 

form in the soil (Yuan, 2015). In addition, 

the rainfall and leaching will continuously 

reduce the phosphorus level in the soil 

(Brar et al., 2012). The presences of PGPB 

will enable the conversion of phosphorus 

into more available forms, such as orthophosphates 

which plant roots can absorb 

easily (Rodriguez et al., 2006). 

Nitrogen fixation 

According to the Fertilizers Institute of 

United States (2016), there is 78% of nitrogen 

in the air and 98% presence in the soil. 

Therefore, there is no limitation in nitrogen 

Munusamy 

content for all living things especially for 

plant. Fixing atmosphere nitrogen (N2) and 

stimulation of nitrate transport system by 

PGPB increases the nitrogen availability for 

the plants (Mantelin and Touraine, 2004). 

Besides plant growth, nitrogen is required 

for synthesis of enzyme, proteins, chlorophyll, 

DNA and RNA (Saeed et al., 2015). 

Sequestration of Iron 

Iron mainly affects the variety of bacterial 

communities in the soil as they compete 

among themselves to absorb the available 

iron (Woitke and Schnitzler, 2005). Therefore, 

PGPB synthesize low molecular mass 

known as siderophore under iron limiting 

conditions. This molecule will competitively 

bind to ferric ion Fe +3 to form Fesiderophore 

complex that facilitate better 

iron uptake (Gupta et al., 2014). Various 

bacterial strains will synthesize different 

types of siderophores that function differently 

(Ahmed and Holmstrom, 2014). They also 

generally remove any kind of siderophores 

with lower affinity and draw irons 

from heterologous siderophores that are 

coproduced by other microorganisms. All 

these will increase the uptake of iron in 

plants (Compant et al., 2005). 

ALTERATION OF PHYTOHORMONE 

LEVELS 

Modulation of ethylene 

Methionine is the initial substrate involve in 

the ethylene production. This substrate is 

converted into S-adenosyl-L-methionine 

(SAM) by SAM synthase. It is then hydrolyzed 

to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic 

acid (ACC) and 5- methyl thioadenosine by 

ACC synthase (Gamalero and Glick, 2015). 

Finally, ACC molecule is metabolized to 

ethylene, carbon dioxide and cyanide by 

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ACC oxidase. However, the high formation 

of ethylene can be harmful to the plants; 

therefore, its level needs to be regulated 

(Shagol and Sa, 2012). In that, ethylene 

formation is regulated by ACC deaminase in 

the PGPB cell by extracting ACC oxidase 

and synthase from the plant cell into PGPB 

cell (Marasco et al., 2013). This reaction 

produces ammonia and α-ketobutyrate that 

lowers the plant ethylene levels (Toklikishvili 

et al., 2010). 

Production of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) 

Munusamy 

Plants produce IAA from independent biosynthetic 

pathway of tryptophan while 

PGPB produce IAA by using tryptophan released 

by the plant roots (Tak et al., 2013). 

According to Mohite (2013), IAA have various 

functions in plants such as plant cell division, 

extension and differentiation, increases 

the rate of xylem and root development, 

initiates lateral and adventitious root 

formation, while according to Shahab et al. 

(2013), IAA stimulates seed and tuber germination, 

controls process of vegetative, 

mediates responses to light, gravity and florescence, 

affects the photosynthesis level, 

pigment formation, biosynthesis of various 

metabolites and resistance towards stressful 

conditions. Different plant species (Ljung et 

al., 2013), different plant organs such as 

roots and shoots (Liu et al., 2012) and different 

tissues (Petersson et al., 2009) respond 

differently towards the effects of IAA. 

Furthermore, plants always respond based 

on the total concentration of IAA inside the 

plant cells as IAA is being produced by 

plant through various channel such as 

through independent pathway, through formation 

of other indolic compounds (both 

endogenous and synthetic) which represents 

auxin-like activities (Ljung, 2013) and also 

through PGPB secretion (El-Azeem et al., 

2007). Therefore, the combined concentration 

of IAA will alter the IAA concentration 

to either promotion or inhibition of plant 

growth (Glick, 2014). 

Production of cytokinins and gibberellins 

PGPB are capable to produce cytokinins and 

gibberellins in the cell-free medium and 

plant growth promotion experiment 

(Vacheron et al., 2013). Cytokinins are essential 

for plant cell division, seed germination, 

branching, root growth, accumulation 

of chlorophyll, leaf expansion and delay of 

senescence (Gamalero and Glick, 2015). 

Whereas, gibberellins are involved in cell 

division and elongation, plant developmental 

processes such as seed germination, stem 

elongation, flowering, fruiting and delay of 

senescence, promotion of root growth since 

they regulate root hair abundance (Colebrook 

et al., 2014). 

INDIRECT MECHANISM 

Biocontrol 

The damage caused by the fungal (Ahmad et 

al., 2008), bacterial (Vidaver and Lambrecht, 

2004), viral (Gergerich and Dolja, 

2006), insects (USDA, 2015) and nematodes 

(Youssef and Eissa, 2014) need to be controlled 

efficiently. The usage of PGPB as a 

biocontrol was initiated due to consumer 

demands on pesticides free crops, to reduce 

environmental impacts and the increasing 

cost of agrochemicals (Agarwal et al., 

2011). The ability of PGPB to produce many 

types of antagonistic antibiotics prevents the 

proliferation of plant pathogens (Ahmad et 

al., 2008). According to Gupta et al. (2015), 

amphisin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol 

(DAPG), oomycin A, phenazine, pyoluteorin, 

pyrrolnitrin, tensin, tropolone, cyclic 

lipopeptides, cylic oligomycin A, kanosamine, 

zwittermicin A, and xanthobaccin are 

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some identified antibiotics produced by 

PGPB. These antibiotics are formed through 

metabolic pathways in the bacterial cell 

through usage of available nutrients, biotic 

and environmental stimuli such as minerals, 

carbon source, pH, temperature and trace 

elements (Compant et al., 2005). However, 

some pathogens will develop resistance to 

these antibiotics. Therefore, usage of multiple 

bacteria that produce multiple antibiotics 

which acts synergistically will show better 

effects (Glick, 2012). In addition, formation 

of allelochemicals by PGPB has the potential 

to suppress pathogens activities (Saraf et 

al., 2014). Besides that, the capability of 

PGPB in producing chitinase, cellulase, β- 

1,3 glucanase, protease and lipases will 

breakdown the cell walls of pathogenic bacteria 

and fungus (Hamid et al., 2013, El- 

Katatny, 2010). In addition, the formation of 

siderophores will prevent some pathogenic 

bacteria from acquiring iron nutrient directly 

from the soil. This somehow will affect 

pathogenic bacterial proliferation and 

growth (Gupta et al., 2014). On the other 

hand, application of PGPB will increase the 

content of beneficial bacteria in the soil. 

Abundant of beneficial bacteria will rapidly 

colonize plant roots before pathogenic bacteria 

could actually invade into the plant root 

system (Kundan et al., 2015; Glick, 2012). 

Furthermore, PGPB are also capable to detoxify 

pathogen virulence factor by producing 

proteins that reversibly bind to the toxins 

(Gaiero et al., 2013). Recently, it was reported 

that PGPB suppress the virulence 

genes by quenching pathogen quarom sensing 

capacity by degrading autoinducer signals 

(Compant et al., 2005). Therefore, 

PGPB can be used as a biocontrol agent to 

defeat the pathogens. 

Induced systemic resistance in plants 

Munusamy 

Biopriming plants with PGPB will trigger 

the induced systemic resistance (ISR) 

through flagellation, siderophore, lipopolysacharides 

and volatile organic compounds 

formation (Compant et al., 2005). This type 

of resistance is mainly demonstrated by rhizobacteria 

and endophytes, and they will not 

cause any visible symptoms of disease. 

However, defence mechanism which is a 

type of resistant mechanism triggered by 

PGPB will regulate different sets of genes 

such as peroxides, phenylalanine, ammonia 

lyase, phytoalexins, polyphenol oxidase and 

chalcone synthase (Choudhary and Johri, 

2009). Through this mechanism, accumulation 

of salicylic acid, jasmonate and ethylene 

will increase the strength of plant cell wall 

and alters host physiology and metabolic 

responses leading to an enhanced synthesis 

of plant defence against abiotic stress (Compant 

et al., 2005). Besides that, since water 

is one of the most limiting factors for plant 

development in semi arid climates, xerotolerant 

microorganisms can be used to increase 

growth of plants in such climatic 

condition (Petrovic et al., 2000). It is because 

microorganisms that can survive under 

drought conditions have several mechanisms 

such as the production of exopolysacharides, 

biofilm formation and osmolytes production 

that help to avoid cell water loss and boost 

the plant growth (Kavamura et al., 2013). In 

addition, PGPB can offer plant protection 

against desiccation through the maintenance 

of moist environment and by supplying nutrients 

and hormones which act as a plant 

growth promoter for root development 

(Vacheron et al., 2013). 

Environmental sustainability 

Application of PGPB will naturally enhance 

soil fertility (Roychowdhury et al., 2014). 

Increase of PGPB concentration in the soil 

will enhance the degradation of resources 

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efficiently and will lead to reduction of 

leaches into water system (Reed and Glick, 

2004). Therefore, usage of PGPB can be 

helpful in creating environmental sustainability. 

Plant microbe interactions apparently 

offer a favourable environment for cometabolism 

of soil-bound bacteria with recalcitrant 

chemicals (Ambrosini et al., 

2016). The microbial transformation of toxic 

compounds into non-toxic material is mediated 

by the energy provided by the root exudates 

(Agarwal Pavan et al., 2011). In addition, 

PGPB are also known to produce biosurfactants 

that contributes in the removal of 

toxic contaminants in the soil (Bashan et al., 

2008). 

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 

Soil microorganisms (PGPB) play an important 

role in maintaining soil structure, 

fertility and the growth of plants. They are 

able to influence these effects due to their 

close association with the plants. Studies 

regarding the root-microbe interactions that 

are affected by the genetic and environmental 

control along with the spatial and temporal 

aspects needs to be studied in detail. 

Field application is very important for the 

successful implementation of PGPB. The 

importance of PGPB is slowly being recognized 

by farmers in all regions and they are 

slowly shifting towards replacing conventional 

agricultural methods with sustainable 

agricultural techniques. 


The author would like to thank Editors for 

helping to improve the article content. 

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World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global 

Sustainable Development 

Subhash Janardhan Bhore 

Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling 

Road, 08100 Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia 

Phone No.: +60-4-429-8176; Email: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Food that we eat provides the nutrients to nourish our body. The world population is growing 

rapidly and providing enough food to meet the increasing demand will be a huge challenge. The 

United Nations most recent estimate indicates that the world population will be about 8.5 billion in 

2030 and we need to double the agricultural productivity by that time to meet the expected demand. 

The whole agricultural productivity and our food security are mainly dependent on the 

health of soil. In fact, soil is the basis in providing our nutrients, water, climate, biodiversity and 

life. However, soils have been neglected at large. The damage caused by deforestation, extensive 

usage of synthetic fertilizers, mining, soil erosion, and rapidly growing urbanization are the major 

concerns. Because, all these soil destructing activities are not climate-neutral. Every year, the 

international community is observing December 5 as ‘World Soil Day’ to connect people with 

soils and raise awareness on soils critical importance in our lives. The purpose of this article is to 

highlight the importance of soil conservation, and a need to take up its preservation and restoration 

actions. Bearing in mind the sustainable development goals (SDGs), the role of soils health in 

enhancing agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner and its importance in global sustainable 

development is also highlighted. 

Keywords: Agriculture; biotechnology; deforestation; environment; poverty; sustainable development 

goals (SDGs); synthetic fertilizers; world soil day 

INTRODUCTION 

The 68 th general assembly of the United Nations 

(UN), held in December 2013 had declared 

unanimously that December 5 will be 

observed as the World Soil Day (WSD). Every 

year, the WSD is observed on December 5 th to 

promote the awareness about importance of 

soil in our lives and significance of sustainable 

soil management. 

The themes for World Soil 2014 and 2015 

were “Soils, foundation for family farming” 

and “Soils, a solid ground for life”, respectively. 

This year (2016), the WSD theme was 

─ “soils and pulses, a symbiosis for life”. The 

purpose was to highlight the importance of 

cultivating pulses to enhance the soil fertility. 

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A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability 

Pulses [plant species from family: Fabaceae 

(this family is also known as Leguminosae)] 

are known to fix the nitrogen from atmosphere 

and that helps in improvement of soils fertility, 

structure and microbial biodiversity (Wahbi el 

al., 2016; Luo el al., 2016; UN, 2016). This 

article highlights the various issues associated 

with soils degradation, loss and conservation 

as well as the role of heathy soils in sustainable 

development for people and planet in context 

with the sustainable development goals (SDGs) 

adopted by the UN. 

SOILS AS SOLID GROUND FOR LIFE 

The nutrients derived from our daily diet are 

essential for our body’s growth, development, 

repairs, and to lead an active, healthy life. In 

fact, soil is the basis for the production of all 

types of food in agriculture and aquaculture 

industry. Therefore, sustainable agricultural 

productivity is very important in order to feed 

the global population. The UN estimates suggest 

that rapid economic growth and increased 

agricultural productivity in last 20 years 

helped to make huge progress globally in 

eradicating extreme hunger; but, extreme 

hunger as well as malnutrition remains a huge 

challenge (UNDP, 2016) in several countries 

in general, and in developing and least developed 

countries in particular. The UN estimates 

also clearly indicates that about 795 million 

people are chronically undernourished because 

of poor agricultural productivity mainly due to 

a direct consequence of environmental degradation, 

drought and loss of biodiversity 

(UNDP, 2016; Hunter el al., 2016). 

PLEDGE FOR FOOD SECURITY IN 

SDGs 

For the international community, one of the 

challenge is ─ how we can make sure that all 

people on the planet will have enough food in a 

sustainable manner? The UN are determined to 

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end all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 

2030 and it is clearly reflected in the seventeen-SDGs 

(Table 1) ambitiously adopted by 

the international community (SDGs, 2016). 

The total agricultural production including 

milk, meat and fishes from aquaculture is 

completely relied on soil health; hence, conservation 

of soil is of prime importance to 

accomplish SDG 1 (end poverty in all its forms 

everywhere) and SDG 2 (end hunger, achieve 

food security and improved nutrition and 

promote sustainable agriculture). Directly or 

indirectly, the efficacy of sustainable soil 

management will complement the efforts of 

accomplishing other SDGs (Table 1). 

WHAT DEGRADES OR DESTRUCTS 

SOILS? 

Deforestation, extensive usage of synthetic 

fertilizers, mining, soil erosion, and rapidly 

growing urbanization are some of the major 

causes responsible for soil degradation and or 

destruction. 

Through our daily diet, we are taking 

carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, fats, vitamins 

and trace elements to nourish our body. 

All food items that we eat are linked with soils. 

For instance, in agriculture, crop plants take 

their nutrients from the soil, while fishes or 

other aquatic animal we eat are dependent on 

phytoplanktons, zooplankton, seaweed, and or 

nutrients from specially designed fish food 

formulation (Alemzadeh et al., 2014; Gharajehdaghipour 

et al., 2016; Bentzon‐Tilia et al., 

2016; Hehre and Meeuwig, 2016). Directly or 

indirectly, all the nutrients required for humans 

are originated from soil (Figure 1). 

Hence, sustainable soil management is of 

prime importance for a sustainable global food 

supply as well as for global food security. 

Destruction of soils by deforestation 

About 13 Million hectares of forest are cleared 

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Table 1: Sustainable development goals 

adopted by United Nations (SDGs, 2016). 

No Sustainable Development Goals 

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere. 

2. End hunger, achieve food security and 

improved nutrition and promote sustainable 

agriculture. 

3. Ensure healthy lives and promote 

well-being for all at all ages. 

4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality 

education and promote lifelong learning 

opportunities for all. 

5. Achieve gender equality and empower all 

women and girls. 

6. Ensure availability and sustainable management 

of water and sanitation for all. 

7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable 

and modern energy for all. 

8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable 

economic growth, full and productive 

employment and decent work for 

all. 

9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote 

inclusive and sustainable industrialization 

and foster innovation. 

10. Reduce inequality within and among 

countries. 

11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, 

safe, resilient and sustainable. 

12. Ensure sustainable consumption and 

production patterns. 

13. Take urgent action to combat climate 

change and its impacts. 

14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, 

seas and marine resources for sustainable 

development. 

15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable 

use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably 

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manage forests, combat desertification, 

and halt and reverse land degradation and 

halt biodiversity loss. 

16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies 

for sustainable development, provide access 

to justice for all and build effective, 

accountable and inclusive institutions at 

all levels. 

17. Strengthen the means of implementation 

and revitalize the global partnership for 

sustainable development. 

every year for mining, inappropriate farming 

techniques, and for the construction of cities, 

roads (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015). As a 

result, we lose fertile soils forever at the expense 

of forests, pastureland and its environmental 

benefits. By supporting forests, soil 

plays very important roles in biodiversity 

conservation, carbon storage and climate regulation 

(Bonan, 2008; Cohn et al., 2014). 

Destruction of soils by mining 

Arable land and fertile soils are also destructed 

by mining activities for coal, metals and mineral 

extraction. Globally, less than 1% of the 

land is used for mineral extraction; however, 

its impact is huge and in the process we lose 

millions of tons’ fertile soils. Mining is also 

causing huge amount of adverse effect on the 

local, regional and global environment 

(Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Maier et al., 

2014). 

Destruction of soils by urbanization 

In general, people from rural areas migrate to 

cities for the employment purpose. In 2014, 

54% of the world’s population was residing in 

urban areas (UN, 2014). The rapidly growing 

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Figure 1: A schematic diagram showing flow of nutrients depicting the importance of soils. 

urbanization in the world is also responsible 

for the soils destruction as the several developmental 

projects destroy the arable and fertile 

soils. For instance, usage of paddy fields for 

the housing projects. It is estimated that 

growing urbanization is causing the loss of 2 

hectares of soil per minute (Huang et al., 2015; 

Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Takano, 2007). 

USE OF SYNTHETIC FERTILIZERS 

freshwater (and marine) eutrophication 

(UNEP, 2014). Hence, we should avoid the 

usage of synthetic fertilizers to protect the soil 

fertility. In addition, the production and marketing 

of synthetic fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus 

and potassium (NPK)) utilize huge 

amount of natural resources (Chemnitz and 

Weigelt, 2015). 

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE? 

In agriculture of most of the countries, synthetic 

For sustainable soil management and agricul- 

fertilizers are used widely. The extensive tural sustainability, we need to promote 

usage of inorganic fertilizers is definitely eco-friendly practices to enhance the soil fertility 

helping to enhance the agricultural productivity. 

and agricultural productivity (Panel 1). 

However, for long term, if we completely We also need to find out innovative ways of 

depend on synthetic fertilizers then it is impossible 

using eco-friendly agricultural practices. In- 

to attain agricultural sustainability novative use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi 

and to end global hunger (Chemnitz and (AMF) (Robinson et al., 2016; Asmelash et al., 

Weigelt, 2015). Use of synthetic fertilizers is 2016), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria 

not an environment friendly practice as it (PGPR) (Bharti et al., 2016; Kuan et al., 2016), 

damages the soil fertility and causes the and endophytes (fungal and bacterial) 

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Panel 1: Eco-friendly agricultural practices for sustainable soil management and for agricultural 

and environmental sustainability. AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; and PGPR, plant 

growth-promoting rhizobacteria. 

(Molina-Montenegro et al., 2016; Pandey et 

al., 2016; Tétard‐Jones and Edwards, 2016) in 

agriculture does have tremendous potential to 

promote the growth, development and 

productivity of agricultural crops. In fact, 

eco-friendly agricultural practices will not 

only help in boosting sustainable soil management 

and food security but also benefit 

several other sectors including water supply 

system, socio-economic, social health etc. 

(Panel 2). 

A BROADER PERSPECTIVE 

As a whole, if we do sustainable soil management 

effectively then we should be able to 

keep soil in its healthy condition. As a result, 

healthy soil will serve as a gear to promote 

agricultural sustainability. In response, sustainable 

agriculture will be able to produce 

enough food to meet the demand of growing 

population. It will also boost our chances of 

accomplishing two goals, “ending poverty in 

all its forms everywhere” (SDG 1) and “ending 

hunger, achieving food security and improved 

nutrition and promotion of sustainable agriculture” 

(SDG 2). Furthermore, healthy soil 

and sustainable agriculture will complement 

directly or indirectly the efforts required in 

achieving rest of the SDGs (Table 1). Therefore, 

we must protect soil and make sure that it 

is in healthy condition as sustainable development 

of the people and the planet is dependent 

on it (Figure 2). 

Bearing in mind the important facts about 

soil (Table 2) (UN, 2016); we need to understand 

that our survival on this planet is not 

possible if we do not manage soil and its health 

in a sustainable manner. Hence, we need to 

promote the awareness about sustainable soil 

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Panel 2: Benefits of eco-friendly agriculture are beyond conservation of soil and its sustainable 

management. 

Figure 2: The role of soil in achieving agricultural sustainability and sustainable development for 

the people and the planet. 

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Table 2: Facts about soils depicts the importance 

of sustainable soil management for 

the sustainable development (UN, 2016). 

No Fact 

1. About 95% of our food comes from 

soil. 

2. Soils are the foundation for family 

farming, where food supply chain begins. 

3. Globally, up to 50,000 sq. km of soil, 

an area around the size of Costa Rica is 

lost every year. 

4. 33% of our global soils are degraded. 

5. 16% of the Africa continent has been 

affected by soil degradation. 

6. 11 hectare of soils are sealed under 

expanding cities every hour in Europe. 

7. Soil is teeming with life – soils host a 

quarter of our planets biodiversity. 

8. There are more organisms in one tablespoon 

of healthy soil than there are 

people on earth. 

9. Healthy soil is the key to food security 

and nutrition for all. 

10. It can take up to 1000 years to produce 

just 2-3 cm of soil. 

11. Our soils are in great danger. 

12. Estimates suggest that we only have 60 

years of topsoil left. 

13. Sustainable soil management could 

produce up to 58% more food. 

management and its importance among communities 

not only to commemorate the ‘World 

Soil Day’ but also in everyday life, till the 

sustainability goal is achieved. All public and 

private institutions, universities, and departments 

those are associated with agriculture and 

sustainable development also need to promote 

awareness about the importance of sustainable 

soil management by highlighting the role of 

healthy soil for our wellbeing, and local, regional 

and global sustainable development. 

CONCLUDING REMARKS 

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To sum up, we have to make sure that we are 

managing soil and its health in a sustainable 

manner for a sustainable agricultural productivity. 

Healthy soil is essential to “end hunger, 

achieve food security and improved nutrition 

and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG 2) 

and to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere” 

(SDG 1). Sustainable soil management is also 

vital for the inclusive sustainability as all the 

SDGs are interdependent. Therefore, we need 

to promote sustainable soil management efficiently 

at local, regional and global level. 

We need to bear in mind that without 

protecting the soil, we will not be able ― to 

feed rapidly growing world population; to 

achieve a goal of keeping global warming below 

2°C, a pledge made through Paris 

Agreement on Climate Change (PACC); and 

to halt the loss of biodiversity. 

Unquestionably, soil is not only a core 

component of the natural system but also a 

vital contributor to human wellbeing. Nevertheless, 

will power of policy makers, active 

participation and timely input from all stakeholders, 

and efficacy of soil conservation at 

local, regional and global level will determine 

the overall success of sustainable soil management 

and its contribution in accomplishing 

SDGs for the people and the planet. 

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST 

The author declares no conflict of interest. 

REFERENCES 

Alemzadeh, E., Haddad, R., Ahmadi, A.-R. 

(2014). Phytoplanktons and DNA barcoding: 

Characterization and molecular 

analysis of phytoplanktons on the Per- 

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sian Gulf. Iranian Journal of Microbiology 

6(4), 296–302. 

Asmelash, F., Bekele, T., Birhane, E. (2016). 

The Potential Role of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal 

Fungi in the Restoration of Degraded 

Lands. Frontiers in Microbiology 

7, 1095. 

Bentzon‐Tilia, M., Sonnenschein, E.C., 

Gram, L. (2016). Monitoring and 

managing microbes in aquaculture – 

Towards a sustainable industry. Microbial 

Biotechnology 9(5), 576–584. 

Bharti, N., Pandey, S.S., Barnawal, D., Patel, 

V.K., Kalra, A. (2016). Plant 

growth promoting rhizobacteria Dietzia 

natronolimnaea modulates the expression 

of stress responsive genes providing 

protection of wheat from salinity 

stress. Scientific Reports 6, 34768. 

Bonan G. (2008). Forests and Climate 

Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the 

Climate Benefits of Forests. Science 

320:1444–1449. 

Chemnitz, C. and Weigelt, J. (Eds). (2015). 

Soil Atlas 2015: Facts and figures about 

earth, land and fields. Heinrich Böll 

Foundation, Berlin, Germany, and the Institute 

for Advanced Sustainability Studies, 

Potsdam, Germany. Available online: 

http://www.fao.org/home/en/ (accessed 

on 14 November 2016). 

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National Academy of Sciences of the 

United States of America 111(20), 7236– 

7241. 

Gharajehdaghipour, T., Roth, J.D., Fafard, 

P. M., Markham, J.H. (2016). Arctic 

foxes as ecosystem engineers: increased 

soil nutrients lead to increased plant 

productivity on fox dens. Scientific Reports 

6, 24020. 

Hehre, E.J. and Meeuwig, J.J. (2016). A 

Global Analysis of the Relationship 

between Farmed Seaweed Production 

and Herbivorous Fish Catch. PLoS ONE 

11(2), e0148250. 

Huang, J., Zhang, W., Mo, J., Wang, S., 

Liu, J., Chen, H. (2015). Urbanization in 

China drives soil acidification of Pinus 

massoniana forests. Scientific Reports 5, 

13512. 

Hunter, D., Özkan, I., Moura de Oliveira 

Beltrame, D., Samarasinghe, W. L. G., 

Wasike, V. W., Charrondière, U. R., 

… Sokolow, J. (2016). Enabled or Disabled: 

Is the Environment Right for Using 

Biodiversity to Improve Nutrition? 

Frontiers in Nutrition 3, 14. 

Kuan, K.B., Othman, R., Abdul Rahim, K., 

Shamsuddin, Z. H. (2016). Plant 

Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria Inoculation 

to Enhance Vegetative Growth, 

Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogen Remobilisation 

of Maize under Greenhouse Conditions. 

PLoS ONE 11(3), e0152478. 

Cohn, A.S., Mosnier, A., Havlík, P., Valin, 

H., Herrero, M., Schmid, E., … Obersteiner, 

M. (2014). Cattle ranching intensification 

in Brazil can reduce global Luo, X., Fu, X., Yang, Y., Cai, P., Peng, S., 

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crobial communities play important 

roles in modulating paddy soil fertility. 

Scientific Reports 6, 20326. 

Maier, R.M., Díaz-Barriga, F., Field, J.A., 

Hopkins, J., Klein, B., Poulton, M.M. 

(2014). Socially Responsible Mining: the 

Relationship between Mining and Poverty, 

Human Health and the Environment. 

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89. 

Molina-Montenegro, M.A., Oses, R., 

Torres-Díaz, C., Atala, C., Zurita-Silva, 

A., Ruiz-Lara, S. (2016). 

Root-endophytes improve the ecophysiological 

performance and production of an 

agricultural species under drought condition. 

AoB Plants 8, plw062. 

Pandey, S.S., Singh, S., Babu, C.S.V., 

Shanker, K., Srivastava, N.K., Shukla, 

A.K., Kalra, A. (2016). Fungal endophytes 

of Catharanthus roseus enhance 

vindoline content by modulating structural 

and regulatory genes related to terpenoid 

indole alkaloid biosynthesis. Scientific 

Reports 6, 26583. 

Robinson B. L., Feng, W., Gulbis, N., Hajdu, 

K., Harrison, R. J., Jeffries, P., Xu, 

X. (2016). The Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal 

Fungi to Improve Strawberry 

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November 2016). 

Wahbi, S., Prin, Y., Thioulouse, J., Sanguin, 

H., Baudoin, E., Maghraoui, T., … 

Duponnois, R. (2016). Impact of 

Wheat/Faba Bean Mixed Cropping or 

Rotation Systems on Soil Microbial 

Functionalities. Frontiers in Plant Science 

7, 1364.



Short Note 


Basics for Sustainable Environment: Reduce Wastage, 

Reuse, and Recycle 

Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam 1, * , Samudhra Sendhil 2 , Aarthi Rajesh 3 

1 Microbiology and Medical Education Unit, Faculty of Medicine, AIMST University, 

Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; 2 School of Economics, Faculty of Arts and Social 

Sciences, Nottingham University Malaysia, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, 

Malaysia; 3 Department of Pathology, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, 

9016 Dunedin, New Zealand 

*Corresponding author; Email: rajesh@aimst.edu.my 

We, in the name of consumerism, are 

destroying the only planet that supports 

the life. All resources are depleting very 

rapidly which makes global 

sustainability questionable. Our Earth 

which once hosted 5 billion species has 

lost about 99% of it to extinction 

(Novacek, 2014; Stearns et al., 2000). It 

doesn’t stop there. Predictions state that 

human activities will result in the 

Holocene extinction where 30% of the 

existing species today may be extinct by 

2050 (Dawson et al., 2016; Hance et al., 

2015). 

Meanwhile, it is sad to state that 

we have managed to eradicate only one 

infectious disease so far. By 2050, the 

only infectious disease that we have 

hopes of eradicating is poliomyelitis. 

The world is spiralling downwards. 

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is the 

mantra for waste management and 

environmental sustenance. The waste 

hierarchy scope ranges from the least 

favoured opinion of disposal through 

energy recovery, recycling, reuse, 

minimisation to the most favoured 

opinion ‘prevention’. 

With this wide scope, we need to 

focus on people’s awareness of these 

issues at stake. The impact on the 

environment due to plastics, toxic 

components including radioactive 

elements, the growing usage and limited 

supply of potable water are just a few 

examples. Deforestation leading to 

global climate change as well as 

emerging diseases, the ecological ticking 

time bomb crisis that most of the 

earthlings are blissfully unaware off 

need to be addressed. Tapping the felt 

need of the people is the key element to 

health education. For example awareness 

campaign against infectious diseases 

promoting immunisation is best targeted 

against pregnant ladies; likewise the 

environmental issues are best made 

aware by the introduction of ‘Tragedy of 

commons’. The tragedy can include 

overfishing in the ocean to misuse of 

antibiotics to spam emails and many 

more. Each spam email, even if not 

opened, adds on significantly to the 

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Basics for Sustainable Environment 

carbon foot print. World Wildlife Fund 

(WWF) Australia has a human footprint 

calculator on its website allowing people 

to track how much of the earth they are 

misusing with their lifestyle. The 

website also mentions that we would 

need approximately 3.6 earths to sustain 

life on this planet given our current 

lifestyle. By 2050, humanity needs to 

produce twice the amount of food we do 

today in order to feed the forecast 9.7 

billion people (United Nations, 2015). 

For more on tragedy, one just needs to 

review the Love canal landfill incident 

which signifies the importance of 

primordial prevention of waste 

generation. It also is a grim lesson on the 

precautions necessary to protect and 

cover a landfill, especially to prevent 

leakage of leachate (Beck, 1979). 

This is an era where forests are 

cleared and cities built to accommodate 

a world congress on environmental 

development. This proves that most 

conferences do not achieve what they 

meant to in the first place. Deforestation 

has resulted in cities being built in place 

of jungles leaving rodents and other 

vectors homeless. This in turn has 

caused an alarming rise in the emergence 

and re-emergence of infectious diseases. 

To counter the vector problem, humans 

have used insecticides to fog the 

environment. This has resulted in 

reducing the number of queen bees 

(Goulson et al., 2015). Albert Einstein 

once prophetically remarked, “Mankind 

will not survive the honeybees’ 

disappearance for more than five years.” 

Queen bees are master pollinators and 

their extinction would result not only in 

the world going honey-less but also will 

affect a huge list of fruits and flowers 

pollinated by the bees. Extensive 

research has been done recently to 

understand the developmental and 

Kaithamanakallam et al 

evolutionary genetics of Honey bees to 

aid in their conservation. Genetic 

approaches can be used to modify plants 

to become resistant to insects, even 

withstand drastic changes in the 

environment and increasing crop 

produce (DeWoody et al., 2010). This 

can reduce the burden of using 

insecticides and potentially increase food 

resources. 

Natural resources exist in a fixed 

amount and can take millions of years to 

get replaced. Once they are depleted, 

they are depleted forever. Losses of 

forests lead to implications on the water 

and the atmosphere. Less trees result in 

less rains. To quote the department of 

natural resources, South Carolina from 

their study on Earth’s Natural Resources 

and Human Impacts, “Recycling helps 

the environment by slowing down the 

rate at which we have to burn garbage or 

put it in landfills. With fewer landfills 

we can have more space for people to 

farm, live, and work. Recycling also 

helps by reducing our need to consume 

fresh natural resources to make new 

products. As a result, we can save these 

resources for use by future generations. 

Most importantly, recycling saves 

energy and reduces pollution. This could 

also help in slowing-down global climate 

change, another environmental problem 

caused by burning fossil fuels like oil 

and gas. 

Earthlings have ignored long 

term and serious implications just to 

concentrate on short term gains. (A joke 

as usual with a deep message states - 

Aliens observe that humans are the most 

intelligent species in the universe as they 

have utilised the nuclear power; 

however, they also note that the humans 

have directed nuclear missiles against 

themselves). Mitochondrial DNA and 

Ancestry genetic studies need to be 

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publicised more to prove and convince 

earthlings that they have arisen from a 

common ancestor. Each one would 

possess 99% of the same genome with 

each other. We all have varied genes, 

including the genes from the countries 

they have sworn to eternal enmity. This 

should reduce wars (the biggest waste 

that cause havoc for years) and help us 

to focus on environmental and human 

conservation. It is high time to join 

together to combat the environmental 

issues together. 

Lack of awareness, poor planning 

and excessive tapping of resources has 

led to the Holocene extinction event 

including co-extinction of many species. 

It was hypothesised that Dodo’s and the 

tambalacoque trees went into extinction 

as they needed each other for their 

survival (Temple, 1979). When a 

predatory species becomes threatened or 

extinct, this removes a check and 

balance in the food chain on the 

population of prey previously consumed 

by that predator. Consequentially, the 

prey population can explode (Primack, 

2007). 

We are in need of a forum where 

we can instil the awareness of the 

ecological crisis we are dealing with and 

the solutions that lies closely embedded 

within the problems themselves. 

The environmental awareness 

programmes should aim to educate the 

younger generation about the importance 

of saving the planet for themselves and 

for the future generations. 

In summary, everyone should 

practice reduce, reuse, and recycle 

concept in daily life which will help in 

part to minimize the damage to 

environment for a sustainable future. We 

can nurture nature, the next generation’s 

future by using AIMST. Where these 

alphabets stands for - A: Alternate 


sources of energy and by creating 

Awareness about the benefits of 

reducing waste; I: Informing people to 

reuse a resource again without changing 

or reprocessing it, for instance, using 

glassware instead of paper plates should 

be preferred, Internalising these 

information and adopting a healthy ecofriendly 

life style; M: adopting Modern 

and Molecular methods of 

environmental conservation; S: 

Sustaining the environment by recycling 

materials that can be used in another 

item; T: Transforming the environmental 

and the peoples mind set to ensure a 

better tomorrow for the next gen. 

REFERENCES 

Dawson, A. (2016). Extinction: A 

Radical History. ISBN 978- 

1944869014. 

DeWoody, J.A., Bickham, J.W., 

Michler, C.H., Nichols, K.M., 

Rhodes, O.E.Jr., and Keith E. 

Woeste, K.E. eds. (2010). 

Molecular Approaches in Natural 

Resource Conservation and 

Management. Cambridge 

University Press, 2010. 

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Rotheray, E.L. (2015). Bee 

declines driven by combined stress 

from parasites, pesticides, and lack 

of flowers. Science 347(6229), 

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Hance, J., (2015). "How humans are 

driving the sixth mass extinction". 

The Guardian 

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Novacek, M. J., (2014). "Prehistory's 

Brilliant Future". New York 

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Stearns, B.P., Stearns, S.C., Stearns, 

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Temple, S.A. (1979). The dodo and the 

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22040. Available online at 

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02/Readings/Reading05.pdf. 

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at 

https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Public 

ations/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2 

015.pdf. Accessed on May 4, 

2016. 

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Short Note 



N V Subbarow 

National Farming Unit, Consumers Association of Penang, Penang, Malaysia 

Email: subbarow@gmail.com 

INTRODUCTION 

In February 2005, the Consumers Association 

of Penang (CAP) embarked on Sustainable 

Agriculture Project - to promote organic 

farming in Malaysia. The pioneers in this 

field were Namvalvar, Gopalakrishnan, a 

vermicomposting expert; a soil biologist and 

Director of the Ecosciense Research Foundation 

from India Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail; 

Rajamanikam, a herbal specialist in 

treating cattle diseases were invited by CAP 

to conduct trainings for farmers and public 

on sustainable agriculture. 

The organized programmes have 

been popular among the Chinese, Indian and 

Malay farmers. The Chairman of the Farmers 

Association, Mr. Chayeemong took a 

keen interest in the programme and encouraged 

other Chinese farmers to join him. 

These programmes have successfully educated 

many farmers about organic farming 

using vermiculture. 

About 36 Chinese farmers went to 

India for Natural Farming Study Tour in 

2006 which was organized by CAP. Various 

Training and Awareness programmes 

have been organized by CAP in Penang, 

Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan 

and Johor for farmers, public, students, 

teachers and trainee teachers. 

What is organic farming all about? 

Organic agriculture is a way of farming that 

avoids the use of synthetic chemicals, pesticides, 

and other chemicals. Organic farming 

systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues, 

animal manures, legumes, green manures, 

off-farm organic wastes, mechanical 

cultivation, and biological pest control to 

maintain soil productivity, to supply nutrients 

to plants, and to control weeds and 

pests. All kinds of agricultural products are 

produced organically, including produce, 

grains, meat, dairy, eggs, and fibers including 

cotton. Now growing crops is not all 

about using the latest, strongest chemical. It 

is also about using what is freely available 

from Mother Nature and churning it into 

something useful. In this short note, I am 

sharing Malaysian farmers experience about 

organic (also known as natural) farming. 

FARMERS EXPERIENCE 

Case 1 

Somasundaram is one of the first farmer 

who started Organic farming. During Mr. 

Gopalakrishnan’s visit to Malaysia he introduced 

Somasundaram to organic farming by 

guiding him in finding earthworms. The 

earthworms have multiplied fast and so has 

Somasundaram‘s income. He was full of 

praise for this system of farming and his 

new found friends-the earthworms. This pioneer 

project of producing vermicompost 

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from farm waste started with just two beds, 

measuring three meters by 1.5 meters. These 

beds were sheltered from extreme climates 

and were covered with cow dung. The cow 

dung is produced by Somasundaram’s twenty 

cows and dried over a period of two 

weeks. During this time the chicken eat all 

the worms and keep the cow dung free of 

worms. The drying helps to make the cow 

dung completely safe and ready for use. 

He also prepares ‘Panchakavya’, a 

multi-purpose fertilizer. This fertilizer can 

be easily prepared at home using fresh milk, 

yogurt, banana, egg, yeast, molasses, yeast, 

cow- urine, coconut and manure being an 

indispensable component. Its usefulness 

surpasses the unpleasant smell. 

Somasundaram not only uses Panchakavya 

for his jasmine plants and vegetables 

such as ladies finger, brinjal, bitter 

gourd and chilly. He says the Jasmine 

plants have a strong fragrance and flowers 

remain fresh longer. He was surprised to 

find the growth rate of his chickens multiplied 

and his cows producing better quality 

milk. 

Among the other fertilizers, Vermiwash 

is another famous one. Coconut milk 

serves as plant growth enhancer it is commonly 

used. 

Case 2 

Subbarow 

K. Sanmargam started growing Jasmines in 

his backyard as a past time for his wife. 

What started, as a past time is flourishing 

fast. K. Sanmargam was introduced to organic 

farming by Gopalakrishnan using 

vermiculture. The construction of earthworm 

beds is in progress. Sanmargam like 

many other farmers has set aside all his 

chemicals. He says that his wife had been 

suffering from breathing problems and on a 

visit to the doctor; she was diagnosed with 

asthma and underlying facial burns not visible 

to the naked eye. He swore to find a better 

way of farming. His search was soon answered 

by organic farming. He says he feels 

much safer working with the plants now. 

Jasmine plants like any other plant has a 

peak season and at the end of this season the 

yield is very low; however, after switching 

to organic farming, Sanmargam says that the 

yield remained consistent till end of the 

flowering season. Another interesting thing 

that Sanmargam brought out is the difference 

in the way birds react to the herbal repellant 

and the chemical pesticide. Earlier, 

he says the birds never ate the insects after 

the chemical pesticide repelled them; however, 

thanks to the miracle herbal repellant 

the birds gladly eat the insects. 

Currently, Sanmargam is renting one 

acre of land to breed earthworm, planting 

vegetables, rearing goats and chickens. He 

has 4 earthworm breeding beds whereby he 

produces vermicast. 

Case 3 

Kanniappan from Kulai, Johor has been ventured 

into organic lime planting after attending 

CAP’s organic farming training. He used 

to harvest ping-pong ball sized lemons on 

his one-acre orchard, is now reaping fruits 

that are bigger than hockey balls. It happened 

after he replaced chemical fertilizers 

with organic fertilizers and pest repellents. 

He has set up a vermiculture unit that 

produces 80 kg of vermicast per month 

which he uses as fertilizers. He earns at least 

RM 500 a month from lime, and RM 250 

from vermiculture. 

Case 4 

Md Saad Bin Haji Ali is a paddy farmer 

from Alor Setar who experimented using 

panchakavya and neem oil on his farm last 

year. To his surprise, he realized a 35% increase 

in production after using panchakav. 

This farmer stated that he was unable to take 

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the smell of pesticides. This farmer is feeding 

his dog with panchakavya and finds it 

healthy and fat. 

On the whole, about 200 farmers 

have already adopted non-chemical alternatives 

to farming and 500 paddy farmers are 

experimenting effectiveness of vermicompost 

and panchakavya in their fields. The 

number of farmers moving towards natural 

farming is expected to increase because of 

the benefits and sustainability. 

Subbarow 

Besides Somasundaram, Sanmargam, 

Kanniappan,, Md Saad and their 

friends, farmers from Hulu Yam are also 

shifting towards organic farming. Currently, 

they are trying composting in a bigger scale 

for their vegetable farms. 


Author is grateful to the farmers (mentioned) 

for sharing their experience. 

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Abstracts 

Natural Resources and Conservation 

Fadzil bin Abd Kadir 

Sungai Petani Municipal Council, Kompleks MPSPK, Jalan Patani, 08000 Sugai Petani, Kedah, 

Malaysia 

Email: norriza@mpspk.gov.my 

ABSTRACT 

Natural resources are resources that exist without the actions of humankind. This includes all 

valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, and electrical properties and forces. On 

earth, we include sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, air (includes all minerals) along with all 

vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified 

characteristics and substances. A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh 

water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form 

which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, petroleum, and most forms of 

energy. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known 

as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are 

referred to as localized resources. During my presentation, I will talk about ‘renewable and 

nonrenewable resources’, ‘conserving natural resources’, ‘reducing, reusing and recycling of 

waste’, ‘soil pollution’, ‘water pollution’, ‘air pollution’ and other aspects of environment to 

highlight the importance of natural resources conservation. 

Keywords: Air; conservation; nature; pollution; resources; water 

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Biodegradable Plastics for a Sustainable Environment 

Sudesh K. 

School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia 

Phone No.: (+6) 04-6534367; Email: ksudesh@usm.my 

ABSTRACT 

Bioplastics are mostly derived from renewable plant sources such as sugars and plant oils. They 

have a high potential in substituting petrochemical plastics as a renewable and sustainable 

material. Most types of bioplastics are also biodegradable, which makes them popular in 

developed countries. Switching to the use of biodegradable plastics not only reduces our 

dependence on fossil fuels but at the same time helps to fight global warming. For the past three 

decades, biodegradable plastics, namely polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) has been the subject of 

intense investigation due to its thermoplastic properties as well as being biodegradable and 

biocompatible. PHA is also being researched in Malaysia because palm oil can be used as an 

efficient feedstock to produce PHA via microbial fermentation. It is accumulated as water 

insoluble storage polyester in the cell cytoplasm of bacteria. However, successful 

commercialization of this biodegradable plastic is currently hindered by its high cost compared 

to existing petroleum-based plastics in the market. The main reason for costly production of 

PHA is its recovery and purification process from bacterial cells. A novel biological extraction 

method has recently been developed by feeding freeze-dried cells containing PHA to animal 

models. Since PHA granules are not digested by the digestive enzymes, the granules are excreted 

in the form of fecal matter. The resulting whitish fecal matter consisted of more than 90 wt% of 

PHA. The biologically recovered PHA has been successfully used in the development of 

controlled release fertilizers. 

Keywords: Biodegradable; bioplastics; fermentation; polyhydroxyalkanoate 

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Environmental Forensics: An Overview of Selected Cases 

Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman 

ACM, Director, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch, Malaysia 

Email: zaini@kimia.gov.my 

ABSTRACT 

Environmental forensics is a complex discipline where forensic investigation techniques are 

applied to determine the origin and source of contamination. Successful investigations need to 

apply knowledge on chemical fate and sampling protocols with sound statistical understanding, 

apart from being trained in the fields of analytical and environmental chemistry. To promote the 

awareness, an overview of environmental forensics with few selected cases received by the 

Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch will be presented. 

Keywords: Contamination; detection; environment; forensics; pollution 

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Environmental Pollution and Its Biological Impacts 

Palanisamy Arulselvan*, Katyakyini Muniandy, Sivapragasam Gothai 

Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra 

Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 

*Corresponding author; Email: arulbio@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

The environment plays an important role in human and animal health along with its well-being. 

Various key environmental factors such as physical, chemical and microbial can have 

implications for human and animal health. We have good constant cross interactions with the 

environment; therefore, health is considerably determined by the environmental quality. 

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), definition of health emphasizes on the 

physical, mental and social well-being, hence, human health is considered as a complete 

perception reaching beyond, in the absence of diseases. Apart from, human well-being and 

quality of life are matter to a notable number of environmental factors from indoor and outdoor. 

In the last three decades, there has been accumulative global concern over the health impacts 

attributed from numerous environmental pollutions, especially the global burden of chronic 

disease. The WHO predicted that more than a quarter of diseases faced by mankind nowadays 

occur due to continued exposure to harmful environmental pollutants. These environmental 

factors associated diseases are not intermittently diagnosed, however, we identified in the later or 

chronic stages. Overall environmental pollution has an imperative impact on living organisms, 

including health and physiology of human and animals. The impact on our health not only 

comprises the consequences of air, ground and water pollution, but also other factors such as 

genetic susceptibility, food contamination, radiation, lifestyle and life quality. Adding to it, 

notable pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals, fluorine and other agro-chemicals are the 

primary cause of environmental toxicity, which affects humans, animals, plants and wildlife. The 

chronic and minimal contact of pollutants is often linked to chemical residues in animal system. 

As for subclinical effects, these include mainly oxidative stress, immunotoxicity, 

carcinogenicity, and endocrine disruption. 

Keywords: Carcinogenicity; environmental pollution; immunotoxicity 

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Impact of Environmental Alteration and Human Infectious 

Diseases 

S. Suresh Kumar 

Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, 

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 

Email: suresh@upm.edu.my 

ABSTRACT 

Climate changes by human activities influenced the distribution, reproduction, and survival of 

disease between pathogens and host. Several environment-associated variables also influence the 

means of pathogen transmission and the changeover of non-pathogenic to infectious diseases, 

including air-, water-, and food- or vector-borne diseases. This may present new health threat to 

human beings, and further multiply existing health problems. One of the key factor influencing 

the likelihood and outcome of disease emergence is the pathogen invasiveness, which may result 

from the combination of pathogen traits including opportunism. Particularly, high mutation rate 

in viruses and bacteria capable of acquiring genetic material and pathogens infecting multiple 

hosts are more likely to turn into an emerging disease agent. Some species such as 

Legionella spp. and non-tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) are among the microbes that arise to 

be pathogenic due to environmental changes. Recently, numbers of peoples infected with 

nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) have increased worldwide. Disturbances to microbial 

ecosystems caused by the changes in environment system might lead to NTM diseases. 

Environmental alteration cause disturbance on the ecosystems that leads to occurrence of 

infectious diseases and finally give impact on human society. Thus, clarifying the relationship 

between environmental alterations and changes in microbial ecosystems is important to 

contribute to the restoration of the health of the ecosystem and also to prevent further 

outbreaks of infectious diseases. It is imperative to recognize research development and gaps 

on how human society may respond to, acclimatize to, and prepare for the related changes. 

Scientific advances, early warning systems, public health awareness campaign are needed 

along with research association between climate change and shifts in infectious diseases. 

Keywords: Infectious diseases; nontuberculous Mycobacteria; public health awareness 

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Recycling of Household Wastes (Resources) for Cleaner 

Environment 

Don Theseira 

Green Crusaders, Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia 

Email: datoje@gmail.com 

ABSTRACT 

Disposal of the household waste is a challenge in most of the counties. For public awareness 

purpose, I do demonstration on how we can recycle our household wastes for cleaner 

environment and income generation. I will be doing a demo on reducing, recycling and reusing 

wastes to promote the environmental cleanliness. 

Keywords: Environment; household waste; recycle; reuse 

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Speakers who delivered their talk in 

‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ 

Appendices 

Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers 

Biography of Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail 

Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.Sc., (9.10.1951) 

is Managing Director of the Ecoscience Research Foundation, a notfor 

profit organization, in Chennai. He was the Head of Zoology and 

later the Department of Biotechnology, The New College, Chennai. 

Has done extensive work (both research and applied) on ecology 

and environment, earthworms and organic inputs since 1978. He has 

been associated with several farmers and self-help groups promoting 

the concepts of ecology, sustainability, organic concepts, waste 

management, waste water treatment, etc. He was awarded the 

CASTME award for 1994-95 in the UK, the Arignar Anna Award 

by the Department of Environment of the Government of Tamil 

Nadu for 2005, and the award of Excellence presented by His 

Excellency Governor of Jharkhand in Dec 2010. Classified as one 

among the “TOP 10” people of Tamil Nadu for 2013 by Anantha 

Vikathan. He has travelled widely in India and abroad, with rich 

expertise in environmental issues. His book “The Earthworm Book” is popular among both 

academics and others interested in earthworms. He also authored “simple tasks great concepts” 

which is a boon to science teachers and students. It consists of 100 life science experiments 

which any child can perform without a laboratory. His earthworm book has been translated in 

Tamil as well as in Chinese. He has published more than 75 papers in National and International 

Journals, guided 32 M.Phil students and 17 Ph.D, students. More info about his work can be had 

from www.erfindia.org or just google his name. 

Biography of Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir 

Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir, AMK., BCK will enlighten us with 

his talk on ‘Natural Resources and Conservation’. He holds a 

doctorate in local government studies. He started his career in the 

Kedah state government service as a Kedah civil service officer 

(KCS) and has worked as a district land administrator, director of 

water services board and state chief auditor. Presently, Dr. Fadzil 

is the secretary of Sungai Petani municipal council. 

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Biography of Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar 

Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar’s main research interest is in the design and 

synthesis of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) using 

microbial systems. He started research in this area in 1992 and 

obtained his Masters in Biotechnology from University Malaya. 

Then, he continued his research for his PhD, which was sponsored 

by Japanese Government (Monbusho). The research was conducted 

at RIKEN Institute, Japan under the supervision of Prof. Y. Doi. He 

obtained his PhD in 1999 and then continued as a Special 

Postdoctoral Researcher at RIKEN. He returned to Malaysia under 

the Brain Gain program and joined the School of Biological 

Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia as a lecturer in 2001 and became 

a full professor in 2011. He has significantly contributed to the 

research and development of biodegradable plastics in Malaysia from palm oil products. In 

addition to the numerous scientific publications in both local and international journals, he has 6 

granted patents, two of which has been successfully licensed. 

Biography of Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman 

Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman earned his B.Sc. in Chemistry 

from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (1985) and joined 

the Department of Chemistry, Malaysia on 15 May 1985. He later 

continued his studies and obtained the Certificate in Forensic Medicine 

and M.Sc. in Forensic Toxicology, both from Glasgow University, 

Scotland (1991). He had enjoyed servicing the nation in various fields 

within the Forensic, Environmental Health and Applied Science 

Divisions. 

He was promoted to the Senior Chemist position leading the newly formed Pesticide Residues 

Analytical Centre, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Perak Branch on 1 April 2003. Six years 

later, he was seconded to the Office of the Permanent Delegation of Malaysia to UNESCO, Paris 

as Malaysia’s 1 st Science Attache to UNESCO. Having completed his term, Hj. Zaini was called 

to serve the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Putrajaya as Deputy 

Undersecretary, National Oceanography Directorate. He left MOSTI and moved back to the 

Department of Chemistry as Penang Branch Director on 17 December 2013. Hj. Zaini had been 

an active member of Institute Kimia Malaysia, having served the Institute as Honorary Secretary 

IKM Perak Branch and is currently the Vice Chairman of IKM Northern Branch. 

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Biography Mr. Don Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi 

Mr. Don Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi from 

GreenCrusaders.com are two recycling 

enthusiasts, who started their household waste 

recycling project in 1996. This retired couple 

are based in Bukit Mertajam, Penang and they 

have travelled across Malaysia to educate 

various organisations, corporations and 

residents’ associations on the need to recycle 

household waste. They also teach the art of 

composting household scraps, using a method 

which Don has perfected over the years. Don 

and Mylene have successfully combined 

recycling with charitable causes by donating 

the proceeds of each recycling project to 

charity organisations. Besides being featured 

in countless magazines and newspapers over the years, they have also been awarded the title 

“Everyday Heroes” by Readers’ Digest in 2002 for their tireless efforts in helping the 

environment. They present on how you can achieve zero waste, how to recycle your household 

waste and at the same time, how you can raise money for your favourite charity organisation. 

They have presented more than 250 talks on recycling and participated in 8 exhibitions. He has 

received many awards that includes: 

Reader’s Digest ‘Every Day Hero’ (featured in December 2002 issue) 

Guang Ming Heroes (Chinese daily 14 April 2005) 

Received PKT title given out by The Governor of Penang (13 July 2008) 

Biography of Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar 

Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar is a Senior Lecturer at School of Law, 

Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). She obtained LL.B (HONS) from 

the International Islamic University in 1994, and LL.M (Public 

Law) from University of Wales Aberystwyth, United Kingdom in 

1996, she then been awarded with her PhD in Environmental Law 

from Newcastle University, United Kingdom in 2015. In academic, 

she involves in a number of researches, i.e., Kajian Penerokaan 

Terhadap Hukuman Di Bawah Undang-Undang Berkaitan 

Pencemaran Perairan Daratan Di Malaysia; Kajian Terhadap Tahap 

Pengetahuan, Amalan Dan Sikap Berkaitan Alam Sekitar Di 

Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah - Kubang Pasu; and Peraturan Berkaitan 

Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Di Utara Semenanjung Malaysia. Dr 

Haslinda Mohd Anuar also produced several articles in environmental issues: Mohd. Anuar, H., 

& Wahab, H.A. (2015). Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam: Pengurusan dan Perundangan. 

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Solid Waste Solutions Journal. 1(), 1 – 14; Yaacob, N., Wahab, H.A., & Mohd. Anuar, H. 

(2015). Peraturan Yang Mengawal Selia Industri Getah dalam Menangani Pencemaran Air di 

Malaysia. 4th International Conference on Law & Society. 1(1), 1 – 10; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2014). 

Environmental Governance in Malaysia: An Overview. The UUM International Conference on 

Governance 2014. 00(), 154 – 162; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2013). The concept of environmental 

rights: an overview. 7th UUM International Legal Conference 2013; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2012). 

Towards An Environmental Sustainability: Environmental Education or Environmental Rights?. 

Proceeding of The 5th International Borneo Business Conference (IBBC) 2012. (), 108 – 113; 

Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). An Overview of Public Participation under EIA. Proceeding of The 6th 

UUM International Law Conference 2011. (1), 346 – 351; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). Right to 

Information on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Proceeding of the International Soft 

Science Conference 2011 (ISSC2011); and Mohd. Anuar, H., & Wahab, H.A. (2010). Akta 

Pepejal Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam 2007: Satu Pandangan. International Seminar 

Economic Regional Development, Law and Governance in Malaysia and Indonesia. 

Biography of Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan 

Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan received his Doctorate in the field of 

Biochemistry from the University of Madras, India and he was 

trained as a post-doctoral researcher at Academia Sinica, Taiwan. 

Currently, he is continuing his scientific research career as a 

Research Fellow at Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra 

Malaysia, Malaysia. He has published over 65 papers in 

internationally reputed journals, refereed proceedings and book 

chapter. His current research focuses on natural products based drug 

discovery; nano-drug delivery system and role of inflammatory 

signalling targets in diabetic wound healing. He has won many 

national and international level scientific awards from different 

organization. He is serving as Associate Editor and Editorial board 

member of few internationally reputed scientific Journals. 

Biography of Dr. Suresh Kumar 

Dr. Suresh Kumar has degrees in Microbiology (B.Sc), Life 

science specialization in bio-macromolecules (M.Sc.,) and 

Microbiology (Ph.D.,). He is currently working as a senior 

lecturer in Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. He has been 

Post-Doctoral research Fellow in National Central University 

and National Taiwan University, Taipei-Taiwan in the field of 

yeast genetics and Stem cells. He also has been Senior Research 

Executive (Fermentation of Microbial drugs) in IPCA 

Laboratory Ltd, Mumbai, India, R&D officer (Fermentation of 

Microbial drugs) in Gujarat Themis Biosyn Ltd.), Vapi, Gujarat, 

India, a Senior and Junior Research fellow (Fermentation and 

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purification of enzymes) in University of Delhi South campus, New Delhi, India. Currently, he is 

also a consultant in one of the Project of King Saud University, Saudi Arabia and he is an editor 

for PLoS One and American Journal of Tissue Engineering, Columbia international Publishing. 

His research interests have focused on Infectious Diseases in Tuberculosis, Dengue and 

Leptospirosis, Bio-macromolecules, Yeast genetics, Fermentation and purification of Microbial 

drugs and enzymes, Stem cells with Infectious diseases, Stem cell niches, Induced Pluripotent 

stem cells. 

Biography of Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan 

Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan is essentially an Interdisciplinary person 

with background in biology and chemistry with a specific focus on 

environmental problems. He has done basic toxicology on pesticides on 

house hold pests in his B.Sc. & M.Sc (1970-75) and got into 

Environmental Analytical Chemistry during his PhD work in India 

(1976-85) where he studied the chemodynamics of pesticides in semitropical 

climate. Thus he acquainted himself with gas chromatographic 

techniques and has developed multiple residue methodologies for 

pesticides in agricultural produce. The work he developed in India 

fetched him a Monbukagakusho fellowship in Japan (1985-89) where he 

continued his environmental studies on industrial trace chemicals such as 

PCBs, Dioxins etc. He went from local to global studies involving migratory whales and birds to 

establish global distribution of anthropogenic pollutants. He was largely responsible for the 

scientific awareness on dioxin-like PCBs in humans and other biota. He also got an opportunity 

to observe and implement in-vitro cellular bioassays for the impact assessment of toxic 

pollutants in biota, marine sediments, water and terrestrial samples. His studies on co-planar 

PCBs took him to Germany where he worked for more than 10 years at GEOMAR Helmholtz- 

Zentrum für Ozeanforschung, Kiel (1989-2002). There he refined his knowledge on utilizing 

non-radioactive, anthropogenic chemical signatures in understanding biogeochemistry of ocean 

processes such as sedimentation, ocean circulation etc. He continued this research later in Korea 

(2003-2011) with a more regional focus, such as in the Yellow sea, South and East seas. Korea 

offered him an opportunity to develop his skills on outreach activities and capacity building for 

developing nations. He was the program director for APEC Marine Environmental Training and 

Educational Center (AMETEC) at KIOST, Korea. This international training and teaching 

experience gave him the power to be adaptive and innovative in his research at UPM, Malaysia 

(2013-16). With essential teaching load on environmental courses he utilized Final Year Project 

(FYP scheme) to work on environmental problems in Malaysia. He developed simple semipermeable 

membrane devices to monitor air pollution. With minimum equipment and 

measurement techniques like GCMS, HS GC-FID, AAS his team measured toxic chemicals in 

waste motor engine oil, atmosphere and marine sediments. They utilized marine micro debris 

such as plastic pellets to understand marine pollution in Malaysia. He is also involved in 

improving Gas Purge Micro extraction techniques with Yanbian University China and Università 

di Foggia, Italy on Green Chemistry for a sustainable world. Thus his academic interests include 

the transport and fate of industrial contaminants and hormone disruptors in the environment. This 

includes, aspects of intermediate transport, pollution modelling, degradation processes, human 

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exposure pathways, bio-geochemistry of POPs and their use as unconventional chemical tracers 

in understanding Ocean Processes. He loves teaching and mentoring and he has taught students 

at tertiary level and guided students for their Master/M.Phil/PhD courses. He has a strong track 

record on publication and his current H index is 31. He has working relationship with Institutions 

in China, Korea, Japan, Europe and USA which could be utilized for the benefit of a hosting 

Institution. 

Biography of Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh 

Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh has held academic positions at Chennai, 

India and at Kedah, Malaysia. He joined AIMST University in 

Malaysia in March 2005, where he is currently holding the posts of 

Head of the Unit of Microbiology and Medical Education. He was 

the former Deputy Dean of Preclinical studies and the former Dean 

of faculty of Medicine at AIMST University. Dr.Rajesh is a Fellow 

of the Academy of Clinical Microbiology, Life member of the 

Malaysian society of microbiologists, and also a life member of the 

college of chest physicians, New Delhi. He has authored 18 

publications in peer reviewed indexed journals on various fields of 

clinical microbiology and medical education. Dr Rajesh has 

presented papers on many international platforms. In March 2011 

Dr. Rajesh received the bioinnovation medal from Malaysian biotechnology society for his work 

on bacteriophage therapy. He is passionate about youth empowerment and leadership and has 

pioneered the world first preclinical quiz which was held at AIMST in 2011. He is also advisor 

to the RED committee a charity organization working in AID of the less privileged patients. He 

organized district 3310 RYLA 2013/2014 and was invited to be an inspiration coach at the 

international RYLA in Sydney in May 2014. He was the president of the Rotary Club of Bandar 

Sungai Petani 2015-16 and is in charge of new generations 2016-17. A winner of the Rotary 

International’s 5 avenues of citation award in 2014. Dr Rajesh was involved in international 

community service with regard to water and sanitation in India and Bangladesh in 2013-15. Dr 

Rajesh is a life member of the World Wildlife Fund and is an active supporter of the preservation 

of forests. 

Biography of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan 

Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan has a Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Kyoto 

University, Japan. Prior to joining at Universiti Utara Malaysia 

(UUM) as a full professor in August 2014 he was managing his own 

firm-Bioinnovare Co., Ltd., an international business development 

consulting company, based in Kobe, Japan which he founded in 2009. 

Prior to that he was a Professor at Japan Advanced Institute of 

Science and Technology (JAIST), a national postgraduate university, 

in Ishikawa, Japan (1997- 2005). He also worked for Procter & 

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Gamble Company, as an R&D Scientist and Manager (1994-2001). Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan 

established a non-profit organization – Japan Halal Research Institute (JAHARI) in Hyogo, 

Japan in 2014 and he became the founder Chairman of this organization. A Japanese national, he 

had been living in Kobe, Japan with his family since 1994. 

Some of the key achievements of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan are: 

Professional biotechnologist with more than twenty five years of experiences in research 

and management (in Japan and USA) 

Extensively experienced in both the Western and Japanese (multi-cultural) business 

settings. 

Invented, co-developed and successfully launched a health-care consumer product, from 

original idea and laboratory test to prototyping and field-testing (Febreze- Allergen 

Reducer has been globally marketed by Procter & Gamble since 2004) 

Recipient of Procter & Gamble Innovation Award 

Published more than 50 patents and articles. 

At UUM, currently Prof. Quamrul Hasan is also the Director of an international research center 

collaborating with the universities and companies in Japan, which were initiated by him. 

Biography of Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman 

Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman has been working as a Senior Research 

Fellow (Senior Associate Professor Equivalent) in the Institute of 

Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) since January, 2010. He 

has been involved in teaching/supervising undergraduate and 

postgraduate students in various fields of marine sciences, fisheries 

and aquaculture as well as conducting research on “Biology, ecology, 

diversity, breeding, seed production, culture and biochemical 

composition of sea urchins, sea cucumbers and fishes”. Meanwhile, he 

is involved in some international collaborative research work on 

marine biology, fisheries and aquaculture with scientists of different 

institutes, including Smithsonian Institution (USA), Australian 

Nuclear Science and Technology Organization (Australia), Sultan 

Qaboos University (Oman), Kindai University, Japan, Sinop University (Turkey) etc., while 

others are under the process of establishment. Before that, Dr. Rahman had obtained his M.S. 

and Ph.D. degrees in Marine and Environmental Sciences from University of the Ryukyus, 

Okinawa, Japan (1995-2001), where he also did two years (2003-2005) JSPS postdoctoral 

research on “marine biology, reproduction, fertilization, hybridization, speciation and 

aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific sea urchins”. He also worked in the Smithsonian Tropical 

Research Institute, Panama, and USA for two years (2007-2009) in the same field with Atlantic 

sea urchins as the Smithsonian postdoctoral researcher. In addition, he worked as a Chief 

Researcher in the Ocean Critters Ranch, Inc., Crowley, Texas, USA on “breeding and 

propagation of various marine ornamental fishes and corals”. Moreover, he worked as a senior 

scientist in Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute during 1988 to 2007 in various fields of 

Breeding Biology, Nursing, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management. His expertise areas broadly 

lie in Marine and Freshwater Biology, Limnology and Aquatic Ecology, Reproductive Biology 

and Fertilization kinetics, Population dynamics, Breeding, Nursing and Seed Production, 

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Aquaculture and Conservation, and Taxonomy and Evolution. His multidisciplinary research and 

educational backgrounds provide him a unique and novel perspective in conducting research 

work in a diverse field of Aquatic Biology and Ecology, Marine and Environmental sciences, 

Fish Nutrition, Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences, and Biodiversity conservation, and thus 

enable him to coordinate with scholars in different academic disciplines. Dr. Rahman has 

published 110 scientific papers in international and nationally reputed high impact journals, 19 

referred proceedings, 2 books and 12 book chapters. A good number (22) of scientific papers 

have also been presented and published in international conferences, symposia and workshops. 

He has also been serving as editors and editorial board members of some reputed journals and 

proceedings. 

Biography of Mr N V Subbarow 

Mr N V Subbarow has been serving with Consumers Association of 

Penang for the past 40 years. He has been actively involved in 

organising many Health campaigns in CAP namely Anti Smoking, 

Anti Alcohol and Anti Pesticides Campaigns. At present he is the 

Coordinator for the CAP’s Sustainable Agriculture Project. He has 

been advocating for Chemical Free farming and is working closely 

with farmers, teachers, government officials, housewives, students of 

primary, secondary and higher learning institutions. He is also 

engaged in developing urban garden techniques for urban dwellers. 

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WED-2016 Events 

Held at AIMST University, Malaysia 

Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University 

A. WED-2016 Event 1 ─ Planting trees in AIMST University campus 

This event was held on June 6, 2016. The event information and some snaps are given 

below: 

Date of event: June 6, 2016 (Monday) 

Time: 8.00am – 10.30 am 

Meeting point: Foyer, Admin building 

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B. WED-2016 Event 2 ─ Slogan writing competition 

Info: This competition was open to all staff and students of the AIMST University. 

Participants were allowed to submit multiple slogans for the competition by following the 

guidelines made available on university’s website. 

We had received a total of 417 slogan entries from which winners were selected by the 

judges. 

Winners of the competition 

Prize 

Winner 

Prize Winning Slogan of 

the Winner 

Champion 

(Cash prize Malaysian 

Ringgit (RM) 500 + 

Certificate) 

Dr. P.K. Rajesh 

“Nurture Nature, The Next 

Generation's Future” 

1 st Runner up 

(Cash Prize Malaysian 


Certificate) 

Dr. Kailash Kharkwal 

“Earth is a divine 

expression; don't spoil it 

with carbon impression” 

2 nd Runner up 

(Cash Prize Malaysian 


Certificate) 

Ms. Ashadeep Kaur Vidwan 

“Pollution is not an illusion, 

it is your creation” 

C. WED-2016 Event 3 ─ Trash to treasure innovation competition 

The event information and some snaps are given below: 

Date of event: September 22, 2016 

Duration : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm 

Location : AIMST University, Jalan Bedong, Semeling, 08100, Bedong, Kedah 

Info: Twenty-two ( 22) school teams had participated in this competition 

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Special Presence: 

DCP (R) Dato' Dr Yew Chong Hooi, Council Member, Institut Kimia Malaysia & 

President of Forensic Society of Malaysia 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mas Rosemal Hakim Mas Haris, Chairman, Institut Kimia 

Malaysia (Northern Branch) 

Tn. Hj. Mohamed Zaini b. Abdul Rahman, Director, Jabatan Kimia Malaysia, 

Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Jalan Tull, 10450 Pulau Pinang. 

Winners of the competition* 

Prize 

Winner 

SMK ST George (Girls), 


Pulau Pinag 

1 st MRSM Transkrian Nibong 

Runner up 

Tebal, Pulau Pinang 

2 nd Runner up SMK Ibrahim, Kedah 

*The prizes were sponsored by Institut Kimia Malaysia (IKM). 

D. WED-2016 Event 4 ─ Inter school quiz competition 

The event information is given below: 




Info: In total, 24 school teams had participated in the interschool environmental quiz 

competition. 


Prize 

Winner (School Team) 


SMK Khir Johari 

1 st Runner up SMK Kota Kuala Muda 

2 nd Runner up SMK Sin Min 

E. WED-2016 Event 5 ─ Intervarsity debate competition 





Info: Six (6) teams had participated for this intervarsity environmental debate 

competition. 

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Prize 


1 st Runner up 

2 nd Runner up 

Winner 

Multimedia 

University Malaysia, 

Malaysia 

Multimedia University 

Malaysia, Malaysia 

University Malaysia Pahang, 

Malaysia 

F. WED-2016 Event 6 ─ World environment day cycling event - ride for fun 


Date of event: 16 October, 2016. 

Duration: 7.30 am (Flag Off) 

Venue (Start and Finish): AIMST University to Tupah to AIMST University 

Info: 219 cyclist participated in the event. 

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World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering Committee 

AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia 



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How you can help in saving the world? 

Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world? 

A. Things you can do from your couch 

1. Save electricity by plugging appliances into a power strip and turning them off 

completely when not in use, including your computer. 

2. Stop paper bank statements and pay your bills online or via mobile. No paper, no need for 

forest destruction. 

3. Share, don’t just like. If you see an interesting social media post about women’s rights or 

climate change, share it so folks in your network see it too. 

4. Speak up! Ask your local and national authorities to engage in initiatives that don’t harm 

people or the planet. You can also voice your support for the Paris Agreement and ask 

your country to ratify it or sign it if it hasn’t yet. 

5. Don’t print. See something online you need to remember? Jot it down in a notebook or 

better yet a digital post-it note and spare the paper. 

6. Turn off the lights. Your TV or computer screen provides a cosy glow, so turn off other 

lights if you don’t need them. 

7. Do a bit of online research and buy only from companies that you know have sustainable 

practices and don’t harm the environment. 

8. Report online bullies. If you notice harassment on a message board or in a chat room, flag 

that person. 

9. Stay informed. Follow your local news and stay in touch with the Global Goals online or 

on social media at @GlobalGoalsUN. 

10. Tell us about your actions to achieve the global goals by using the hashtag #globalgoals 

on social networks. 

11. Offset your carbon emissions! You can calculate your carbon footprint and purchase 

climate credit from Climate Neutral Now. 

B. Things you can do at home 

1. Air dry. Let your hair and clothes dry naturally instead of running a machine. If you do 

wash your clothes, make sure the load is full. 

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2. Take short showers. Bathtubs require gallons more water than a 5-10-minute shower. 

3. Eat less meat, poultry, and fish. More resources are used to provide meat than plants. 

4. Freeze fresh produce and leftovers if you don’t have the chance to eat them before they 

go bad. You can also do this with take-away or delivered food, if you know you will not 

feel like eating it the next day. You will save food and money. 

5. Compost—composting food scraps can reduce climate impact while also recycling 

nutrients. 

6. Recycling paper, plastic, glass & aluminium keeps landfills from growing. 

7. Buy minimally packaged goods. 

8. Avoid pre-heating the oven. Unless you need a precise baking temperature, start heating 

your food right when you turn on the oven. 

9. Plug air leaks in windows and doors to increase energy efficiency. 

10. Adjust your thermostat, lower in winter, higher in summer. 

11. Replace old appliances with energy efficient models and light bulbs. 

12. If you have the option, install solar panels in your house. This will also reduce your 

electricity bill! 

13. Get a rug. Carpets and rugs keep your house warm and your thermostat low. 

14. Don’t rinse. If you use a dishwasher, stop rinsing your plates before you run the machine. 

15. Choose a better diaper option. Swaddle your baby in cloth diapers or a new, 

environmentally responsible disposable brand. 

16. Shovel snow manually. Avoid the noisy, exhaust-churning snow blower and get some 

exercise. 

17. Use cardboard matches. They don’t require any petroleum, unlike plastic gas-filled 

lighters. 

C. Things you can do outside your house 

1. Shop local. Supporting neighbourhood businesses keeps people employed and helps 

prevent trucks from driving far distances. 

2. Shop Smart—plan meals, use shopping lists and avoid impulse buys. Don’t succumb to 

marketing tricks that lead you to buy more food than you need, particularly for perishable 

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items. Though these may be less expensive per ounce, they can be more expensive 

overall if much of that food is discarded. 

3. Buy Funny Fruit—many fruits and vegetables are thrown out because their size, shape, or 

color are not “right”. Buying these perfectly good funny fruit, at the farmer’s market or 

elsewhere, utilizes food that might otherwise go to waste. 

4. When you go to a restaurant and are ordering seafood always ask: “Do you serve 

sustainable seafood?” Let your favorite businesses know that ocean-friendly seafood’s on 

your shopping list. 

5. Shop only for sustainable seafood. There are now many apps like this one that will tell 

you what is safe to consume. 

6. Bike, walk or take public transport. Save the car trips for when you’ve got a big group. 

7. Use a refillable water bottle and coffee cup. Cut down on waste and maybe even save 

money at the coffee shop. 

8. Bring your own bag when you shop. Pass on the plastic bag and start carrying your own 

reusable totes. 

9. Take fewer napkins. You don’t need a handful of napkins to eat your takeout. Take just 

what you need. 

10. Shop vintage. Brand-new isn’t necessarily best. See what you can repurpose from 

second-hand shops. 

11. Maintain your car. A well-tuned car will emit fewer toxic fumes. 

12. Donate what you don’t use. Local charities will give your gently used clothes, books and 

furniture a new life. 

13. Vaccinate yourself and your kids. Protecting your family from disease also aids public 

health. 

14. Take advantage of your right to elect the leaders in your country and local community. 

SOURCE: Sustainable development goals. The lazy person's guide to saving the world. 

Available online at http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ 

(accessed on November 21, 2016). 

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WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS




About Editors 

Subhash Bhore, PhD: Subhash completed his BSc (Botany) and MSc 

(Botany) degrees education at University of Pune, India. Immediately 

after completing his MSc (May 1996), he got an opportunity to work at 

‘Biochemical Engineering Department’ and ‘Plant Tissue Culture Pilot 

Plant’ of the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India. In June 2000, 

he received a Doctoral Fellowship (GRA) to pursue a PhD Degree in 

Molecular Genetics at the National University of Malaysia (UKM). In 

2004, he was appointed as Senior Research Officer at Melaka Institute of 

Biotechnology (MIB), a research wing of Melaka Biotechnology 

Corporation, Malaysia. Based on his performance, in April 2005, he was 

promoted as ‘Principal Investigator & Head of R&D Department’ at MIB, Malaysia. In 2008, he 

was invited by the AIMST University as a ‘Visiting Faculty’ for their Department of 

Biotechnology and now serving as a Senior Associate Professor. In 2009, he was nominated for 

the AASIO (Association of Agricultural Scientists of Indian Origin) Young Scientist Award. He 

has published more than 47 peer-reviewed articles, 5 books, and submitted more than 11,900 

DNA sequences in Gene Bank, and got more than 10 awards/fellowships. As of May 2016, he 

has supervised more than 67 students including postgraduates, undergraduates and industrial 

trainees. He is actively involved in research as well as teaching and advising of postgraduate and 

undergraduate students. You may contact him using email, subhash@aimst.edu.my or 

subhashbhore@gmail.com 

Kasi Marimuthu, PhD: Marimuthu accomplished his BSc (Zoology); 

MSc (Environmental Biotechnology); PhD (Environmental 

Biotechnology/ Zoology Interdisciplinary) degree education at 

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tamilnadu, India. In 2003 he 

joined as a Post-Doctoral Fellow at School of Biological Sciences, 

University Science Malaysia, Penang for 2 years. Presently, he is 

appointed as a Professor in the Department of Biotechnology AIMST 

University, Malaysia. He teaches Aquaculture, Biostatistics, Research 

Methodology, Biology of Invertebrates and Vertebrates courses for undergraduate biotechnology 

programme. He is specialized in fish reproduction and breeding, larval rearing, hatchery 

management, fish immunology and aquatic toxicology related research. He has published more 

than 95 research publication in fisheries and aquaculture in various reputed and indexed journals. 

He has participated in more than 35 local and international conferences, seminars, and 

workshops. He has been appointed as an external examiner for six Indian Universities 

(Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Annamalai University, Bharathiyar University, 

Bharathidasan University, Madras University, and Priest University) Tamilnadu, India. He is 

also currently serving as a Deputy Vice chancellor for Academic and International Affairs at 

AIMST University. You may contact him at marimuthu@gmail.com.



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