Focus on Environment
This book is the Proceedings of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ & ‘World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016)’ events held on the campus of AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia. ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5 (Print version); eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 (e-Book version) Editors Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu
This book is the Proceedings of the ‘National Seminar on Sustainable Environment and Health 2016’ & ‘World Environment Day-2016 (WED-2016)’ events held on the campus of AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia.
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5 (Print version); eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 (e-Book version)
Editors
Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives<br />
for Sustainable Development<br />
Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu, Editors
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
Proceedings of the ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and<br />
Health 2016’ & ‘World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Day-2016 (WED-2016)’ events held<br />
<strong>on</strong> the campus of AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia<br />
Editors<br />
Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu<br />
2016
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
Subhash Bhore & K. Marimuthu (Editors)<br />
Published by AIMST University<br />
2016<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5 (Print versi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 (e-Book versi<strong>on</strong>)
Financial support for the ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’ and ‘WED-2016’ events<br />
was provided by:<br />
• AIMST University<br />
• OTA Tunnel Squad Sdn. Bhd.<br />
• SKiWealth Sdn. Bhd.<br />
• Merchantrade Asia Sdn. Bhd.<br />
• Lembaga Sumber Air Negeri Kedah<br />
• Mutaiya Group of Companies<br />
• Poliklinik Sakthi N Sheila Sdn Bhd, Kulim<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference and WED-2016 events were organized by:
Published by<br />
AIMST University<br />
Printed by<br />
AIMST University<br />
Copyright<br />
© 2016 by the authors; editors; AIMST University, Malaysia. This<br />
book is an open access book distributed under the terms and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of the Creative Comm<strong>on</strong>s Attributi<strong>on</strong> (CC-BY) license<br />
(http://creativecomm<strong>on</strong>s.org/licenses/by/4.0/).<br />
CC BY license is applied which allows users to download, copy, reuse and distribute<br />
data provided the original article and book is fully cited. This open access aims to<br />
maximize the visibility of articles, reviews, perspectives and notes, much of which is<br />
in the interest of nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al and global community.<br />
Disclaimer: The informati<strong>on</strong> provided in this book is designed to highlight the views,<br />
perspectives and or research findings of respective c<strong>on</strong>tributors. While the best<br />
efforts have been used in preparing this book, Editors and or Publisher make no<br />
representati<strong>on</strong>s or warranties of any kind and assume no liabilities of any kind with<br />
respect to the accuracy or completeness of the c<strong>on</strong>tents and specifically disclaim<br />
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c<strong>on</strong>sequential damages caused, or alleged to have been caused, directly or<br />
indirectly, by the informati<strong>on</strong> highlighted herein. Readers should be aware that the<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> provided in this book may change.<br />
All articles, reviews, and notes published in this book are deemed to reflect the<br />
individual views of respective authors and not the official points of view, either of the<br />
Editors or of the Publisher.<br />
Edited by<br />
Dr. Subhash J. Bhore (Senior Associate Professor) 1 , and<br />
Dr. K. Marimuthu (Professor) 2<br />
Address for Corresp<strong>on</strong>dance:<br />
1 Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University,<br />
Bed<strong>on</strong>g-Semeling Road, 08100 Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; Teleph<strong>on</strong>e<br />
No.: +604 429 8176; e-mail: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com<br />
2 Chancellery, AIMST University, Bed<strong>on</strong>g-Semeling Road, 08100 Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah<br />
Darul Aman, Malaysia; Teleph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +604 429 1054; e-mail:<br />
marimuthu@aimst.edu.my<br />
Editi<strong>on</strong><br />
First; December 23, 2016
Dedicati<strong>on</strong><br />
This book is dedicated to all researchers<br />
working in various domains of science and<br />
technology, and to all stakeholders those<br />
are working for the global sustainable<br />
development to improve the health of the<br />
people and planet.
World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering<br />
Committee*<br />
Chairpers<strong>on</strong><br />
Prof. Dr. Kasi Marimuthu<br />
Co-chairpers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Mr. Christapher Parayil Varghese<br />
Dr. Gokul Shankar<br />
Mr. Arunagiri Shanmugam<br />
Secretary<br />
Ms. Kalaiselvee Rethinam<br />
Secretariat<br />
Dr. Shalini Sivadasan<br />
Dr. Rohini Karunakaran<br />
Ms. Elil Suthamathi<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar<br />
Dr. Subhash J. Bhore<br />
Dr. Anth<strong>on</strong>y Leela<br />
Dr. Lee Su Yin<br />
Dr. V. Ravichandran<br />
Dr. S. Parasuraman<br />
Dr. Venkateskumar<br />
Dr. Sunitha Namani<br />
Dr. Jawahar Dhanavel<br />
Dr. Saurabh Prakash<br />
Dr. Durga Prasad<br />
Dr. Ajay Jain<br />
Mr. Maheswaran<br />
Mr. Nithiananthan<br />
Mr. Girish Kumar<br />
Ms. Veni Chandrakasan<br />
Mr. R. Rizhi<br />
Mr. Elanchezhian<br />
Ms. Vijayananthinee Arumugam<br />
Ms. P<strong>on</strong>narasy Ganasen<br />
Mr. Jeevandran Sundarasekar<br />
Ms. Mangalarani<br />
Publicity and Sp<strong>on</strong>sors<br />
Dr. Sivachandran Parimannan<br />
Mr. Anth<strong>on</strong>y Tee<br />
Mr. Siventhiran<br />
Treasurer<br />
Mr. G. Prabhakaran<br />
Mr. Halikhan<br />
Safety<br />
Mr. S. Maheswaran<br />
IT & AV<br />
Mr. Gobinath<br />
Logistics<br />
Mr. D.S Muraly Velavan<br />
Mr. Neeraj Paliwal<br />
Ms. Musalinah Buzri<br />
Facilities<br />
Mr. S. Krishnan<br />
Mr. V. Krishnan<br />
Ms. Yoganandhi<br />
*of/at AIMST University<br />
Slogan writing, Quiz, Debate, Trash to<br />
treasure competiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Ms. Faustina Lerene Dominic<br />
Ms. Rebecca Jayamalar<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
i
Foreword<br />
It is a great h<strong>on</strong>or and pleasure to write this foreword<br />
message for this proceedings; because, I had attended this<br />
seminar and witnessed the success of the World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Day (WED) awareness campaign.<br />
The WED is the biggest event and globally celebrated<br />
<strong>on</strong> June 5 each year to promote awareness about preservati<strong>on</strong><br />
of envir<strong>on</strong>ment and to take positive acti<strong>on</strong>s. The WED is<br />
engaging milli<strong>on</strong>s of people across the globe through events<br />
and celebrated over 100 countries. Every year, participants,<br />
several organizati<strong>on</strong>s, organize clean-up campaigns, art<br />
exhibits, tree-planting, c<strong>on</strong>certs, dance recitals, recycling<br />
drives, social media campaigns and different c<strong>on</strong>tests with<br />
various themes for preservati<strong>on</strong> of envir<strong>on</strong>ment. AIMST University, str<strong>on</strong>gly belives in<br />
the need of increasing understanding and creating more awareness am<strong>on</strong>g students sothat<br />
they can appreciate the values of biodiversity and the clean envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
First of all, I would like to thank all the invited speakers, delegates, young<br />
researchers and participants of the ‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and<br />
Health’ for their participati<strong>on</strong>, and sharing their views and perspectives <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
issues and c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Thirteen (13) leading and eminent researchers and envir<strong>on</strong>mentalists delivered<br />
their talk <strong>on</strong> the various envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues important for sustainable development. The<br />
seminar brought together the researchers, students, entrepreneurs those are working in the<br />
areas of envir<strong>on</strong>ment and health. Nati<strong>on</strong>al seminar provided a magnificent opportunity<br />
for all the participants to interact with eminent colleagues. I wish to thank all the speakers<br />
and participants, envir<strong>on</strong>mental NGOs, students from various schools and universities for<br />
participating in the seminar and WED events. I also wish to thank all supporters for<br />
supporting the seminar and events.<br />
I am really happy to know that full-length articles received from the invited<br />
speakers of the Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health are being published in<br />
this proceeding. I would record my special thanks to Professor Dr. K. Marimuthu, a<br />
highly committed organizing Chairman, and Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash<br />
Bhore, a leading Editor of this book for their efforts in bringing out this book to<br />
document the c<strong>on</strong>ference and WED-2016 events. I also thank the purpose driven<br />
organizing committee members and volunteers for their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> and support.<br />
I am very sure that c<strong>on</strong>tent of this proceeding will serve as a reference to students,<br />
researchers, scientists, public and all other stakeholders those have c<strong>on</strong>cern about<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Thank you,<br />
Senior Professor Dr. M. Ravichandran<br />
Chief Executive & Vice-Chancellor, AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
ii
Preface<br />
Globally, World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Day (WED) is a great<br />
annual event celebrated each year <strong>on</strong> June 5, to engage<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>s of people from different countries to draw the<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> of several organizati<strong>on</strong>s and public to implement<br />
some effective acti<strong>on</strong>s and create positive awareness to<br />
preserve the envir<strong>on</strong>ment and planet earth. This year’s<br />
theme for WED was “Go Wild for Life” that highlights the<br />
fight against the illegal trade in wildlife, which erodes<br />
precious biodiversity and threatens the survival of<br />
elephants, rhinos and tigers, as well as many other species.<br />
This event is also helpful in encouraging to explore all<br />
those species under threat and take acti<strong>on</strong> and help safeguard them for future generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
To commemorate and celebrate the WED, AIMST University hosted a <strong>on</strong>e day<br />
seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health, planting trees, slogan writing<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong>, envir<strong>on</strong>mental quiz, debate, trash to treasure - a innovati<strong>on</strong> competiti<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
cycling event. The main aim of these events was to create awareness about the global<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues am<strong>on</strong>g school students, university students, staff, and comm<strong>on</strong><br />
public.<br />
Dato Dr. Le<strong>on</strong>g Y<strong>on</strong>g K<strong>on</strong>g, Exco Envir<strong>on</strong>ment, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia<br />
had officiated the opening cerem<strong>on</strong>y of the seminar. In a keynote address, Prof. Sultan<br />
Ismail Eco-science Research Foundati<strong>on</strong>, India highlighted importance of the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
farming systems, the applicati<strong>on</strong>s of vermin-compost and foliar sprays to c<strong>on</strong>trol pests.<br />
There were 13 invited speakers who delivered talks <strong>on</strong> various aspects of the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental challenges, c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and natural farming systems. This proceeding is<br />
the compilati<strong>on</strong> of c<strong>on</strong>ference papers and WED events. However, four additi<strong>on</strong>al articles<br />
submitted by respective authors are also added in this book.<br />
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to Dato' Seri Utama Dr. S.<br />
Samy Vellu, Chancellor and Chairman, AIMST University and Senior Prof. Dr. M.<br />
Ravichandran, Chief Executive and Vice-Chancellor of AIMST University, Malaysia for<br />
their full support to organize this WED events. Specially, I wish to thank my colleague,<br />
Senior Associate Professor Dr. Subhash Bhore for playing a major role in bringing out<br />
this book to document the nati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>ference and various events of WED-2016.<br />
I would like to express my sincere thanks and appreciati<strong>on</strong> to all the invited<br />
speakers from various instituti<strong>on</strong>s and universities from India and Malaysia for sharing<br />
their views by participating in the c<strong>on</strong>ference. Last but not least, I would like to thank<br />
wholeheartedly to all the WED committee members for their commitment, cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
and support provided to execute various events.<br />
Thank you,<br />
Dr. K. Marimuthu<br />
Chairman WED-2016 Events, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Academic and Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Affairs, AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
iii
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Day (WED 2016) Events Steering Committee ........................ i<br />
Foreword ....................................................................................................................... ii<br />
Preface ......................................................................................................................... iii<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents ....................................................................................................................... iv<br />
For Earth’s Sake<br />
Sultan Ahmed Ismail .................................................................................................. 1<br />
Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable Agriculture<br />
M. Aminur Rahman, Md. Shamim Parvez and Kasi Marimuthu ............................. 16<br />
Molecular Marker Techniques in Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Forensic Studies<br />
Narayanan Kannan .................................................................................................. 31<br />
Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case in Paddy Farming in<br />
Peninsular Malaysia<br />
Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan ..................................................................... 38<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Legislati<strong>on</strong>s in Malaysia: A Protecti<strong>on</strong> to Public Health<br />
Haslinda Mohd Anuar.............................................................................................. 51<br />
The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong>: Emerging<br />
Prospects, Potentials, Culture and Utilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
M. Aminur Rahman and Fatimah Md. Yusoff .......................................................... 60<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Its Impact <strong>on</strong> Human Health<br />
Sridevi Chigurupati, Jahidul Islam Mohammad and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan<br />
Selvarajan ................................................................................................................ 74<br />
Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing Food Web C<strong>on</strong>nectivity<br />
Debashish Mazumder............................................................................................... 89<br />
Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity<br />
Umaiyal Munusamy ................................................................................................. 95<br />
World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global Sustainable Development<br />
Subhash Janardhan Bhore ..................................................................................... 107<br />
Basics for Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment: Reduce Wastage, Reuse, and Recycle<br />
Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam, Samudhra Sendhil and Aarthi Rajesh.. 116<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
iv
Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience<br />
N V Subbarow ........................................................................................................ 120<br />
Abstracts ................................................................................................................... 123<br />
Appendices ................................................................................................................ 129<br />
Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers ......................................................... 129<br />
Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University ................................. 137<br />
Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world? ............................................ 148<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
v
“The earth, the air, the land and the water are not an<br />
inheritance from our fore fathers but <strong>on</strong> loan from our<br />
children. So we have to handover to them at least as it<br />
was handed over to us.”<br />
--- Mahatma Gandhi<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; e-ISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2<br />
vi
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P1-15<br />
For Earth’s Sake<br />
Sultan Ahmed Ismail<br />
Ecoscience Research Foundati<strong>on</strong>, 98, Baaz Nagar, 3/621 East Coast Road, Palavakkam,<br />
Chennai 600041, India; Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +91 9384898358; Email: sultanismail@gmail.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the tremendous activity of micro and macro organisms<br />
supported by availability of organic matter. A vast number of organisms engineer a myriad of<br />
biochemical changes as decay of organic matter takes place in the soil. Based <strong>on</strong> my c<strong>on</strong>tinuous<br />
research <strong>on</strong> earthworms made me write “earthworms are the pulse of the soil, healthier the<br />
pulse, healthier the soil”. Fresh casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid which are rich in the<br />
worm-worked soil and burrows act as stimulant for the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> of dormant<br />
microorganisms in the soil and are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for c<strong>on</strong>stant release of nutrients into it, which then<br />
facilitates root growth and a healthy appropriate sustainable rhizosphere. Compost and<br />
vermicompost as well as a number of foliar sprays such as Panchagavya, FEM and Gunapaselam<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with pest repellents can be a healthy choice for a sustainable ecosystem which shall be<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mentally compatible and ec<strong>on</strong>omically viable.<br />
Keywords: Compost; foliar sprays; organic farming; soils; sustainability; vermitech;<br />
vermicompost; vermiwash<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The dynamic nature of a soil is due to the<br />
tremendous activity of micro and macro<br />
organisms supported by availability of<br />
organic matter. It is this life in the soil that<br />
lends its name to soil as “living soil”. A vast<br />
number of organisms engineer a myriad of<br />
biochemical changes as decay of organic<br />
matter takes place in the soil. Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
organisms, which c<strong>on</strong>tribute to soil health,<br />
the most important are the earthworms.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> my c<strong>on</strong>tinuous research <strong>on</strong><br />
earthworms made me write “earthworms are<br />
the pulse of the soil, healthier the pulse,<br />
healthier the soil”.<br />
Soil is a living dynamic system<br />
whose functi<strong>on</strong>s are mediated by diverse<br />
living organisms which in agriculture<br />
requires proper management and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>. Unfortunately, in today’s<br />
chemical agriculture importance is shown <strong>on</strong><br />
soil fertility and not <strong>on</strong> the holistic soil<br />
health which provides an integrated<br />
sustainable mechanism to the soil to sustain<br />
its “living” fabric of nature.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the myriad of soil organisms,<br />
earthworms are <strong>on</strong>e of the most vital<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the soil biota in terms of soil<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> and maintenance of soil structure<br />
and fertility. They are extremely important<br />
in soil formati<strong>on</strong>, principally through<br />
activities in c<strong>on</strong>suming organic matter,<br />
fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 1
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
For Earth’s Sake<br />
mineral particles to form water stable<br />
aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding,<br />
earthworms promote microbial activity by<br />
several orders of magnitude, which in turn<br />
accelerate the formati<strong>on</strong> of organic matter as<br />
microorganisms are the ultimate<br />
decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus<br />
food chain and in organic matter<br />
decompositi<strong>on</strong>. Fresh casts, urine, mucus<br />
and coelomic fluid which are rich in the<br />
worm-worked soil and burrows act as<br />
stimulant for the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
microorganisms in the soil and are<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for c<strong>on</strong>stant release of nutrients<br />
into it, which then facilitates root growth<br />
and a sustainable rhizosphere.<br />
Darwin’s pi<strong>on</strong>eering work <strong>on</strong><br />
earthworms (The Formati<strong>on</strong> of Vegetable<br />
Mould through the Acti<strong>on</strong> of Worms)<br />
published by John Murray in October 1881<br />
remains <strong>on</strong>e of the pi<strong>on</strong>eering works of<br />
modern science, though ancient Indian<br />
literature has often quoted the benefits of<br />
earthworms. As <strong>on</strong>e who pi<strong>on</strong>eered the<br />
culture of local earthworms Peri<strong>on</strong>yx<br />
excavatus and Lampito mauritii in India and<br />
also extensively worked with Eudrilus<br />
eugeniae after it was introduced by<br />
Professor Dr. Radha D Kale of University of<br />
Agriculture Sciences, Hebbal, Bengaluru,<br />
into India; my students and I have d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
immense research. I do agree that I have not<br />
worked with Eisenia fetida or Eisenia<br />
andrei, though I do have enough<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about them.<br />
EARTHWORMS<br />
Earthworms bel<strong>on</strong>g to the order Chaetopoda<br />
under Class Oligochaeta, Phylum Annelida<br />
and Divisi<strong>on</strong> Invertebrata. Indian<br />
earthworms mostly are Megascolecids,<br />
though Lumbricids also coexist. Several<br />
European Lumbricid earthworms found their<br />
way into India when the British brought<br />
Ismail<br />
potted plants to their residences especially<br />
into the cooler parts of India.<br />
Earthworms are <strong>on</strong>e of the chief<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the soil biota in terms of soil<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> and maintenance of soil structure<br />
and fertility. They are extremely important<br />
in soil formati<strong>on</strong>, principally through<br />
activities in c<strong>on</strong>suming organic matter,<br />
fragmenting it and mixing it intimately with<br />
mineral particles to form water stable<br />
aggregates (Ismail, 2005). During feeding,<br />
earthworms promote microbial activity by<br />
several orders of magnitude, which in turn<br />
also accelerate the rates of break down and<br />
stabilizati<strong>on</strong> of humic fracti<strong>on</strong>s or organic<br />
matter. Microorganisms are the ultimate<br />
decomposers and mineralisers in the detritus<br />
food chain and in organic matter<br />
decompositi<strong>on</strong>. Earthworms are the<br />
facilitators for the dormant microorganisms<br />
in soils providing them with organic carb<strong>on</strong>,<br />
optimum temperature, moisture and pH in<br />
their gut for their multiplicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Microorganisms are excreted in their casts<br />
and also harbored in the drilospheres. Fresh<br />
casts, urine, mucus and coelomic fluid<br />
which are rich in the worm-worked soil and<br />
burrows act as stimulant for the<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> of dormant microorganisms in<br />
the soil and are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
release of nutrients into it, which then<br />
facilitates root growth and a healthy<br />
appropriate sustainable rhizosphere.<br />
Though more than 3500 species of<br />
earthworms are in the world with India<br />
having about 500 species in its diversity, it<br />
is easier to recognize earthworms based <strong>on</strong><br />
their ecological strategies… that is based <strong>on</strong><br />
the nature of the positi<strong>on</strong> in the ecosystem<br />
(Figure 1). Based <strong>on</strong> this classificati<strong>on</strong> three<br />
broad based categories are listed though<br />
there are possibilities of some trespass<br />
between these categories.<br />
The surface feeders are the epigeic<br />
worms. These worms may or may not<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sume soil. The Indian blue Peri<strong>on</strong>yx<br />
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excavatus, P. sansibaricus are excellent<br />
earthworms. Eudrilus eugeniae and Eisenia<br />
fetida, though exotic, also bel<strong>on</strong>g to the<br />
epigeic category. The anecis or the<br />
intermediates are those who create<br />
predominantly vertical burrows in the soil.<br />
Lampito mauritii is an anecic so is<br />
Lumbricus terrestris in Europe. The<br />
endogeics are the predominant horiz<strong>on</strong>tal<br />
burrowers.<br />
Soils exposed to the veracities of<br />
nature and without mulch may not harbor<br />
epigeics. The anecic are those who have<br />
regained the mastery of aestivati<strong>on</strong> or<br />
summer sleep. A good aerated soil with<br />
optimal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s generally harbor all these<br />
three types of earthworms.<br />
Ismail<br />
A healthy soil (in Indian c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>)<br />
should at least have 5% organic matter, but<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s presently after the green<br />
revoluti<strong>on</strong> are poor with a nati<strong>on</strong>al average<br />
of about 0.5%.<br />
A good healthy soil generally should<br />
have air (about 25%), water (about 25%),<br />
organic matter c<strong>on</strong>sisting of humus, roots,<br />
organisms (about 5%) and mineral matter<br />
(about 45%). This enables a large<br />
biodiversity of soil organisms as well;<br />
enabling soil as a living “organism”.<br />
The burrows created mostly by the<br />
anecic earthworms are called as drilospheres<br />
(Figure 2), though other organisms may also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to them. These act as the<br />
circulatory and respiratory systems of the<br />
soil.<br />
Figure 1: Earthworms based <strong>on</strong> their ecological strategies.<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
Ismail<br />
Figure 2: Drilospheres created by anecic earthworms.<br />
EARTHWORMS USED<br />
About 500 species of earthworms are found<br />
in India. Earthworms that are brought in<br />
from other countries are called exotic.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>ally 3 species of earthworms have<br />
largely been used for vermicomposting, they<br />
being Eisenia fetida and Eudrilus eugeniae,<br />
which are exotic, and Peri<strong>on</strong>yx excavatus,<br />
which is endemic. Local species of<br />
earthworms used for vermicomposting in<br />
India generally are Peri<strong>on</strong>yx excavatus and<br />
Lampito mauritii.<br />
Successi<strong>on</strong> of microorganisms in the<br />
process of composting and the quality of<br />
microorganisms in compost and<br />
vermicompost<br />
The process of composting, although shows<br />
the occurrence of different microorganisms<br />
such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes,<br />
phosphate solubilizers and the<br />
microorganisms involved in the nitrogen<br />
cycle; successi<strong>on</strong> is shown in the quantity of<br />
microbes depending up<strong>on</strong> the nature of the<br />
substrate, the age of the compost, the<br />
ambience created by the existing microbes<br />
to its successors and also the physical and<br />
chemical characteristics.<br />
The majority of the microorganisms<br />
in the initial stages of the composting are the<br />
heterotrophic bacteria, which rely <strong>on</strong> the<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
oxidati<strong>on</strong> of the large amount of organic<br />
carb<strong>on</strong>. It reduces during the thermophilic<br />
phase till the formati<strong>on</strong> of the biodung<br />
compost. This then increases in<br />
vermicompost due to the passage of the<br />
material through the earthworm and the<br />
presence of the assimilable C, in the gut and<br />
the cast of the earthworms (Lavelle et al.,<br />
1992).<br />
The role of microorganisms in the<br />
nitrogen cycle is very prominent. There is<br />
increased presence of amm<strong>on</strong>ifiers in the<br />
initial stage of composting, which correlates<br />
with the high amount of protein degradati<strong>on</strong><br />
and the microbial c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to reduce<br />
C:N. Nitrifiers however increase from the<br />
initial to the final stages. The products of the<br />
amm<strong>on</strong>ifiers create an envir<strong>on</strong>ment for the<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> of nitrifiers which utilize<br />
amm<strong>on</strong>ia and c<strong>on</strong>vert it to nitrite and nitrate.<br />
To substantiate this extra-cellular amm<strong>on</strong>ia<br />
nitrogen decreases steadily from the initial<br />
higher values during the entire composting<br />
process. The amm<strong>on</strong>ificati<strong>on</strong> process is<br />
reported to increase due to high temperature<br />
(Prasad and Powar, 1997).<br />
Nitrificati<strong>on</strong> potential as indicated by<br />
NO2- N decreases with composting time.<br />
The NO2 producti<strong>on</strong> drops and stabilizes to<br />
low levels during the later stages of<br />
composting till no further decompositi<strong>on</strong><br />
can take place, as the C: N ratio gets<br />
stabilized (Tiquia et al., 2002).<br />
The NO3 producti<strong>on</strong> increases till<br />
about the 14 th day of composting thereafter<br />
declining till the 35 th day. This drop could<br />
be due to high temperature, as nitrificati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
inhibited by high temperature and could also<br />
indicate microbial immobilizati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
dominance of the extra-cellular producti<strong>on</strong><br />
of NO3 <strong>on</strong> the worm worked vermicompost<br />
could be the result of the enhanced nitrifier<br />
activity.<br />
Amount of phosphate in compost<br />
samples throughout the process and<br />
vermicompost records a steady increase<br />
Ismail<br />
from the initial phase of composting till<br />
vermicompost. This is due to the increased<br />
phosphatase activity in vermicompost as<br />
earthworm casts and feces exhibit higher<br />
phosphatase activity (Mansdell et al., 1981<br />
and Satchel and Martin, 1984). It is also<br />
observed that PO4 producti<strong>on</strong> shows a<br />
decline at about the 21 st day of composting<br />
which correlates with the reports of Gupta<br />
(1999) that high NH4 + c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> retards<br />
P fixati<strong>on</strong>. Phosphate solubilizers also<br />
steadily increase throughout the process. So<br />
in terms of successi<strong>on</strong> amm<strong>on</strong>ifiers which<br />
are the major organic N decomposers are<br />
succeeded by the nitrifiers and phosphate<br />
solubilizers.<br />
Oxidati<strong>on</strong> of sulfur and sulfate<br />
compounds is elaborated by aerobic obligate<br />
autotrophs. Thiobacillus thiooxidans and<br />
Thiobacillus thioparus, recorded in<br />
vermicompost attribute to the reas<strong>on</strong> for<br />
vermicompost being capable of ameliorating<br />
sodic soils. The populati<strong>on</strong> density of the<br />
actinomycetes increases from the initial<br />
phase of composting till the maturati<strong>on</strong><br />
phase except for a period of decline in the<br />
thermophilic phase.<br />
Actinomycetes occur after readily<br />
available substrate disappears in the early<br />
stages and col<strong>on</strong>ize in the humificati<strong>on</strong> stage<br />
as the compost reaches maturity. It is also<br />
found that the optimum temperature of<br />
actinomycetes is 40-50 o C, which is also the<br />
temperature for lignin degradati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
compost (Tuomela et al., 2000).<br />
Fungal density decreases as the<br />
composting process progresses.<br />
Mucoraceous group of fungi comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
referred to as sugar fungi are observed in the<br />
initial and early phases of composting.<br />
Species of Aspergillus dominate and are<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for major degradati<strong>on</strong> of initial<br />
organic carb<strong>on</strong> as they are known to<br />
elaborate cellullases and hemicellulases. A<br />
lignolytic fungi, Coprinus spp. are<br />
predominantly found to col<strong>on</strong>ize the<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
compost <strong>on</strong>ly towards the end when<br />
complex organic matter is biodegraded.<br />
The thermophilic fungi record an<br />
increase in density and diversity during the<br />
thermophilic phase and these are known to<br />
bring about degradati<strong>on</strong> of cellulose, lignin<br />
and pectin at a faster rate in c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with high temperature. The presence of<br />
Trichoderma viridae and Trichoderma<br />
harzianum, both potential bioc<strong>on</strong>trol agents,<br />
during the composting process and to a<br />
larger magnitude in the vermicompost is<br />
noteworthy.<br />
The density and diversity of algae<br />
increases progressively and maximum<br />
recorded in the vermicompost. Of special<br />
significance are the presences of algae such<br />
as Oscillatoria spp., Anabaena spp., and<br />
Nostoc spp. which are known to enhance<br />
soil fertility. For informati<strong>on</strong> of those using<br />
earthworms or desirous of using<br />
compost/vermicompost/in-situ composting<br />
the material generally has the following<br />
microorganisms (Priscilla, 2006;<br />
Dhakshayani, 2008). Generally microbial<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> in compost is reported to be ―<br />
heterotrophic bacteria:463.11±162.26 × 10 6 ;<br />
fungi populati<strong>on</strong>: 13.46 ± 2.07 × 10 4 ; and<br />
actinomycetes: 44.05 ± 17.11 × 10 6 .<br />
BACTERIAL SPECIES COMMONLY<br />
FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Bacillus spp.<br />
Pseudom<strong>on</strong>as spp.<br />
Serratia spp.<br />
Klebsiella spp.<br />
Enterobacter spp.<br />
FUNGAL SPECIES COMMONLY<br />
FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Absidia spp.<br />
Rhizopus stol<strong>on</strong>ifer<br />
Aspergillus flavus<br />
Aspergillus fumigatus<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Aspergillus flavipes<br />
Aspergillus nidulans<br />
Aspergillus niger<br />
Aspergillus ochraceus<br />
Aspergillus tamarii<br />
Chrysosporium pannorum<br />
Emericella nidulans<br />
Dreschslera australiensis<br />
Fusarium oxysporum<br />
M<strong>on</strong>ilia sitophila<br />
Penicillium citrinum<br />
Penicillium oxalicum<br />
Mucor racemosus<br />
Trichoderma viride<br />
Ismail<br />
ALGAL SPECIES COMMONLY<br />
FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Cladophora spp.<br />
Oscillatoria spp.<br />
Anabaena anomala<br />
Anabaena ambigua<br />
Arthrospira spp.<br />
Westiellopsis prolifiea<br />
Nostoc spp.<br />
Protococcus spp.<br />
Cladophora spp.<br />
Schizothrix spp.<br />
Chaet<strong>on</strong>ema spp.<br />
Stig<strong>on</strong>ema spp.<br />
Though we have identified presence<br />
of actinomycetes in earthworm casts in our<br />
laboratory, researchers from other<br />
laboratories have identified species of<br />
actinomycetes in castings (Kumar et al.,<br />
2012. Sreevidya et al., 2016). Associati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
actinomycetes c<strong>on</strong>fers many advantages to<br />
plants like producti<strong>on</strong> of antibiotics,<br />
extracellular enzymes, phytohorm<strong>on</strong>es,<br />
siderophores and phosphate solubilizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
protects plant against biotic and abiotic<br />
stress.<br />
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ACTINOMYCETES COMMONLY<br />
FOUND IN VERMICOMPOST<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Streptomyces spp.<br />
Streptosporangium spp.<br />
Saccharoployspora spp.<br />
Actinomadura spp.<br />
Nocardia spp.<br />
Nocardiopsis spp.<br />
Planobispora spp.<br />
Microm<strong>on</strong>ospora spp.<br />
Actinomadura spp.<br />
Microbispora spp.<br />
Thermobifida spp.<br />
We may have apprehensi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> other<br />
technologies, but each has been time tested<br />
and n<strong>on</strong>e of the “n<strong>on</strong>-chemical”<br />
practiti<strong>on</strong>ers have forced their technology <strong>on</strong><br />
any<strong>on</strong>e or talk evil of the other. To be<br />
organic is to first “decol<strong>on</strong>ize our minds”.<br />
Biodynamic farming does suggest several<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the BD category. One of<br />
their excellent tools is the biodynamic<br />
chromatography. We have applied this <strong>on</strong><br />
analysis of composts from several sources<br />
and have been a good functi<strong>on</strong>al tool.<br />
Thanks to Dr. Dhakshayani for trying this<br />
for her research programme (presented in<br />
2007. submitted 2008). This technique did<br />
reveal that the vermicompost prepared by<br />
the endemic (local) earthworms’ P.<br />
excavatus and L. mauritii which we call as<br />
vermitech is indeed superior to that<br />
produced by exotic (foreign) earthworms<br />
(Figures 3A & B). There is no doubt about<br />
it. But at the same time there is no adverse<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> about compost by exotic<br />
varieties.<br />
Most foliar sprays especially the<br />
organic <strong>on</strong>es have several comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
similar to plant growth promoter substances<br />
in them. Vermiwash is <strong>on</strong>e such excellent<br />
liquid fertiliser (Ismail, 2005). Studies in our<br />
laboratory by Sheik Ali (2009) have<br />
revealed the presence of substances (Table<br />
Ismail<br />
1) which invariably are associated with plant<br />
growth.<br />
There are about 3 isomers of indole<br />
compounds separated in Vermiwash, 2-(4-<br />
methylphenyl) indolizine is an alkaloid<br />
which has a significant role in plant growth<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong>. At retenti<strong>on</strong> time of 19.70 min<br />
capric acid was separated, which is a fatty<br />
acid, obtained from the castings of<br />
earthworms which is also reported to have a<br />
significant role in plant growth promoti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
lower c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s (Imaishi and Petkova-<br />
And<strong>on</strong>ova, 2007). Maleic acid which was<br />
identified is a well-established plant growth<br />
promoter (Delhaize et al., 1993). Methyl 2-<br />
4(-tert-butylphenoxy) acetate bel<strong>on</strong>gs to the<br />
ring-substituted phenoxy aliphatic acids<br />
generally exhibiting a str<strong>on</strong>g retarding effect<br />
<strong>on</strong> abscissi<strong>on</strong> in turn promote plant growth.<br />
Vermiwash by its instinctive quality might<br />
probably promote humificati<strong>on</strong>, increased<br />
microbial activity to produce the plant<br />
growth promoting compounds and enzyme<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> (Haynes and Swift, 1990). All<br />
the compounds present in vermiwash (Table<br />
1) may not individually help in plant growth<br />
but perhaps act synergistically al<strong>on</strong>g with<br />
the beneficial soil microbes found in<br />
vermiwash.<br />
Experiments applying Vermiwash<br />
with Panjagavya etc. by Thangaraj (2006)<br />
<strong>on</strong> plants and their chromosomes have<br />
shown significant results of enhanced xylem<br />
vessels (Figure 4) and no chromosomal<br />
damage; and these can be prepared by<br />
farmers in their farms without paying<br />
anything.<br />
In organic farming practice we do<br />
not nurse the plant, we nurse the soil. The<br />
soil in turn promotes its group of biotic<br />
elements who churn the nutrients as desired<br />
by the plant. Recently (2016) yet another<br />
student of mine Ramalakshmi has come out<br />
with a unique medium to multiply<br />
microorganisms by the farmer in n<strong>on</strong>-sterile<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-laboratory c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s which will enable<br />
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Ismail<br />
Figure 3: A & B) Biodynamic chromatograms of vermicompost from earthworms.<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
Ismail<br />
Table 1: Comp<strong>on</strong>ents of Vermiwash.<br />
No Compound<br />
1<br />
GC<br />
Retenti<strong>on</strong><br />
Time<br />
(min)<br />
Chemical<br />
Formula<br />
CAS registry<br />
Number<br />
Molecular<br />
Weight<br />
(g/mol)<br />
2- (4-methyl phenyl) indolizine 19.33 C15H13N 7496-81-3 207.27<br />
2 Decanoic acid, ethyl ester 19.70 C12H24O2 110-38-3 200.318<br />
3 1-methyl-2-phenyl-indole 27.10<br />
C15H13N 3558-24-5 207.27<br />
4 2-methyl-7-phenyl-1H-indole 29.83 C15H13N 1140-08-5 207.27<br />
5 Pentadioic acid, dihydrazide<br />
N2,N2'-bis(2-furfurylideno)*<br />
6 Methyl 2-(4-tert- butyl<br />
phenoxy) acetate*<br />
*(presumed)<br />
31.16<br />
C15H16N4O<br />
4<br />
324012-36-4 316.312<br />
33.44 C13H18O3 88530-52-3 222.28<br />
Figure 4: Anatomical changes in xylem vessels; C: c<strong>on</strong>trol; V: vermiwash; P: Panchagavya; VP:<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> of vermiwash and Panchagavya.<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
a farmer to bioremediate the soil without<br />
industrial interventi<strong>on</strong>. She has assured to<br />
share the technology freely with farmers’<br />
after her thesis defense.<br />
Phyt<strong>on</strong>utrients, such as polyphenols<br />
and antioxidants, protect both people and<br />
plants. Several insecticides, herbicides, and<br />
fungicides actually block a plant's ability to<br />
manufacture these important plant<br />
compounds. In a study of antioxidants in<br />
organic and c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>ally grown fruits,<br />
scientists have recorded higher<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s of vitamin C, vitamin E, and<br />
other antioxidants in organic foods<br />
(Coghlan, 2001). It appears that organically<br />
grown fruits develop more antioxidants as a<br />
defense and repair mechanism against<br />
insects when grown without the use of<br />
pesticides.<br />
Most changes in agricultural<br />
technology especially after the green<br />
revoluti<strong>on</strong> have ecological effects <strong>on</strong> soil<br />
organisms that can affect higher plants and<br />
animals, including man. C<strong>on</strong>centrating just<br />
<strong>on</strong> productivity has robbed human care for<br />
the soil.<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al s<strong>on</strong>gs in Tamil state that<br />
in a plant, especially in cereals, “the roots<br />
are for the soil, the stems for the cattle, and<br />
the pinnacles for human c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>”.<br />
Following the holistic practice of organic<br />
farming takes care of the soil which in turn<br />
takes care of the plant and not as in chemical<br />
farming where we may tend to ignore the<br />
soil and take care of the plant. A plant taken<br />
care, nursed and nourished by the soil has<br />
excellent potential and potency for the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer (Ismail, 2005).<br />
Though animal wastes are largely<br />
used in organic farms unfortunately<br />
intensive farming activities have eliminated<br />
the need of animals <strong>on</strong> farm.<br />
Organic farming is not a system of<br />
farming but a culture by itself. It is not<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> of manure or botanical extracts that<br />
enables organic farming, but a way of life.<br />
Ismail<br />
There are several such practices that today<br />
are classified as alternative systems of<br />
farming in c<strong>on</strong>trast to the c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
farming alias-chemical farming. These<br />
alternative systems are named as n<strong>on</strong>pois<strong>on</strong>ous<br />
farming, biodynamic farming,<br />
permaculture, natural farming, low external<br />
input farming, eco-farming, biological<br />
farming, or just organic farming. Such<br />
systems c<strong>on</strong>sider soil health as their<br />
prerequisite. In organic farming apart from<br />
the use of manure/compost for soils,<br />
botanical extracts for protecti<strong>on</strong> from pests,<br />
bio-foliar sprays, native seed wealth,<br />
biodiversity, mixed cropping, crop rotati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
gender participati<strong>on</strong>, and associating animal<br />
heads in farming form important<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents. Foliar sprays like vermiwash<br />
and Panchagavya have proved to be very<br />
effective as excellent liquid sprays <strong>on</strong> any<br />
crop. Traditi<strong>on</strong>al wisdom advocates the use<br />
of cow dung and cow’s urine for manure and<br />
pest c<strong>on</strong>trol. Today there is an enormous<br />
demand for organic food throughout the<br />
world. Organically grown tea, coffee, spices,<br />
flowers, fruits and several other end<br />
products are in demand overseas. Organic<br />
food provides wholesome meal including<br />
essentials like Salicylic Acid, which is the<br />
precursor of Aspirin.<br />
EFFICIENT FOLIAR SPRAYS CAN BE<br />
PREPARED AS A PART OF PLANT<br />
GROWING PRACTICES<br />
VERMIWASH<br />
Worm worked soils have burrows formed by<br />
the earthworms. Bacteria richly inhabit these<br />
burrows, also called as the drilospheres.<br />
Water passing through these passages<br />
washes the nutrients from these burrows to<br />
the roots to be absorbed by the plants. This<br />
principle is applied in the preparati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
vermiwash. Vermiwash is a very good foliar<br />
spray.<br />
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Vermiwash units can be set up either<br />
in barrels or in buckets or even in small<br />
earthen pots. It is the principle that is<br />
important. The procedure explained here is<br />
for setting up of a 250 litre barrel. An empty<br />
barrel with <strong>on</strong>e side open is taken. On the<br />
other side, a hole is made to accommodate<br />
the vertical limb of a 'T' jointed tube in a<br />
way that about half to <strong>on</strong>e inch of the tube<br />
projects into the barrel. To <strong>on</strong>e end of the<br />
horiz<strong>on</strong>tal limb is attached a tap. The other<br />
end is kept closed. This serves as an<br />
emergency opening to clean the 'T' jointed<br />
tube if it gets clogged.<br />
Setting up of a vermiwash unit<br />
The entire unit is set up <strong>on</strong> a short pedestal<br />
made of few bricks to facilitate easy<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong> of vermiwash. Keeping the tap<br />
open, a 25 cm layer of broken bricks or<br />
pebbles is placed. A 25 cm layer of coarse<br />
sand then follows the layer of bricks. Water<br />
is then made to flow through these layers to<br />
enable the setting up of the basic filter unit.<br />
On top of this layer is placed a 30 to 45 cm<br />
layer of loamy soil. It is moistened and into<br />
this is introduced about 50 numbers each of<br />
the surface (epigeic) and sub-surface<br />
(anecic) earthworms. Cattle dung pats and<br />
hay is placed <strong>on</strong> top of the soil layer and<br />
gently moistened. The tap is kept open for<br />
the next 15 days. Water is added every day<br />
to keep the unit moist.<br />
On the 16th day, the tap is closed<br />
and <strong>on</strong> top of the unit a metal c<strong>on</strong>tainer or<br />
mud pot perforated at the base as a sprinkler<br />
is suspended. Five (5) litres of water (the<br />
volume of water taken in this c<strong>on</strong>tainer is<br />
<strong>on</strong>e fiftieth of the size of the main c<strong>on</strong>tainer)<br />
is poured into this c<strong>on</strong>tainer and allowed to<br />
gradually sprinkle <strong>on</strong> the barrel overnight.<br />
This water percolates through the compost,<br />
the burrows of the earthworms and gets<br />
collected at the base. The tap of the unit is<br />
opened the next day morning and the<br />
Ismail<br />
vermiwash is collected. The tap is then<br />
closed and the suspended pot is refilled with<br />
5 litres of water that evening to be collected<br />
again the following morning. Dung pats and<br />
hay may be replaced periodically based <strong>on</strong><br />
need. The entire set up may be emptied and<br />
reset between 10 and 12 m<strong>on</strong>ths of use.<br />
Vermiwash is diluted with water<br />
(10%) before spraying. This has been found<br />
to be very effective <strong>on</strong> several plants. If<br />
need be vermiwash may be mixed with<br />
cow's urine and diluted (1 litre of<br />
vermiwash, 1 litre of cow's urine and 8 litres<br />
of water) and sprayed <strong>on</strong> plants to functi<strong>on</strong><br />
as an effecting foliar spray and pest<br />
repellent. Instead of a drum the same can<br />
also be prepared in plastic buckets or even in<br />
flower pots as c<strong>on</strong>tainers.<br />
PANCHAGAVYA<br />
Requirements:<br />
Biogas slurry or cow dung<br />
Cow’s urine<br />
Cow’s milk<br />
Curd from cow’s milk<br />
Ghee from cow’s butter<br />
Sugarcane juice<br />
Tender coc<strong>on</strong>ut water<br />
Banana<br />
5 kg<br />
3 litres<br />
2 litres<br />
2 litres<br />
1 litre<br />
3 litres<br />
3 litres<br />
12 numbers<br />
First mix cow dung with ghee and<br />
small quantity of cow’s urine. Leave this<br />
dough for 3 days. Then place this in a broad<br />
mouthed mud pot or a cement tank and add<br />
the remaining ingredients. Mix well by hand<br />
and without closing with lid keep in shade.<br />
Daily morning and evening mix well by<br />
hand. In about 10 days panchagavya will be<br />
ready. If you mix it daily with hand or with<br />
a wooden ladle it would keep well for a<br />
m<strong>on</strong>th. For use prepare a 3-5% soluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Spray as foliar spray <strong>on</strong>ly in the morning or<br />
evening.<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
GUNAPASELAM<br />
Requirements:<br />
Fish (unused raw parts) - 1 kg<br />
Jaggery- 1 kg<br />
Water - 5 litres<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tainer - 10 litre<br />
Mix first two in c<strong>on</strong>tainer. Cover<br />
with gunny or cloth tightly, prevent from<br />
flies. Sec<strong>on</strong>d day add about 5 litres of water<br />
and mix well. Mix well 3 times a day for<br />
first 5 days. Leave undisturbed then for 10<br />
days. Decant, dissolve 100 to 150 ml of this<br />
in 10 litres of water and use as soil<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>er as well as foliar spray.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>centrate can be stored for three m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
FARMERS’ EM<br />
Requirements:<br />
Pumpkin 3.0 kg<br />
Banana 3.0 kg<br />
Papaya 3.0 kg<br />
<br />
Molasses or Jaggery 3.0 kg<br />
(n<strong>on</strong>-chlorinated)<br />
Eggs 5.0 numbers<br />
(opti<strong>on</strong>al)<br />
Water 10 liters (n<strong>on</strong>chlorinated)<br />
<br />
25-liter plastic c<strong>on</strong>tainer with a lid<br />
Cut the three vegetables into small<br />
pieces. Transfer these pieces into the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tainer – mix Molasses or Jaggery (n<strong>on</strong>chlorinated)<br />
in little water and add – to this<br />
add 10 liters of water – break and add the 5<br />
eggs into it. Mix all the c<strong>on</strong>tents. Leave the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tainer well closed with the lid. Open lid<br />
after ten days there should be white foam <strong>on</strong><br />
top, if not there add some more Molasses or<br />
Jaggery. Check after 20 days, again after 30<br />
days. Mix well after 30 days and leave it<br />
closed. After a total of 45 days decant the<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong> this is Farmer’s EM. Dissolve 200<br />
Ismail<br />
ml in 10 liters of water and spray or mix 10<br />
liters in water for <strong>on</strong>e acre.<br />
WHY ORGANIC FARMING?<br />
Organic agriculture is defined as "a holistic<br />
food producti<strong>on</strong> management system, which<br />
promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem<br />
health, including biodiversity, biological<br />
cycles and soil biological activity. It<br />
emphasizes the use of management practices<br />
in preference to the use of off-farm inputs,<br />
taking into account that regi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
require locally adapted systems. This is<br />
accomplished by using, where possible,<br />
agr<strong>on</strong>omic, biological and mechanical<br />
methods, as opposed to using synthetic<br />
materials, to fulfill any specific functi<strong>on</strong><br />
within the system." (FAO/WHO Codex<br />
Alimentarius Commissi<strong>on</strong>).<br />
Through its holistic nature, organic<br />
farming integrates wild biodiversity, agrobiodiversity<br />
and soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>, and takes<br />
low-intensity, extensive farming <strong>on</strong>e step<br />
further by eliminating the use of chemical<br />
fertilizers, pesticides and genetically<br />
modified organisms (GMOs), which is not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly an improvement for human health, but<br />
also for the fauna and flora associated with<br />
the farm and farm envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Organic<br />
farming enhances soil structures, c<strong>on</strong>serves<br />
water and ensures the c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
sustainable use of biodiversity. Agricultural<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminants such as inorganic fertilizers,<br />
herbicides and insecticides from<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al agriculture are a major c<strong>on</strong>cern<br />
all over the world. Eutrophicati<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
suffocati<strong>on</strong> of aquatic plants and animals<br />
due to rapid growth of algae, referred to as<br />
"algal blooms", are literally killing lakes,<br />
rivers and other bodies of water. Persistent<br />
herbicides and insecticides can extend<br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d target weeds and insects when<br />
introduced into aquatic envir<strong>on</strong>ments. These<br />
chemicals have accumulated up the food<br />
chain whereby top predators often c<strong>on</strong>sume<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
toxic dosages. Organic agriculture as<br />
defined by IFOAM restores the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental balance and has n<strong>on</strong>e of these<br />
or other such deleterious effects <strong>on</strong> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Pesticides have been in use in<br />
agriculture since Sec<strong>on</strong>d World War and,<br />
from the very beginning, there have been<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns about the commercializati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
chemical pesticides. Rachel Cars<strong>on</strong>’s book<br />
“Silent Spring” published in 1964 brought<br />
out the scientific certainties of the impacts<br />
of pesticides <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ment. The very first<br />
insecticide of World War-II vintage, DDT<br />
was banned in the developed world in the<br />
1970s but c<strong>on</strong>tinued to be used in India till<br />
the 1990s. The infamous Bhopal tragedy of<br />
1984 in India was an eye opener to a larger<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> of people in India and abroad.<br />
According to research <strong>on</strong> health<br />
disorders resulting from petroleum-based<br />
chemicals used in c<strong>on</strong>sumer products and<br />
job envir<strong>on</strong>ments are available from the link<br />
http://www.chem-tox.com/. Petroleum based<br />
chemicals are being found to cause<br />
significant attriti<strong>on</strong>al effects to the nervous<br />
system and immune system after prol<strong>on</strong>ged<br />
exposure. Illnesses identified in the medical<br />
research include adult and child cancers,<br />
numerous neurological disorders, immune<br />
system weakening, autoimmune disorders,<br />
asthma, allergies, infertility, miscarriage,<br />
and child behavior disorders including<br />
learning disabilities, mental retardati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
hyperactivity and ADD (attenti<strong>on</strong> deficit<br />
disorders). Petroleum based chemicals are<br />
believed to cause these problems by a<br />
variety of routes including - impairing<br />
proper DNA (Gene) expressi<strong>on</strong>, weakening<br />
DNA Repair, accelerating gene loss,<br />
degenerati<strong>on</strong> of the body's detoxificati<strong>on</strong><br />
defenses (liver and kidneys) as well as<br />
gradual weakening of the brain's primary<br />
defense - (the Blood Brain Barrier).<br />
For nearly five decades, the public<br />
and farmers have been told that chemical<br />
Ismail<br />
pesticides are essential for modern farming<br />
and to feed the world's populati<strong>on</strong>, when this<br />
isn't true. Pesticides weaken the ecosystem<br />
which had sustained human agriculture for<br />
thousands of years, damaging soil microbes<br />
and eliminating beneficial insects and<br />
predators. In additi<strong>on</strong>, pests c<strong>on</strong>tinually<br />
mutate to become pesticide resistant.<br />
Despite a 10-fold increase in insecticide use<br />
in recent years, studies have shown a<br />
proliferati<strong>on</strong> in types of pests by 30%.<br />
Governments are marking heavy<br />
budgets towards medical expenditures, when<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrating <strong>on</strong> healthy food can be an<br />
answer. “Preventi<strong>on</strong> is better than cure” and<br />
hence the policy of the Governments<br />
towards agriculture should be suitably<br />
modified to promote as well as protect n<strong>on</strong>chemical<br />
farming. The questi<strong>on</strong> frequently<br />
asked is as to where to get the quantity of<br />
manure. The answer here lies in composting.<br />
Large quantities of organic wastes from<br />
agriculture as well as market wastes can<br />
easily be c<strong>on</strong>verted to manure, without<br />
much investment costs. This also promotes<br />
local based industry for composting.<br />
Organic foliar sprays as well as pest<br />
repellents can also be prepared at the local<br />
level. It can also generate opportunities for a<br />
large number of youth and women at rural<br />
centres.<br />
Organic agriculture c<strong>on</strong>tributes to<br />
food and envir<strong>on</strong>ment security by a<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong> of many features, most notably<br />
by:<br />
‣ increasing yields in low-input areas.<br />
‣ c<strong>on</strong>serving biodiversity and natural<br />
resources <strong>on</strong> the farm and in<br />
surrounding area.<br />
‣ increasing income by reducing input<br />
cost.<br />
‣ recycling organic waste for manure<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>, solving waste<br />
management.<br />
‣ boosting micro-enterprises and rural<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
‣ protecting the health of the farmers<br />
and the c<strong>on</strong>sumers.<br />
‣ producing safe and varied food.<br />
‣ being sustainable in the l<strong>on</strong>g term.<br />
Organic agriculture should therefore be<br />
an integral part of any agricultural policy<br />
aiming for food security, and it is time that<br />
the Government takes positive acti<strong>on</strong> in this<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Healthy soils support healthy produce.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al observati<strong>on</strong>s and research have<br />
indicated that not just additi<strong>on</strong> of organic<br />
inputs but the presence of soil biota in the<br />
soil, in fact, enhances the produce in its<br />
quantity and quality. Thus it is very much<br />
c<strong>on</strong>firmed that “earthworms are the pulse of<br />
the soil, healthier the pulse, healthier the<br />
soil”. Let’s put our hands together for<br />
earth’s sake.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
Sincere thanks and acknowledge the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s of all my students who built up<br />
the entire theme of VERMITECH since<br />
1978 to 2016. Most data here have been<br />
quoted from the works of my former<br />
research scholars whom I had supervised, Dr<br />
Priscilla Jebakumari, Dr Dhakshayani<br />
Ganesh, Dr Thangaraj, Mr. Sheik Ali, Mr. P<br />
Jeyaprakash and Ms. Ramalakshmi; and a<br />
large number of practicing farmers, my<br />
sincere thanks to all of them.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Delhaize, E., Ryan, P.R. and Randall, P.J.<br />
(1993). Aluminum tolerance in Wheat<br />
(Triticum aestivum L.) (II. Aluminumstimulated<br />
excreti<strong>on</strong> of malic Acid<br />
from root apices). Plant Physiology<br />
103, 695-702.<br />
Dhakshayani, C. (2008). Microbeearthworm<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s and impact of<br />
the exotic earthworm (Eudrilus<br />
Ismail<br />
eugeniae Kinberg) <strong>on</strong> endemic<br />
earthworms (Peri<strong>on</strong>yx excavatus<br />
Perrier and Lampito mauritii Kinberg)<br />
based <strong>on</strong> microbial community<br />
structure. Ph.D., Thesis, University of<br />
Madras, India.<br />
Gupta, P.K. (2001). Handbook of soil,<br />
fertilizer and manure. Pub. Agro<br />
Botanica, India, p 258-307.<br />
Haynes, R.J. and Swift, R.S. (1990).<br />
Stability of soil aggregates in relati<strong>on</strong><br />
to organic c<strong>on</strong>stituents and soil water<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent. J. Soil Sci. 41, 73-83.<br />
Imaishi, H. and Petkova-And<strong>on</strong>ova, M.<br />
(2007). Molecular cl<strong>on</strong>ing of<br />
CYP76B9, a cytochrome P450 from<br />
Petunia hybrida, catalyzing the<br />
omega-hydroxylati<strong>on</strong> of capric acid<br />
and lauric acid. Biosci. Biotechnol.<br />
Biochem. 71, 104-113.<br />
Ismail, S.A. (2005). The Earthworm Book.<br />
Other India Press, Goa, India, p. 101.<br />
Jeyaprakash, P. (2009). Bioc<strong>on</strong>trol of the<br />
white grub (Leucopholis c<strong>on</strong>eophora)<br />
in vegetable plantati<strong>on</strong> - an applied<br />
biotechnological approach. MSc<br />
Dissertati<strong>on</strong>. University of Madras,<br />
India.<br />
Lavelle, P., Melendez, G., Pashanasi, B.,<br />
Szott, L. and Schaefer, R. (1992a).<br />
Nitrogen mineralizati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
reorganizati<strong>on</strong> in casts of the<br />
geophagous tropical earthworm<br />
P<strong>on</strong>toscolex<br />
corethurus<br />
(Glossoscolecidae). Biol. Fertil. Soil<br />
14, 49-53.<br />
Lavelle, P., Blanchart, E., Martin, E.,<br />
Spain, A.V. and Martin, S. (1992b).<br />
Impact of soil fauna <strong>on</strong> the properties<br />
of soils in the humids tropics. In:<br />
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For Earth’s Sake<br />
Segoe S (ed) Myths and sciences of<br />
soils of the tropics. Soil Sci Soc Am<br />
Spec Publ. 29, 157–185.<br />
Parle, J.N. (1963a). Microorganisms in the<br />
intestines of earthworms. J. Gen<br />
Microbiol. 31, 1-11.<br />
Parle, J.N. (1963b). A micribiological study<br />
of earthworm casts. J. Gen Microbiol,<br />
31, 13-22.<br />
Prasad, R. and Power, F.J. (1997). Soil<br />
fertility for sustainable agriculture.<br />
Lewis Publishers. p 110-127.<br />
Priscilla J. (2006). Studies <strong>on</strong> the<br />
“microbiogeocoenose”<br />
of<br />
vermicompost and its relevance in soil<br />
health. Ph.D., Thesis, University of<br />
Madras, India.<br />
Satchell, J.E. and Martin, K. (1984).<br />
Phosphatase activity in earthworm<br />
faeces. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 191-<br />
194.<br />
Ismail<br />
Sheik, A. (2009). Molecular studies in<br />
identifying the potential of Vermiwash<br />
- an organic liquid biofertilizer. MSc<br />
Dissertati<strong>on</strong>. University of Madras,<br />
India.<br />
Thangaraj, R. (2006). Studies <strong>on</strong> the<br />
influence of “fauna based”<br />
biofertilizers (vermiwash, effective<br />
microorganisms, panchagavya) <strong>on</strong><br />
plants. Ph.D., Thesis, University of<br />
Madras, India.<br />
Tiquia, S.M., Wan, J.H.C. and Tam,<br />
N.F.Y. (2002). Microbial populati<strong>on</strong><br />
dynamics and enzyme activities during<br />
composting. Compost Science and<br />
Utilizati<strong>on</strong>, 10, 150–161.<br />
Tuomela, M., Vikman, M., Hatakka, A.<br />
and Itavaara, M., (2000).<br />
Biodegradati<strong>on</strong> of lignin in a compost<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment, a review. Bioresource<br />
Technology 72, 169-183.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P16-30<br />
Integrated Rice-Fish Farming: A New Avenue for Sustainable<br />
Agriculture<br />
M. Aminur Rahman 1, * , Md. Shamim Parvez 1 and Kasi Marimuthu 2<br />
1 Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400<br />
UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2 Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences,<br />
AIMST University, 08100 Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia<br />
*Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Rice and fish are the key comp<strong>on</strong>ents of global food security. They are the main protein sources<br />
in the daily diets of around three billi<strong>on</strong> peoples, especially in Asia. Integrated fish farming is a<br />
technique of fish culture with other organisms i.e. plants or animals to get maximum output<br />
through minimum input supply in a shorter time frame. The producti<strong>on</strong> of rice and fish do not<br />
need to be integrated by always producing the two crops simultaneously, but may be d<strong>on</strong>e by<br />
alternating producti<strong>on</strong>: rice can be grown in the rainy seas<strong>on</strong> and fish in the dry seas<strong>on</strong>, or the<br />
other way round. In areas where rice producti<strong>on</strong> is not profitable in all seas<strong>on</strong>s, fish producti<strong>on</strong><br />
forms an alternative source of income from the field. However, in order to meet the global demand<br />
of food and nutriti<strong>on</strong> for the increasing populati<strong>on</strong>s, there is therefore a need to increase<br />
rice and fish producti<strong>on</strong> simultaneously. Integrated rice-fish farming can play an important role<br />
in increasing food producti<strong>on</strong> as this system is better than rice m<strong>on</strong>oculture in terms of resource<br />
utilizati<strong>on</strong>, crop diversity, farm productivity in biomass or in ec<strong>on</strong>omics, and both the quality and<br />
quantity of the food products. Integrati<strong>on</strong> of fish in paddy fields is ecologically sound because<br />
fish improves soil fertility by generating nitrogen and phosphorus. Fish also c<strong>on</strong>trol weeds by<br />
feeding <strong>on</strong> weed roots and offer an extra service by tilling the soil around the rice plants. The<br />
fish feces are used as organic manure that provide essential nutrients required to grow healthy<br />
rice plants. Furthermore, integrated rice and fish culture optimizes the benefits of scarce land and<br />
water resources through complementary use, and exploits the synergies between fish and plant.<br />
Hence, it could be c<strong>on</strong>cluded that integrated rice-fish farming can help the global communities<br />
keep pace with the current demand for food authenticity through sustainable rice and fish producti<strong>on</strong><br />
in an ecofriendly envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Keywords: Envir<strong>on</strong>ment; food authenticity; integrated farming; rice-fish; sustainability<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Rice-based fish farming is the main source<br />
of earning in many parts of the world, despite<br />
it is not widely practiced around the<br />
world. Most informati<strong>on</strong> comes from Asian<br />
countries, particularly Philippines, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia<br />
and Japan where traditi<strong>on</strong>al rice farming<br />
methods have been refined over centuries.<br />
There is an estimated 81 milli<strong>on</strong> ha of irri-<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
gated rice lands worldwide, with an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
11 milli<strong>on</strong> ha of flood pr<strong>on</strong>e land under<br />
rice cultivati<strong>on</strong> (Halwart and Gupta,<br />
2004). Presently the system of rice-fish is<br />
being practiced in Bangladesh, Cambodia,<br />
China (1.2 milli<strong>on</strong> ha), Egypt (173000 ha),<br />
Ind<strong>on</strong>esia (138,000 ha), Republic of Korea,<br />
Madagascar (13,000 ha), Thailand (3 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
ha) and Vietnam (40,000 ha) (Halwart and<br />
Gupta, 2004). The practice supports a large<br />
share of the rural populati<strong>on</strong> in South,<br />
Southeast and East Asia and in parts of West<br />
Africa. In these places, rain-fed rice fields<br />
are designed to store water for extended periods,<br />
creating aquatic ecosystems with<br />
many similarities to natural floodplains<br />
(BRKB, 2010). These floodplain habitats of<br />
rice are later stocked by fish and grown<br />
throughout the wet seas<strong>on</strong>. Fishing from<br />
these rice-based farming systems is often<br />
carried out <strong>on</strong> regular, occasi<strong>on</strong>al or parttime<br />
basis, making a significant c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong><br />
to livelihoods of poor farmers. However,<br />
the input cost in terms of feed, labor and infrastructure<br />
for rice-based fish farming is<br />
often a barrier for poor and marginal<br />
farmers. There exist many possible<br />
suggestive approaches to overcome <strong>on</strong>e or<br />
more such type of barriers, but all these are<br />
still in c<strong>on</strong>ceptual form. However, Apatani<br />
farmers from Lower Subansiri district in<br />
Arunachal Pradesh, India have practiced a<br />
very unique traditi<strong>on</strong>al rice-based fish farming<br />
practice in their waterlogged rice-fields,<br />
which not <strong>on</strong>ly gives good ec<strong>on</strong>omic return<br />
to support their families’ demands but also<br />
exposes a very low-cost fish farming technology<br />
for the rest of the world (Saikia et<br />
al., 2008).<br />
Rice-based fish farming is the main<br />
source of earning in many parts of Asia. The<br />
lands and water resources of many countries<br />
are not fully utilized; however, there exists<br />
tremendous scopes for increasing fish producti<strong>on</strong><br />
by integrating aquaculture with agriculture<br />
(Nhan et al., 2007). Earlier, this<br />
Rahman et al<br />
practice began to receive attenti<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
1980s. However, the new technology was<br />
perceived to have potential for multiple envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
benefits in Asia. Integrated ricefish<br />
farming is also being regarded as an important<br />
element of integrated pest management<br />
(IPM) in rice crops (Halwart and Gupta,<br />
2004; Nabi, 2008). Moreover, fish plays<br />
a significant role in c<strong>on</strong>trolling aquatic<br />
weeds, algae and snails, and hence, reduces<br />
the need for chemical spray leading to better<br />
farm ec<strong>on</strong>omics within ecologically-sound<br />
low-cost, low-risk opti<strong>on</strong><br />
for poor rice farmers in Bangl a-<br />
desh and elsewhere. Thus, integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of fish with rice farming improves<br />
diversificati<strong>on</strong>, intensificati<strong>on</strong><br />
and productivity of farms (Ahmed et al.,<br />
2008; Berg, 2001). The multiple benefits of<br />
the integrati<strong>on</strong> between rice and fish have<br />
been globally documented and could be<br />
summarized in enhancing farm productivity<br />
either in biomass or in ec<strong>on</strong>omics. Fish in<br />
rice field improves soil fertility through their<br />
organic waste. Many reports suggest that<br />
integrated rice-fish farming is ecologically<br />
sound because fish improves soil fertility by<br />
generating nitrogen and phosphorus (Parvez<br />
et al., 2006). More importantly, the integrated<br />
rice-fish leads to the producti<strong>on</strong> of a more<br />
balanced diet (rice) as a main source of carbohydrate<br />
and fish which is an important<br />
animal protein source required for the health<br />
and well-being of rural households. The integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of aquaculture can increase rice<br />
yields by 8 to 15% with an additi<strong>on</strong>al average<br />
fish producti<strong>on</strong> of 260 kg/ha (Lightfoot,<br />
1992). Based <strong>on</strong> field surveys and studies, it<br />
has been observed that farmers’ households<br />
usually inclined to eat small fish than sell<br />
them in the market and hence, fish c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributes significantly in the nutriti<strong>on</strong><br />
of children and lactating mothers to avoid<br />
child blindness as well as to reduce infant<br />
mortality.<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
Rice and fish have been essential<br />
part of the life of Asian people from the prehistoric<br />
time. In respects to Bangladesh, rice<br />
is the main agricultural crop with an annual<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> of 29 milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>s per year<br />
(BRKB, 2010), while annual fish producti<strong>on</strong><br />
is 2.7 milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>s (DoF, 2010). The demand<br />
for rice and fish is c<strong>on</strong>stantly rising in Bangladesh<br />
with nearly three milli<strong>on</strong> people being<br />
added each year to its populati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Chowdhury, 2009). Nevertheless, integrated<br />
rice-fish farming offers a soluti<strong>on</strong> to this<br />
problem by c<strong>on</strong>tributing to food and income.<br />
Although rice-fish technology has been<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated successfully and a c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
number of farmers have been trained<br />
through various projects. Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally wild<br />
fish have been harvested from rice fields,<br />
but the introducti<strong>on</strong> of high yielding varieties<br />
(HYV) of rice and accompanying pesticides<br />
have reduced fish yields (Gupta et al.,<br />
2002). However, important changes have<br />
taken place through IPM that has reduced<br />
the use of pesticides in rice fields (Berg,<br />
2001; Lu and Li, 2006).<br />
ADVANTAGES AND BENEFITS<br />
Fish is the main source of animal protein,<br />
providing an average of 8.4 g per day, or<br />
13.3 % of the average per capita total intake<br />
of protein (63 g) (BBS, 2011). Not <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
adequate supply of carbohydrate, but also<br />
the supply of animal protein is significant<br />
through rice-fish farming. Fish, particularly<br />
small fish, are rich in micr<strong>on</strong>utrients and vitamins,<br />
and thus human nutriti<strong>on</strong> can be<br />
greatly improved through fish c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
(Kunda et al., 2008; Frei and Becker, 2005).<br />
It can optimize the utilizati<strong>on</strong> of resources<br />
through the complementary use of land and<br />
water (Giap et al., 2005). Integrated rice-fish<br />
farming is also ecologically sound because<br />
fish can improve soil fertility by increasing<br />
the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus<br />
(Dugan et al., 2006). The natural aggrega-<br />
Rahman et al<br />
ti<strong>on</strong> of fish in rice fields inspires the combinati<strong>on</strong><br />
of rice farming with fish to increase<br />
productivity (Gurung and Wagle, 2005). It<br />
has been found from several studies that<br />
rice-cum-fish culture becomes able to enhance<br />
the net benefit by 64.4% and yield by<br />
5% (Parvez et al., 2012). Therefore, it has<br />
been evidenced that the rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong><br />
is quite attractive both in envir<strong>on</strong>mental and<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic point of view. Fish in rice-based<br />
agriculture system can enhance income at a<br />
higher rate than crops al<strong>on</strong>e thereby it can<br />
reduce poverty, malnutriti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
vulnerability<br />
reduce gap between supply vs demand<br />
of food fish<br />
lessen pressure <strong>on</strong> capture fisheries<br />
generate foreign exchange earnings<br />
provide employment and career opportunities<br />
provide additi<strong>on</strong>al food/alternative<br />
income to fishermen and farmers<br />
provide business & investment opportunity.<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol mollusks and insects which<br />
are harmful to rice<br />
METHODS AND PRACTICES<br />
a) Traditi<strong>on</strong>al practices:<br />
Integrated fish farming is a technique of fish<br />
culture with other organisms (animal/s or<br />
plant/s). More producti<strong>on</strong> can be achieved in<br />
rice-fish culture in comparis<strong>on</strong> to the rice<br />
culture al<strong>on</strong>e. The history of Rice fish culture<br />
is quite old and first started in an ancient<br />
China about 200 years ago. In course<br />
of time, this practice was introduced to Ind<strong>on</strong>esia,<br />
Vietnam, Thailand, India, Bangladesh<br />
and many other countries of the world.<br />
Lately, azolla is cultured with rice-fish in<br />
China. In traditi<strong>on</strong>al system, several small<br />
ditches were prepared in the rice field and<br />
tree branches or bushes were placed for creating<br />
suitable artificial habitat to attract wild<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
fishes (Figure 1). Sometimes fry of Cyprinus<br />
carpio was stocked. Producti<strong>on</strong> was much<br />
low and it was about 50kg/ha.<br />
b) Modern practices<br />
Since nineties, several NGOs have been<br />
working <strong>on</strong> rice fish culture and both nursery<br />
and table fish are produced through these<br />
techniques. Prawn species Macrobrachium<br />
rosenbergii is now also stocked for more<br />
profit and diversified product. Major fish<br />
species are used Labeo rohita (rui), Catla<br />
catla (Catla), Cirrhina mrigala (Mrigel),<br />
Cyprinus carpio (Comm<strong>on</strong> carp), Hypophthalmichthys<br />
molitrix (silver carp), Tilapia<br />
sp. (Tilapia), Puntius g<strong>on</strong>i<strong>on</strong>otus (Thai<br />
barb) and M. rosenbergii (giant fresh water<br />
prawn). The different fish species, suitable<br />
and practicing nowadays in rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
are shown in Figure 2. In this system,<br />
the producti<strong>on</strong> of fish is much higher than<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al system which is about 200 kg/ha<br />
(http://en.bdfish.org/2010).<br />
Fish culture with rice can be practiced in<br />
two waysi.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>current system – culture of ricefish<br />
together<br />
ii. Alternative system – Fish culture after<br />
harvesting rice<br />
i. C<strong>on</strong>current systems<br />
Rahman et al<br />
C<strong>on</strong>current rice-fish farming is generally<br />
practiced during wet (aman) seas<strong>on</strong> in moderate<br />
to low paddy fields where water logging<br />
exists for 4-5 m<strong>on</strong>ths naturally (Fig. 3).<br />
Rearing of fish is possible by this way until<br />
rice plantati<strong>on</strong> in the next seas<strong>on</strong>. Carp and<br />
barb species (either singly or with different<br />
combinati<strong>on</strong>s and ratios) are suitable for<br />
stocking but grass carp (Ctenopharyngod<strong>on</strong><br />
idella) can also be stocked. In case of grass<br />
carp stocking, precauti<strong>on</strong> must be taken so<br />
that this fish cannot eat young paddy.<br />
ii. Alternative culture system<br />
In alternative culture system (Figure 4),<br />
fishes are stocked in the paddy fields after<br />
harvesting rice from the land. Rearing of<br />
fishes up to 6-8 m<strong>on</strong>ths (until plantati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
the next crop seas<strong>on</strong>) is possible in this system.<br />
Carp and barb species are suitable but<br />
grass carp (Ctenopharyngod<strong>on</strong> idella) can<br />
also be stocked as a candidate in this composite<br />
culture system.<br />
OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT<br />
Management activities for fish culture in<br />
rice fields include site selecti<strong>on</strong>, developing<br />
infrastructure, shading/sheltering, stocking,<br />
Figure 1: Pictures showing traditi<strong>on</strong>al system of rice-fish culture.<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
Rahman et al<br />
Puntius g<strong>on</strong>i<strong>on</strong>otus<br />
Clarias batrachus<br />
Oreochromis niloticus<br />
Cyprinus carpio<br />
Labeo rohita<br />
Labeo calbasu<br />
Cirrhinus mrigala<br />
Anabas testudineus<br />
Channa striatus<br />
Figure 2: Pictures showing different cultivable fish species for rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Figure 3: Pictures showing c<strong>on</strong>current culture system of fish in rice fields.<br />
and feeding, water quality c<strong>on</strong>trol, harvesting<br />
and restocking. Practices used for selecting<br />
fish species as well as number of fishes<br />
to be stocked depending <strong>on</strong> the locati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
availability of fish species.<br />
a) Site selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Water holding capacity of the selected plot’s<br />
soil must be good enough so that soil can<br />
hold water easily. Loamy or clay-loamy<br />
soils are suitable for rice fish culture. Select-<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
ed plot should be low land and should c<strong>on</strong>tain<br />
water naturally for 7-10 m<strong>on</strong>ths but<br />
must be secured from flooding.<br />
b) Developing infrastructure<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al rice paddies normally require<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>current culture of fish.<br />
One important modificati<strong>on</strong> is the deepened<br />
part of the paddy field to serve as a fish shelter<br />
and harvest area (Figure 5). The depended<br />
areas are called trenches, canals, channels<br />
or sumps. C<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> and placement may<br />
vary, but these deepened areas provide several<br />
critical elements for successful rice-fish<br />
culture:<br />
‣ Refuge when the water level is lowered<br />
‣ Passage ways for fish to find food<br />
‣ Easier harvest of fish when the paddy<br />
is drained.<br />
At least a single ditch must be excavated<br />
in the rice fields. Ditch or trenches should be<br />
about 0.5 m to 1.0 m water depth and at least<br />
Rahman et al<br />
1.0 m wide. Ideally, no part of the paddy<br />
should be more than 10.0 m away from the<br />
trench. To maximize rice producti<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
trench area should not be more than 10% of<br />
rice plot area. Adequate water should be<br />
available to maintain a depth of 10 to 15 cm<br />
in planted areas with rice <strong>on</strong>ce fish have introduced.<br />
This ditch will serve as shelter<br />
during hot seas<strong>on</strong> and make the harvesting<br />
easier. Several canals should be dug c<strong>on</strong>necting<br />
ditch for free movement of fishes<br />
(Figure 6). Enough space must be left from<br />
land boundary so that dyke would not be<br />
broken. Ditch can be excavated in different<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>s of the plot; some models are<br />
shown in Figure 6.<br />
c) Sheltering for prawn<br />
In prawn culture, it is essential to provide<br />
some sort of substances which will serve as<br />
shelter for prawn (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).<br />
As prawn change its shell as growth advances<br />
(i.e. molting), it remains very<br />
Figure 4: Pictures showing alternative culture system of fish in rice fields.<br />
Figure 5: Pictures showing preparati<strong>on</strong> of set-up for the rice-fish integrated plot.<br />
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Rahman et al<br />
Figure 6: Pictures showing different canaling systems for fish and prawn in rice field.<br />
susceptible to attack by other animals during<br />
molting period. Substances like coc<strong>on</strong>ut<br />
branches, palm leafs or other tree branches<br />
are used in the water for sheltering of<br />
prawns (Figure 7).<br />
e) Rice plot preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
Border, dyke of the land needs to be c<strong>on</strong>structed<br />
(if necessary) and weeds must be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled and excess bottom mud should be<br />
removed (Figure 9). Predatory or unwanted<br />
fish species or other animals will be removed<br />
from the culture plot. Lime (1<br />
kg/decimal; 2-3kg/decimal for red soil) and<br />
fertilizers (usually cow dung, urea and TSP)<br />
should be applied at a proper dose.<br />
Figure 7: Pictures showing shelter made<br />
for fish and prawn in rice field.<br />
d) Shading<br />
Shading is essential during high temperature<br />
and excess rainfall to save stocked species<br />
from unfavorable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. Bamboo splits<br />
made mat, coc<strong>on</strong>ut or palm branch, cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
of vegetables <strong>on</strong> rack <strong>on</strong> dyke (Figure 8)<br />
can provide shade for the fishes<br />
(http://en.bdfish.org/2010).<br />
Figure 8: Pictures showing shad set-up for<br />
fish and prawn in rice field ditch.<br />
f) Nursery program in the rice fields<br />
It is an opti<strong>on</strong>al measure to prepare nursery<br />
area for temporary rearing of prawn or<br />
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shrimp PL. Around 10-15% area of the total<br />
field can be used as nursery (Fig. 10).<br />
Nursery is often referred to as “Pocket<br />
Gher”. Generally, shrimp or prawns PL are<br />
reared in the nursery for 20-25 days. Stocking<br />
density should be 1500-2000 PL (1.5-2<br />
cm in size) per decimal area<br />
(http://en.bdfish.org/2010).<br />
g) Stocking of fish fry/fingerlings/prawn<br />
PL in rice fields<br />
Rahman et al<br />
Prawn PL needs to be stocked during evening<br />
as they are more sensitive than the fin<br />
fish fry that can tolerate sudden changes in<br />
temperature and dissolve oxygen level in<br />
water (Figure 11). If they are stocked during<br />
evening, the released PL will get more time<br />
at night to adapt with the envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Stocking density will be 10000-15000 PL/<br />
hectare area (http://en.bdfish.org/2010).<br />
In case of finfish, fry can be stocked in<br />
the morning or in the afterno<strong>on</strong> (Figure 11).<br />
Figure 9: Pictures showing preparati<strong>on</strong> of rice-fish plots.<br />
Figure 10: Pictures showing nursery of fish and prawn PL in rice fields.<br />
Figure 11: Stocking of fish fingerlings and prawn PL in rice plots.<br />
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Stocking density will be maintained at 20-25<br />
individuals/decimal for m<strong>on</strong>oculture depending<br />
<strong>on</strong> the level of water and related<br />
factors. In case of mixed or polyculture,<br />
stocking density should be maintained at 20<br />
individuals / decimal. Stocking size should<br />
be 5-8 cm depending <strong>on</strong> the types of fish<br />
species. One thing should be kept in mind<br />
that it would not be very wise decisi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
stock prawn and other bottom dweller fin<br />
fish species together as they can make competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
each other for food and space.<br />
h) Management of rice field wild fisheries<br />
Wild fish can be encouraged to enter into<br />
rice fields by keeping the entrances of the<br />
fields open, and bunds low (Figure 12).<br />
They can be attracted by placing branches in<br />
the field which provide shelter for the fish or<br />
by placing buffalo or cow skins to attract<br />
catfish and eels. Wild fish may be harvested<br />
from rice fields by netting, hooking, trapping,<br />
harpo<strong>on</strong>ing, throwing nets, or by<br />
draining out the field. As water levels fall,<br />
fish may be channeled into adjacent trap<br />
p<strong>on</strong>d areas where they can be held alive until<br />
required. Black fish from trap p<strong>on</strong>ds are<br />
often marketed live in local markets.<br />
Figure 12: Management of fishes in rice<br />
fields.<br />
i) Management of rice-fish culture<br />
If water sources are more secured and the<br />
risk of flooding is low, farmers may invest<br />
in fish stock for their paddies or adjacent<br />
p<strong>on</strong>d areas. Fish can be stocked at rates of<br />
0.25−1 fish/m 2 . In Cambodia, for example,<br />
stocking rate is usually maintained at 2,500<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> carp, 1,250 silver barb and 1,250<br />
tilapias per hectare. Predatory fish, particularly<br />
snakehead, should be absent from the<br />
system when fish seed is introduced. If<br />
available and ec<strong>on</strong>omic, feed supplements<br />
such as duckweed, termites, earthworms,<br />
and rice bran can be supplied. Similar harvesting<br />
methods as for rice field fisheries<br />
can be used. Harvests usually include a percentage<br />
of wild fish that have entered into<br />
the system by themselves.<br />
j) Paddy management<br />
Naturally grown weeds in the field must be<br />
eradicated and other harmful insect must be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by IPM (Integrated Pest Management).<br />
Water for rice-fish culture must<br />
be free from toxicants such as insecticides.<br />
In many areas of the world, c<strong>on</strong>current ricefish<br />
culture has aband<strong>on</strong>ed because toxic<br />
chemicals are used. Agricultural extensi<strong>on</strong><br />
specialists should be c<strong>on</strong>tacted for advice<br />
before stocking fish in paddies supplied with<br />
water from a communal irrigati<strong>on</strong> source.<br />
Irrigati<strong>on</strong> water can easily be c<strong>on</strong>taminated<br />
by other farmers using chemicals in their<br />
rice fields.<br />
Rice husbandry practices that should be<br />
followed include rat c<strong>on</strong>trol, weeding, proper<br />
spacing of seedlings, and proper fertilizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Normal weeds c<strong>on</strong>trol and fertilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
chemicals are not harmful to fish. Paddy<br />
dikes should be high and str<strong>on</strong>g enough to<br />
hold water without leaking. Dikes made of<br />
good quality clay are best.<br />
k) Applicati<strong>on</strong> of supplementary feed:<br />
Supplementary feed needs to be supplied for<br />
faster growth of stocked species (Figure 13).<br />
Supplementary feed can be applied at 3-5%<br />
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weight of stocked biomass. If phytoplankt<strong>on</strong><br />
feeder fish like silver carp stocked in the rice<br />
field, no extra feeds will be required for fish.<br />
Rahman et al<br />
much possible by draining out (dewatering)<br />
the water of the field.<br />
n) Harvesting<br />
Approximately 4–5 m<strong>on</strong>ths of culturing, the<br />
farmers usually harvest the rice first, and<br />
then drain the rice field to gather the fish<br />
into the ditch (Figure 16). Fish are harvested<br />
from these places and then processed for<br />
marketing and c<strong>on</strong>suming.<br />
Figure 13: Applicati<strong>on</strong> of feed in the ditches<br />
of the rice and fish or rice-fish rice fields<br />
during rice fish integrati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
l) Dyke cropping<br />
Vegetables can be planted <strong>on</strong> dyke or by<br />
making rack made of available materials<br />
such as bamboo sticks, vegetables branches<br />
without leaves, etc. (Figure 14).<br />
m) Growth and health m<strong>on</strong>itoring of fish<br />
Regular sampling of stocked fish species is<br />
very much necessary to m<strong>on</strong>itor the growth,<br />
or to test disease (Figure 15). This can be<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e by using seine net in ditch after gathering<br />
the fish there (in ditch). For maximum<br />
benefit, stocked species must be harvested in<br />
proper time. Harvesting (100%) is very<br />
Figure 14: Dyke cropping in rice-fish fields.<br />
o) Other c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Water c<strong>on</strong>trol is crucial and rice<br />
fields cannot be allowed to dry up<br />
while fish stocks are present.<br />
Stocked fish may escape if fields are<br />
flooded. Flood c<strong>on</strong>trol can be difficult<br />
in rain fed rice systems.<br />
Areas of rice fields deepened for fish<br />
culture may result in less rice growing<br />
area.<br />
Having fish present in rich fields<br />
may help dissuade farmers from us-<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
ing pesticides. Pesticides have the<br />
potential for pois<strong>on</strong>ing fish and some<br />
types can be absorbed by the fish and<br />
then ingested by humans.<br />
Rahman et al<br />
would cause no transport problems and<br />
would be mostly fresh and healthy.<br />
The producti<strong>on</strong> of a fish crop between<br />
the two rice crops provides the farmer<br />
with an off-seas<strong>on</strong> job (Hora and Pillay,<br />
1962). This can increase the income without<br />
increasing expenses (Hickling, 1962). Apart<br />
from the additi<strong>on</strong>al income available from<br />
rizi-pisciculture (rotati<strong>on</strong>al culture of fish<br />
and rice), the combined culture leads to a<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> of labour in weeding and an increase<br />
in the yield of paddy by 5 to 15%.<br />
Figure 15: Fish health and growth<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itoring.<br />
ECONOMICS AND BENEFITS<br />
The benefits of rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong> in terms<br />
of productivity and ec<strong>on</strong>omics are diverged<br />
and well-documented. Coche, (1967) discusses<br />
the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic importance of<br />
fish culture in rice fields and pointed out and<br />
the deficit of animal protein in densely populated<br />
rice growing areas. The fish grown in<br />
the paddy fields will be ideal use of land and<br />
would also be an easy source of cheap and<br />
fresh animal proteins. Thus fish culture can<br />
greatly c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
welfare, especially for rural populati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
developing countries. An added advantage<br />
also is that unlike sea fish or other animal<br />
proteins, the fish from local paddy fields<br />
Figure 16: Pictures showing harvesting of<br />
rice and fish.<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
The increasing rice producti<strong>on</strong> in the ricefish<br />
integrati<strong>on</strong> is attributed to various factors<br />
(Coche, 1967), namely,<br />
a) reducti<strong>on</strong> in the number of harmful insects,<br />
such as paddy stem borers, whose<br />
larvae are eaten by fish.<br />
b) reducti<strong>on</strong> in rat populati<strong>on</strong> due to increase<br />
in the water level.<br />
c) increase in organic fertilizati<strong>on</strong> by fish<br />
excreta and remains of artificial feed.<br />
d) better tilling of the rice seedlings due to<br />
the activity of the fish.<br />
e) increased mineralizati<strong>on</strong> of the organic<br />
matter and increased aerati<strong>on</strong> of the soil<br />
resulting from the puddling of mud by<br />
benthic feeders.<br />
f) c<strong>on</strong>trol of algae and weeds (by phytophagous<br />
fish) which compete with rice for<br />
light and nutrients.<br />
g) fish stir up soil nutrients making them<br />
more available for rice. This increases<br />
rice producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
STEPS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVEL-<br />
OPMENT<br />
Wet (rain-fed) rice cultivati<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
practiced for at least 4000 years ago, and its<br />
history indicates that rice farming is basically<br />
sustainable. What is less certain is whether<br />
the dramatic increases of rice producti<strong>on</strong><br />
made possible by the “green revoluti<strong>on</strong>” are<br />
sustainable (Greenland, 1997). Global<br />
warming, sea level rise, increased ultraviolet<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong> and even unavailability of water<br />
are all expected to have an adverse impact<br />
<strong>on</strong> rice producti<strong>on</strong>. However, such scenarios<br />
are far the foreseeable future can be assumed<br />
that rice farming will c<strong>on</strong>tinue. Further,<br />
it seems likely that the culture of fish in<br />
rice farming makes the rice field ecosystem<br />
more balanced and stable. With fish removing<br />
the weeds and reducing the insects’ pest<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> to tolerable levels, the pois<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
of the water and soil may be curtailed. In<br />
Rahman et al<br />
regards of sustainability of rice fish farming,<br />
there should be needed -<br />
• grant support<br />
• ensuring Inputs (seeds, feeds, fish<br />
fry/fingerlings) supply<br />
• capacity building training<br />
• technology disseminati<strong>on</strong><br />
• value chain development<br />
• creating marketing channel<br />
• co-ordinati<strong>on</strong>, collaborati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
networking<br />
• creating net-mapping am<strong>on</strong>g different<br />
actors<br />
• creating policy, dialog, scale in and<br />
up<br />
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT<br />
There is a need to refine rice-fish farming,<br />
where the thrust is <strong>on</strong> improving fish producti<strong>on</strong><br />
without affecting rice producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
De La Cruz et al. (1992) had identified possible<br />
areas and tropics for research for various<br />
countries (De La Cruz et al., 1992).<br />
Tropics comm<strong>on</strong> to several countries where<br />
rice-fish farming is practiced or has high<br />
potential are:<br />
‣ Ecological studies specially <strong>on</strong> food<br />
webs and nutrient cycle in a rice field<br />
ecosystem;<br />
‣ Determinati<strong>on</strong> of the carrying capacity<br />
and optimum stocking densities;<br />
‣ Development of rice field hatchery<br />
and/or nursery system;<br />
‣ Development of rice-fish farming models<br />
species to different agroclimatic<br />
z<strong>on</strong>es;<br />
‣ Optimum fertilizati<strong>on</strong> rates and fertilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
methods;<br />
‣ Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of new fish species for rice<br />
field culture;<br />
‣ Evaluati<strong>on</strong> of different fish species in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol of rice pests and diseases;<br />
‣ Development of fish aggregating and<br />
fish harvesting techniques for rice fields;<br />
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Integrated Rice-Fish Farming<br />
and optimal rice planting patterns for<br />
rice-fish farming.<br />
Other tropics identified are not necessarily<br />
specific to rice-fish farming and may<br />
be covered by regular aquaculture research<br />
such as fish nutriti<strong>on</strong> and feed development,<br />
or in agr<strong>on</strong>omy e.g. weed ecology and management.<br />
L<strong>on</strong>g-term “wish list” research includes<br />
the development of new rice varieties<br />
for different rice-fish systems.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
To meet the increasing demand of food for<br />
the over-increasing populati<strong>on</strong>s, there<br />
should be needed to more increased rice and<br />
fish producti<strong>on</strong>s. This document accomplishes<br />
that rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong> could be a<br />
practical opportunity for farm diversificati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Such divergence will enhance food security.<br />
Rice-fish integrati<strong>on</strong> makes the rice<br />
field ecosystem with an efficiently and envir<strong>on</strong>mentally<br />
comprehensive producti<strong>on</strong> system<br />
for rice and fish. Rice m<strong>on</strong>oculture cannot<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e provide a sustainable food supply,<br />
while integrated rice-fish farming will be the<br />
best in terms of resource utilizati<strong>on</strong>, productivity<br />
and food supply. It should therefore be<br />
recommended that integrated rice-fish farming<br />
could be a sustainable alternative to rice<br />
m<strong>on</strong>oculture as more producti<strong>on</strong> and benefits<br />
can be achieved in rice-fish culture<br />
compared to the rice farming al<strong>on</strong>e.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Ahmed, N., Ahammed, F. and Brakel, M.<br />
V. (2008). An ec<strong>on</strong>omic analysis of<br />
freshwater prawn Macrobrachium<br />
rosenbergii farming in Mymensingh,<br />
Bangladesh. The World Aquaculture<br />
Society 38, 37–50.<br />
BBS. (2011). Household Income and Expenditure<br />
Survey 2010. Bangladesh<br />
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of Planning, Government of the People's<br />
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Berg, H. (2001). Pesticide use in rice and<br />
rice-fish farms in the Mek<strong>on</strong>g Delta,<br />
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BRKB. (2010). Rice statistics in Bangladesh.<br />
Bangladesh Rice Knowledge<br />
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Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.<br />
Chowdhury, M. R. (2009). Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
challenge facing Bangladesh. L<strong>on</strong>g Island<br />
University, CW Post Campus,<br />
New York, USA.<br />
Coche, A. G. (1967). Fish culture in rice<br />
fields: a worldwide synthesis. Hydrobiologia<br />
30(1), 1–44.<br />
De la Quz CR, Lightfoot, C., Costa-rerce<br />
B. A., Carangal, V. R. and Bimbao,<br />
M. P. (1992). Rice-fish research and<br />
development in Asia. ICLARM, Manila,<br />
Philippines, 457p.<br />
DoF. (2010). Fishery Statistical Yearbook of<br />
Bangladesh 2008–2009. Fisheries Resources<br />
Survey System, Department of<br />
Fisheries (DoF), Ministry of Fisheries<br />
and Livestock, Dhaka, Bangladesh.<br />
Dugan, P., Dey, M. M. and Sugunan, V.<br />
V. (2006). Fisheries and water productivity<br />
in tropical river basins: enhancing<br />
food security and livelihoods by<br />
managing water for fish. Agricultural<br />
Water Management 80, 262–275.<br />
Frei, M. and Becker, K. (2005). Integrated<br />
rice-fish culture: coupled producti<strong>on</strong><br />
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Forum 29, 135–143.<br />
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Giap, D. H., Yi, Y. and Lin, C. K. (2005).<br />
Effects of different fertilizati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
feeding regimes <strong>on</strong> the producti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
integrated farming of rice and prawn<br />
Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De<br />
Man). Aquaculture Research 36, 292–<br />
299.<br />
Greenland, D. J. (1997). The Sustainablity<br />
of rice farming. GAB Internati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
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Gupta, M. V., Sollows, J. D., Mazid, M.<br />
A., Rahman, A., Hussain, M. G. and<br />
Dey, M. M. (2002). Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and<br />
adopti<strong>on</strong> patterns of integrated ricefish<br />
farming in Bangladesh. In: Edwards,<br />
P., Little, D.C. and Demaine,<br />
H. (Eds.), Rural aquaculture. Oxford:<br />
CABI Internati<strong>on</strong>al, pp. 41–54.<br />
Gurung, T. B. and Wagle, S. K. (2005).<br />
Revisiting underlying ecological principles<br />
of rice-fish integrated farming<br />
for envir<strong>on</strong>mental, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social<br />
benefits. Our Nature 3, 1–12.<br />
Halwart, M. and Gupta, M. V. (2004).<br />
Culture of fish in rice fields. Food and<br />
Agriculture Organizati<strong>on</strong> of the United<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>s and the WorldFish Center, p<br />
83.<br />
Hickling, C. F. (1962). Fish culture. Faber<br />
and Faber Ltd., L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, 295 p.<br />
Hora, S. L. and Pillay, T. V. R. (1962).<br />
Handbook of fish culture in the Indo-<br />
Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong>. FAO Fish Technical<br />
Paper 14, 204.<br />
http://en.bdfish.org/2010/10/integrated-fishfarming-rice-fish/<br />
Kunda, M., Azim, M. E., Wahab, M. A.,<br />
Dewan, S., Roos, N. and Thilsted, S.<br />
Rahman et al<br />
H. (2008). Potential of mixed culture<br />
of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium<br />
rosenbergii) and self-recruiting small<br />
species mola (Amblypharyngod<strong>on</strong> mola)<br />
in rotati<strong>on</strong>al rice-fish/prawn culture<br />
systems in Bangladesh. Aquaculture<br />
Research 39, 506–517.<br />
Lightfoot, C., van Dam, A. and Costa-<br />
Pierce, B. A. (1992). What’s happening<br />
to rice yields in rice-fish systems?<br />
In: dela Cruz, C. R., Lightfoot, C.,<br />
Costa-Pierce, B. A., Carangal, V. R.<br />
and Bimbao, M. P. (Eds.). Rice-Fish<br />
Research and Development in Asia.<br />
ICLARM C<strong>on</strong>ference Proceedings 24,<br />
Manila, Philippines, pp. 177–183.<br />
Lu, J. and Li, X. (2006). Review of ricefish<br />
farming systems in China – <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
the globally important ingenious agricultural<br />
heritage systems (GIAHS).<br />
Aquaculture 260, 106–113.<br />
Nabi, R. (2008). C<strong>on</strong>straints to the adopti<strong>on</strong><br />
of rice-fish farming by smallholders in<br />
Bangladesh: a farming systems analysis.<br />
Aquaculture Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and Management<br />
12, 145–153.<br />
Nhan, D. K., Ph<strong>on</strong>g, L. T., Verdegem, M.<br />
J. C., Du<strong>on</strong>g, L. T., Bosma, R.H.<br />
and Little, D. C. (2007). Integrated<br />
freshwater aquaculture, crop and livestock<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> in the Mek<strong>on</strong>g delta,<br />
Vietnam: determinants and the role of<br />
the p<strong>on</strong>d. Agricultural Systems 94,<br />
445–458.<br />
Parvez, M. S., Salekuzzaman, M., Hossain,<br />
M. E. and Azam, K. (2012).<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and productivity of rice<br />
cum freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium<br />
Rosenbergii) in the gher farming<br />
system. Internati<strong>on</strong>al Researchers<br />
1(3), 39–49.<br />
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Parvez, M. S., Sarker, M. S., Azad, M. S.<br />
and Salekuzzaman, M. (2006). Effect<br />
<strong>on</strong> water quality, p<strong>on</strong>d productivity<br />
and growth of carps in polyculture<br />
system by using homestead organic<br />
wastage as a p<strong>on</strong>d manure. Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Journal of Sustainable Agricultural<br />
Technology 2(2), 45–50.<br />
Saikia, S. and Das, D. N. (2008). Rice-Fish<br />
Culture and its Potential in Rural Development:<br />
A Less<strong>on</strong> from Apatani<br />
Rahman et al<br />
Farmers, Arunachal Pradesh, India,<br />
Journal of Agriculture & Rural Development<br />
6 (1&2), 125–131.<br />
Waibel, H. (1992). Comparative ec<strong>on</strong>omics<br />
of pesticide use in rice and rice-fish<br />
farming, p. 245-254. In: dela Cruz, C.<br />
R., Lightfoot, C., Costa-Pierce, B. A.,<br />
Carangal, V. R. and Bimbao, M. P.<br />
(Eds.). Rice-fish research and development<br />
in Asia. ICLARM C<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
Proceedings 24, 457p.<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 30
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P31-37<br />
Molecular Marker Techniques in Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Forensic<br />
Studies<br />
Narayanan Kannan<br />
Institute for Graduate Studies, Taylor's University (Lakeside Campus), 47500, Subang Jaya, Selangor<br />
Darul Ehsan, Malaysia<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +60 14 338 5307; Email: drnkannan@yahoo.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are anthropogenic c<strong>on</strong>taminants found globally in water, ice,<br />
soil, air and sediment. Modern analytical techniques allow us to determine these chemicals in<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental matrices at parts per trilli<strong>on</strong> levels or lower. Envir<strong>on</strong>mental forensic <strong>on</strong> PCBs<br />
opens up new avenues of investigati<strong>on</strong> such as transport and fate of water masses in oceans, sedimentati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>on</strong>set of primary producti<strong>on</strong>, migrati<strong>on</strong> of marine mammals, their populati<strong>on</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
and pharmacokinetics of drugs inside organisms. By virtue of persistence, bioaccumulati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
bioc<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> and structure-activity relati<strong>on</strong>ship PCBs emerge as unc<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al chemical<br />
tracers of new sort.<br />
Keywords: Anthropogenic c<strong>on</strong>taminants; envir<strong>on</strong>mental forensic; metabolic slope; risk assessment;<br />
PCBs; sea water; sediment; suspended particulate matter; TEQs; tracers<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Since the beginning of industrial revoluti<strong>on</strong><br />
the number of synthesized chemicals keeps<br />
increasing. Currently it is bey<strong>on</strong>d three milli<strong>on</strong><br />
and is growing at a rate of several hundred<br />
thousand a year of which 300-500<br />
reach the stage of commercial producti<strong>on</strong>. It<br />
is estimated that up-to <strong>on</strong>e third of the total<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> of these chemicals reaches the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. When out of place in the envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
these chemicals are called pollutants.<br />
Measurement of these chemicals after<br />
integrating with envir<strong>on</strong>mental matrix such<br />
as sediment, biota, suspended particulate<br />
matter (SPM) and even in water becomes<br />
extremely complex demanding sophisticated<br />
analytical techniques (Duinker et al., 1988;<br />
Kannan et al., 1993; Li et al., 2007; Wang et<br />
al., 2007).<br />
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLU-<br />
TANTS (POPS)<br />
Hence, envir<strong>on</strong>mental analytical chemists<br />
focused mostly <strong>on</strong> a selected number of persistent<br />
organic chemicals such as agrochemicals<br />
(Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor,<br />
Chlordane, Chlordec<strong>on</strong>e, Hexabromobiphenyl,<br />
Hexabromocyclododecane<br />
(HBCD), Hexabromodiphenyl ether and<br />
heptabromodiphenyl ether, Hexachlorobenzene<br />
(HCB), Hexachlorobutadiene, Alpha<br />
hexachlorocyclohexane, Beta hexachlorocyclohexane,<br />
Lindane, Mirex, Pentachlorobenzene,<br />
Pentachlorophenol and its salts and<br />
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Molecular Marker Techniques in Envir<strong>on</strong>……<br />
esters; Technical endosulfan and its related<br />
isomers, Toxaphene), industrial chemicals<br />
(Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Polychlorinated<br />
naphthalenes (PCN), Polybrominated<br />
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), Perfluorooctanesulf<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
acid (PFOs) and/or unwanted<br />
by-products of industrial processes<br />
or combusti<strong>on</strong> (Polychlorinated dibeno-pdioxins<br />
(PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans<br />
(PCDFs) that are bioaccumulative<br />
and have the potential to disturb biological<br />
processes (EPA, 2002).<br />
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS<br />
(PCBS) AS MODEL SUBSTANCES<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g these persistent organic pollutants<br />
(POPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)<br />
(Figure 1) are well characterized with reference<br />
to their physico-chemical properties,<br />
biological potencies and envir<strong>on</strong>mental occurrence/transport<br />
and fate (Kannan, 2000;<br />
Fiedler (UNEP site)).<br />
Kannan<br />
Figure 1: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).<br />
Thus, PCBs emerged as model substances,<br />
representing a whole range of POPs.<br />
PCBs are extremely bioaccumulative and<br />
used in the study of migrati<strong>on</strong> of oceanic<br />
wildlife such as whales (Subramanian et al.,<br />
1988; Wania, 1998), their populati<strong>on</strong> distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Mossner and Ballschmiter, 1997;<br />
Bruhn et al., 1999) and their nursing activities<br />
(Addis<strong>on</strong> and Brodie, 1987; Beckmen et<br />
al., 1999) (Figure 2).<br />
Figure 2: Biplot of principal<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents 1 and 2<br />
derived from correlati<strong>on</strong><br />
matrix of mol% c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of CBs in the blubber<br />
tissue of male and female<br />
immature as well as male<br />
mature harbour porpoises<br />
from the Baltic Sea (B).,<br />
North Sea (N)., and Arctic<br />
waters (A). The CB numbers<br />
represent the loadings<br />
and B, N, A represent the<br />
scores (from Bruhn et al.,<br />
1999).<br />
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Molecular Marker Techniques in Envir<strong>on</strong>……<br />
PCBs are widely used in understanding<br />
the trophic and reproductive transfer of<br />
persistence chemicals (Aguilar and Borrell,<br />
1994; Kannan et al., 1995; Jacks<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Schindler, 1996; Kim et al., 2002). Fugacity<br />
models are widely used in understanding the<br />
hemispheric transfer of PCBs and the dynamics<br />
behind l<strong>on</strong>g range transport (Wania<br />
and Mackay, 1996). The structure biological<br />
activity relati<strong>on</strong>ship based <strong>on</strong> the inherent<br />
planar and globular nature of PCBs is useful<br />
Figure 3: A) Vicinal atoms in the meta and<br />
para positi<strong>on</strong>s. Overlapping covalent radii<br />
for two ortho-Cl show that a planar c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong><br />
is highly improbable when three or<br />
four ortho-Cl are present. B) Vicinal H atoms<br />
in the ortho and meta positi<strong>on</strong>s. N<strong>on</strong>overlapping<br />
covalent radii for ortho-Cl and<br />
ortho-H show that a planar c<strong>on</strong>figurati<strong>on</strong><br />
causes a much lower energy barrier when<br />
chlorine atoms do not oppose each other<br />
(from Bo<strong>on</strong> et al., 1992).<br />
Kannan<br />
in understanding the phase I and phase II<br />
metabolism in organisms including humans,<br />
the enzyme inducti<strong>on</strong> and in-vitro and invivo<br />
toxicities (Safe et al., 1985; Kannan et<br />
al., 1989ab; Bo<strong>on</strong> et al., 1992; Ishii and<br />
Oguri, 2002) (Figure 3).<br />
PCBs producti<strong>on</strong> history in the US is<br />
also the history of industrial openness towards<br />
safety issues and US chemical regulati<strong>on</strong><br />
(An<strong>on</strong>ymous, 2007). Improvement in<br />
the analytical chemistry of PCBs supported<br />
the development of finger printing techniques,<br />
chemometrics and over all awareness<br />
<strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental forensic (Kannan et<br />
al., 1992, 2007; Peré-Trepata et al., 2006).<br />
The space and time integrated sampling<br />
of surface sea water over oceanic transects<br />
reveal polluti<strong>on</strong> source, the physical<br />
and biological status of the regi<strong>on</strong> (biological<br />
blooms etc.) and prevailing currents that<br />
bring the c<strong>on</strong>taminants to that regi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Schulz-Bull et al., 1995; Kannan et al.,<br />
1998; Yamashita et al., 2008; Kannan et al.,<br />
2011). Deep water sampling devices when<br />
applied for PCB studies help to understand<br />
ocean structure and circulati<strong>on</strong> (Schulz et al.,<br />
1988; Petrick et al., 1996; Schulz-Bull et al.,<br />
1998; Kannan et al., 1998).<br />
A study <strong>on</strong> the vertical profile of<br />
East Sea (Japan Sea) revealed the intrinsic<br />
stratificati<strong>on</strong> of those deep waters, otherwise<br />
revealed <strong>on</strong>ly by c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al tracers (radio<br />
isotopes) (Figure 4). This unexpected finding<br />
PCBs at a depth of 3000 m dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
that our oceans are much more dynamic than<br />
it was thought before and the entire ocean<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> has speeded up in recent years<br />
due to global warming (Kannan et al., 1998).<br />
Passive air samplers when deployed northsouth<br />
in open oceans or oceanic islands<br />
and/or systematic water sampling in the<br />
open ocean in north-south directi<strong>on</strong>s will<br />
greatly enhance such predicti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 33
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Molecular Marker Techniques in Envir<strong>on</strong>……<br />
Kannan<br />
Figure 4: Presence of PCBs at 3500 m in Japan Sea indicates faster movements (using c<strong>on</strong>vecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and horiz<strong>on</strong>tal currents) of these chemicals in ocean circulati<strong>on</strong> (Kannan et al., 1998).<br />
REFERENCES<br />
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Kannan, N., Tanabe, S., Ono, M. and<br />
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and Duinker, J.C. (1993). Chromatographic<br />
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425-434.<br />
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D.E., Petrick, G. and Duinker, J.C<br />
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Kannan, N.., Yamashita, N.., Petrick, G.<br />
and Duinker, J.C. (1998). Polychlorinated<br />
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N<strong>on</strong>ylphenols in the Sea of Japan. Envir<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Sci. Technol. 32, 1747-1753.<br />
Kannan, N. (2000). N<strong>on</strong>-ortho and m<strong>on</strong>oortho<br />
substituted PCBs. In: The Handbook<br />
of Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Chemistry. Vol.<br />
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Paasivirta, J. (eds.). Springer-Verlag,<br />
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Kannan, N., H<strong>on</strong>g, S.H., Shim, W.J. and<br />
Oh. J.R. (2007). A c<strong>on</strong>gener-specific<br />
survey for Polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins<br />
(PCDDs) and Polychlorinated<br />
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in Masan Bay, Korea. Chemosphere<br />
68, 1613–1622.<br />
Kim, M, Jin Y, Han, G. M, Jung, J. H,<br />
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Origins of suspended particulate matter<br />
revealed by the sterol distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
in the low salinity water mass observed<br />
in the offshore East China Sea.<br />
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281–288.<br />
Kannan<br />
Li, D.H., D<strong>on</strong>g, M., Shim, W.J. and Kannan,<br />
N. (2007). Applicati<strong>on</strong> of pressurized<br />
fluid extracti<strong>on</strong> technique in<br />
the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry<br />
determinati<strong>on</strong> of sterols from<br />
marine sediment samples. J. Chromat.<br />
A. 1160, 64-70.<br />
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834-841.<br />
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A., Caixach, J. and Tauler, R. (2006).<br />
Chemometrics modelling of organic<br />
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samples. Sci. Total Envir<strong>on</strong>. 371,<br />
223-237.<br />
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Duinker, J. C. (1996). An in-situ filtrati<strong>on</strong>/extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
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water. Mar. Chem. 54, 97-105.<br />
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L., Safe, L., Parkins<strong>on</strong>, A.,<br />
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L.M., Levin, W., Denomme, M.A.<br />
and Fujita, T. (1985). PCBs: Structure-functi<strong>on</strong><br />
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and Duinker, J.C. (1995). Distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
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the Baltic Sea. Mar. Chem. 48, 245-<br />
270.<br />
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R. (1988). Estimating some biological<br />
parameters of Baird’s beakesd<br />
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Mar. Pollut. Bull. 19, 284-287.<br />
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Wania, F. (1998). The Significance of L<strong>on</strong>g<br />
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Chemists Corp. Tor<strong>on</strong>to, Canada.<br />
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N. and Li, D.H. (2007). Improved<br />
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spectrometric determinati<strong>on</strong><br />
of alkylphenols from biota extract.<br />
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the Distributi<strong>on</strong> of Persistent Organic<br />
Pollutants. Envir<strong>on</strong>. Sci. Technol.<br />
30, 390A-396A.<br />
Yamashita, N., Taniyasu, S., Petrick, G.,<br />
Wei, S., Gamo, T., Lam, P.K.S. and<br />
Kannan, K. (2008). Perfluorinated acids<br />
as novel chemical tracers of global<br />
circulati<strong>on</strong> of ocean waters. Chemosphere<br />
70, 1247-1255.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P38-50<br />
Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming: A Case<br />
in Paddy Farming in Peninsular Malaysia<br />
Zakirah Othman and Quamrul Hasan*<br />
School of Technology Management and Logistic, College of Business, Universiti Utara<br />
Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah Darul Aman. Malaysia<br />
*Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Tel. No.: +604-928-7062; Email: quamrul@uum.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Many researches have proven that the sustainable agriculture has many advantages such as<br />
providing cost effectiveness (e.g., using less amount of water); balancing the ecosystem; and,<br />
most importantly, its practice is envir<strong>on</strong>ment-friendly. It helps to increase the crop’s resistance<br />
towards diseases, protect the soil from losing its natural fertility and helps in maintaining the<br />
diversity of the microflora in soil. System of Rice Intensificati<strong>on</strong> (SRI) is an innovative<br />
methodology being used for sustainability in social development. It is widely recognized as a<br />
suitable model for creating envir<strong>on</strong>mental, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social sustainability in agriculture for<br />
the 21 st century. In additi<strong>on</strong>, by paying attenti<strong>on</strong> to envir<strong>on</strong>ment, SRI is an organic farming<br />
management system, which results in higher quality yield with better taste and health benefits.<br />
Therefore, this study was undertaken to understand about the SRI as the sustainable paddy<br />
farming practice in the two selected areas <strong>on</strong> Peninsular Malaysia. This study has used a<br />
qualitative research approach. Data was collected through field work observati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
interviews. The findings of this study showed that there were similarities mostly in the practice<br />
of paddy farming (<strong>on</strong>ly with a minor difference <strong>on</strong> the days) in Sik (Kedah) and Bandar Baru<br />
Tunj<strong>on</strong>g (Kelantan). Furthermore, it showed that the proposed model of sustainable paddy<br />
farming practices, which was a result of this study, could be explained well under three key<br />
areas: 1) sustainable characteristic; 2) sustainable paddy farming practices; and 3) challenges in<br />
sustainable farming. More research is required <strong>on</strong> the sustainable agriculture and organic farming<br />
for better understanding and to addressing the agricultural sustainability related issues.<br />
Keywords: Envir<strong>on</strong>ment; organic farming; paddy; sustainable agriculture; system of rice<br />
intensificati<strong>on</strong> (SRI)<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Sustainability in agriculture refers to the<br />
farmer’s ability to maintain crop producti<strong>on</strong><br />
and obtain benefits as well by accelerating<br />
social growth, stabilizing ec<strong>on</strong>omy and<br />
remaining commercially competitive<br />
without causing significant damage to nature<br />
and envir<strong>on</strong>ment (Ismail, 2006). Sustainable<br />
agriculture has some advantages such as: 1)<br />
providing cost effectiveness; 2) balancing<br />
ecosystem; and 3) being envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
friendly.<br />
The focus of this study is <strong>on</strong> the<br />
management practice in sustainable<br />
agriculture and organic farming by paying<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. The<br />
management of sustainable agricultural<br />
practice in Malaysia paddy farming is still in<br />
its preliminary stage (Othman and<br />
Muhammad, 2011; Othman et. al, 2016).<br />
Currently, a popular system in organic<br />
farming in Asia is the System of Rice<br />
Intensificati<strong>on</strong> (SRI) (Uphoff, 2006), which<br />
has been practiced in Malaysia since 2009<br />
by starting at Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g,<br />
Kelantan, and Sik, Kedah. In the c<strong>on</strong>text of<br />
SRI management, the Sri Lovely Farm at<br />
Sik (which is <strong>on</strong>e of the two cases in this<br />
study) was <strong>on</strong>e of the few certified organic<br />
farms in Malaysia in 2013. The knowledge<br />
in implementing the SRI in paddy<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> is still limited and, therefore,<br />
more studies are necessary to establish it.<br />
This study is undertaken to understand the<br />
SRI as a sustainable paddy farming practice<br />
by selecting two farms from different states<br />
of West Malaysia. It explores the two<br />
experienced farmers’ practices in managing<br />
their paddy farms by employing the SRI. As<br />
the main objective of the research was to to<br />
understand and identify the sustainable<br />
agricultural practices in organic paddy<br />
farming in Malaysia.<br />
SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION<br />
SRI is a method to manage organic farming.<br />
It was developed in Madagascar in 1983 as a<br />
revoluti<strong>on</strong>ary paddy cultivati<strong>on</strong> method to<br />
achieve very high yields with reduced<br />
resources such as irrigati<strong>on</strong> water, fertilizers<br />
and chemicals. The SRI is implemented in a<br />
number of rice-growing countries, including<br />
in China, India, and Myanmar. It is found<br />
that the existing rice varieties have more<br />
genetic potential than that of the previously<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
thought which can be tapped by altering the<br />
management practices. So far, the SRI<br />
planting tests have been carried out in a total<br />
of 48 countries including in Asia, Africa and<br />
Latin America. Many SRI users reported<br />
benefits such as a reducti<strong>on</strong> in pests,<br />
diseases, grain shattering, unfilled grains<br />
and lodging. Additi<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
benefits stem from the reducti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
agricultural chemicals, water use and<br />
methane emissi<strong>on</strong>s that c<strong>on</strong>tribute to global<br />
warming. SRI is also suitable for highland<br />
paddy farming, and its applicati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
already been expanded to other types of<br />
crops such as sugar cane.<br />
According to Uphoff (2006), paddy<br />
farming applicati<strong>on</strong> using the SRI is based<br />
<strong>on</strong> six main principles as follows: (1) When<br />
(if) transplanting, to start with young<br />
seedlings (two-leaf stage); (2) Plants to be<br />
set out carefully and gently in a square<br />
pattern of the size 25x25cm or wider if the<br />
soil c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> is very good, but this size can<br />
be even wider if the soil is fertile enough, or<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce it becomes more fertile after the SRI<br />
practices; (3) Seedlings are to be<br />
transplanted singly; (4) Rice paddies are to<br />
be irrigated intermittently by keeping<br />
minimum of water rather than c<strong>on</strong>tinuously<br />
flooded; (5) Weeding is to be carried out for<br />
at least twice though the best result can be<br />
obtained from multiple weeding with a<br />
‘rotating hoe’ that actively aerates the soil at<br />
the same time churning weeds back into the<br />
soil to decompose, thereby c<strong>on</strong>serving their<br />
nutrients; and (6) Basic organic fertilizers,<br />
compost or any decomposed biomass are to<br />
be used.<br />
CURRENT ISSUES IN RICE<br />
PRODUCTION<br />
Global warming, envir<strong>on</strong>mental crisis, plant<br />
diseases and pests are the main causes in<br />
disrupting the food producti<strong>on</strong> in many<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
countries around the world. At this time,<br />
when the world’s populati<strong>on</strong> is increasing<br />
rapidly resulting in to higher demand of<br />
food, these problems have threatened food<br />
security and people’s health worldwide.<br />
Every day 24,000 people are dying due to<br />
hunger-related causes including <strong>on</strong>e child<br />
every five sec<strong>on</strong>ds.<br />
Rice is the staple food for more than<br />
three billi<strong>on</strong> people from all around the<br />
world. At least, 114 countries grow rice and<br />
more than 50 countries have at least an<br />
annual producti<strong>on</strong> of 100,000 t<strong>on</strong>nes. As<br />
rice is the main food for most countries in<br />
Asia, about 90% of the global rice<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> are in Asia. At<br />
this time, when the world's populati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
already reeling from higher food prices,<br />
many countries have banned or restricted<br />
their rice exports, which pushes up the price<br />
of rice even higher. Since 1990s, the<br />
increase in rice producti<strong>on</strong> has become<br />
slower as compared with populati<strong>on</strong> growth.<br />
Indeed, it is anticipated that rice producti<strong>on</strong><br />
should be increased by 30% by 2025 in<br />
order to cater for the world’s growing<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. Am<strong>on</strong>g many other countries,<br />
Malaysia has not yet achieved selfsufficiency<br />
in food producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
SUSTAINABLE AND ORGANIC RICE<br />
FARMING IN MALAYSIA<br />
Organic rice farming in West Malaysia<br />
began in the early 1990’s under the guidance<br />
of a N<strong>on</strong>-Governmental Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
(NGO), working with small holder farmers<br />
<strong>on</strong> rice storage in the state of Selangor. They<br />
found that the system was not sustainable<br />
due to a number of factors, such as poor<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> technology support, marketing<br />
issues, certificati<strong>on</strong>, and farmers’<br />
commitment. In 1999, Kahang Organic Rice<br />
Eco Farm (KOREF) pi<strong>on</strong>eered the organic<br />
method of rice farming practice in West<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
Malaysia. Other locati<strong>on</strong>s that fully<br />
integrated sustainable paddy fields were in<br />
Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g, Sabak Bernam,<br />
Ledang and Bario (Sarawak).<br />
According to the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Green<br />
Technology Policy Malaysia, effective<br />
promoti<strong>on</strong> and public awareness are two of<br />
the main factors that would affect the<br />
success of sustainable development through<br />
the green technology agenda (Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Green Technology Policy 2009, Malaysia,<br />
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and<br />
Water). This is particularly significant as<br />
such adopti<strong>on</strong> requires a change of mindset<br />
of the public through various approaches,<br />
including effective educati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> disseminati<strong>on</strong> to increase public<br />
awareness of sustainable agriculture and <strong>on</strong><br />
ways to c<strong>on</strong>serve the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Mustafa<br />
and Mohd Jani (1995) stated that greater<br />
public awareness about envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> and depleti<strong>on</strong> of resources can help<br />
Malaysia to develop sustainable agriculture.<br />
More intensive m<strong>on</strong>itoring and investigating<br />
agricultural practices would enable Malaysia<br />
to achieve sustainability in agriculture<br />
(Murad et. al., 2008).<br />
There have been many strategies to<br />
increase producti<strong>on</strong> in the sustainable<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts; such as creati<strong>on</strong> of paddy estate,<br />
Malaysia Organic Scheme (Skim Organic<br />
Malaysia - SOM) and Malaysia Good<br />
Plantati<strong>on</strong> Resources Practices System<br />
(Sistem Amalan Ladang Baik Malaysia -<br />
SLAM) certificate, good agriculture<br />
practices and promoting organic farming in<br />
Malaysia. However, there are very limited<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> is available <strong>on</strong> organic paddy<br />
farming using the SRI specifically in<br />
Malaysia.<br />
The Department of Agriculture<br />
(DOA) is the agency under the Malaysian<br />
Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based<br />
Industry involved in activities related to<br />
quality and productivity of crops. This<br />
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department introduced the SOM to promote<br />
sustainable development. SOM is a<br />
certificati<strong>on</strong> programme to recognize farms<br />
which cultivate crops organically according<br />
to the criteria and requirement described in<br />
the scheme. The standard is based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Malaysian Standard, MS 1529: 2001. In the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text of paddy farming, KOREF and Sri<br />
Lovely Farm are the two certified organic<br />
farms in Malaysia.<br />
METHODOLOGY<br />
This study employed a qualitative research<br />
using the observati<strong>on</strong> and interview<br />
approaches. The observati<strong>on</strong>s and interviews<br />
were carried out at Sik, Kedah and Bandar<br />
Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g, Kelantan during 23 July 2009<br />
until 14 September 2013. Some of the<br />
interviews, by the interviewees who<br />
allowed, were recorded by videotaping.<br />
However, all the interview answers were<br />
written down by the researcher in notebook.<br />
Also, the ph<strong>on</strong>e calls were used to obtain<br />
further informati<strong>on</strong> from the resp<strong>on</strong>dents.<br />
The selected resp<strong>on</strong>dents were the farmers<br />
of different levels including supervisor and<br />
managing director. One of the resp<strong>on</strong>dents’<br />
philosophies was stated as “the farming<br />
ought to safeguard the eco-system bestowed<br />
by God.”<br />
The first locati<strong>on</strong> of this field study<br />
was Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g in Kelantan<br />
owned by the Sunnah Tani Sdn. Bhd. It was<br />
started as a pilot project in May 2009 with 8<br />
hectares of land at Kampung Tunj<strong>on</strong>g in<br />
Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g by adopting the SRI<br />
method as its paddy farming practice.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d locati<strong>on</strong> of this field<br />
study was at the Sik area in Kedah owned by<br />
the Koperasi Agro Belantik Berhad (a local<br />
cooperative organizati<strong>on</strong>). The project was<br />
aimed to enhance the income of the local<br />
people through the development of vacant<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
land. This project was kicked off <strong>on</strong><br />
December 24, 2009 using 32 hectares of<br />
land of Kampung Lintang, Kampung<br />
Kubang, Kampung Surau, Kampung Pinang,<br />
Kampung Bukit Batu, Kampung Belantik<br />
Dalam and Kampung Belantik Luar. The<br />
interviews were c<strong>on</strong>ducted with the<br />
managing director (Farmer 1) and his two<br />
assistants (Farmer 2 and Farmer 3).<br />
The main questi<strong>on</strong>s asked during the<br />
interviews were related to the steps involved<br />
in paddy farming practices including land<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong>, seed selecti<strong>on</strong>, water<br />
management, fertilizer use, weed, pest and<br />
disease c<strong>on</strong>trol, and harvesting. Data related<br />
to paddy farming, mainly in sustainable<br />
practices were compared and analyzed the<br />
adapti<strong>on</strong> criteria of SOM. It is a standard<br />
that sets out the requirements for the<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>, the labeling and claims for<br />
organically produced foods. The<br />
requirements cover all stages of producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
including farm operati<strong>on</strong>s, preparati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
storage, transport, and labeling. Further<br />
details are explained below:<br />
i. Land and soil management<br />
■ Farms shall take reas<strong>on</strong>able and<br />
appropriate measures to minimize loss of<br />
topsoil through minimal tillage, c<strong>on</strong>tour<br />
plowing, crop selecti<strong>on</strong>, maintenance of<br />
cover crops and other management practices<br />
that c<strong>on</strong>serve soil.<br />
■ Land clearing and preparati<strong>on</strong> through<br />
burning vegetati<strong>on</strong>, e.g. slash and burn, shall<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly be allowed and restricted to the<br />
minimum when other measures are not<br />
feasible.<br />
■ Burning of crop residues, e.g. straw<br />
burning is prohibited except in case of need<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>trol a serious insect or disease<br />
infestati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
■ The fertility and biological activity of the<br />
soil should be maintained or increased,<br />
using appropriate methods by a) cultivati<strong>on</strong><br />
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of legumes, green manures or deep-rooting<br />
plants in an appropriate multi-annual<br />
rotati<strong>on</strong> programme, b) incorporati<strong>on</strong> in the<br />
soil of organic material, composted or not,<br />
from holdings produced in accordance with<br />
this standard.<br />
.<br />
ii. Water management<br />
■ Operators shall take reas<strong>on</strong>able and<br />
appropriate measures to prevent excessive<br />
and improper use of water.<br />
■ Operators shall take reas<strong>on</strong>able and<br />
appropriate measures to prevent the<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> of ground and surface water.<br />
■ Organic handlers shall install systems that<br />
permit the resp<strong>on</strong>sible use and recycling of<br />
water without polluti<strong>on</strong> or c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
either by chemicals, or by animal or human<br />
pathogens.<br />
■ Untreated sewage water is prohibited for<br />
use.<br />
iii. Seeds and planting material<br />
■ Use of genetically modified organisms<br />
(GMOs) and products thereof is prohibited<br />
in all aspects of organic producti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
handling without excepti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
■ Seeds and vegetative reproductive<br />
material should be from plants grown in<br />
accordance with the provisi<strong>on</strong>s of this<br />
standard for at least <strong>on</strong>e generati<strong>on</strong> or in the<br />
case of perennial crops, two growing<br />
seas<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
■ Use of c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al seed and planting<br />
material is <strong>on</strong>ly allowed where there is no<br />
organic seed or propagati<strong>on</strong> material of the<br />
appropriate sort available.<br />
■ Seeds and propagati<strong>on</strong> material shall not<br />
be treated with prohibited substances.<br />
Excepti<strong>on</strong>s should be allowed where there is<br />
no untreated seed or propagati<strong>on</strong> material of<br />
the appropriate sort available.<br />
■ Where varieties protected under the Plant<br />
Variety Protecti<strong>on</strong> Act are used, the farm<br />
shall respect intellectual property rights<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
iv. Fertility management<br />
■ Crop producti<strong>on</strong> systems shall return<br />
nutrients, organic matter and other resources<br />
removed from the soil through harvesting by<br />
recycling, regenerati<strong>on</strong> and additi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
organic matter and nutrients with respect to<br />
the nutrient requirement of crops and the<br />
nutrient balance of the soil.<br />
■ Operators shall plan their fertility<br />
management to maximize the use of plant<br />
and animal organic matter produced within<br />
the farm and minimized the use of broughtin<br />
organic materials or mineral fertilizers.<br />
■ Where applicable, in annual crop<br />
producti<strong>on</strong>, an appropriate green manure<br />
crop shall be included in the crop rotati<strong>on</strong><br />
plan to maintain organic matter c<strong>on</strong>tent and<br />
soil fertility.<br />
■ Organic materials and mineral fertilizers<br />
shall not be used if their producti<strong>on</strong> and use<br />
have an unacceptable impact <strong>on</strong> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
■ Allowance <strong>on</strong> the maximum amount of<br />
brought-in organic materials and mineral<br />
fertilizers used in the farm shall be<br />
established <strong>on</strong> a case by case basis taking<br />
into account local c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and the nature<br />
of the crop.<br />
■ Imported microbial inoculums used for<br />
enhancing soil fertility shall undergo<br />
quarantine procedures before use.<br />
v. Soil c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>ers and fertilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
material<br />
■ The permitted organic materials and<br />
mineral fertilizers are listed in SOM.<br />
■ Use of organic material (plant and animal)<br />
from c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al systems should be<br />
allowed where there is no organic material<br />
from organic systems available.<br />
■ Organic industrial by-products should be<br />
allowed if they are not c<strong>on</strong>taminated with<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-permitted substances or other<br />
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c<strong>on</strong>taminants exceeding applicable health<br />
and sanitary regulati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
■ Animal manures shall not be used directly<br />
<strong>on</strong> food crops, unless they have been<br />
composted or measures are taken to prevent<br />
risk of c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> exceeding applicable<br />
health and sanitary regulati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
■ Use of human and pig excrement is<br />
prohibited.<br />
■ Poultry manure from battery producti<strong>on</strong><br />
systems should be allowed if manure from<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-battery based producti<strong>on</strong> systems (e.g.<br />
free range) is not available.<br />
■ Use of trace elements should <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
allowed as supplements and <strong>on</strong>ly where<br />
exhaustive measures to maximize the use of<br />
plant and animal organic matter produced<br />
within the farm as well as brought-in<br />
organic materials have been taken.<br />
vi. Preventi<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>trol of pests,<br />
diseases and weeds<br />
■ Pests, diseases and weeds shall be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled by cultural, mechanical, physical<br />
and biological methods.<br />
■ Use of inputs for pest, disease, weed<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol and plastic mulch material shall be<br />
allowed <strong>on</strong>ly where cultural, biological and<br />
mechanical measures are ineffective under<br />
the producti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> in questi<strong>on</strong>. Spent<br />
plastic mulch material shall be disposed<br />
properly and not ploughed back into the soil.<br />
■ Use of plant waste material from<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al systems shall be allowed for<br />
mulching where there is no plant material<br />
from organic systems of the appropriate sort<br />
available. e.g.: paddy straw, grasses, oil<br />
palm leaves etc. Where the substances are<br />
restricted, the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of use as set by the<br />
certificati<strong>on</strong> body shall be strictly adhered<br />
by the farm.<br />
■ All substances used for pest c<strong>on</strong>trol shall<br />
comply with the relevant nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
regulati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
■ Farms shall use the approved substances<br />
with care and abide with their c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
use, so as to avoid altering the ecosystem of<br />
the soil and farm.<br />
vii. Harvest<br />
■ The crop must be harvested at proper<br />
maturity.<br />
■ Waste from handling shall be managed so<br />
as to have minimum effect <strong>on</strong> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Where appropriate, organic<br />
waste shall be used for nutrient recycling in<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> fields<br />
DATA ANALYSIS<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>al and computer-based qualitative<br />
methodologies were used to analyze the data<br />
for emerging themes and to compare and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trast the observati<strong>on</strong> obtains from the<br />
participants. The data from video-tapes<br />
(interview) and written notes were also<br />
transcribed. All the data were first reviewed<br />
and coded. The <strong>on</strong>ly data related to<br />
understanding and identifying organic paddy<br />
farming practices were used in the analysis<br />
of this study. Then, the data were<br />
categorized. The primary analysis helped the<br />
researcher to focus <strong>on</strong> the data that could be<br />
used to understand SRI management<br />
practices. The data analysis revealed that the<br />
process of understanding and identifying<br />
organic paddy farming practices presented<br />
three major areas: (1) sustainability<br />
characteristics, (2) sustainable paddy<br />
farming practices; and (3) challenges in<br />
sustainable farming. Lastly, the text and<br />
visualizati<strong>on</strong> data were validated by an<br />
expert reviewer.<br />
FINDING AND DISCUSSION<br />
Data related to paddy farming from the two<br />
locati<strong>on</strong>s were compared and analyzed<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the principles stated in the SOM.<br />
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Both similarities and differences (though the<br />
differences were minor and limited to the<br />
days of treatment <strong>on</strong>ly) were found in the<br />
practice of paddy farming in the two<br />
selected locati<strong>on</strong>s. The findings are divided<br />
in to three main areas (Sustainability<br />
characteristics, Sustainable paddy farming<br />
practices and Challenges in Sustainable<br />
Farming) and illustrated in Figure 1 as a<br />
proposed model.<br />
Sustainability characteristics<br />
The characteristics of sustainability in<br />
practical paddy farming as observed in Sik<br />
and Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g were: (1)<br />
balancing the ecosystem; (2) input from<br />
sustainable resources; (3) no chemical or<br />
synthetic fertiliser and pesticide used; and<br />
(4) natural c<strong>on</strong>trol of pests, diseases and<br />
weeds (Othman, 2012).<br />
The first is balancing the farm<br />
ecosystem. The farmers from both farms-Sik<br />
and Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g agreed that the<br />
farm should observe a natural c<strong>on</strong>trol to<br />
create balance in the ecosystem. This is<br />
evident in the statements from Farmer 4 and<br />
5 as recorded in the interview sessi<strong>on</strong>:<br />
“The ecosystem is complete, let’s look at<br />
this farm, we see it complete. There are<br />
living things. There is an eel (fish) ... There<br />
must be life. Then there is growth…and<br />
the paddy will grow well”, -(Farmer<br />
5, pers<strong>on</strong>al communicati<strong>on</strong>, July 23, 2009).<br />
This feature is also evident in the<br />
availability of living creatures such as fish,<br />
eel sand shrimp in the paddy fields.<br />
Sustainable paddy farming practices<br />
Overall, there are eight major steps in<br />
sustainable paddy farming practices at the<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
two locati<strong>on</strong>s of this study (Othman, 2012).<br />
These are listed below.<br />
a) Land preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
Sik and Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g farms recycle<br />
the rice straws by incorporating them into<br />
the soil during the preparati<strong>on</strong> of the land.<br />
They apply <strong>on</strong>e or two rounds of dry<br />
ploughing and two times wet ploughing by<br />
tractors. However, they had preferred less or<br />
no tilling of land.<br />
Initially, the soil was ploughed by<br />
tractor. Subsequently, water was let to enter<br />
in to help in the decay of grass, rice straw<br />
and stubble. After two days, drains were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>structed <strong>on</strong> the edge of a paddy plot, so<br />
that the paddy field rice was always flooded<br />
and the soils moisten. Then, the soil was<br />
flattened with a flattening tool called a<br />
‘ruler’ or pembaris. After that a ‘distance<br />
tool’ or penjarak was used, which<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ed as a means of determining the<br />
distances between the seedings to be<br />
planted.<br />
b) Seeds<br />
Planting begins with soil treatment. In this<br />
trial project, five to seven t<strong>on</strong>nes of organic<br />
fertiliser were placed into the soil a week<br />
before planting was carried out. It began<br />
with the selecti<strong>on</strong> of high quality seeds. The<br />
seed selecti<strong>on</strong> procedure at Bandar Baru<br />
Tunj<strong>on</strong>g was similar to Sik. Then, the seeds<br />
were planted at the nursery. After that, they<br />
were transplanted to the paddy field<br />
manually. The method required time and a<br />
bountiful workforce in comparis<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
direct scattering technique or through the<br />
use of machine transplanting. The farmers<br />
planted paddy twice a year, <strong>on</strong>ce in the main<br />
seas<strong>on</strong> and <strong>on</strong>ce in the off seas<strong>on</strong>. All the<br />
farmers in the two selected study areas used<br />
high quality seeds obtained from the<br />
MARDI. The farmers from Bandar Baru<br />
Tunj<strong>on</strong>g used the SRI method in which the<br />
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seedlings were widely spaced (25cmx25cm),<br />
while farmers at Sik used more widely space<br />
(35cmx35cm) to plant a paddy.<br />
c) Water management<br />
The efficiency of irrigati<strong>on</strong> is necessary for<br />
high yields. However, the organic method<br />
(SRI) uses less water compared to the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al farming method. The farm in<br />
Sik obtained its supply of water from<br />
surrounding rivers.Water at Bandar Baru<br />
Tunj<strong>on</strong>g was obtained from the nearby river<br />
through drain. Water was drained into a<br />
nearby pool of water and allowed to stagnate<br />
and drained to the paddy field when it was<br />
required.<br />
d) Fertilizers<br />
The farmers of Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g and<br />
Sik applied <strong>on</strong>ly compost, organic fertilizers<br />
and natural minerals.Organic fertiliser was<br />
self-made by the farmers themselves. Local<br />
Micro-organism (MOL) was used as the<br />
main comp<strong>on</strong>ent for the fertilizer. This<br />
MOL can be used as an activator in the<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> of compost. Other than being<br />
used as compost, it was mixed with water<br />
and sprayed directly to the soil. This was<br />
d<strong>on</strong>e for the purpose of fertilizing the soil<br />
and increasing the nutrients. Self-made<br />
fertilizer can reduce the cost of producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
apart from preserving the sources.<br />
According to <strong>on</strong>e farmer, the main<br />
(mother) fertiliser is made from tender<br />
bamboo shoots or the soft base of the banana<br />
tree stump. All these were crushed and<br />
mixed with sugar which c<strong>on</strong>tributed to a<br />
type of fertiliser. Following this, the<br />
materials were soaked with water for up to<br />
day 14 days. Later, <strong>on</strong>e litre of this fertiliser<br />
was added to 10 litres of water (25 litres can<br />
be used for <strong>on</strong>e acre of the land area). The<br />
similar method was used to produce other<br />
types of fertilisers by mixing animal dung<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
with paddy straw, tree leaves and limes<br />
which were left to soak for a durati<strong>on</strong> of 14<br />
days.<br />
e) Weed c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Basically, the Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g and Sik<br />
farmers c<strong>on</strong>trol the weeds manually and by<br />
rotary weeding. The c<strong>on</strong>trol of weedy rice<br />
needs to be carried out directly right after<br />
the harvesting seas<strong>on</strong>.The porcupine is an<br />
equipment to plough the soil and discard<br />
grass at Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g. It also<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s as a tool to loosen the soil. This<br />
method of discarding the grass is employed<br />
from the time when the paddy seedlings<br />
were 10- 40 days old.<br />
f) Pest and disease c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g and Sik farmers<br />
adopted an ecological system with<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> of natural predators, and IPM<br />
practices to c<strong>on</strong>trol pests and diseases. The<br />
IPM practices included biological pest<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol, proper cultivati<strong>on</strong> methods,<br />
effective applicati<strong>on</strong> of pesticides and<br />
mechanical traps. Some of the biological<br />
practices implemented by the Department<br />
include integrated fish rearing, integrated<br />
Muscovy duck rearing, and rat c<strong>on</strong>trolled by<br />
Tyto Alba bird, a type of owl.<br />
g) Harvest<br />
Paddy was ready for harvesting in 105-125<br />
days, and all the farmers in the two selected<br />
areas of this study used the harvester<br />
machine for harvesting.<br />
In summary, both the similarities and<br />
differences were found in the practice of<br />
paddy farming in the two study locati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
which were also reported earlier (Othman et.<br />
al., 2010). A comparative summary <strong>on</strong> the<br />
organic paddy farming, using the SRI, in<br />
two different farms are shown in Table 1<br />
and Table 2.<br />
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Table 1: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at Sik<br />
Method of SRI farming (Sik)<br />
Day (D) Note Activity<br />
D1- D14<br />
Ploughing by tractor<br />
D10<br />
Release water into the paddy field<br />
Preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
D11<br />
Ploughing by small tractor<br />
of soil / land<br />
D13<br />
Third cycle, making lanes<br />
D14<br />
Scattering of organic fertilizer<br />
D16 Planting Soak seeds for planting<br />
Day After<br />
Planting Note Activity<br />
(DAP)<br />
DAP 5 - 8 Planting Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy<br />
fields<br />
DAP 90 Water<br />
management<br />
Drain out the water<br />
DAP 110 -115 Harvest Harvesting<br />
Note: Weeding is carried out as much as four times from the 10 th to the 40 th day.<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
Table 2: Summary of Paddy Farming using Organic (SRI) Method by Day at BBT<br />
Method of SRI farming (BBT: Bandar Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g)<br />
Day (D) Note Activity<br />
D1- D14 Preparati<strong>on</strong> Ploughing by tractor<br />
D10<br />
of soil / land Release water into the paddy field<br />
D11<br />
Ploughing by small tractor (kabota)<br />
D13<br />
Third cycle, making lanes<br />
D14<br />
Scattering of organic fertilizer<br />
D24 Planting Soak seeds for planting<br />
Day After<br />
Planting Note Activity<br />
(DAP)<br />
DAP 8 - 12 Planting Paddy seedlings are transferred to the paddy<br />
fields<br />
DAP 90 Water Drain out the water<br />
management<br />
DAP 110 - Harvest Harvesting<br />
115<br />
Note: 1. Organic fertilizer is put into the soil <strong>on</strong>e week before planting; 2. Weeding<br />
is carried out as much as four times from the 10 th to the 40 th day.<br />
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Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
Challenges in sustainable farming<br />
This study also showed that there were three<br />
challenges in implementing sustainable<br />
paddy farming. These were: awareness and<br />
early educati<strong>on</strong> in sustainable paddy<br />
farming, management transiti<strong>on</strong>, and high<br />
work commitment as shown in Figure 1.<br />
These are further explained below.<br />
Awareness and educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Awareness and early educati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
sustainable paddy farming is vital. It is<br />
hoped that innovati<strong>on</strong>s through ICT would<br />
provide meaningful c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
During this study, it was found that<br />
most paddy farmers were lacking in<br />
awareness and educati<strong>on</strong> regarding organic<br />
farming practices. Therefore it is pertinent<br />
that farmers and youth could be educated <strong>on</strong><br />
the immense benefits of sustainable<br />
practices in paddy farming.<br />
According to Mustapha and Mohd<br />
Jani (1995), agricultural projects must<br />
prioritize social interest and l<strong>on</strong>g-term<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic goals rather than short-term<br />
interests by implementing programmes that<br />
minimizes the destructi<strong>on</strong> of resource.<br />
Nevertheless, any attempt to make the<br />
society aware requires the interventi<strong>on</strong> from<br />
the government because of two factors.<br />
Firstly, the policy formulati<strong>on</strong> which<br />
supports sustainable agricultural<br />
development and sec<strong>on</strong>dly, government<br />
interventi<strong>on</strong> in implementing laws relating<br />
to the maintenance and c<strong>on</strong>trol of agriculture<br />
resource utilizati<strong>on</strong>. Therefore, a<br />
government policy which supports<br />
agricultural development that takes into<br />
account sustainability factors is the<br />
prerequisite that determines the success or<br />
failure of a sustainable agricultural<br />
development programme.<br />
Management transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The next challenge is management transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
from c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al farming to organic<br />
farming. In reality, there are several<br />
challenges in the current implementati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
rice management, am<strong>on</strong>g them are:<br />
i. Unsatisfactory outcome<br />
Most farmers are categorized under<br />
low incomes. A study c<strong>on</strong>ducted in<br />
1990 showed that 60 percent of the<br />
household or rice field employees<br />
were either poor or extremely poor.<br />
After 10 years, however research<br />
showed farmer’s poverty rate had<br />
reduced to 40 percent.<br />
The income of rice farmers is<br />
low due to the unec<strong>on</strong>omical size of<br />
the fields which is mainly unprofita-<br />
Sustainable characteristic<br />
1. Balancing ecosystem<br />
2. Input from sustainable<br />
resources<br />
3. No chemical or synthetic<br />
fertiliser and pesticide<br />
4. Natural c<strong>on</strong>trol (pest,<br />
disease and weed)<br />
Sustainable Paddy Farming<br />
Practices<br />
1. Land preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
2. Seeds preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
3. Water management<br />
4. Fertilizers<br />
5. C<strong>on</strong>trol (weed, pest and disease)<br />
6. Harvest<br />
Challenges<br />
1. Awareness and educati<strong>on</strong><br />
2. Management transiti<strong>on</strong><br />
3. High work commitment<br />
Figure 1: The proposed model describing the key areas of sustainable and organic paddy<br />
farming practices.<br />
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Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
ii.<br />
iii.<br />
iv.<br />
-ble. The majority of farmers<br />
acquired the fields through<br />
inheritance, and poverty forces most<br />
farmers to find other jobs to increase<br />
their income. Thus, most small scale<br />
rice farmers with low income make<br />
paddy farming as their part time<br />
jobs.<br />
This opini<strong>on</strong> is supported by<br />
MADA (2005) whereby many low<br />
income rice farmers face financial<br />
difficulty and need loans to support<br />
the family. Unfortunately, loans<br />
become a burden and three quarter of<br />
MADA farmers are classified as<br />
debtors.<br />
Demand exceeds producti<strong>on</strong><br />
Rice producti<strong>on</strong> in Malaysia is<br />
insufficient to cater to the country’s<br />
needs, and around 30% of rice is<br />
imported from Thailand and<br />
Vietnam. According to MADA, <strong>on</strong><br />
average, paddy producti<strong>on</strong> yield in<br />
Malaysia is 4.2 t<strong>on</strong>nes per hectare<br />
per seas<strong>on</strong> (MADA, 2009), which is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered low. Thus, the country<br />
cannot meet its own demand.<br />
High producti<strong>on</strong> cost<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> cost of rice in Malaysia is<br />
high and this has compelled the<br />
government to intervene by offering<br />
incentives. Accordingly if the<br />
various types of input given by the<br />
government in the form of subsidies,<br />
such as seed, fertilizer and price<br />
subsidies, were to be taken away, it<br />
would be difficult to attract a pers<strong>on</strong><br />
to venture into rice agriculture.<br />
Labor shortage<br />
The rice farming sector in Malaysia<br />
faces a problem of labor shortage.<br />
The youth are keen to migrate to the<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
cities and work in the manufacturing<br />
and other sectors than growing rice.<br />
Therefore, the present Malaysian rice<br />
farmers’ average age has actually<br />
exceeded retirement age. Due to old<br />
age and low income, they work <strong>on</strong><br />
their rice fields just to fulfill their<br />
basic daily needs.<br />
v. Incomplete infrastructure, water<br />
shortage<br />
Lack of infrastructure and weak<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong> system are also the main<br />
problems faced by many rice farmers<br />
in Malaysia.<br />
High work commitment<br />
Organic paddy farming requires a high<br />
commitment from farmers. This is supported<br />
by informati<strong>on</strong> extracted from an interview<br />
with an organic farmer who believes that<br />
farming organically require sacrifice and<br />
patience.<br />
“To ensure that this (pointing to his<br />
paddy field) is good, more sacrifice is<br />
required. It requires wisdom. By doing this,<br />
the outcome is better. - (Farmer 4, pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>, July 23, 2009).<br />
Farmers who c<strong>on</strong>sider organic rice<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong> as a part-time job will not be able<br />
to run it effectively. This is because waste<br />
from agricultural products need to be<br />
recycled, for example it should be turned<br />
into compost. Apart from that, pest, disease<br />
and weed c<strong>on</strong>trol should be d<strong>on</strong>e naturally.<br />
This will be difficult if the farm<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment is damaged or polluted.<br />
According to organic farmers in Bandar<br />
Baru Tunj<strong>on</strong>g, they face envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
problems and an in balanced ecosystem<br />
because of l<strong>on</strong>g term usage of chemical<br />
fertilizer.<br />
Ismail (2006) also agrees that the<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong> from c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al to organic<br />
farming requires a high level of<br />
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Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
commitment. According to him, this<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> is a difficult move because the<br />
positive impact, if there is any, can <strong>on</strong>ly be<br />
gained in the l<strong>on</strong>g term.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
SRI is an innovative system for the organic<br />
agricultural practices aimed at preserving<br />
the nature and envir<strong>on</strong>ment. SRI is also a<br />
methodology in organic paddy farming<br />
practices. Our study outcome suggests that<br />
for a sustainable organic paddy farming the<br />
proposed model, as shown in Figure 1, the 3<br />
key areas are: 1) sustainability<br />
characteristics; 2) sustainable paddy farming<br />
practices; and 3) challenges in sustainable<br />
farming. This study made a significant<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> in the agricultural sector, in line<br />
with the objective of Agro Makanan Policies<br />
(2011-2020) which is to guarantee adequate<br />
and safe supply of food for c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
However, other factors such as good<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>s (Bagheri et. al, 2008);<br />
interactive and cooperati<strong>on</strong> between farmer;<br />
government, research instituti<strong>on</strong>; and the<br />
role of the policy-maker are important<br />
factors in achieving sustainable agriculture<br />
(Murad et al, 2008; Sharghi et al, 2010).<br />
More research is required <strong>on</strong> the sustainable<br />
agriculture and organic farming in Malaysia<br />
for the better understanding and addressing<br />
the issues.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />
The authors would like to express their<br />
gratitude to Captain Zakaria Kamantasha,<br />
Managing Director of Sri Lovely Farm, Sik,<br />
Kedah for extending his cooperati<strong>on</strong> to write<br />
this paper.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
Bagheri, A., Fami, H. S., Rezvanfar, A.,<br />
Asadi, A., and Yazdani, S. (2008).<br />
Percepti<strong>on</strong>s of Paddy Farmers towards<br />
Sustainable Agricultural Technologies:<br />
Case of Haraz Catchments Area in<br />
Mazandaran province of Iran.<br />
American Journal of Applied Sciences,<br />
5(10), 1384-1391. doi:<br />
10.3844/ajassp.2008.1384.139.<br />
Ismail, M. R. (2006). Pertanian Lestari.<br />
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan<br />
Pustaka. (p.35)<br />
Murad, M. W., Mustapha, N. H. N., and<br />
Siwar, C. (2008). Review of<br />
Malaysian Agricultural Policies with<br />
Regards to Sustainability. American<br />
Journal of Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Sciences,<br />
4(6), 608-614.<br />
Mustapha, N. H. and Mohd Jani, M. F.<br />
(1995). Pembangunan Pertanian<br />
Lestari.Selangor:Penerbit UKM. (p.25)<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Green Technology Policy (2009).<br />
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology<br />
and Water, Malaysia.<br />
Othman, Z., Muhammad, A. and Abu<br />
Bakar, M. A. (2010). A Sustainable<br />
Paddy Farming Practice in West<br />
Malaysia.The Internati<strong>on</strong>al Journal of<br />
Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 5(2),<br />
425-438.<br />
Othman, S. N., Othman, Z. and Yaacob,<br />
N. A. (2016). The Value Chain of<br />
System of Rice Intensificati<strong>on</strong> (SRI)<br />
Organic Rice of Rural Farms in<br />
Kedah. Internati<strong>on</strong>al Journal of<br />
Supply Chain Management, 5(3), 111-<br />
120.<br />
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Sustainable Agriculture through Organic Farming<br />
Othman, Z. and Muhammad, A. (2011).<br />
Design strategies to persuasive<br />
learning for promoting sustainable<br />
practices in paddy farming. American<br />
Journal of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics and Business<br />
Administrati<strong>on</strong>, 3(1), 197-202.<br />
Sharghi, T., Sedighi, H., and Eftekhari,<br />
A. R. (2010). Effective Factors in<br />
Achieving<br />
Sustainable<br />
Agriculture.American Journal of<br />
Agricultural and Biological Sciences,<br />
Othman and Hasan<br />
5(2), 235-241. doi:<br />
10.3844/ajabssp.2010.235.24.<br />
Uphoff, N. (2006). The System of Rice<br />
Intensificati<strong>on</strong> (SRI) as a Methodology<br />
for Reducing Water Requirements in<br />
Irrigated Rice Producti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al Dialogue <strong>on</strong> Rice and<br />
Water: Exploring Opti<strong>on</strong>s for Food<br />
Security and Sustainable<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ments, Philippines, March 7-8,<br />
2006.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development <str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P51-59<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Legislati<strong>on</strong>s in Malaysia: A<br />
Protecti<strong>on</strong> to Public Health<br />
Haslinda Mohd Anuar<br />
School of Law, College of Law, Government and Internati<strong>on</strong>al Studies (COLGIS), Universiti<br />
Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +6 04-9288106; Email: haslinda@uum.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The importance between human and envir<strong>on</strong>ment was first recognized by Stockholm Declarati<strong>on</strong><br />
in 1972. This interdependent was further developed by Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1992 whereby the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept of sustainable development was widely introduced. Although the main theme was<br />
‘development’, Principle 1 of the Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong> proclaims that ‘Human beings are at the<br />
centre of c<strong>on</strong>cerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life<br />
in harm<strong>on</strong>y with nature’. Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1992 was further strengthened with Rio +20 in 2012<br />
whereby more agenda have been defined ‘to a safer, more equitable, cleaner, greener and more<br />
prosperous world for all’. In Malaysia, various legislati<strong>on</strong>s and nati<strong>on</strong>al policies have been<br />
implemented to achieve sustainable development including with enactment of Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
Quality Act 1974; Dasar Alam Sekitar Negara; and Dasar Perubahan Iklim Negara as the basis<br />
of envir<strong>on</strong>mental management. However, there are more than forty envir<strong>on</strong>mental related<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong>s been enforced by various government agencies in Malaysia. Furthermore, in 2013,<br />
during the Third Ministerial Regi<strong>on</strong>al Forum <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health in South East and East<br />
Asian Countries held in Kuala Lumpur member countries agreed to cooperate to develop and<br />
implement Nati<strong>on</strong>al Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Health Acti<strong>on</strong> Plans (NEHAP) that aims ‘to put sustainable<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment and health at the centre of development, and that will result in sustainability and<br />
improvements in envir<strong>on</strong>mental quality, and enhancement of public health, and ensure the health<br />
of the future generati<strong>on</strong>s in the regi<strong>on</strong>’. This chapter will discuss primarily the development of<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental legislati<strong>on</strong>s including the nati<strong>on</strong>al policies in Malaysia which aim to protect the<br />
public health.<br />
Keywords: Envir<strong>on</strong>ment; health; legislati<strong>on</strong>; policy.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Clean air, clean water, fertile soil and<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing ecosystems are the integral part<br />
of human survival and well-being, and it<br />
was argued by many scholars that these<br />
elements should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as part of<br />
rights to life and health (Boyd, 2011;<br />
Weissbrodt, 2007; Dowdeswell, 1994).<br />
According to the World Health<br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>, approximately <strong>on</strong>e-quarter of<br />
the entire burden of disease globally is<br />
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attributable to envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk factors (A.<br />
Pruss-Ustun, 2006). Human activity is the<br />
major threat to envir<strong>on</strong>ment and every<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of the envir<strong>on</strong>ment is c<strong>on</strong>stantly<br />
threatened due to destructi<strong>on</strong> of natural<br />
resources due to increasing human demand<br />
and development activities. In this situati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
laws are essential in guiding enforcement<br />
efforts and in the formulati<strong>on</strong> of subsequent<br />
policies in carrying out envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
requirements (Rahman, 2010).<br />
Malaysia faces numerous diverse<br />
range of envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues and problems.<br />
There are: air polluti<strong>on</strong>; water polluti<strong>on</strong>;<br />
sound and noise polluti<strong>on</strong>; agro-chemical<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>; degradati<strong>on</strong> of ground water level;<br />
filling of lakes abd water bodies; acid rain;<br />
deforestai<strong>on</strong>; soil polluti<strong>on</strong>; land<br />
degradati<strong>on</strong>; biodiversity degradati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
global warming; terrorist activities; politics<br />
and political parties; corrupti<strong>on</strong>s in<br />
adminstrati<strong>on</strong>; solid waste management;<br />
unplanned urbanisati<strong>on</strong>; hazardous waste;<br />
water crisis; disease outbreak; landslides and<br />
landslips; polythene use; and sectoral<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems (Mohammad,<br />
2011).<br />
This paper will give an overview <strong>on</strong><br />
right to live in healthy envir<strong>on</strong>ment or<br />
‘envir<strong>on</strong>mental rights’ with particularly<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental health. Various<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al instruments will be discussed<br />
including the Stockholm Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1972<br />
and the Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1992. At Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
level, the Articles in Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong><br />
and the Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Quality Act 1974<br />
will be examined accordingly. To further<br />
strengthen the laws by way of acti<strong>on</strong><br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Health Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan<br />
(NEHAP) was documented and<br />
implemented by the Ministry of Health. All<br />
these legislati<strong>on</strong>s are enforced to ensure that<br />
the sustainable development is achieved for<br />
a better standard of healthy living for<br />
present and future generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Mohd Anuar<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS<br />
ON ENVIRONMENTAL RIGHTS AND<br />
HEALTH<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al instruments<br />
The Universal Declarati<strong>on</strong> of Human Rights<br />
was adopted in 1948 by the General<br />
Assembly of the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s. Human<br />
rights are derived from the principle of<br />
Natural Law whereby ‘Human (pers<strong>on</strong>)<br />
possesses rights because of the very fact that<br />
it is a pers<strong>on</strong>, a whole, a master of itself and<br />
of its acts…by natural law, the human<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> has the right to be respected, is the<br />
subject of rights’ (Shradha Sinha, 2005).<br />
Asia Pacific Forum <strong>on</strong> Human<br />
Rights and the Envir<strong>on</strong>ment (2007) defined<br />
that envir<strong>on</strong>mental rights as right to<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment, a ‘right of the people to a<br />
healthful envir<strong>on</strong>ment’, a right to live in an<br />
‘envir<strong>on</strong>ment and surroundings which are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>dusive to health’, and a right to ‘use<br />
natural resources in accordance with<br />
customary traditi<strong>on</strong>s and practices which<br />
encourage community-based sustainable<br />
natural resource management’. According<br />
to Mukherjee (2002), ‘‘envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
rights’ have been defined as both individual<br />
and collective, both substantive and<br />
procedural’, and the c<strong>on</strong>tents of<br />
‘envir<strong>on</strong>mental rights’ have been ‘derived<br />
from the existing universally recognised<br />
rights, both with regard to substantive rights<br />
(such as the rights to life, health and<br />
privacy) and procedural rights (namely,<br />
access to informati<strong>on</strong> and due process of<br />
law)’. Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Science Dicti<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
defined the envir<strong>on</strong>mental rights as a right<br />
enjoyed by all members of society that<br />
people can live and work in healthy, safe<br />
and comfortable envir<strong>on</strong>ment. It also states<br />
that it includes the right to life and healthy,<br />
the right of property security and the right of<br />
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comfortable envir<strong>on</strong>ment for living and<br />
working.<br />
The words ‘clean’ and ‘healthy’<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment is interc<strong>on</strong>nected. It may be<br />
stated that a clean envir<strong>on</strong>ment is a human<br />
right; and health is a state of complete<br />
physical, mental and social well-being and<br />
not merely the absence of disease or<br />
infirmity. The scope of creating a healthy<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment is clealy not limited to<br />
hospitals and doctor’s surgeries, but includes<br />
the myraid factors that influence to health,<br />
agriculture and food, educati<strong>on</strong>, employment<br />
status, and working envirinment, water and<br />
sanitati<strong>on</strong>, and health care services<br />
(Mohammad, 2014).<br />
Stockholm Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1972 has<br />
recognized the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between human<br />
and development. Principle 1 of the<br />
Stockholm Declarati<strong>on</strong> declared that, ‘man<br />
has the fundamental right to freedom,<br />
equality and adequate c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> of life, in an<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment of quality that permits a life of<br />
dignity and well-being, and he bears a<br />
solemn resp<strong>on</strong>sibility to protect and improve<br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>ment for present and future<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s’. Stockholm Declarati<strong>on</strong> 1972<br />
referred to ‘an envir<strong>on</strong>ment of a quality that<br />
permits a life of dignity and well-being’.<br />
Then, the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s C<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
<strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Development 1992,<br />
known as the Earth Summit, produced Rio<br />
Declarati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Human Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and<br />
Development (the Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong>) that<br />
stressed the principle of sustainable<br />
development, that is, development that<br />
meets the developmental and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
needs of present and future generati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Principle 1 of the Rio Declarati<strong>on</strong> states that,<br />
“Human beings are at the centre of c<strong>on</strong>cerns<br />
for sustainable development. They are<br />
entitled to a healthy and productive life in<br />
harm<strong>on</strong>y with nature”.<br />
In 1994, the report of the UN Special<br />
Rapporteur <strong>on</strong> Human Rights and the<br />
Mohd Anuar<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment included the proposed right to<br />
secure, healthy and ecologically sound<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Since then, many countries<br />
have inserted the right to healthy<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment in their C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s (Boyd,<br />
2011). According to Law (2011), in total<br />
there are more than 100 countries that have<br />
recognized the right to live in a healthy<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment either explicitly or through<br />
judicial interpretati<strong>on</strong> of other provisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
These include Norway, Albania, Spain,<br />
Argentina, Jamaica, Mexico, Paraguay,<br />
Azerbaijan, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia, Thailand, Venezuela,<br />
Burundi, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa and<br />
many more.<br />
Besides the state c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>, there<br />
are also a number of regi<strong>on</strong>al agreements<br />
that explicitly recognized the right to a<br />
healthy envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
instruments are the African Charter <strong>on</strong><br />
Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Protocol to the American C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
Human Rights, the Arab Charter <strong>on</strong> Human<br />
Rights, and the Aarhus C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
Access to Informati<strong>on</strong>, Public Participati<strong>on</strong><br />
in Decisi<strong>on</strong>-Making and Access to Justice in<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Matters.<br />
Some internati<strong>on</strong>al courts and<br />
tribunals like the European Court of Human<br />
Rights (ECHR), the European Committee of<br />
Social Rights, the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Court of<br />
Justice (ICJ) and the Inter-American<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Human Rights have<br />
interpreted internati<strong>on</strong>al treaties and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s to include the right to a healthy<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. For example, ICJ in the case<br />
of Hungary v Slovakia opined that, ‘The<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> of the envir<strong>on</strong>ment is… a vital<br />
part of c<strong>on</strong>temporary human rights doctrine,<br />
for it is a sine qua n<strong>on</strong> for numerous human<br />
rights such as the right to health and the<br />
right to life itself…damage to the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment can impair and undermine all<br />
the rights spoken of in the Universal<br />
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Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Legislati<strong>on</strong>s in Malaysia<br />
Declarati<strong>on</strong> and other human rights<br />
instruments’.<br />
Malaysian legislati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
An ‘envir<strong>on</strong>mental right’ is not expressly<br />
provided for under Malaysian Federal<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> or any law. Fundamental<br />
liberties or human rights such as liberty of a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>, freedom of speech, freedom of<br />
movement and right to property are secured<br />
under the Malaysian Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and ‘envir<strong>on</strong>mental rights’ or right to a<br />
healthy envir<strong>on</strong>ment are yet to be explicitly<br />
included as <strong>on</strong>e of the c<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al rights.<br />
In Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya<br />
Perkhidmatan Pendidikan, Court of Appeal<br />
ruled that, ‘…the expressi<strong>on</strong> ‘life’ appearing<br />
in Article 5(1) does not refer to mere<br />
existence. It incorporates all those facets<br />
that are an integral part of life itself… it<br />
includes the right to live a reas<strong>on</strong>ably<br />
healthy and polluti<strong>on</strong> free envir<strong>on</strong>ment’.<br />
Similarly, in Ad<strong>on</strong>g bin Kuwau & Ors v<br />
Kerajaan Negeri Johor & Anor, the case was<br />
decided based <strong>on</strong> Article 13 of the Federal<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> which provides for right to<br />
property. The court although pr<strong>on</strong>ounced<br />
that the plaintiffs (the aborigines) have<br />
propriety rights over the Linggui valley and<br />
the defendants had deprived them the rights,<br />
failed to make any reference that such<br />
deprivati<strong>on</strong> was tantamount to denial to<br />
healthy and decent envir<strong>on</strong>ment to live for<br />
the aborigines. This is the effect of n<strong>on</strong>explicit<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the right to healthy<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment under the Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The Court of Appeal has interpreted the<br />
right to life broadly as extending bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
mere existence to the quality of life, and<br />
‘[including] the right to live in a reas<strong>on</strong>ably<br />
healthy and polluti<strong>on</strong> free envir<strong>on</strong>ment’.<br />
Although the Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong><br />
does not menti<strong>on</strong> about ‘envir<strong>on</strong>ment’ in<br />
any of its Article, the legislative lists in the<br />
Mohd Anuar<br />
Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tain all different<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the envir<strong>on</strong>ments. For<br />
example, matters of federal resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
include the development of mineral<br />
resources; pest c<strong>on</strong>trol; and many industrial<br />
and infrastructural activities. Matters of state<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility include land; agriculture and<br />
forestry; and state work and water. Matters<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>current list include public health; town<br />
and country planning; and drainage and<br />
irrigati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
There are moves to insert the right to<br />
healthy and clean envir<strong>on</strong>ment in the<br />
Federal C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>. The Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
Law Review Committee in 1992 was<br />
reported to make such recommendati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Ministry of Science, Technology and<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment, 1992), and in 1996 CAP-SAM<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference of the Envir<strong>on</strong>ment in<br />
Malaysia stated that, ‘Since envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> is crucial to ensure the survival<br />
of mankind and other living things, as had<br />
been acknowledged by world leaders during<br />
the Rio C<strong>on</strong>ference, it is timely that Part II<br />
of the C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong> which deals with<br />
fundamental liberties be amended to provide<br />
for the right to a clean and safe<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment’.<br />
The main envir<strong>on</strong>mental legislati<strong>on</strong><br />
in Malaysia is the Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Quality<br />
Act 1974. It covers a wide range of<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems such as air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>, noise polluti<strong>on</strong>, polluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> land,<br />
and polluti<strong>on</strong> of inland water. Besides that,<br />
there are other legislati<strong>on</strong>s enacted <strong>on</strong><br />
matters relating to the envir<strong>on</strong>ment such as<br />
Land C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> Act 1960, Wildlife Act<br />
1972, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Park Act 1980, Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Forestry Act 1984, and Fisheries Act 1985.<br />
The existence of these legislati<strong>on</strong>s indicates<br />
the importance of envir<strong>on</strong>mental protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and management in Malaysia.<br />
The Department of Envir<strong>on</strong>ment was<br />
created in 1975 under the Ministry of<br />
Science, Technology and the Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
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to manage and administer the envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
quality in Malaysia. As a federal agency, it<br />
does not appear to be full c<strong>on</strong>trol over<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental resources. As menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
earlier, matters relating to land, forest and<br />
water resources are under the jurisdicti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the state and enacted under different<br />
legislati<strong>on</strong>s, which are not under the charge<br />
of the Department of Envir<strong>on</strong>ment. For an<br />
effective envir<strong>on</strong>mental management and<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>, total cooperati<strong>on</strong> between<br />
the state and federal authorities are required.<br />
Some envir<strong>on</strong>mental initiatives have<br />
been made to achieve sustainable<br />
development. Malaysian Plan provides a<br />
road map of socio ec<strong>on</strong>omic aspects of the<br />
country. The Seventh Malaysian Plan clearly<br />
states that clean, safe, and healthy living<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment are to be achieved for our<br />
present and future generati<strong>on</strong>s. Besides the<br />
Department of Envir<strong>on</strong>ment which was<br />
established under the Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Quality<br />
Act 1974, the local governments has been<br />
performing a wide range of services such as<br />
public health and cleansing, enforcement<br />
and licensing, and public amenities and<br />
social services. Malaysia has also actively<br />
participating and implementing various<br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s of internati<strong>on</strong>al instruments for<br />
example Amendment to the M<strong>on</strong>treal<br />
Protocol <strong>on</strong> Substances that Deplete the<br />
Oz<strong>on</strong>e Layer in (Date of Ratificati<strong>on</strong>: 14<br />
September 1993); The United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> Biological Diversity 1992<br />
(Date of Ratificati<strong>on</strong>: 22 September 1994);<br />
and The Basel C<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the C<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
Transboundary Movements of Tropical<br />
Timber Agreement 1994 (Date of<br />
Ratificati<strong>on</strong>: 1994). These initiatives, again,<br />
requires full cooperati<strong>on</strong> from all<br />
stakeholders to ensure the aim of sustainable<br />
development is achieved.<br />
NEHAP<br />
Mohd Anuar<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental protecti<strong>on</strong> and public health<br />
goals are in general replenishing each other.<br />
The term envir<strong>on</strong>mental health, as defined<br />
by World Health Organisati<strong>on</strong>, addressed all<br />
physical, chemical, and biological factors<br />
external to a pers<strong>on</strong>, and all the related<br />
factors impacting behavior. It encompasses<br />
the assessment and c<strong>on</strong>trol of those<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors that can potentially<br />
affect health. It is targeted towards<br />
preventing disease and creating healthsupportive<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments (NEHAP Malaysia,<br />
2016). In other word, envir<strong>on</strong>mental health<br />
is the branch of public health that is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned with all aspects of the natural and<br />
built envir<strong>on</strong>ment that may affect human<br />
health (NEHAP Malaysia, 2016).<br />
The NEHAP has been developed and<br />
implemented by many countries to address<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental health problems and needs<br />
for acti<strong>on</strong>. In the Third Ministerial Regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Forum <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>mental and Health in<br />
South East and East Asian Countries held in<br />
Kuala Lumpur in September 2013, the<br />
Kuala Lumpur Declarati<strong>on</strong> was affirmed to;<br />
“Agree to cooperate to develop and<br />
implement nati<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>mental health<br />
acti<strong>on</strong> plans (NEHAPs), or equivalent plans,<br />
that aims to put sustainable envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
and health at the centre of development, and<br />
that will result in sustainability and<br />
improvements in envir<strong>on</strong>mental quality, and<br />
enhancement of public health, and ensure<br />
the health of the future generati<strong>on</strong>s in the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>; Agree to work for the development<br />
and implementati<strong>on</strong> of mechanism to enable<br />
mire effective sharing of informati<strong>on</strong><br />
between the health and envir<strong>on</strong>ment sectors<br />
and other sectors through the<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Health Country Profiles<br />
(EHCP) and Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Data Sheets<br />
(EHDS)” (Figure 1).<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Policy <strong>on</strong><br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment which aims at c<strong>on</strong>tinued<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social and culture progress and<br />
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Mohd Anuar<br />
Figure 1: A schematic diagram depicts the mechanism adopted in Malaysia’s Nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Health Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan (NEHAP) (Source: NEHAP Malaysia, 2016).<br />
enhancement of the quality of life of<br />
Malaysians through envir<strong>on</strong>mentally sound<br />
and sustainable development, the Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Planning Unit of the Prime Minister’s<br />
Department was agreed that NEHAP was to<br />
be developed in the 9 th Malaysia Plan by the<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health in Southeast and<br />
East Asian Countries (NEHAP Malaysia,<br />
2016):<br />
1. Air Quality<br />
2. Water, sanitati<strong>on</strong> and hygiene<br />
3. Solid and hazardous waste<br />
Ministry of Health. The main objectives to 4. Toxic chemicals and hazardous<br />
NEHAP are; (1) To strengthen collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
and cooperati<strong>on</strong> between various sectors for<br />
effective use of resources in improving<br />
human health and sustainable development;<br />
(2) To develop and maintain human health<br />
and sustainable development through the<br />
substances<br />
5. Climate change, oz<strong>on</strong>e depleti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
ecosystem change<br />
6. C<strong>on</strong>tingency planning, preparedness<br />
and resp<strong>on</strong>se in envir<strong>on</strong>mental health<br />
emergencies<br />
management of envir<strong>on</strong>mental health with a 7. Envir<strong>on</strong>mental health impact<br />
systematic and holistic manner in the<br />
country.<br />
assessment<br />
The followings are envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
health areas of c<strong>on</strong>cern which have been<br />
identified <strong>on</strong> the Regi<strong>on</strong>al Initiative <strong>on</strong><br />
The implementati<strong>on</strong> mechanism comprises<br />
of a three-tier approach and lead agency to<br />
implement it has been identified (Figure 2).<br />
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Mohd Anuar<br />
Figure 2: A schematic diagram showing the resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities of lead agencies (NEHAP) (Source:<br />
NEHAP Malaysia, 2016).<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
effectively implemented without<br />
cooperati<strong>on</strong> from all players.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment rights and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
health are definitely important issues that REFERENCE<br />
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of Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Studies. New<br />
Delhi: AITBS Publishers &<br />
Distributors.<br />
Tan Tek Seng v Suruhanjaya<br />
Perkhidmatan Pendidikan (1996) 2 CLJ<br />
771, at 801.<br />
Weissbrodt, D. (2007). Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Human Rights Law: An Introducti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
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Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Legislati<strong>on</strong>s in Malaysia<br />
Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.<br />
Mohd Anuar<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P60-73<br />
The Echinoderm (Sea Cucumber) Fisheries in the Indo-<br />
Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong>: Emerging Prospects, Potentials, Culture and<br />
Utilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
M. Aminur Rahman 1, * and Fatimah Md. Yusoff 1, 2<br />
1 Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400<br />
UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2 Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti<br />
Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia<br />
*Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Email: aminur1963@gmail.com / aminur@upm.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Echinoderms bel<strong>on</strong>g to the bottom-dwelling sessile invertebrates are c<strong>on</strong>sidered as the highvalued<br />
marine bioresource, having profound biological, ecological, aquacultural, c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
nutriti<strong>on</strong>al and pharmaceutical significance. The phylum Echinodermata is divided into five extant<br />
classes: Asteroidea (sea stars), Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand<br />
dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars) and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers). Am<strong>on</strong>g them,<br />
the sea cucumbers are both commercially fished and heavily overexploited. The principal product<br />
in the sea cucumber, is the boiled and dried body-wall or ‘beche-de-mer’ for which there is<br />
an increasing demand in many tropical and subtropical countries and also have l<strong>on</strong>g been c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
as a priced delicacy and medicinal cure for the peoples of Asia over many decades. In the<br />
nutriti<strong>on</strong>al point of view, sea cucumbers are enriched with valuable nutrients such as Vitamin A,<br />
Vitamin B1 (thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially<br />
calcium, magnesium, ir<strong>on</strong> and zinc. A comprehensive number of unique biological and pharmacological<br />
activities including anti-angiogenic, anticoagulant, anticancer, anti-hypertensi<strong>on</strong>, antiinflammatory,<br />
antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antitumor and wound healing have<br />
been attributed to various species of sea cucumbers. They have also l<strong>on</strong>g been well recognized as<br />
a t<strong>on</strong>ic and traditi<strong>on</strong>al remedy in Chinese and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness against,<br />
asthma, rheumatism, tuberculosis, stomach and duodenum ulcerati<strong>on</strong>, diabetes, aplastic anaemia,<br />
cuts and burns, impotence and c<strong>on</strong>stipati<strong>on</strong>. In order to meet up the increasing market demands,<br />
the collecti<strong>on</strong> of sea cucumbers from the wild has seen a depleti<strong>on</strong> of this resource in the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
fishing grounds close to Asia and more recently the expansi<strong>on</strong> of this activity to new and<br />
more distant fishing grounds. Presently, there has been documented that, sea cucumbers fisheries<br />
are harvesting around most of the resource range areas, including the remote parts of the Pacific,<br />
the Galapagos Islands, Chile and the Russian Federati<strong>on</strong>. This review shows that sea cucumber<br />
stocks are under intense fishing pressure in many parts of the world and need effective aquaculture<br />
management and c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> measures. It also shows that sea cucumbers provide an important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to ec<strong>on</strong>omies and livelihoods of coastal communities, being the most commercially<br />
important fishery and n<strong>on</strong>-finfish export in many countries. Rec<strong>on</strong>ciling the need for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> with the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic importance of sea cucumber fisheries is shown to be a<br />
challenging endeavour, particularly for the countries with limited management capacity. Current<br />
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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
research directi<strong>on</strong>s are looking at diversifying technology to increase success in a range of<br />
coastal c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, better understanding the social and biophysical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s required for success,<br />
and finding ways of effectively scaling-out developed systems and culture technology.<br />
Moreover, no single management measure will work optimally due to the many eccentricities of<br />
these important fisheries, which are outlined in this document through a brief review of their biological,<br />
ecological, aquacultural, biomedicinal, c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>al, ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social dimensi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Keywords: Aquaculture; beche-de-mer; biomedicine; breeding; larval rearing; life cycle;<br />
nutraceuticals; sea cucumber<br />
PROSPECTS AND POTENTIALS<br />
In the recent decades, invertebrate fisheries<br />
have expanded in catch and value worldwide<br />
(Anders<strong>on</strong> et al., 2011). One increasingly<br />
harvested marine invertebrates group is sea<br />
cucumbers, bel<strong>on</strong>g to the class Holothuroidea<br />
under the phylum Echinodermata,<br />
which usually occur in the shallow benthic<br />
areas and deep seas across the world<br />
(Bordbar et al., 2011). Sea cucumbers are<br />
el<strong>on</strong>gated tubular or flattened soft-bodied<br />
marine benthic invertebrates, typically with<br />
leathery skin, ranging in length from a few<br />
millimetres to a metre (Backhuys, 1977;<br />
Lawrence, 1987). Holothuroids encompass<br />
14000 known species (Paws<strong>on</strong>, 2007) and<br />
occur in most benthic marine habitats<br />
worldwide, in temperate and tropical oceans,<br />
and from the intertidal z<strong>on</strong>e to the deep sea<br />
(Hickman et al., 2006). The fisheries of sea<br />
cucumber have expanded worldwide in<br />
catch and value over the past two to three<br />
decades (C<strong>on</strong>and, 2004; FAO, 2008). Global<br />
sea cucumber producti<strong>on</strong> increased from<br />
130,000 t in 1995 to 411,878 t in 2012<br />
(Rahman et al., 2015). Am<strong>on</strong>g other aquatic<br />
animals, overall producti<strong>on</strong> of dried sea cucumbers<br />
has increased rapidly (Figure 1).<br />
However, sea cucumber fisheries in Asian<br />
countries (China, Japan, India, Philippines,<br />
Ind<strong>on</strong>esia and Malaysia) have been depleted<br />
due to overexploitati<strong>on</strong> as well as lack of<br />
effective management and c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies. The major product in the sea cucumber<br />
is the boiled and dried body-wall,<br />
familiarly known as ‘beche-de-mer’ or<br />
‘gamat’, for which there is an increasing<br />
demand for food delicacy and folk medicine<br />
in the communities of Asia and Middle East<br />
(Yaacob et al., 1997; Huizeng, 2001;<br />
Bordbar et al., 2011). There is also a trade in<br />
sea cucumbers for home aquaria and biomedical<br />
products (Bruckner et al., 2003).<br />
Sea cucumber fisheries had rapidly grown<br />
and expanded due to the growing beche-demer-related<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al market, supported<br />
by c<strong>on</strong>tinuing demand of these organisms<br />
for aquaculture and biomedical research<br />
programs (Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al.,<br />
2011). They have high commercial value<br />
coupled with increasing global producti<strong>on</strong><br />
and trade and therefore, commercially fished<br />
and heavily overexploited in some areas<br />
(Kelly, 2005; Bordbar et al., 2011). The<br />
widespread and growing interest in this<br />
commodity is indicative of str<strong>on</strong>g marketbased<br />
drivers to increase producti<strong>on</strong> of sea<br />
cucumber (Brown et al., 2010). It also<br />
shows that sea cucumbers provide an important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to ec<strong>on</strong>omies and livelihoods<br />
of coastal communities, being the<br />
most ec<strong>on</strong>omically important fishery and<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-finfish export in many countries (Toral-<br />
Granda et al., 2008). Rec<strong>on</strong>ciling the need<br />
for c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> with the socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
importance of sea cucumber fisheries is<br />
shown to be a challenging endeavour, particularly<br />
for the countries with limited management<br />
capacity. Moreover, no single management<br />
measure will work optimally due to<br />
the many idiosyncrasies of these fisheries.<br />
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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Many sea cucumber fisheries still have no<br />
management system or restricti<strong>on</strong>s, and for<br />
those that do, the scenario for catches to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinue even at a reduced level is poor<br />
(Kelly, 2005). Cultivati<strong>on</strong> of these species<br />
increasingly becomes a necessity, both for<br />
stock enhancement programs and as a means<br />
to meet up market demand.<br />
BREEDING, SEED PRODUCTION AND<br />
CULTURE<br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
The species of sea cucumber targeted for<br />
culture, bel<strong>on</strong>g to two families, the depositfeeding<br />
Aspidochirotida, which includes the<br />
Holothuriidae and the Stichopodidae, and<br />
the suspensi<strong>on</strong> feeding Dendrochirotida,<br />
which includes the genus Cucumaria. The<br />
cultivatable species of sea cucumbers are<br />
dioecious, broadcast spawners, the fertilized<br />
eggs developing into plankt<strong>on</strong>ic larvae before<br />
settling and undergoing metamorphosis<br />
to the juvenile sea cucumber. The average<br />
life span of a sea cucumber is thought to be<br />
5–10 years and most species first reproduce<br />
at 2–6 years. A number of species are reported<br />
to reproduce asexually by fissi<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
this has been examined as a technique to<br />
propagate commercially important species<br />
(Reichenbach et al., 1996). They also have<br />
the capability to eviscerate part or all of their<br />
internal organs as a defence against predati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the shed organs being rapidly regenerated.<br />
Cultivati<strong>on</strong> of sea cucumbers originated<br />
in Japan in the 1930s and juveniles of<br />
the temperate species Stichopus jap<strong>on</strong>icus<br />
(Figure 2A) were first produced in 1950<br />
(Battaglene et al., 1999). During the last 15<br />
years, commercial producti<strong>on</strong> in Japan has<br />
accelerated, where annually an estimated 2.5<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> juveniles are released. In China, cul-<br />
Figure 1: World sea cucumber fisheries producti<strong>on</strong> from 1950 to 2012 (Rahman et al., 2015).<br />
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Rahman and Yusoff<br />
tured rather than fished S. jap<strong>on</strong>icus now<br />
account for around 50% of the country’s estimated<br />
annual producti<strong>on</strong> of dry sea cucumber<br />
(Kelly, 2005). Procedures for mass<br />
culture of the tropical Holothuria scabra<br />
(Figure 2B) are now well established and<br />
practiced in Australia, India, Ind<strong>on</strong>esia, the<br />
Maldives and the Solom<strong>on</strong> Islands<br />
(Battaglene et al., 1999). Other tropical species<br />
in culture include Actinopyga mauritania<br />
(Figure 2C) and H. fuscogilva (Figure<br />
2D), with the focus of the research effort<br />
centered <strong>on</strong> the producti<strong>on</strong> of juveniles in<br />
hatcheries for the restorati<strong>on</strong> and enhancement<br />
of wild stocks (Ramofafia et al., 1996,<br />
2000).<br />
Brood stock of Stichopus jap<strong>on</strong>icus<br />
is usually collected from the wild in spring,<br />
when they attain appropriate sexual maturity<br />
(Kelly, 2005). The broodstock is most comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
induced to spawn through thermal<br />
stimulati<strong>on</strong>, by increasing the seawater temperature<br />
in holding tanks by 3–5°C for 1 h.<br />
Generally, H. scabra has a biannual peak in<br />
g<strong>on</strong>adosomatic index, indicating two spawning<br />
periods a year, but closer to the equator a<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> of the populati<strong>on</strong> spawns yearround<br />
(Battaglene et al., 1999; Kelly, 2005).<br />
Fertilizati<strong>on</strong> occurs sp<strong>on</strong>taneously <strong>on</strong>ce the<br />
gametes are allowed to mix in seawater; the<br />
fertilized eggs are held in suspensi<strong>on</strong> by aer-<br />
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
D<br />
Figure 2: Major commercially important species of sea cucumbers in aquaculture: A) Stichopus<br />
jap<strong>on</strong>icas, B) Holothuria scabra, C) Actinopyga mauritania and D) Holothuria fuscogilva<br />
(Rahman, 2014a, b).<br />
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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
-ati<strong>on</strong> and egg development is rapid. Larval<br />
life cycle of H. scabra is almost around 14<br />
days at 28°C, including the feeding or auricularia<br />
stage, the doliolaria or n<strong>on</strong>-feeding<br />
stage and settling pentacula stage (Figure 3<br />
and 4). As with many other larval Echinoderms,<br />
sea cucumber larvae are fed a mixture<br />
of microalgal species, with the number<br />
of algal cells provided gradually being increased<br />
over the larval life to be completed.<br />
Holothuria scabra larvae can feed and grow<br />
well <strong>on</strong> a diet of the red microalgae<br />
Rhodom<strong>on</strong>as salina and the brown diatom<br />
Chaetoceros calcitrans (Battaglene et al.,<br />
1999; Kelly, 2005).<br />
Metamorphosis and settlement are<br />
critical stages in the development and culture<br />
of sea cucumber larvae. High survival is<br />
dependent <strong>on</strong> the larvae being competent to<br />
metamorphose and then resp<strong>on</strong>ding to settlement<br />
cues. Competent pentacula (Figure<br />
4C) larvae are provided with a substrate of<br />
bacteria and diatoms, which provide the appropriate<br />
settlement cues, and to which they<br />
adhere with their buccal podia. Typically,<br />
Figure 3: Spawning, fertilizati<strong>on</strong> and a 14-day larval life-cycle of a cultured sea cucumber (Holothuria<br />
scabra) at a water temperature of 28 o C (FAO, 2008; Bruckner et al., 2003).<br />
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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
Figure 4: Developmental stages of Holothuria scabra: A) Auricularia; B) Doliolaria; C) Pentactula;<br />
and D) Early juvenile.<br />
D<br />
S. jap<strong>on</strong>icus settles <strong>on</strong> PVC plates coated<br />
with small periphytic diatoms such as Navicula,<br />
Amphora, Achnanthes and Nitzchia<br />
sp. The plates are coated in outdoor tanks in<br />
direct sunlight, although the light intensity,<br />
nutrient enrichment and copepod levels must<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>trolled to produce suitable plates<br />
(Kelly, 2005). Leaves of the sea grass (Thallassia<br />
hemprichii) are the preferred settlement<br />
substrate of H. scabra and soluble extracts<br />
of the leaves have been shown to induce<br />
settlement <strong>on</strong>to clean plastic surfaces<br />
(Kelly, 2005). Post-settlement juvenile sea<br />
cucumbers are grown either <strong>on</strong> diatomcoated<br />
plates, held in fine mesh bags in<br />
tanks or <strong>on</strong> the bottom of tanks, where juveniles<br />
of 10–20 mm are transferred to a fine<br />
sand substrate and fed a diet supplemented<br />
by algal extracts or powdered algae. Newly<br />
settled juveniles (Fig. 4D) attach firmly to<br />
settlement surfaces and can be difficult to<br />
detach. Throughout the juvenile stage it is<br />
necessary to periodically detach the juveniles<br />
from the substrate for grading, transfer<br />
between tanks or to supply fresh substrates.<br />
KCl (0.5–1%) in seawater is an effective<br />
agent for detaching H. scabra from settlement<br />
surfaces (Kelly, 2005). The use of KCl<br />
does not harm juvenile sea cucumbers but<br />
does effectively kill some tropical copepods<br />
(Battaglene et al., 1999).<br />
After a nursery phase of 6-m<strong>on</strong>th,<br />
when the juvenile S. jap<strong>on</strong>icus grows to a<br />
length of 4–8 cm, are released to managed<br />
areas of the seafloor. They are recovered<br />
after 1 year when they measure approximately<br />
20 cm (Kelly, 2005). There is a lack<br />
of informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> growth rates and survivorship<br />
in tropical species, and, as with all Holothuria,<br />
measurements of growth are complicated<br />
by their ability to change shape,<br />
eviscerate and retain water and sediment in<br />
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the gut and coelomic cavity (Kelly, 2005).<br />
However, Battaglene et al. (1999) suggest<br />
there should be no impediment to the largescale<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> of juvenile H. scabra for<br />
stock enhancement programs provided they<br />
can be released at a size of 6 cm and with a<br />
weight of 20 g. The three m<strong>on</strong>ths it takes to<br />
reach juvenile H. scabra of this size (Figure<br />
5) and the ease of rearing them under active<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for grow-out culture and stock<br />
enhancement (Battaglene et al., 1999).<br />
Figure 5: Three-m<strong>on</strong>th old juveniles of H.<br />
scabra for grow-out culture and stock enhancement.<br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
Aquaculture, sea ranching and re<br />
stocking have been evaluated as possible<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>s to wild sea cucumber overexploitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and some countries have started such<br />
ventures (e.g. Australia, China, Kiribati,<br />
Philippines, Viet Nam and Madagascar).<br />
Restocking has been c<strong>on</strong>sidered an expensive<br />
remedy to overfishing. Currently, China<br />
is successfully producing an estimated<br />
10,000 t<strong>on</strong>s, dry weight, of Stichopus jap<strong>on</strong>icus<br />
from aquaculture, mainly to supply local<br />
demand. Due to the prawn diseases happened<br />
in 1990s, a lots of prawn p<strong>on</strong>ds are<br />
unused, so the farmers started p<strong>on</strong>d culture<br />
of sea cucumber in Shan D<strong>on</strong>g province and<br />
Dalian. Currently p<strong>on</strong>d culture has become<br />
the most suitable method of sea cucumber<br />
farming (Figure 6). In the Asia Pacific regi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
aquaculture is still in the early development<br />
stages, with <strong>on</strong>e species of sea cucumber<br />
(Holothuria scabra) in trials to ascertain<br />
the commercial viability of culture<br />
and farming opti<strong>on</strong>s. Many additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
threats have been identified for sea cucumber<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s worldwide, including global<br />
warming, habitat destructi<strong>on</strong>, unsustainable<br />
fishing, the development of fisheries with<br />
little or no informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the species, and<br />
lack of natural recovery after overexploitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Illegal, Unregulated and Unreported<br />
(IUU) fisheries are widespread in all regi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
representing an indirect threat as it<br />
fuels unsustainable practices and socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
demand. The critical status of sea<br />
cucumber fisheries worldwide is compounded<br />
by different factors including i) the lack<br />
of financial and technical capacity to gather<br />
basic scientific informati<strong>on</strong> to support management<br />
plans, ii) weak surveillance and<br />
enforcement capacity, and iii) lack of political<br />
will and socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic pressure exerted<br />
by the communities that rely <strong>on</strong> this fishery<br />
as an important source of income. The<br />
fast pace of development of sea cucumber<br />
fisheries to supply the growing internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
demand for beche-de-mer is placing most<br />
fisheries and many sea cucumber species at<br />
risk. The pervasive trend of overfishing, and<br />
mounting examples of local ec<strong>on</strong>omic extincti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
urges immediate acti<strong>on</strong> for c<strong>on</strong>serving<br />
stocks biodiversity and ecosystem<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing and resilience from other stressors<br />
than overfishing (e. g. global warming<br />
and ocean acidificati<strong>on</strong>), and therefore sustaining<br />
the ecological, social and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
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benefits of these natural resources (Toral-<br />
Granda et al., 2008).<br />
HIGH-VALUED BIOACTIVES AND<br />
THERAPEUTICS<br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
Majority of the recently available functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
foods and therapeutic agents are derived either<br />
directly or indirectly from a wide variety<br />
of terrestrial plants and marine organisms.<br />
Owing to the richest oceanic biodiversity,<br />
marine organisms are valuable sources of<br />
nutritious foods as well as represent novel<br />
reservoirs of biologically active compounds<br />
with biomedical applicati<strong>on</strong>s. Sea cucumbers<br />
are <strong>on</strong>e of the benthic marine invertebrates<br />
which are important as human food<br />
source, particularly in some parts of Asia.<br />
Sea cucumbers have been well recognized as<br />
a t<strong>on</strong>ic and traditi<strong>on</strong>al remedy in Chinese<br />
and Malaysian literature for their effectiveness<br />
against hypertensi<strong>on</strong>, asthma, rheumatism,<br />
cuts and burns, impotence and c<strong>on</strong>stipati<strong>on</strong><br />
(Weici, 1987; Yaacob et al., 1997;<br />
Wen et al., 2010). Nutriti<strong>on</strong>ally, sea cucumbers<br />
have an impressive profile of valuable<br />
nutrients such as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1<br />
(thiamine), Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), Vitamin<br />
B3 (niacin), and minerals, especially calcium,<br />
magnesium, ir<strong>on</strong> and zinc (Tian et al.,<br />
2005). A number of unique biological and<br />
pharmacological activities including antiangiogenic<br />
(Tian et al., 2005), anticancer<br />
(Roginsky et al., 2004), anticoagulant (Nagase<br />
et al., 1995; Chen et al., 2011), antihypertensi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Hamaguchi et al., 2010), antiinflammatory<br />
(Collin, 2004), antimicrobial<br />
(Beauregard et al., 2001), antioxidant (Althunibat<br />
et al., 2009), antithrombotic<br />
(Mourao et al., 1998), antitumor (Zou et al.,<br />
2003) and wound healing (San Miguel-Ruiz<br />
and García-Arrarás, 2007) have been attributed<br />
to various species of sea cucumbers.<br />
Therapeutic properties and medicinal<br />
benefits of sea cucumbers can be linked to<br />
the presence of a wide array of bioactive<br />
compounds, especially triterpene glycosides<br />
(sap<strong>on</strong>ins) (Kerr and Chen, 1995), ch<strong>on</strong>droitin<br />
sulfates (Vieira et al., 1991), glycosaminoglycan<br />
(Pacheco et al., 2000), sulfated<br />
polysaccharides (Mourao, and Pereira,<br />
1999), sterols (glycosides and sulfates)<br />
(Goad et al., 1985, phenolics (Mamel<strong>on</strong>a et<br />
al., (2007), (Sugawara et al., 2007), lectins<br />
(Mojica and Merca, 2005), peptides<br />
(Rafiuddin et al., 2004), glycoprotein, glycosphingolipids<br />
and essential fatty acids<br />
Figure 6: Pictures showing some successful aquaculture practices of sea cucumbers in earthen<br />
p<strong>on</strong>ds at Shan D<strong>on</strong>g province and Dalian in China (Rahman, 2014b).<br />
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The Echinoderm Fisheries in the Indo-Pacific Regi<strong>on</strong><br />
Rahman and Yusoff<br />
(Bordbar et al., 2011). This review is mainly<br />
designed to cover the high-value comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
and bioactive compounds as well as<br />
the multiple biological and therapeutic properties<br />
of sea cucumbers with respect to exploring<br />
their potential and significant uses<br />
for functi<strong>on</strong>al foods, nutraceutical and<br />
pharmaceutical products human health benefits<br />
(Rahman et al., 2014; Zulfaqar et al.,<br />
2016a, b). So far, numerous studies have<br />
been c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> sea cucumbers, however,<br />
profound potentials still exist to isolate,<br />
identify and characterize new compounds<br />
from different parts of various species of<br />
this high-valued marine invertebrate for<br />
their chemical structure and detailed biological<br />
properties using spectroscopic and biomedical<br />
approaches and bioactivity-directed<br />
assays to a greater extent.<br />
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS<br />
AND CONCLUSIONS<br />
We are aware of active research programs in<br />
the Philippines (hatchery, nursery systems,<br />
sea ranching, co-culture, p<strong>on</strong>d culture), Vietnam<br />
(hatchery, p<strong>on</strong>d culture, co-culture,<br />
sea ranching), Thailand (p<strong>on</strong>d culture, sea<br />
ranching) and Malaysia (hatchery, sea<br />
ranching). Str<strong>on</strong>g instituti<strong>on</strong>al support, as<br />
well as d<strong>on</strong>or-funded programs, in particular,<br />
will ensure c<strong>on</strong>tinued development of<br />
sea-ranching and p<strong>on</strong>d-culture systems. Current<br />
research in these countries is focusing<br />
<strong>on</strong> technology and system development to<br />
diversify opti<strong>on</strong>s for producers, and <strong>on</strong> further<br />
understanding the optimal socioec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
and biophysical prec<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
successful enterprises. Models for scaling<br />
out technology and catalyzing uptake by<br />
small-scale producers are being tested across<br />
broad geographic regi<strong>on</strong>s. The p<strong>on</strong>d-culture<br />
industry in Vietnam, for example, is currently<br />
growing ‘organically’, with around a dozen<br />
farmers involved. This provides good opportunities<br />
for future research in partnership<br />
with industry. In the Philippines, a major<br />
focus in the near future will be capacity<br />
building am<strong>on</strong>g local instituti<strong>on</strong>s to support<br />
early entrants into the sea-ranching industry.<br />
The establishment of model enterprises is<br />
expected to provide a str<strong>on</strong>g basis for technology<br />
uptake.<br />
Generally, aquaculture operati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
marine species do not start until the wild<br />
capture has been diminished to a point<br />
where incomes and lifestyle of the people<br />
involved are affected when the wild stocks<br />
decline, high market demand for food,<br />
nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals raises the<br />
price of the product and, as a result, culturing<br />
is most likely to become viable commercially.<br />
As this article shows, there have been<br />
dramatic advances in the culture methods of<br />
sea cucumbers in the last 15–20 years, we<br />
can c<strong>on</strong>clude that currently the major obstacles<br />
to successful cultivati<strong>on</strong> are indeed financial<br />
rather than biological and ecological<br />
(Kelly, 2005; Rahman et al., 2015). Therefore,<br />
the fate of the sea cucumber industry is<br />
narrowly linked to that of the fisheries,<br />
whose fate will ultimately determine the<br />
market forces that will shape this rising industry<br />
in a very productive, significant and<br />
worthwhile manner.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGMENT<br />
The authors would like to express their sincere<br />
thanks and appreciati<strong>on</strong>s to Universiti<br />
Putra Malaysia (UPM) for providing financial<br />
supports through Research Management<br />
Centre (RMC) under the Grant Putra (GP-I)<br />
grant vide [Project No. GPI/2014/9450100]<br />
to successfully carry out this work.<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
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Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Its Impact <strong>on</strong> Human Health<br />
Sridevi Chigurupati 1 *, Jahidul Islam Mohammad 2 and Kesavanarayanan Krishnan<br />
Selvarajan 3<br />
1 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling,<br />
08100, Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah, Malaysia<br />
2 Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Cyberjaya University College of Medical<br />
Sciences, CUCMS, Cyberjaya, 63000, Malaysia<br />
3 Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Hail, Hail,<br />
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. *Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Email: sridevi.phd@gmail.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> (WHO) defines “health” as a state of complete physical, mental<br />
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. There always exists a<br />
permanent relati<strong>on</strong>ship between humans and his envir<strong>on</strong>ment, our health is to a c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
extent determined by the envir<strong>on</strong>mental quality. The c<strong>on</strong>notati<strong>on</strong>s between envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> and health outcome are, however, complex and often poorly described. Stages of<br />
exposure are often uncertain or unknown because of lack of detailed observati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
predictable variati<strong>on</strong>s within any populati<strong>on</strong> group. Exposures may occur through a range of<br />
pathways and exposure processes. This book chapter discusses the impact of few important<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors and their impact <strong>on</strong> human health.<br />
Keywords: Envir<strong>on</strong>ment; human health; pollutants; polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The relati<strong>on</strong>ship between human health and<br />
the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment is both obvious<br />
and obscure. The envir<strong>on</strong>ment in which<br />
human beings survive, work and relax, is<br />
determining his health and well-being.<br />
Mentally and physically many facets of<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment like physical, chemical as well<br />
as microbiological factors can have<br />
repercussi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> our health, both physically<br />
and mentally (Daught<strong>on</strong> and Ternes, 1997;<br />
Halden, 2008; Halden, 2010). However, the<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> between envir<strong>on</strong>ment and health is<br />
extremely complicated. Despite many health<br />
problems are believed to be associated with<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong>, it is difficult to<br />
measure the seriousness, extent, significance<br />
and causes of envir<strong>on</strong>ment-related diseases.<br />
Besides envir<strong>on</strong>mental-related factors, there<br />
are other causes which can directly or<br />
indirectly lead to the same health issues<br />
(Blumenthal and Ruttenber, 1995;<br />
Nadakavukaren, 1995; Moeller, 1997;<br />
Morgan, 1997).<br />
The term envir<strong>on</strong>ment also covers<br />
the influences of external living and n<strong>on</strong>living,<br />
factual and n<strong>on</strong>-factual factors that<br />
surround human. In its modern c<strong>on</strong>cept,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment includes not <strong>on</strong>ly the water, air<br />
and soil that form our envir<strong>on</strong>ment, but also<br />
the communal and commercial c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
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under which we live (ReVelle and ReVelle,<br />
1992; Wildavsky, 1995).<br />
For expressive purpose, envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
has been dispersed into three main<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents as follows:<br />
a) Physical: Water, air, soil, wastes,<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong>, etc.<br />
b) Biologic: Plant and animal life<br />
including bacteria, viruses, insects, rodents<br />
and animals, and<br />
c) Social: Customs, culture, habits,<br />
income, occupati<strong>on</strong>, religi<strong>on</strong> etc.<br />
The fundamental to man's health lies<br />
mostly in his envir<strong>on</strong>ment. In fact, much of<br />
man's ill-health can be outlined to hostile<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors such as water<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>, soil polluti<strong>on</strong>, air polluti<strong>on</strong>, poor<br />
housing c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, presence of animal<br />
reservoirs and insect vectors of diseases<br />
which stance a c<strong>on</strong>stant threat to man's<br />
health. However, often a man is resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for the polluti<strong>on</strong> of his envir<strong>on</strong>ment through<br />
urbanizati<strong>on</strong>, industrializati<strong>on</strong> and other<br />
human activities (Park, 2011).<br />
The fundamental c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
human health related effects and distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
of specific substances in that specific<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment had been often tough or not<br />
perceptible. The specific c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
each of the different causes of health<br />
problems is difficult to determine.<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
and mud) and microscopic organisms also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminate the water. These impurities are<br />
generally derived from the atmosphere,<br />
catchment area and the soil. However, the<br />
urbanizati<strong>on</strong> and industrializati<strong>on</strong> are the<br />
main causes of the water polluti<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
sources of polluti<strong>on</strong> resulting from<br />
urbanizati<strong>on</strong> and industrializati<strong>on</strong> are: (a)<br />
sewage, which c<strong>on</strong>tains decomposable<br />
organic matter and pathogenic agents, (b)<br />
industrial and trade wastes, which c<strong>on</strong>tain<br />
toxic agents ranging from metal salts to<br />
complex synthetic organic chemicals, (c)<br />
agricultural pollutants, which comprise<br />
fertilizers and pesticides, and (d) physical<br />
pollutants, via heat (thermal polluti<strong>on</strong>) and<br />
radioactive substances (Abdel-Shafy et al.,<br />
2016).<br />
WATER POLLUTION<br />
Pure sterilized water does not occur in<br />
nature. It c<strong>on</strong>tains numerous of impurities as<br />
well as natural and man-made (Figure<br />
1A&B) envir<strong>on</strong>mental water pollutants. The<br />
natural impurities are not fundamentally<br />
dangerous. These c<strong>on</strong>sist of dissolved gases<br />
(e.g. nitrogen, carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide, hydrogen<br />
sulphide, etc.) and dissolved minerals (e.g.<br />
salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.)<br />
which are natural elements of water.<br />
Suspended impurities (e.g. clay, silt, sand<br />
Figure 1(A&B): Examples of man-made<br />
water polluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
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Effects <strong>on</strong> human health<br />
Men's health may be affected by the<br />
ingesti<strong>on</strong> of c<strong>on</strong>taminated water either<br />
directly or through food, and by the use of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminated water for purpose of pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
hygiene and recreati<strong>on</strong> (Table 1). The term<br />
water-related disease includes the classical<br />
waterborne diseases. Developing countries<br />
carry a heavy burden of water-related<br />
diseases, the heaviest being the diarrhoeal<br />
diseases (Li et al., 2016).<br />
Table 1: Classificati<strong>on</strong> of water-related<br />
diseases<br />
Infective<br />
agent / Water-borne diseases<br />
Aquatic host<br />
A. Those caused by the presence of an<br />
infective agent<br />
a. Bacterial Typhoid and Paratyphoid<br />
fever, Bacillary dysentery,<br />
Diarrhoea, cholera<br />
b. Helminthic Roundworm, Threadworm,<br />
Hydatid disease<br />
c. Leptospiral Weil's disease<br />
d. Protozoal Amoebiasis, Giardiasis<br />
e. Viral Viral hepatitis A, Hepatitis<br />
E, Poliomyelitis, Rotavirus<br />
diarrhoea in infants<br />
B. Those due to the presence of an aquatic<br />
host<br />
a. Cyclops Guinea worm, Fish tape<br />
worm.<br />
b. Snail Schistosomiasis<br />
Chemical pollutants from industrial<br />
and agricultural wastes are progressively<br />
finding their way into community water<br />
supplies. These pollutants include detergent<br />
solvents, cyanides, heavy metals, minerals<br />
and organic acids, nitrogenous substances,<br />
bleaching agents, dyes, pigments, sulphides,<br />
amm<strong>on</strong>ia, toxic and biocidal organic<br />
compounds of great variety. Chemical<br />
pollutants may affect a men's health not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
directly, but also indirectly by accumulated<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
pollutants in aquatic life (e.g. fish) used as<br />
human food. The c<strong>on</strong>cern about chemical<br />
pollutants in water relates not so much as to<br />
their acute toxic effects <strong>on</strong> human health as<br />
to the possible l<strong>on</strong>g-term effects of low level<br />
exposure, which are often n<strong>on</strong>-specific and<br />
difficult to detect (Vrzel et al., 2016).<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the above, water<br />
quality is also linked with the following:<br />
(a) Dental health: The presence of<br />
fluoride at about 1 mg/L in drinking water is<br />
known to protect against dental caries; but,<br />
high levels of fluoride cause mottling of the<br />
dental enamel.<br />
(b) Cyanosis in infant: High nitrate<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent of water is associated with<br />
methemoglobinemia. This is a rare<br />
occurrence, but may occur when surface<br />
water from farmland, treated with a<br />
fertilizer, gain access to the water supply.<br />
(c) Cardiovascular diseases:<br />
Hardness of water appears to have a<br />
beneficial effect against cardiovascular<br />
diseases.<br />
(d) Some diseases are transmitted<br />
because of inadequate use of water like<br />
shigellosis, trachoma and c<strong>on</strong>junctivitis,<br />
ascariasis, scabies.<br />
(e) Some diseases are related to the<br />
disease carrying insects breeding in or near<br />
water, like: malaria, filaria, arboviruses,<br />
<strong>on</strong>chocerciasis, and African trypanosomiasis<br />
(also known as sleeping sickness).<br />
While water polluti<strong>on</strong> seems to be an<br />
inevitable c<strong>on</strong>sequence of modern industrial<br />
technology, currently, the challenge is to<br />
determine the level of polluti<strong>on</strong> that permits<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social development without<br />
presenting hazards to health. The evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the health effects of envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
pollutants is currently being carried out by<br />
researchers as part of the WHO’s<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental health criteria programme<br />
(Giudice, 2016).<br />
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SOIL POLLUTION<br />
Soil is a dynamic part of the natural<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. It is just as important as<br />
plants, animals, rocks, landforms and rivers.<br />
It affects the distributi<strong>on</strong> of plant species and<br />
provides an envir<strong>on</strong>ment for a wide range of<br />
organisms (Adriano et al., 1999, Gardiner<br />
and Miller 2008; Rajesh et al., 2016). It<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trols the movement of water and<br />
chemical substances between the<br />
atmosphere and the earth, and acts as both a<br />
source and store for gases like oxygen and<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide in the atmosphere. Soils not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly record human activities both at present<br />
and in the past, but also reflect natural<br />
processes. Soil together with the plants and<br />
animals life it supports, the rock <strong>on</strong> which it<br />
develops its positi<strong>on</strong> in the landscape and<br />
the climate it experiences, form an<br />
amazingly intricate natural system powerful<br />
and complex than any machine that human<br />
being has created. Soil polluti<strong>on</strong> does cause<br />
huge disturbances in the ecological balance<br />
and the health of the organisms.<br />
To celebrate the importance of soil<br />
and its vital c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s to human health<br />
and safety, the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Uni<strong>on</strong> of Soil<br />
Sciences established ‘the World Soil Day’ in<br />
2002 (Pierzynski et al., 2005). On December<br />
20, 2013, the 68 th UN General Assembly<br />
recognized December 5 th , 2014 as World<br />
Soil Day and 2015 as the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Year<br />
of Soils.<br />
Reas<strong>on</strong>s for soil polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
Soil polluti<strong>on</strong> is the reas<strong>on</strong> for fall in the<br />
productivity of soil. Soil pollutants have a<br />
hostile effect <strong>on</strong> the physical, chemical and<br />
biological properties of the soil that leads to<br />
the reducti<strong>on</strong> in soil productivity. Increasing<br />
urbanizati<strong>on</strong>, disposal of unprocessed<br />
wastes, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals,<br />
irrati<strong>on</strong>al mining, dumping industrial wastes,<br />
unintenti<strong>on</strong>al and accidental<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>/leakages, out-of-date technology,<br />
inadequate treatment and safety<br />
management of chemicals or waste materials<br />
and also the lack of engineer designed<br />
landfills, pesticides, fertilizers, organic<br />
manure, chemicals, radioactive wastes,<br />
discarded food, clothes, leather goods,<br />
plastics, paper, bottles, tins-cans and<br />
carcasses - all c<strong>on</strong>tribute towards causing<br />
soil polluti<strong>on</strong>. Chemicals like ir<strong>on</strong>, lead,<br />
mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, aluminium,<br />
cyanides, acids, and alkalis etc. are present<br />
in industrial wastes that reach the soil either<br />
directly with water or indirectly through the<br />
air (e.g. through acid rain). The improper<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>tinuous use of herbicides, pesticides<br />
and fungicides to protect the crops from<br />
pests, fungi, etc. alter the basic compositi<strong>on</strong><br />
of the soils and make the soil toxic to plant<br />
growth. Organic insecticides like DDT,<br />
aldrin, benzene hexchloride, etc. are used<br />
against soil borne pests. All these practices<br />
also c<strong>on</strong>tribute to soil polluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Effects <strong>on</strong> human health<br />
Generally, people can be exposed to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminants in soil through ingesti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
dermal exposure or inhalati<strong>on</strong>. Soil<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> leads to health risks due to<br />
direct and indirect c<strong>on</strong>tact with<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminated soil. Path of human exposure<br />
to a soil c<strong>on</strong>taminant is different with the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminant and with the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
events at a particular site. The effects of<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> soil are quite alarming and can<br />
result in huge disorders in the ecological<br />
balance and health of man <strong>on</strong> earth. Crops<br />
cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil;<br />
however, if some crops manage to grow,<br />
then these crops might have absorbed the<br />
toxic chemicals in the soil and might<br />
lead to serious health problems in people<br />
c<strong>on</strong>suming them. Sometimes, the soil<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> is in the form of increased salinity<br />
of the soil. In such a case, the soil becomes<br />
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unhealthy for vegetati<strong>on</strong>. When soil<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> modifies the soil structure, deaths<br />
of many beneficial soil organisms (e.g.<br />
Earthworms) in the soil could take place.<br />
Other than further reducing the ability of the<br />
soil to support life, this occurrence could<br />
also have an effect <strong>on</strong> the larger predators<br />
(e.g. Birds) and force them to move to other<br />
places, in the search of food. Figure 2 shows<br />
an example of man-made soil polluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
People living near polluted land tend<br />
to have higher incidences of migraines,<br />
nausea, fatigue, skin disorders and even<br />
miscarriages. Depending <strong>on</strong> the pollutants<br />
present in the soil, some of the l<strong>on</strong>ger-term<br />
effects of soil polluti<strong>on</strong> include cancer,<br />
leukaemia, reproductive disorders, kidney<br />
and liver damage, and central nervous<br />
system failure. These health problems could<br />
be a result of direct pois<strong>on</strong>ing of the polluted<br />
land (e.g. children playing <strong>on</strong> land filled<br />
with toxic waste) or indirect pois<strong>on</strong>ing (e.g.<br />
eating crops grown <strong>on</strong> polluted land,<br />
drinking water polluted by the leaching of<br />
chemicals from the polluted land to the<br />
water supply, etc.).<br />
Figure 2: Man-made soil polluted<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Creating a clearly defined<br />
management framework is critical to the<br />
establishment of a nati<strong>on</strong>al soil protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
management system, for c<strong>on</strong>sensus building<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
and joint effort of stakeholders.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sequently, a soil management<br />
framework that is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al visi<strong>on</strong> for soil envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> and reflects the comprehensive<br />
‘Soil Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Protecti<strong>on</strong> Act’ is<br />
recommended to be established (Policy,<br />
1993).<br />
AIR POLLUTION<br />
The term "air polluti<strong>on</strong>" signifies the<br />
presence in the ambient (surrounding)<br />
atmosphere of substances (e.g., gases,<br />
mixtures of gases and particulate matter)<br />
generated by the activities of man in<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s that interfere with human<br />
health, safety or comfort, or injurious to<br />
vegetati<strong>on</strong> and animals and other<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental media resulting in chemicals<br />
entering the food chain or being present in<br />
drinking-water and thereby c<strong>on</strong>stituting<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al source of human exposure<br />
(Lancet, 2016). The direct effect of air<br />
pollutants <strong>on</strong> plants, animals and soil can<br />
influence the structure and functi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
ecosystems, including self-regulati<strong>on</strong> ability,<br />
thereby affecting the quality of life. In the<br />
past, ‘air polluti<strong>on</strong>’ meant smoke polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
(Besis et al., 2016). Today, ‘air polluti<strong>on</strong>’<br />
has become subtler and recognizes no<br />
geographical or political boundaries. Air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e of the present-day health<br />
problems throughout the world (Cai et al.,<br />
2016). The diseases caused by air polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
are shown in Table 2.<br />
The following are the Sources of air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
a. Automobiles: Motor vehicles are<br />
a major source of air polluti<strong>on</strong> throughout<br />
the urban areas. They emit hydrocarb<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>oxide, lead, nitrogen oxides and<br />
particulate matter.<br />
b. Industries: Industries emit large<br />
amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere.<br />
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Table 2: Diseases caused by air polluti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Airborne<br />
Cause/Remark<br />
disease<br />
Asthma<br />
Inhaling various<br />
attacks<br />
pois<strong>on</strong>ous gases and<br />
Chr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant suffocati<strong>on</strong><br />
Obstructive owing to polluted air<br />
Pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
Disease<br />
(COPD)<br />
Autism That is tendency to live<br />
Birth defects<br />
and immune<br />
system defects<br />
Br<strong>on</strong>chitis<br />
Cardiovascular<br />
problems<br />
Emphysema<br />
Leukaemia<br />
Liver and other<br />
types of cancer<br />
Mesothelioma<br />
Neurobehavior<br />
al disorders<br />
in isolati<strong>on</strong><br />
Due to c<strong>on</strong>stant<br />
breathing in polluted air.<br />
The inflammati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
swelling of the air<br />
passages between nose to<br />
lungs and throat to lungs.<br />
Bad air quality and lot of<br />
pois<strong>on</strong>ous gases and<br />
particulate matter<br />
suspended in the air<br />
cause heart diseases and<br />
stroke.<br />
It’s a state of lungs when<br />
tiny air sacs in them.<br />
Exposure to benzene<br />
vapours causes this<br />
disease which is a type<br />
of blood cancer.<br />
Suspended carcinogenic<br />
(cancer causing) matter<br />
in the air is main cause<br />
of all types of cancer<br />
related to respiratory<br />
system.<br />
Another type of lung<br />
cancer because of<br />
inhaling asbestos<br />
particles suspended in<br />
the air<br />
Inhaling polluted air that<br />
directly affects your<br />
neuro system.<br />
Pneum<strong>on</strong>ia<br />
Premature<br />
death<br />
Pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
cancer<br />
Weakening of<br />
lung functi<strong>on</strong><br />
Sridevi et al<br />
An infecti<strong>on</strong> of lungs<br />
because of breathing<br />
inside bacteria flying in<br />
wind pressure and moves<br />
into the respiratory<br />
system of a pers<strong>on</strong> who<br />
inhales polluted air.<br />
The ultimate outcome of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant inhaling of<br />
polluted air.<br />
Inhaling various<br />
carcinogenic stuff<br />
through polluted air<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stant inhaling of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminated air<br />
Combusti<strong>on</strong> of fuel to generate heat and<br />
power produces smoke, sulphur dioxide,<br />
nitrogen oxides and fly ash. Petrochemical<br />
industries generate hydrogen fluoride,<br />
hydrochloric acid and organic halides.<br />
c. Domestic sources: Domestic<br />
combusti<strong>on</strong> of coal, wood or oil is a major<br />
source of smoke, dust, and sulphur dioxide<br />
and nitrogen oxides.<br />
d. Smoking: The most direct and<br />
important source of air polluti<strong>on</strong> that affects<br />
the health of many people is tobacco smoke.<br />
Even those who do not smoke may inhale<br />
the smoke produced by others ("passive<br />
smoking").<br />
e. Miscellaneous: The following<br />
various sources also c<strong>on</strong>tribute to air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>. These comprise burning refuse,<br />
incinerators, pesticide spraying, natural<br />
sources (e.g. windborne dust, fungi, moulds,<br />
and bacteria) and nuclear energy<br />
programmes (Chiang et al., 2016; Huang et<br />
al., 2016; Daneshparvar et al., 2016).<br />
Various air pollutants are as follows:<br />
i) Carb<strong>on</strong> m<strong>on</strong>oxide: Carb<strong>on</strong><br />
m<strong>on</strong>oxide is <strong>on</strong>e of the most comm<strong>on</strong> and<br />
widely distributed air pollutants. It is a<br />
product of incomplete combusti<strong>on</strong> of carb<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>taining materials such as incomplete<br />
combusti<strong>on</strong> of fuel by automobiles,<br />
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industrial process, heating facilities and<br />
incinerators. Estimates of man-made carb<strong>on</strong><br />
m<strong>on</strong>oxide emissi<strong>on</strong> vary from 350 - 600<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> t<strong>on</strong>nes per annum.<br />
ii) Sulphur dioxide: Domestic fires,<br />
power generati<strong>on</strong> and motor vehicles can<br />
also produce emissi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>taining sulphur<br />
dioxide. It is <strong>on</strong>e of the several forms in<br />
which sulphur exists in the air. The others<br />
include H 2 S, H 2 SO 4 and sulphate salts.<br />
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) is a colourless gas<br />
with a sharp odour, results from the<br />
combusti<strong>on</strong> of sulphur c<strong>on</strong>taining fossil fuel,<br />
the smelting of sulphur-c<strong>on</strong>taining ores, and<br />
other industrial processes. When SO 2<br />
combines with water, it forms sulphuric<br />
acid; this is the main comp<strong>on</strong>ent of acid rain<br />
which is a cause of deforestati<strong>on</strong>. A SO 2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> of 500μg/m 3 should not be<br />
exceeded over average periods of 10 min<br />
durati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
iii) Lead: The combusti<strong>on</strong> of alkyl<br />
lead additives in motor fuels accounts for the<br />
major part of all lead emissi<strong>on</strong>s into the<br />
atmosphere. An estimated 80-90 % of lead<br />
in ambient air is derived from the<br />
combusti<strong>on</strong> of leaded petrol. The mining of<br />
lead ores creates polluti<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
iv) Carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide: Enormous<br />
amount of it in combusti<strong>on</strong> process using<br />
coal, oil and gas its global c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
rising above the natural level by an amount<br />
that could increase global temperature<br />
enough to affect climate markedly.<br />
v) Hydrocarb<strong>on</strong>s: Man-made<br />
sources of hydrocarb<strong>on</strong>s include<br />
incinerati<strong>on</strong>, combusti<strong>on</strong> of coal, wood,<br />
processing and use of petroleum.<br />
Hydrocarb<strong>on</strong>s exert their pollutant acti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
taking part in the chemical reacti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
cause photochemical smog.<br />
vi) Cadmium: The steel industry,<br />
waste incinerati<strong>on</strong>, volcanic acti<strong>on</strong> and zinc<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> seem to account for the largest<br />
emissi<strong>on</strong>s. Tobacco c<strong>on</strong>tains cadmium, and<br />
smoking may c<strong>on</strong>tribute significantly to the<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
uptake of cadmium. Cigarettes may c<strong>on</strong>tain<br />
from 0.5 to 3 μg cadmium/gram of tobacco.<br />
vii) Hydrogen sulphide: Hydrogen<br />
sulphide is formed during coke producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
in viscose ray<strong>on</strong> producti<strong>on</strong>, waste-water<br />
treatment plants, wood pulp producti<strong>on</strong><br />
using the sulphate method, sulphur<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong> process, oil refining and in the<br />
tanning industry. Hydrogen sulphide is the<br />
main toxic substance involved in livestock<br />
rearing systems with liquid manure storage.<br />
viii) Oz<strong>on</strong>e: The highest levels of<br />
oz<strong>on</strong>e polluti<strong>on</strong> occur during periods of<br />
sunny weather. It is formed by the<br />
photochemical reacti<strong>on</strong> of sunlight with<br />
pollutants such as nitrogen oxides from<br />
vehicle, industry emissi<strong>on</strong>s and volatile<br />
organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by<br />
vehicles, solvents and industry. The<br />
previously recommended limit, which was<br />
fixed at 120 μg/m 3 of 8-hour mean, has been<br />
reduced to 100 μg/m 3 based <strong>on</strong> recent<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clusive associati<strong>on</strong>s between daily<br />
mortality and oz<strong>on</strong>e levels occurring at<br />
oz<strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong>s below 120 μg/m 3 .<br />
ix) Oxides of nitrogen: Emissi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
oxides of nitrogen occurs predominantly in<br />
the form of nitric oxide, which comprises<br />
around 95 % of nitrogen oxides from a<br />
combusti<strong>on</strong> source. Coal is the most<br />
important fuel in this c<strong>on</strong>text; other sources<br />
are road traffic and electricity generati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The current air quality guidelines of WHO<br />
the value is 40 μg/m 3 (WHO Air quality<br />
guidelines for particulate matter, oz<strong>on</strong>e,<br />
nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, 2006)<br />
(Kim et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2016; Singh et<br />
al., 2016).<br />
The detrimental health effects of air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> have always attracted intense<br />
interest am<strong>on</strong>g researchers from around the<br />
world. In 2010, WHO estimated that more<br />
than 6 milli<strong>on</strong> people die prematurely every<br />
year because of air polluti<strong>on</strong> (Brunekreef<br />
and Holgate, 2002). Both ambient air<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> and indoor air polluti<strong>on</strong> have been<br />
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linked to various adverse health outcomes,<br />
especially in people with pre-existing<br />
medical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Such c<strong>on</strong>trolled human<br />
exposure studies might also enable a better<br />
understanding of the underlying mechanisms<br />
leading to possible adverse outcomes.<br />
Ambient air c<strong>on</strong>tains many pollutants,<br />
including gases such as oz<strong>on</strong>e, oxides of<br />
nitrogen, and Sulphur dioxide al<strong>on</strong>g with<br />
particles of different sizes. Because of the<br />
complexity of the compositi<strong>on</strong> of air<br />
pollutants and the difficulty of precisely<br />
measuring exposure, identifying the role of<br />
different pollutants in respiratory morbidity<br />
is no simple task. Am<strong>on</strong>g the various<br />
pollutants, particulate matter with an<br />
aerodynamic diameter of less than 2·5 μm<br />
(PM2·5) have received a lot of attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
recently (Lim et. al., 2012). These small<br />
particles are able to penetrate deep into the<br />
small airways, alveoli, and blood stream,<br />
where they can lead to subsequent<br />
inflammati<strong>on</strong> and vasoc<strong>on</strong>stricti<strong>on</strong>. WHO<br />
has estimated that PM2·5 c<strong>on</strong>tributes to<br />
roughly 800000 premature deaths per year<br />
globally (Shah et al., 2013).<br />
INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND<br />
ENVIRONMENT<br />
Infectious diseases emerging throughout<br />
history have included some of the most<br />
feared plagues of the past. Several factors<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the emergence of infectious<br />
diseases (Table 3). New infecti<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>tinue<br />
to emerge today, while many of the old<br />
plagues are with us still (Ameli, 2015) and<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a global problem. As<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated by influenza epidemics, under<br />
suitable circumstances, a new infecti<strong>on</strong> first<br />
appearing anywhere in the world could<br />
traverse entire c<strong>on</strong>tinents within days or<br />
weeks. Examples of emerging diseases in<br />
various parts of the world include<br />
HIV/AIDS; classic cholera in South<br />
America and Africa; cholera due to Vibrio<br />
Sridevi et al<br />
cholerae O139; Rift Valley fever; hantavirus<br />
pulm<strong>on</strong>ary syndrome; Lyme disease; and<br />
haemolytic uremic syndrome, a foodborne<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong> caused by.certain strains of<br />
Escherichia coli (Kamarulzaman et al.,<br />
2016).<br />
Most emerging infecti<strong>on</strong>s appear to<br />
be caused by pathogens already present in<br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, brought out of obscurity or<br />
given a selective advantage by changing<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and afforded an opportunity to<br />
infect new host populati<strong>on</strong>s (<strong>on</strong> rare<br />
occasi<strong>on</strong>s), a new variant may also evolve<br />
and cause a new disease. The process by<br />
which infectious agents may transfer from<br />
animals to humans or disseminate from<br />
isolated groups into new populati<strong>on</strong>s can be<br />
called “microbial traffic”. A number of<br />
human activity increase microbial traffic and<br />
as a result promote the emergence and<br />
epidemics. In some cases, including many of<br />
the most novel infecti<strong>on</strong>s, the agents are<br />
zo<strong>on</strong>otic those transfer from their natural<br />
hosts into the human populati<strong>on</strong>. In other<br />
cases, pathogens already present in<br />
geographically isolated populati<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
given an opportunity to disseminate further.<br />
Surprisingly often, disease emergence is<br />
caused by human acti<strong>on</strong>s; however, natural<br />
causes, such as changes in climate, can also<br />
at times be resp<strong>on</strong>sible. Although this<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>fined largely to human<br />
diseases, similar c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s apply to<br />
emerging pathogens in other species.<br />
Ecological interacti<strong>on</strong>s can be complex, with<br />
several factors often working together or in<br />
sequence. For example, populati<strong>on</strong><br />
movement from rural areas to cities can<br />
spread a <strong>on</strong>ce-localized infecti<strong>on</strong>. The strain<br />
<strong>on</strong> infrastructure in the overcrowded and<br />
rapidly growing cities may disrupt or slow<br />
public health measures, perhaps allowing the<br />
establishment of the newly introduced<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>. Finally, the city may also provide<br />
a gateway for further disseminati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>. Most successful emerging<br />
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Table 3: Factors in emergence of infectious diseases*.<br />
Factor Examples of specific factors Examples of diseases<br />
Ecological Agriculture; dams, changes in water Schistosomiasis (dams); Rift Valley<br />
changes ecosystems; deforestati<strong>on</strong> / fever (dams, irrigati<strong>on</strong>); Argentine<br />
(including reforestati<strong>on</strong>; flood / drought; hemorrhagic fever (agriculture);<br />
those due to famine; climate changes<br />
Hantaan (Korean hemorrhagic fever)<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
(agriculture); hantavirus pulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
development<br />
and land use)<br />
syndrome, southwestern US, 1993<br />
(weather anomalies)<br />
Human<br />
demographics,<br />
behavior<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
travel and<br />
commerce<br />
Technology<br />
and industry<br />
Microbial<br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Change<br />
Societal events: Populati<strong>on</strong> growth<br />
and migrati<strong>on</strong> (movement from rural<br />
areas to cities); war or civil c<strong>on</strong>flict;<br />
urban decay; sexual behavior;<br />
intravenous drug use; use of Highdensity<br />
facilities.<br />
Worldwide movement of goods and<br />
people; air travel<br />
Globalizati<strong>on</strong> of food supplies;<br />
changes in food processing and<br />
packaging; organ or tissue<br />
transplantati<strong>on</strong>; drugs causing<br />
immunosuppressi<strong>on</strong>; widespread use<br />
of antibiotics<br />
Microbial evoluti<strong>on</strong>, resp<strong>on</strong>se to<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> in envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Introducti<strong>on</strong> of HIV; spread of dengue;<br />
spread of HIV and other sexually<br />
transmitted diseases.<br />
‘Airport’ malaria; disseminati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
mosquito vectors; rat borne<br />
hantaviruses; introducti<strong>on</strong> of cholera<br />
into South America;<br />
Disseminati<strong>on</strong> of O139 V. cholera.<br />
Haemolytic uremic syndrome (E. coli<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong> of hamburger meat);<br />
bovine<br />
sp<strong>on</strong>giform encephalopathy;<br />
transfusi<strong>on</strong>-associated hepatitis<br />
(hepatitis B, C); opportunistic<br />
infecti<strong>on</strong>s in immunosuppressed<br />
patients;<br />
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease from<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminated batches of human growth<br />
horm<strong>on</strong>e (medical technology)<br />
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria; “antigenic<br />
drift” in influenza virus<br />
Breakdown<br />
public health<br />
measures<br />
in<br />
Curtailment or reducti<strong>on</strong> in<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> programs; inadequate<br />
sanitati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
vector c<strong>on</strong>trol measures<br />
Resurgence of tuberculosis in the<br />
United States; cholera in refugee<br />
camps in Africa;<br />
resurgence of diphtheria in the former<br />
Soviet Uni<strong>on</strong><br />
*Adapted from Institute of Medicine (1992) and Centers for Disease C<strong>on</strong>trol and Preventi<strong>on</strong> (1994).<br />
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infecti<strong>on</strong>s, including HIV, cholera, and<br />
dengue, have followed this route (Shima et<br />
al., 2016).<br />
NATURAL IONIZING RADIATION<br />
I<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> is a type of energy<br />
released by atoms in the form of<br />
electromagnetic waves or particles. People<br />
are exposed to natural sources of i<strong>on</strong>izing<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong>, such as in soil, water, and<br />
vegetati<strong>on</strong>, as well as in human-made<br />
sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.<br />
Living beings are exposed to natural<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong> sources as well as human-made<br />
sources <strong>on</strong> a daily basis. Sixty naturallyoccurring<br />
radioactive materials found in soil,<br />
water and air are <strong>on</strong>e of the reas<strong>on</strong>s for the<br />
natural radiati<strong>on</strong>. A naturally-occurring gas,<br />
rad<strong>on</strong> which emanates from rock and soil is<br />
the main source of natural radiati<strong>on</strong>. People<br />
inhale and ingest radi<strong>on</strong>uclides from air,<br />
food and water. People are also exposed to<br />
natural radiati<strong>on</strong> from cosmic rays,<br />
particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003).<br />
Exposure to radiati<strong>on</strong> from humanmade<br />
sources ranging from nuclear power<br />
generati<strong>on</strong> to medical usage of radiati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
diagnosis or treatments is c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
hazardous to the human health. Today, the<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong> human-made sources of<br />
i<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> are medical devices,<br />
including X-ray machines.<br />
NATURAL IONIZING RADIATION<br />
I<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> is a type of energy<br />
released by atoms in the form of<br />
electromagnetic waves or particles. People<br />
are exposed to natural sources of i<strong>on</strong>izing<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong>, such as in soil, water, and<br />
vegetati<strong>on</strong>, as well as in human-made<br />
sources, such as x-rays and medical devices.<br />
Living beings are exposed to natural<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong> sources as well as human-made<br />
sources <strong>on</strong> a daily basis. Sixty naturallyoccurring<br />
radioactive materials found in soil,<br />
water and air are <strong>on</strong>e of the reas<strong>on</strong>s for the<br />
natural radiati<strong>on</strong>. A naturally-occurring gas,<br />
rad<strong>on</strong> which emanates from rock and soil is<br />
the main source of natural radiati<strong>on</strong>. People<br />
inhale and ingest radi<strong>on</strong>uclides from air,<br />
food and water. People are also exposed to<br />
natural radiati<strong>on</strong> from cosmic rays,<br />
particularly at high altitude (Little, 2003).<br />
Exposure to radiati<strong>on</strong> from humanmade<br />
sources ranging from nuclear power<br />
generati<strong>on</strong> to medical usage of radiati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
diagnosis or treatments is c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
hazardous to the human health. Today, the<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong> human-made sources of<br />
i<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> are medical devices,<br />
including X-ray machines.<br />
Effects <strong>on</strong> human health<br />
Acute health effects such as skin burns or<br />
acute radiati<strong>on</strong> syndrome can occur when<br />
doses of radiati<strong>on</strong> exceed certain levels. The<br />
effect of cellular resp<strong>on</strong>se of an organism’s<br />
to i<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure at various<br />
time intervals is shown in Figure 3. Low<br />
doses of i<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> can increase the<br />
risk of l<strong>on</strong>g term effects such as cancer.<br />
Pregnant women and children are especially<br />
sensitive to radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure. The cells in<br />
children and fetuses divide rapidly,<br />
providing more opportunity for radiati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
disrupt the process and cause cell damage.<br />
Radiati<strong>on</strong> damage to tissue and or organs<br />
depends <strong>on</strong> the dose of radiati<strong>on</strong> received, or<br />
the absorbed dose which is expressed in a<br />
unit called the Gray (Gy). Bey<strong>on</strong>d certain<br />
thresholds, radiati<strong>on</strong> can impair the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing of tissues and or organs and can<br />
produce acute effects such as skin redness,<br />
hair loss, radiati<strong>on</strong> burns, or an acute<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong> syndrome. These effects are more<br />
severe at higher doses and higher dose rates.<br />
If the radiati<strong>on</strong> dose is low, but, over a l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
period of time, there is still a risk of l<strong>on</strong>gterm<br />
effects such as cancer; however, that<br />
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Figure 3: Effect of i<strong>on</strong>izing radiati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> cellular tissue damage. In sec<strong>on</strong>ds, it can break DNA<br />
strands and cause oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, lipids, and other biomolecules; in<br />
minutes, its exposure can alter the gene expressi<strong>on</strong> and modify some proteins. L<strong>on</strong>g exposures<br />
(days to years), results in acute organ failure leading to mortality or instability of gene that<br />
causes cancer and birth defects and affects forthcoming generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
may appear slowly over a l<strong>on</strong>g period of<br />
time. This risk is higher for children and<br />
adolescents, as they are significantly more<br />
sensitive to radiati<strong>on</strong> exposure than adults.<br />
An organism’s resp<strong>on</strong>se to i<strong>on</strong>izing<br />
radiati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sists of a complex set of<br />
physical, chemical, and biological events.<br />
Within sec<strong>on</strong>ds, radiati<strong>on</strong> produces damage<br />
to DNA and oxidizes proteins and DNA,<br />
lipids, and other biomolecules. Within<br />
minutes, the cell resp<strong>on</strong>ds by changing the<br />
activati<strong>on</strong> of certain genes and modifying<br />
some proteins. At high radiati<strong>on</strong> doses, the<br />
result may be acute organ failure leading to<br />
death or genomic instability that causes<br />
cancer and birth defects and affects future<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s (Fischbein et al., 1997; Aarkrog,<br />
2003; Bréchignac, 2003; Alamri et al.,<br />
2012).<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
When the questi<strong>on</strong> arises, what does the<br />
future hold for our planet's natural<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment? Well, we have no crystal ball<br />
to tell exactly what lies ahead, but we can<br />
look at past data and current trends to make<br />
future forecasts. This chapter has linked<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong> to human health<br />
with a hope that individuals of the society<br />
should be aware of future c<strong>on</strong>sequences of<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong>. It’s the<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of every individual to<br />
understand the seriousness of envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
issues and to find the soluti<strong>on</strong> to break the<br />
development of polluti<strong>on</strong> hazards.<br />
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />
Authors are very thankful to editors for<br />
giving an opportunity to share our views<br />
with the scientific community and public in<br />
the form of this article.<br />
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of air polluti<strong>on</strong> and heart failure: a<br />
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Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Its Impact <strong>on</strong> Human Health<br />
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bacteria. FEBS Lett. 590, 3887-3904.<br />
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Farnleitner, A., Reischer, G., Linke,<br />
R., Paunović, M. and Ogrinc, N.<br />
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(2016). Determinati<strong>on</strong> of the sources<br />
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31667.<br />
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Health and Safety Issues, Harvard<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios for Tracing<br />
Food Web C<strong>on</strong>nectivity<br />
Debashish Mazumder<br />
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisati<strong>on</strong> (ANSTO), Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee<br />
DC, NSW 2232, Australia<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +61 2 9717 9219; Email: debashish.mazumder@ansto.gov.au<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Stable isotope analysis has increasingly been used in water resource management. Water is a<br />
vital resource crucial to sustain the natural ecosystems up<strong>on</strong> which we all rely. Understanding<br />
the source and fate of energy and nutrient dynamics in aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the<br />
sustainable management of aquatic resources to ensure food supply for the increasing world<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. This article provides an example of how analysis of naturally occurring carb<strong>on</strong> and<br />
nitrogen stable isotopes were used to model the estuarine food web and quantify energy and<br />
nutrient flows from estuarine wetland habitats to fish, an important source of animal protein for<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>s of people worldwide.<br />
Keywords: Aquatic; food web; management; stable isotope<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The United Nati<strong>on</strong>s predict that the world’s<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> will reach to 9.7 billi<strong>on</strong> in 2050<br />
and 11.2 billi<strong>on</strong> in 2100. This means the<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong> for land, water and energy will<br />
increase many folds. Growing competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
for natural resources would affect l<strong>on</strong>g term<br />
sustainability of agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
ensure food security for the people (Charles<br />
et al., 2010). Water resource is central to<br />
agriculture and rural development and<br />
crucial in sustaining the natural ecosystems<br />
up<strong>on</strong> which we all rely. Understanding the<br />
source and fate of energy and nutrients in<br />
aquatic ecosystems is fundamental for the<br />
sustainable management of aquatic<br />
resources. Aquatic foods play an important<br />
role in human nutriti<strong>on</strong> and global food<br />
supply (Tac<strong>on</strong> and Metian 2013). Fish, for<br />
example, currently represents the major<br />
source of animal protein for about 1.25<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> people within 39 countries worldwide<br />
(Khan et al., 2011), as well as a source of<br />
livelihood for milli<strong>on</strong>s of people worldwide.<br />
The Food and Agricultural Organisati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s reported that around 80%<br />
of the world fish stocks are either fully<br />
exploited or overexploited. This signifies the<br />
importance and urgency of effective<br />
management (SOFIA, 2009) for<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and sustainability of fish<br />
stocks.<br />
Every ecosystem is driven by<br />
nutrients and energy, whether it is small or<br />
big, whether wetlands, rivers or ocean.<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios…<br />
Understanding energy and nutrient dynamics<br />
are fundamental for resource c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
for future generati<strong>on</strong>s. If we are able to<br />
determine the energetic links am<strong>on</strong>g animals<br />
within a food web and their links with<br />
primary resources, then we will be able to<br />
quantify the impact of disturbances (i.e.,<br />
anthropogenic and climate related) <strong>on</strong><br />
species of our interest, or <strong>on</strong> a community<br />
level as well as the functi<strong>on</strong>ality of<br />
ecosystems which we are dependent <strong>on</strong> for<br />
our survival. Food web inter-c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
very complex and often influenced by the<br />
dynamics of physico-chemical processes,<br />
biodiversity, habitat type, spatial extent and<br />
degree of disturbance. Integrating cutting<br />
age isotopic techniques such as analysis of<br />
naturally-occurring carb<strong>on</strong> and nitrogen<br />
stable isotope ratios ( 13 C/ 12 C and 15 N/ 14 N)<br />
provide an important tool to model food<br />
chain c<strong>on</strong>nectivity within food webs.<br />
STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND<br />
INTERPRETATION<br />
Over the last decade, stable isotopes have<br />
been increasingly used in envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
studies, and the stable isotopes of carb<strong>on</strong><br />
and nitrogen became a powerful way to trace<br />
diet sources of aquatic animals (Peters<strong>on</strong><br />
and Fry 1987). Stable isotopes are different<br />
naturally occurring forms of elements. There<br />
are two stable atomic forms of carb<strong>on</strong> ( 13 C<br />
and 12 C) and nitrogen ( 15 N and 14 N). Biota<br />
assimilate both forms of C and N, and the<br />
ratio of 13 C/ 12 C (δ 13 C) and 15 N/ 14 N (δ 15 N)<br />
compared to a reference standard can be<br />
determined by an analysis of sample. In the<br />
laboratory, very small amounts of samples<br />
(microgram to milligram level) are oven<br />
dried at 60 o C for 48 hours then ground to a<br />
fine powder. Powdered and homogenised<br />
tissue samples are loaded into tin capsules,<br />
and are analysed with a c<strong>on</strong>tinuous flow<br />
isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS)<br />
to obtain the isotopic ratios of the samples.<br />
Mazumder<br />
The isotopic value of a c<strong>on</strong>sumer<br />
tissue is tightly linked with its food<br />
(Mazumder et al., 2016), when an animal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumes a food the carb<strong>on</strong> and nitrogen<br />
isotope ratios from food are transferred to<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>sumer tissues. There is an increase in<br />
the relative proporti<strong>on</strong> of carb<strong>on</strong>-13 c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
( 13 C/ 12 C ratio) and nitrogen-15 c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
( 15 N/ 14 N ratio) of the animal due to selective<br />
metabolic loss of the lighter isotopes during<br />
assimilati<strong>on</strong>, excreti<strong>on</strong> and growth. An<br />
animal is typically enriched in heavier 13 C<br />
and 15 N relative to its diet by approximately<br />
1‰ (DeNiro & Epstein, 1978) 3 to 4‰<br />
(Minagawa & Wada, 1984) respectively.<br />
This process is called trophic fracti<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
or enrichment. Carb<strong>on</strong> isotope signatures are<br />
used to trace the sources of diet, whilst<br />
nitrogen isotope ratios reflect the relative<br />
trophic positi<strong>on</strong> of organisms in the<br />
ecosystem (Fry 2006, Post et al., 2002).<br />
Stable isotope (δ 13 C and δ 15 N) analyses<br />
provide chemically validated data from<br />
which mathematical models about food web<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nectivity can be developed. When δ 13 C<br />
and δ 15 N signatures of organisms are plotted<br />
together <strong>on</strong> a carb<strong>on</strong> and nitrogen ‘bi-plot’<br />
(δ 13 C – X axis and δ 15 N – Y axis) trophic<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships can be visualized, whereby an<br />
organism’s positi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the X axis indicates<br />
their food source and Y axis indicates their<br />
trophic level (Figure 1). Further to identify<br />
food web relati<strong>on</strong>ships between animals,<br />
source mixing calculati<strong>on</strong> (i.e., IsoSource<br />
mixing model; Phillips and Gregg, 2003) is<br />
also used to quantify the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of diet<br />
sources to c<strong>on</strong>sumer animal (Boecklen et al.,<br />
2011).<br />
ESTUARINE FOOD WEB<br />
Estuaries are ecologically important places<br />
due to their high productivity and provisi<strong>on</strong><br />
of a number of functi<strong>on</strong>al services. Estuaries<br />
are nursery habitats for many species of fish,<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios…<br />
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of food chain<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between primary producers and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumer species. Trophic fracti<strong>on</strong>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
factors are in bold.<br />
prawn and crabs (Blaber, 2000; Nagelkerken<br />
et al., 2008). Some species spend the<br />
majority of their life in the estuary, some<br />
move regularly into estuaries, and others are<br />
short-term visitors from the inshore marine<br />
waters. The abundance of animals in<br />
estuaries and their ecosystem services are<br />
linked to the primary productivity, the<br />
spatial coverage of various substrates and<br />
the availability of wetland habitats such as<br />
seagrass, mangrove and saltmarshes.<br />
Mangroves and saltmarshes have l<strong>on</strong>g been<br />
linked with productive fisheries based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al-scale comparis<strong>on</strong>s of fisheries<br />
landings data (Meynecke et al., 2008;<br />
Saintilan et al., 2014). Understanding the<br />
energy and nutrient pathways, trophic<br />
linkages between estuarine animals and<br />
wetland (seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh)<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> sources are important for the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> of food webs vital to ensure<br />
healthy ecosystem services for human<br />
wellbeing.<br />
To quantify the trophic c<strong>on</strong>nectivity,<br />
Mazumder et al., (2011) used stable isotope<br />
Mazumder<br />
techniques and analysed carb<strong>on</strong> and nitrogen<br />
isotope values of primary producers and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumers collected from seagrass,<br />
mangrove and saltmarsh wetlands. Their<br />
work also analysed isotopic values of a<br />
range of fish species collected from estuary<br />
and quantified food chain linkages (Figure<br />
2).<br />
Research c<strong>on</strong>ducted in temperate<br />
estuaries in Australia found that Grapsid<br />
crabs living in saltmarsh and mangrove<br />
habitats are keyst<strong>on</strong>e species in the estuarine<br />
ecosystem. These crabs produce a huge<br />
quantity of larvae during spring tides which<br />
are exported to estuarine water through ebb<br />
tides (Mazumder et al., 2006; Mazumder et<br />
al., 2009; Platel and Freewater 2009).<br />
Glassfish (Ambassid jacks<strong>on</strong>iensis) is <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
the abundant species in the estuary that<br />
relies <strong>on</strong> crab larvae exported from the<br />
saltmarsh through ebb tides (Mazumder et<br />
al., 2006; Hollingsworth and C<strong>on</strong>nolly<br />
2006). Crabs living in the saltmarsh rely <strong>on</strong><br />
autotrophic producti<strong>on</strong>, mostly C4 carb<strong>on</strong><br />
and benthic organic materials for their diets<br />
(Guest et al., 2004; Saintilan and Mazumder<br />
2010; Alders<strong>on</strong> et al., 2013). Crabs produce<br />
larvae which are significant sources of<br />
energy for estuarine glassfish. Subsequently,<br />
the glassfish has significant food chain links<br />
with two top-order predatory fish species<br />
such as bream (Acanthopagrus australis)<br />
and mulloway (Argyrosomus jap<strong>on</strong>icas)<br />
(Mazumder et al., 2011). This is an example<br />
that illustrates the significance of trophic<br />
relay (Kneib 1997) between the estuarine<br />
wetlands and commercially valuable fish<br />
species in estuary. Food web models based<br />
<strong>on</strong> isotopic data (Figure 2) help identify<br />
trophic linkages between species, the<br />
importance of autotrophic carb<strong>on</strong> to benthic<br />
macro-invertebrates (crabs) and energy and<br />
nutrient flow from estuarine habitats to toporder<br />
fish species in the food webs. Thus<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> of commercially valuable fish<br />
species in the estuary is related to the<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios…<br />
Mazumder<br />
Figure 2: Energy and nutrient flow model of an estuarine food web (Adopted from Mazumder et<br />
al., 2011).<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> of wetlands. Without<br />
understanding these dynamics, ecosystem<br />
services of ecosystems cannot be protected<br />
for human wellbeing.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT<br />
The author is thankful to Dr. Jagoda<br />
Crayford (ANSTO) for helping to draw<br />
Figure 2 using Ecopath.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Alders<strong>on</strong>, B., Mazumder, D., Saintilan,<br />
N., Zimmerman, K. and Mulry, P.<br />
(2013). Applicati<strong>on</strong> of isotope mixing<br />
models to discriminate dietary sources<br />
over small-scale patches in saltmarsh.<br />
Marine Ecology Progress Series 487,<br />
113-122.<br />
Blaber, S. J. M. (2000). Tropical Estuarine<br />
Fishes Ecology, Exploitati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>. Fish and Aquatic<br />
Resources Series 7, Blackwell<br />
Science, 372pp.<br />
Boecklen, W. J., Yarnes, C. T., Cook, B.<br />
A. and James, A. C. (2011). On the<br />
Use of Stable Isotopes in Trophic<br />
Ecology. Annual Review of Ecology,<br />
Evoluti<strong>on</strong>, and Systematics 42(1), 411-<br />
440.<br />
DeNiro, M. J. and Epstein, S. (1978).<br />
Influence of diet <strong>on</strong> the distributi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> isotopes in animals.<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios…<br />
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta<br />
42(5), 495-506.<br />
Fry, B. (2006). Stable Isotope Ecology.<br />
Springer, New York<br />
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddingt<strong>on</strong>, J. R.,<br />
Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence,<br />
D., Muir, J. F., Pretty, J., Robins<strong>on</strong>,<br />
S., Thomas, S. M., and Toulmin, C.<br />
(2010). Food security: the challenge of<br />
feeding 9 billi<strong>on</strong> people. Science<br />
327(5967), 812-818.<br />
Guest, M. A., C<strong>on</strong>nolly, M. R. and<br />
L<strong>on</strong>eragan, R. N. (2004). Carb<strong>on</strong><br />
movement and assimilati<strong>on</strong> by<br />
invertebrates in estuarine habitats at a<br />
scale of metres. Marine Ecology<br />
Progress Series 278, 27-34.<br />
Khan, M., A., Khan, S., Miyan, K. (2011).<br />
Aquaculture as a food producti<strong>on</strong> system:<br />
a review. Biology and Medicine 3 (2),<br />
291-302.<br />
Kneib, R. T. (1997). The role of tidal<br />
marshes in the ecology of estuarine<br />
nekt<strong>on</strong>. Oceanography and Marine<br />
Biology Annual Review 35, 163-220.<br />
Mazumder, D. and Saintilan, N. (2010).<br />
Mangrove Leaves are Not an<br />
Important Source of Dietary Carb<strong>on</strong><br />
and Nitrogen for Crabs in Temperate<br />
Australian Mangroves. Wetlands<br />
30(2), 375-380.<br />
Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and<br />
Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships between itinerant fish<br />
and crab larvae in a temperate<br />
Australian saltmarsh. Marine and<br />
Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199.<br />
Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and<br />
Williams, R. J. (2009). Zooplankt<strong>on</strong><br />
inputs and outputs in the saltmarsh at<br />
Mazumder<br />
Towra Point, Australia. Wetlands<br />
Ecology and Management 17(3), 225-<br />
230.<br />
Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N. and<br />
Williams, R. J. (2006). Trophic<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships between itinerant fish<br />
and crab larvae in a temperate<br />
Australian saltmarsh. Marine and<br />
Freshwater Research 57(2), 193-199.<br />
Mazumder, D., Saintilan, N., Williams, R.<br />
J. and Szymczak, R. (2011). Trophic<br />
importance of a temperate intertidal<br />
wetland to resident and itinerant taxa:<br />
evidence from multiple stable isotope<br />
analyses. Marine and Freshwater<br />
Research 62(1), 11-19.<br />
Mazumder, D., Wen, L., Johansen, M. P.,<br />
Kobayashi, T. and Saintilan, N.<br />
(2016). Inherent variati<strong>on</strong> in carb<strong>on</strong><br />
and nitrogen isotopic assimilati<strong>on</strong> in<br />
the freshwater macro-invertebrate<br />
Cherax destructor. Marine and<br />
Freshwater Research 67(12), 1928-<br />
1937.<br />
Meynecke, J. O., Lee, S. Y., and Duke, N.<br />
C. (2008). Linking spatial metrics and<br />
fish catch reveals the importance of<br />
coastal wetland c<strong>on</strong>nectivity to inshore<br />
fisheries in Queensland, Australia.<br />
Biological C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> 141(4), 981-<br />
996.<br />
Minagawa, M. and Wada, E. (1984).<br />
Stepwise enrichment of 15N al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
food chains: Further evidence and the<br />
relati<strong>on</strong> between δ15N and animal age.<br />
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta<br />
48(5), 1135-1140.<br />
Nagelkerken, I., Kirt<strong>on</strong>, L. G., Meynecke,<br />
J. O., Pawlik, J., Penrose, H. M.,<br />
Blaber, S. J. M., Bouill<strong>on</strong>, S., Green,<br />
P., Haywood, M., Sasekumar, A.<br />
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Stable Carb<strong>on</strong> and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios…<br />
and Somerfield, P. J. (2008). The<br />
Habitat Functi<strong>on</strong> of Mangroves for<br />
Terrestrial and Marine Fauna: A<br />
Review. Aquatic Botany 89, 155-185.<br />
Peters<strong>on</strong>, B. J. and Fry, B. (1987). Stable<br />
Isotopes in Ecosystem Studies. Annual<br />
Review of Ecology and Systematics 18,<br />
293-320.<br />
Phillips, D. L. and Gregg, J. W. (2003).<br />
Source partiti<strong>on</strong>ing using stable<br />
isotopes: coping with too many<br />
sources. Oecologia 136(2), 261-9.<br />
Platell, M. E. and Freewater, P. (2009).<br />
Importance of saltmarsh to fish species<br />
of a large south-eastern Australian<br />
estuary during a spring tide cycle.<br />
Marine and Freshwater Research,<br />
60(9), 936-941.<br />
Post, D. M. (2002). Using stable isotopes to<br />
estimate trophic positi<strong>on</strong>: models,<br />
methods, and assumpti<strong>on</strong>s. Ecology 83<br />
(3), 703–718.<br />
Mazumder<br />
Saintilan, N., Wils<strong>on</strong>, N.C., Rogers, K.,<br />
Rajkaran, A., and Krauss, K.W.<br />
(2014). Mangrove expansi<strong>on</strong> and salt<br />
marsh decline at mangrove poleward<br />
limits. Global change biology 20(1),<br />
147-157.<br />
SOFIA, (2009). The state of world fisheries<br />
and aquaculture 2008. FAO Fisheries<br />
and Aquaculture Department. Food<br />
and Agriculture Organizati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s, Rome.<br />
Tac<strong>on</strong>, A. G. J. and Metian, M. (2013). Fish<br />
Matters: Importance of Aquatic Foods in<br />
Human Nutriti<strong>on</strong> and Global Food<br />
Supply. Reviews in Fisheries Science<br />
21(1), 22-38.<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
and Social Affairs, Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Divisi<strong>on</strong> (2015). World Populati<strong>on</strong><br />
Prospects: The 2015 Revisi<strong>on</strong>. New<br />
York: United Nati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P95-106<br />
Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria and Crop Productivity<br />
Umaiyal Munusamy<br />
Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture (CEBAR), Level 3, Research Management<br />
& Innovati<strong>on</strong> Complex, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia<br />
Email: yal23@um.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Climate change drives yield reducti<strong>on</strong> in most of the crops. Industrialized agricultural systems<br />
are becoming unsustainable due to climate change. Research findings in the areas of plant microbe<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s suggest that the usage of plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) has the possibility<br />
to improve crop productivity in the coming years. Therefore, applicati<strong>on</strong> of PGPB which<br />
creates a step forward towards sustainable agricultural systems is recommended to replace the<br />
dependence <strong>on</strong> chemical and synthetic fertilizers. This article presents an overview of PGPB and<br />
their potential applicati<strong>on</strong>s in enhancing agricultural crop productivity.<br />
Keywords: Agriculture; bacteria; envir<strong>on</strong>ment; plant growth regulators; sustainability<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
According to the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
the U.S. Census Bureau, the current world<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> (total number of humans currently<br />
living) is estimated to be at 7.4 billi<strong>on</strong> as<br />
of September 2016 and expected to reach 8<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> people in the spring of 2024 and 10<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> in the year 2056. The FAO (2016)<br />
highlighted that the food supply needs to be<br />
increased by 70 percent to feed this populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Even though, industrialized farming<br />
has become more intensive through artificial<br />
fertilizers and chemical pesticides, it has resulted<br />
into undesirable envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts<br />
such as destructi<strong>on</strong> of virgin forests,<br />
deteriorati<strong>on</strong> of water quality, overuse of<br />
manure, in efficient m<strong>on</strong>oculture strategies<br />
and finally increasing of greenhouse gas<br />
emissi<strong>on</strong>s (Abbam<strong>on</strong>di et al., 2016; Compant<br />
et al., 2005). Furthermore, in this current<br />
climate changes industrialized farming<br />
strategies to enhance crop productivity are<br />
becoming unsustainable. In additi<strong>on</strong>, climate<br />
change through higher temperatures, precipitati<strong>on</strong><br />
changes, increased weeds, pests and<br />
disease pressure has affected the agriculture<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> in most of the countries. For instance,<br />
the article reported by STAR (2016<br />
A, B) and New Sunday Times (2016) (Figure<br />
1) shows that vegetables are wilted and<br />
the vegetable’s qualities are dropped due to<br />
the heat wave and these changes will have<br />
severe impacts <strong>on</strong> all the comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the<br />
food security (Kang et al., 2009) if the global<br />
mean surface temperature is projected to<br />
rise in a range from 1.8°C to 4.0°C by 2100<br />
(IPCC, 2007).<br />
Therefore, current research objectives<br />
are mainly focusing <strong>on</strong> a sustainable<br />
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agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> which will be efficient<br />
in terms of natural resources need and<br />
more c<strong>on</strong>sumer c<strong>on</strong>sciousness (Dawwam et<br />
al., 2013).<br />
A<br />
B<br />
Munusamy<br />
In another words it should be sustainable<br />
both envir<strong>on</strong>mentally and socially (Carvajal-<br />
Munoz and Carm<strong>on</strong>a-Garcia, 2012). One of<br />
the latest techniques that falls in the above<br />
preference will be through the applicati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB)<br />
(Lucy et al., 2004). It is mainly found in<br />
soil, rhizosphere regi<strong>on</strong> and also associated<br />
inside the plant cells (Gagne-Bourque et al.,<br />
2015). In the soil, PGPB will be living<br />
freely, while in the rhizosphere regi<strong>on</strong> it will<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ize the plant interior roots and allows<br />
some bacteria to migrate towards the aerial<br />
parts of the seedlings and promote the<br />
growth of the plants (Figure 2A, B) (Compant<br />
et al., 2005).<br />
C<br />
Figure 2: A) A schematic diagram showing<br />
Figure 1(A, B & C): Media reports highlighting<br />
challenges in agriculture sector moting bacteria (PGPB); B) types of PGPB.<br />
plant’s associati<strong>on</strong> with plant growth pro-<br />
(Star, 2016A, B; New Sunday Times, 2016).<br />
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Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria<br />
The differences between PGPB and<br />
biofertilizers are comm<strong>on</strong>ly debateable as<br />
the biofertilizers also can promote plant<br />
growth. However, biofertilizers require special<br />
care for l<strong>on</strong>g term storage because they<br />
are live cultures (Youssef and Eissa, 2014)<br />
and it must be used before its expiry date. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, it should not be c<strong>on</strong>taminated with<br />
other bacteria (Carvajal-Munoz and Carm<strong>on</strong>a-Garcia,<br />
2012).<br />
Biofertilizers are also unable to show<br />
promising results in the hot climates, unfavourable<br />
soil pH c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and in pathogenic<br />
bacteria infected soils (Mishra, 2014).<br />
Apart from the higher cost, the leaches of<br />
the biofertilizer inoculants such as organic<br />
matter, phosphates and nitrates are also another<br />
problem that need to be managed (Abbam<strong>on</strong>di<br />
et al., 2016). The leached nitrates<br />
and phosphates that enter the water systems<br />
will lead to eutrophicati<strong>on</strong> in the water reservoirs<br />
and cause death of many aquatic organisms<br />
(Brar et al., 2012). In additi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
organic material derived from the biofertilizers<br />
will increase the carb<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tent in the<br />
soil and hence will c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the greenhouse<br />
gasses (Saeed et al., 2015). Since food<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> needs to be increased without<br />
negative impacts to the envir<strong>on</strong>ment, PGPB<br />
are the obvious choice to be utilized (Lucy<br />
et al., 2004).<br />
PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING<br />
BACTERIA (PGPB)<br />
As depicted in figure 2, it is the free living<br />
bacteria that present in the soil (Compant et<br />
al., 2005). Bacteria that are located around<br />
the roots are known as rhizobacteria. While,<br />
bacteria that are able to col<strong>on</strong>ize the internal<br />
tissues of plant organs escape the competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
from rhizosphere microorganisms are<br />
called as endophyte (Figure 2A, B) (Gagne-<br />
Bourque et al., 2016). The reas<strong>on</strong> for the<br />
presence of various kinds of bacteria in the<br />
Munusamy<br />
soil is due to the various type of discharges<br />
such as amino acids, sugars and organic acids<br />
that are released from the plant roots<br />
(Tak et al., 2013) and also due to different<br />
soil c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s (drought, flood, salinity and<br />
metal toxicity) (Inagaki et al., 2015). The<br />
PGPB strains have different degree of capability<br />
to attract to the root exudates (Ma et<br />
al., 2016). However, the n<strong>on</strong>-PGPB or phytopathogens<br />
do not have this capability (Yuan,<br />
2015).<br />
TYPES OF PGPB<br />
Plant growth promoting bacteria bel<strong>on</strong>g to<br />
diverse genera such as Acetobacter, Achromobacter,<br />
Anabaena, Arthrobacter,<br />
Azoarcos, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus,<br />
Frankia, Hydrogenophaga, Microcoleus,<br />
Phyllobacterium and Pseudom<strong>on</strong>as.<br />
They are endophytes that are n<strong>on</strong>-pathogenic<br />
to plants (Gagne-Bourque et al., 2016). They<br />
are also classified based <strong>on</strong> the plant species<br />
(Compant et al., 2005), plant organs and tissues<br />
such as from phyllosphere (Gagne-<br />
Bourque et al., 2016), anthosphere (Berg et<br />
al., 2014) or spermosphere (Sivasakthivelan<br />
and Stella, 2012). The presence of PGPB in<br />
the soils are also depends <strong>on</strong> the types of soil<br />
such as dry, cold, muddy and also determined<br />
by the types of climate regi<strong>on</strong> such as<br />
tropical, dry, mild Mediterranean, c<strong>on</strong>tinental<br />
and polar climates (Souza et al., 2015;<br />
Nihorimbere et al., 2011).<br />
FUNCTION OF PGPB<br />
Facilitating resources<br />
Endophytic bacteria exchange nutriti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
enzymes (lipase, catalase and oxidase), functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
agents (siderophores, biosurfactants)<br />
and signals (Abbam<strong>on</strong>di et al., 2016) efficiently.<br />
The PGPB are known to promote<br />
root development by increasing the water<br />
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absorpti<strong>on</strong> in plant root cells (Vacher<strong>on</strong> et<br />
al., 2013). They can also produce phytohorm<strong>on</strong>es<br />
such as indole acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic<br />
acid (GA) and cytokinins (Gupta et<br />
al., 2015). Different PGPB produce different<br />
phytohorm<strong>on</strong>es (P<strong>on</strong>tes et al., 2015). In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
it is also capable of inducing modificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in plant gene expressi<strong>on</strong>, increasing<br />
drought resistance associated genes like<br />
ERD15 (early resp<strong>on</strong>se to dehydrati<strong>on</strong>) or<br />
DREB (dehydrati<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>sive element protein)<br />
(Gagne-Bourque et al., 2015). Inoculati<strong>on</strong><br />
of PGPB will increase the uptake of<br />
NH4 + , HPO4 2- /H2PO4 - by the roots, mineralize<br />
organic soil and induce tolerance or resistance<br />
to the biotic stress (Nkebiwe et al.,<br />
2016). Most PGPB can also facilitate the<br />
uptake of envir<strong>on</strong>mental nutrients such as<br />
sulphur, magnesium and calcium. It has<br />
shown to solubilise and mineralize organic<br />
soil (Calvo et al., 2014) these will induce<br />
biochemical changes in the plant which will<br />
lead to beneficial effects <strong>on</strong> the plant health,<br />
growth and also in decreasing plant disease<br />
(Tak et al., 2013).<br />
Phosphate solubilisati<strong>on</strong><br />
Phosphorus is a major macr<strong>on</strong>utrient needed<br />
by plants; however, it is present in unavailable<br />
form in the soil (Yuan, 2015). In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the rainfall and leaching will c<strong>on</strong>tinuously<br />
reduce the phosphorus level in the soil<br />
(Brar et al., 2012). The presences of PGPB<br />
will enable the c<strong>on</strong>versi<strong>on</strong> of phosphorus<br />
into more available forms, such as orthophosphates<br />
which plant roots can absorb<br />
easily (Rodriguez et al., 2006).<br />
Nitrogen fixati<strong>on</strong><br />
According to the Fertilizers Institute of<br />
United States (2016), there is 78% of nitrogen<br />
in the air and 98% presence in the soil.<br />
Therefore, there is no limitati<strong>on</strong> in nitrogen<br />
Munusamy<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent for all living things especially for<br />
plant. Fixing atmosphere nitrogen (N2) and<br />
stimulati<strong>on</strong> of nitrate transport system by<br />
PGPB increases the nitrogen availability for<br />
the plants (Mantelin and Touraine, 2004).<br />
Besides plant growth, nitrogen is required<br />
for synthesis of enzyme, proteins, chlorophyll,<br />
DNA and RNA (Saeed et al., 2015).<br />
Sequestrati<strong>on</strong> of Ir<strong>on</strong><br />
Ir<strong>on</strong> mainly affects the variety of bacterial<br />
communities in the soil as they compete<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g themselves to absorb the available<br />
ir<strong>on</strong> (Woitke and Schnitzler, 2005). Therefore,<br />
PGPB synthesize low molecular mass<br />
known as siderophore under ir<strong>on</strong> limiting<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. This molecule will competitively<br />
bind to ferric i<strong>on</strong> Fe +3 to form Fesiderophore<br />
complex that facilitate better<br />
ir<strong>on</strong> uptake (Gupta et al., 2014). Various<br />
bacterial strains will synthesize different<br />
types of siderophores that functi<strong>on</strong> differently<br />
(Ahmed and Holmstrom, 2014). They also<br />
generally remove any kind of siderophores<br />
with lower affinity and draw ir<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from heterologous siderophores that are<br />
coproduced by other microorganisms. All<br />
these will increase the uptake of ir<strong>on</strong> in<br />
plants (Compant et al., 2005).<br />
ALTERATION OF PHYTOHORMONE<br />
LEVELS<br />
Modulati<strong>on</strong> of ethylene<br />
Methi<strong>on</strong>ine is the initial substrate involve in<br />
the ethylene producti<strong>on</strong>. This substrate is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>verted into S-adenosyl-L-methi<strong>on</strong>ine<br />
(SAM) by SAM synthase. It is then hydrolyzed<br />
to 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic<br />
acid (ACC) and 5- methyl thioadenosine by<br />
ACC synthase (Gamalero and Glick, 2015).<br />
Finally, ACC molecule is metabolized to<br />
ethylene, carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide and cyanide by<br />
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Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria<br />
ACC oxidase. However, the high formati<strong>on</strong><br />
of ethylene can be harmful to the plants;<br />
therefore, its level needs to be regulated<br />
(Shagol and Sa, 2012). In that, ethylene<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> is regulated by ACC deaminase in<br />
the PGPB cell by extracting ACC oxidase<br />
and synthase from the plant cell into PGPB<br />
cell (Marasco et al., 2013). This reacti<strong>on</strong><br />
produces amm<strong>on</strong>ia and α-ketobutyrate that<br />
lowers the plant ethylene levels (Toklikishvili<br />
et al., 2010).<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA)<br />
Munusamy<br />
Plants produce IAA from independent biosynthetic<br />
pathway of tryptophan while<br />
PGPB produce IAA by using tryptophan released<br />
by the plant roots (Tak et al., 2013).<br />
According to Mohite (2013), IAA have various<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s in plants such as plant cell divisi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
extensi<strong>on</strong> and differentiati<strong>on</strong>, increases<br />
the rate of xylem and root development,<br />
initiates lateral and adventitious root<br />
formati<strong>on</strong>, while according to Shahab et al.<br />
(2013), IAA stimulates seed and tuber germinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trols process of vegetative,<br />
mediates resp<strong>on</strong>ses to light, gravity and florescence,<br />
affects the photosynthesis level,<br />
pigment formati<strong>on</strong>, biosynthesis of various<br />
metabolites and resistance towards stressful<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. Different plant species (Ljung et<br />
al., 2013), different plant organs such as<br />
roots and shoots (Liu et al., 2012) and different<br />
tissues (Peterss<strong>on</strong> et al., 2009) resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
differently towards the effects of IAA.<br />
Furthermore, plants always resp<strong>on</strong>d based<br />
<strong>on</strong> the total c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> of IAA inside the<br />
plant cells as IAA is being produced by<br />
plant through various channel such as<br />
through independent pathway, through formati<strong>on</strong><br />
of other indolic compounds (both<br />
endogenous and synthetic) which represents<br />
auxin-like activities (Ljung, 2013) and also<br />
through PGPB secreti<strong>on</strong> (El-Azeem et al.,<br />
2007). Therefore, the combined c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of IAA will alter the IAA c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong><br />
to either promoti<strong>on</strong> or inhibiti<strong>on</strong> of plant<br />
growth (Glick, 2014).<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> of cytokinins and gibberellins<br />
PGPB are capable to produce cytokinins and<br />
gibberellins in the cell-free medium and<br />
plant growth promoti<strong>on</strong> experiment<br />
(Vacher<strong>on</strong> et al., 2013). Cytokinins are essential<br />
for plant cell divisi<strong>on</strong>, seed germinati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
branching, root growth, accumulati<strong>on</strong><br />
of chlorophyll, leaf expansi<strong>on</strong> and delay of<br />
senescence (Gamalero and Glick, 2015).<br />
Whereas, gibberellins are involved in cell<br />
divisi<strong>on</strong> and el<strong>on</strong>gati<strong>on</strong>, plant developmental<br />
processes such as seed germinati<strong>on</strong>, stem<br />
el<strong>on</strong>gati<strong>on</strong>, flowering, fruiting and delay of<br />
senescence, promoti<strong>on</strong> of root growth since<br />
they regulate root hair abundance (Colebrook<br />
et al., 2014).<br />
INDIRECT MECHANISM<br />
Bioc<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
The damage caused by the fungal (Ahmad et<br />
al., 2008), bacterial (Vidaver and Lambrecht,<br />
2004), viral (Gergerich and Dolja,<br />
2006), insects (USDA, 2015) and nematodes<br />
(Youssef and Eissa, 2014) need to be c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
efficiently. The usage of PGPB as a<br />
bioc<strong>on</strong>trol was initiated due to c<strong>on</strong>sumer<br />
demands <strong>on</strong> pesticides free crops, to reduce<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental impacts and the increasing<br />
cost of agrochemicals (Agarwal et al.,<br />
2011). The ability of PGPB to produce many<br />
types of antag<strong>on</strong>istic antibiotics prevents the<br />
proliferati<strong>on</strong> of plant pathogens (Ahmad et<br />
al., 2008). According to Gupta et al. (2015),<br />
amphisin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol<br />
(DAPG), oomycin A, phenazine, pyoluteorin,<br />
pyrrolnitrin, tensin, tropol<strong>on</strong>e, cyclic<br />
lipopeptides, cylic oligomycin A, kanosamine,<br />
zwittermicin A, and xanthobaccin are<br />
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Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria<br />
some identified antibiotics produced by<br />
PGPB. These antibiotics are formed through<br />
metabolic pathways in the bacterial cell<br />
through usage of available nutrients, biotic<br />
and envir<strong>on</strong>mental stimuli such as minerals,<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> source, pH, temperature and trace<br />
elements (Compant et al., 2005). However,<br />
some pathogens will develop resistance to<br />
these antibiotics. Therefore, usage of multiple<br />
bacteria that produce multiple antibiotics<br />
which acts synergistically will show better<br />
effects (Glick, 2012). In additi<strong>on</strong>, formati<strong>on</strong><br />
of allelochemicals by PGPB has the potential<br />
to suppress pathogens activities (Saraf et<br />
al., 2014). Besides that, the capability of<br />
PGPB in producing chitinase, cellulase, β-<br />
1,3 glucanase, protease and lipases will<br />
breakdown the cell walls of pathogenic bacteria<br />
and fungus (Hamid et al., 2013, El-<br />
Katatny, 2010). In additi<strong>on</strong>, the formati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
siderophores will prevent some pathogenic<br />
bacteria from acquiring ir<strong>on</strong> nutrient directly<br />
from the soil. This somehow will affect<br />
pathogenic bacterial proliferati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
growth (Gupta et al., 2014). On the other<br />
hand, applicati<strong>on</strong> of PGPB will increase the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent of beneficial bacteria in the soil.<br />
Abundant of beneficial bacteria will rapidly<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ize plant roots before pathogenic bacteria<br />
could actually invade into the plant root<br />
system (Kundan et al., 2015; Glick, 2012).<br />
Furthermore, PGPB are also capable to detoxify<br />
pathogen virulence factor by producing<br />
proteins that reversibly bind to the toxins<br />
(Gaiero et al., 2013). Recently, it was reported<br />
that PGPB suppress the virulence<br />
genes by quenching pathogen quarom sensing<br />
capacity by degrading autoinducer signals<br />
(Compant et al., 2005). Therefore,<br />
PGPB can be used as a bioc<strong>on</strong>trol agent to<br />
defeat the pathogens.<br />
Induced systemic resistance in plants<br />
Munusamy<br />
Biopriming plants with PGPB will trigger<br />
the induced systemic resistance (ISR)<br />
through flagellati<strong>on</strong>, siderophore, lipopolysacharides<br />
and volatile organic compounds<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> (Compant et al., 2005). This type<br />
of resistance is mainly dem<strong>on</strong>strated by rhizobacteria<br />
and endophytes, and they will not<br />
cause any visible symptoms of disease.<br />
However, defence mechanism which is a<br />
type of resistant mechanism triggered by<br />
PGPB will regulate different sets of genes<br />
such as peroxides, phenylalanine, amm<strong>on</strong>ia<br />
lyase, phytoalexins, polyphenol oxidase and<br />
chalc<strong>on</strong>e synthase (Choudhary and Johri,<br />
2009). Through this mechanism, accumulati<strong>on</strong><br />
of salicylic acid, jasm<strong>on</strong>ate and ethylene<br />
will increase the strength of plant cell wall<br />
and alters host physiology and metabolic<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses leading to an enhanced synthesis<br />
of plant defence against abiotic stress (Compant<br />
et al., 2005). Besides that, since water<br />
is <strong>on</strong>e of the most limiting factors for plant<br />
development in semi arid climates, xerotolerant<br />
microorganisms can be used to increase<br />
growth of plants in such climatic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> (Petrovic et al., 2000). It is because<br />
microorganisms that can survive under<br />
drought c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s have several mechanisms<br />
such as the producti<strong>on</strong> of exopolysacharides,<br />
biofilm formati<strong>on</strong> and osmolytes producti<strong>on</strong><br />
that help to avoid cell water loss and boost<br />
the plant growth (Kavamura et al., 2013). In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, PGPB can offer plant protecti<strong>on</strong><br />
against desiccati<strong>on</strong> through the maintenance<br />
of moist envir<strong>on</strong>ment and by supplying nutrients<br />
and horm<strong>on</strong>es which act as a plant<br />
growth promoter for root development<br />
(Vacher<strong>on</strong> et al., 2013).<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability<br />
Applicati<strong>on</strong> of PGPB will naturally enhance<br />
soil fertility (Roychowdhury et al., 2014).<br />
Increase of PGPB c<strong>on</strong>centrati<strong>on</strong> in the soil<br />
will enhance the degradati<strong>on</strong> of resources<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria<br />
efficiently and will lead to reducti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
leaches into water system (Reed and Glick,<br />
2004). Therefore, usage of PGPB can be<br />
helpful in creating envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability.<br />
Plant microbe interacti<strong>on</strong>s apparently<br />
offer a favourable envir<strong>on</strong>ment for cometabolism<br />
of soil-bound bacteria with recalcitrant<br />
chemicals (Ambrosini et al.,<br />
2016). The microbial transformati<strong>on</strong> of toxic<br />
compounds into n<strong>on</strong>-toxic material is mediated<br />
by the energy provided by the root exudates<br />
(Agarwal Pavan et al., 2011). In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
PGPB are also known to produce biosurfactants<br />
that c<strong>on</strong>tributes in the removal of<br />
toxic c<strong>on</strong>taminants in the soil (Bashan et al.,<br />
2008).<br />
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES<br />
Soil microorganisms (PGPB) play an important<br />
role in maintaining soil structure,<br />
fertility and the growth of plants. They are<br />
able to influence these effects due to their<br />
close associati<strong>on</strong> with the plants. Studies<br />
regarding the root-microbe interacti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
are affected by the genetic and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol al<strong>on</strong>g with the spatial and temporal<br />
aspects needs to be studied in detail.<br />
Field applicati<strong>on</strong> is very important for the<br />
successful implementati<strong>on</strong> of PGPB. The<br />
importance of PGPB is slowly being recognized<br />
by farmers in all regi<strong>on</strong>s and they are<br />
slowly shifting towards replacing c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
agricultural methods with sustainable<br />
agricultural techniques.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
The author would like to thank Editors for<br />
helping to improve the article c<strong>on</strong>tent.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
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World Soil Day: A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Global<br />
Sustainable Development<br />
Subhash Janardhan Bhore<br />
Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bed<strong>on</strong>g-Semeling<br />
Road, 08100 Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah, Malaysia<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: +60-4-429-8176; Email: subhash@aimst.edu.my / subhashbhore@gmail.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Food that we eat provides the nutrients to nourish our body. The world populati<strong>on</strong> is growing<br />
rapidly and providing enough food to meet the increasing demand will be a huge challenge. The<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s most recent estimate indicates that the world populati<strong>on</strong> will be about 8.5 billi<strong>on</strong> in<br />
2030 and we need to double the agricultural productivity by that time to meet the expected demand.<br />
The whole agricultural productivity and our food security are mainly dependent <strong>on</strong> the<br />
health of soil. In fact, soil is the basis in providing our nutrients, water, climate, biodiversity and<br />
life. However, soils have been neglected at large. The damage caused by deforestati<strong>on</strong>, extensive<br />
usage of synthetic fertilizers, mining, soil erosi<strong>on</strong>, and rapidly growing urbanizati<strong>on</strong> are the major<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerns. Because, all these soil destructing activities are not climate-neutral. Every year, the<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al community is observing December 5 as ‘World Soil Day’ to c<strong>on</strong>nect people with<br />
soils and raise awareness <strong>on</strong> soils critical importance in our lives. The purpose of this article is to<br />
highlight the importance of soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>, and a need to take up its preservati<strong>on</strong> and restorati<strong>on</strong><br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s. Bearing in mind the sustainable development goals (SDGs), the role of soils health in<br />
enhancing agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner and its importance in global sustainable<br />
development is also highlighted.<br />
Keywords: Agriculture; biotechnology; deforestati<strong>on</strong>; envir<strong>on</strong>ment; poverty; sustainable development<br />
goals (SDGs); synthetic fertilizers; world soil day<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
The 68 th general assembly of the United Nati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(UN), held in December 2013 had declared<br />
unanimously that December 5 will be<br />
observed as the World Soil Day (WSD). Every<br />
year, the WSD is observed <strong>on</strong> December 5 th to<br />
promote the awareness about importance of<br />
soil in our lives and significance of sustainable<br />
soil management.<br />
The themes for World Soil 2014 and 2015<br />
were “Soils, foundati<strong>on</strong> for family farming”<br />
and “Soils, a solid ground for life”, respectively.<br />
This year (2016), the WSD theme was<br />
─ “soils and pulses, a symbiosis for life”. The<br />
purpose was to highlight the importance of<br />
cultivating pulses to enhance the soil fertility.<br />
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Pulses [plant species from family: Fabaceae<br />
(this family is also known as Leguminosae)]<br />
are known to fix the nitrogen from atmosphere<br />
and that helps in improvement of soils fertility,<br />
structure and microbial biodiversity (Wahbi el<br />
al., 2016; Luo el al., 2016; UN, 2016). This<br />
article highlights the various issues associated<br />
with soils degradati<strong>on</strong>, loss and c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
as well as the role of heathy soils in sustainable<br />
development for people and planet in c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
with the sustainable development goals (SDGs)<br />
adopted by the UN.<br />
SOILS AS SOLID GROUND FOR LIFE<br />
The nutrients derived from our daily diet are<br />
essential for our body’s growth, development,<br />
repairs, and to lead an active, healthy life. In<br />
fact, soil is the basis for the producti<strong>on</strong> of all<br />
types of food in agriculture and aquaculture<br />
industry. Therefore, sustainable agricultural<br />
productivity is very important in order to feed<br />
the global populati<strong>on</strong>. The UN estimates suggest<br />
that rapid ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth and increased<br />
agricultural productivity in last 20 years<br />
helped to make huge progress globally in<br />
eradicating extreme hunger; but, extreme<br />
hunger as well as malnutriti<strong>on</strong> remains a huge<br />
challenge (UNDP, 2016) in several countries<br />
in general, and in developing and least developed<br />
countries in particular. The UN estimates<br />
also clearly indicates that about 795 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
people are chr<strong>on</strong>ically undernourished because<br />
of poor agricultural productivity mainly due to<br />
a direct c<strong>on</strong>sequence of envir<strong>on</strong>mental degradati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
drought and loss of biodiversity<br />
(UNDP, 2016; Hunter el al., 2016).<br />
PLEDGE FOR FOOD SECURITY IN<br />
SDGs<br />
For the internati<strong>on</strong>al community, <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
challenge is ─ how we can make sure that all<br />
people <strong>on</strong> the planet will have enough food in a<br />
sustainable manner? The UN are determined to<br />
Bhore<br />
end all forms of hunger and malnutriti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
2030 and it is clearly reflected in the seventeen-SDGs<br />
(Table 1) ambitiously adopted by<br />
the internati<strong>on</strong>al community (SDGs, 2016).<br />
The total agricultural producti<strong>on</strong> including<br />
milk, meat and fishes from aquaculture is<br />
completely relied <strong>on</strong> soil health; hence, c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
of soil is of prime importance to<br />
accomplish SDG 1 (end poverty in all its forms<br />
everywhere) and SDG 2 (end hunger, achieve<br />
food security and improved nutriti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
promote sustainable agriculture). Directly or<br />
indirectly, the efficacy of sustainable soil<br />
management will complement the efforts of<br />
accomplishing other SDGs (Table 1).<br />
WHAT DEGRADES OR DESTRUCTS<br />
SOILS?<br />
Deforestati<strong>on</strong>, extensive usage of synthetic<br />
fertilizers, mining, soil erosi<strong>on</strong>, and rapidly<br />
growing urbanizati<strong>on</strong> are some of the major<br />
causes resp<strong>on</strong>sible for soil degradati<strong>on</strong> and or<br />
destructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Through our daily diet, we are taking<br />
carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, fats, vitamins<br />
and trace elements to nourish our body.<br />
All food items that we eat are linked with soils.<br />
For instance, in agriculture, crop plants take<br />
their nutrients from the soil, while fishes or<br />
other aquatic animal we eat are dependent <strong>on</strong><br />
phytoplankt<strong>on</strong>s, zooplankt<strong>on</strong>, seaweed, and or<br />
nutrients from specially designed fish food<br />
formulati<strong>on</strong> (Alemzadeh et al., 2014; Gharajehdaghipour<br />
et al., 2016; Bentz<strong>on</strong>‐Tilia et al.,<br />
2016; Hehre and Meeuwig, 2016). Directly or<br />
indirectly, all the nutrients required for humans<br />
are originated from soil (Figure 1).<br />
Hence, sustainable soil management is of<br />
prime importance for a sustainable global food<br />
supply as well as for global food security.<br />
Destructi<strong>on</strong> of soils by deforestati<strong>on</strong><br />
About 13 Milli<strong>on</strong> hectares of forest are cleared<br />
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Table 1: Sustainable development goals<br />
adopted by United Nati<strong>on</strong>s (SDGs, 2016).<br />
No Sustainable Development Goals<br />
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere.<br />
2. End hunger, achieve food security and<br />
improved nutriti<strong>on</strong> and promote sustainable<br />
agriculture.<br />
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote<br />
well-being for all at all ages.<br />
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> and promote lifel<strong>on</strong>g learning<br />
opportunities for all.<br />
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all<br />
women and girls.<br />
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management<br />
of water and sanitati<strong>on</strong> for all.<br />
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable<br />
and modern energy for all.<br />
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic growth, full and productive<br />
employment and decent work for<br />
all.<br />
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote<br />
inclusive and sustainable industrializati<strong>on</strong><br />
and foster innovati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
10. Reduce inequality within and am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
countries.<br />
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive,<br />
safe, resilient and sustainable.<br />
12. Ensure sustainable c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> patterns.<br />
13. Take urgent acti<strong>on</strong> to combat climate<br />
change and its impacts.<br />
14. C<strong>on</strong>serve and sustainably use the oceans,<br />
seas and marine resources for sustainable<br />
development.<br />
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable<br />
use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably<br />
Bhore<br />
manage forests, combat desertificati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and halt and reverse land degradati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
halt biodiversity loss.<br />
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies<br />
for sustainable development, provide access<br />
to justice for all and build effective,<br />
accountable and inclusive instituti<strong>on</strong>s at<br />
all levels.<br />
17. Strengthen the means of implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
and revitalize the global partnership for<br />
sustainable development.<br />
every year for mining, inappropriate farming<br />
techniques, and for the c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of cities,<br />
roads (Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015). As a<br />
result, we lose fertile soils forever at the expense<br />
of forests, pastureland and its envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
benefits. By supporting forests, soil<br />
plays very important roles in biodiversity<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>, carb<strong>on</strong> storage and climate regulati<strong>on</strong><br />
(B<strong>on</strong>an, 2008; Cohn et al., 2014).<br />
Destructi<strong>on</strong> of soils by mining<br />
Arable land and fertile soils are also destructed<br />
by mining activities for coal, metals and mineral<br />
extracti<strong>on</strong>. Globally, less than 1% of the<br />
land is used for mineral extracti<strong>on</strong>; however,<br />
its impact is huge and in the process we lose<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>s of t<strong>on</strong>s’ fertile soils. Mining is also<br />
causing huge amount of adverse effect <strong>on</strong> the<br />
local, regi<strong>on</strong>al and global envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
(Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Maier et al.,<br />
2014).<br />
Destructi<strong>on</strong> of soils by urbanizati<strong>on</strong><br />
In general, people from rural areas migrate to<br />
cities for the employment purpose. In 2014,<br />
54% of the world’s populati<strong>on</strong> was residing in<br />
urban areas (UN, 2014). The rapidly growing<br />
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Bhore<br />
Figure 1: A schematic diagram showing flow of nutrients depicting the importance of soils.<br />
urbanizati<strong>on</strong> in the world is also resp<strong>on</strong>sible<br />
for the soils destructi<strong>on</strong> as the several developmental<br />
projects destroy the arable and fertile<br />
soils. For instance, usage of paddy fields for<br />
the housing projects. It is estimated that<br />
growing urbanizati<strong>on</strong> is causing the loss of 2<br />
hectares of soil per minute (Huang et al., 2015;<br />
Chemnitz and Weigelt, 2015; Takano, 2007).<br />
USE OF SYNTHETIC FERTILIZERS<br />
freshwater (and marine) eutrophicati<strong>on</strong><br />
(UNEP, 2014). Hence, we should avoid the<br />
usage of synthetic fertilizers to protect the soil<br />
fertility. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the producti<strong>on</strong> and marketing<br />
of synthetic fertilizers (nitrogen, phosphorus<br />
and potassium (NPK)) utilize huge<br />
amount of natural resources (Chemnitz and<br />
Weigelt, 2015).<br />
WHAT SHOULD BE DONE?<br />
In agriculture of most of the countries, synthetic<br />
For sustainable soil management and agricul-<br />
fertilizers are used widely. The extensive tural sustainability, we need to promote<br />
usage of inorganic fertilizers is definitely eco-friendly practices to enhance the soil fertility<br />
helping to enhance the agricultural productivity.<br />
and agricultural productivity (Panel 1).<br />
However, for l<strong>on</strong>g term, if we completely We also need to find out innovative ways of<br />
depend <strong>on</strong> synthetic fertilizers then it is impossible<br />
using eco-friendly agricultural practices. In-<br />
to attain agricultural sustainability novative use of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi<br />
and to end global hunger (Chemnitz and (AMF) (Robins<strong>on</strong> et al., 2016; Asmelash et al.,<br />
Weigelt, 2015). Use of synthetic fertilizers is 2016), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria<br />
not an envir<strong>on</strong>ment friendly practice as it (PGPR) (Bharti et al., 2016; Kuan et al., 2016),<br />
damages the soil fertility and causes the and endophytes (fungal and bacterial)<br />
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Bhore<br />
Panel 1: Eco-friendly agricultural practices for sustainable soil management and for agricultural<br />
and envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustainability. AMF, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi; and PGPR, plant<br />
growth-promoting rhizobacteria.<br />
(Molina-M<strong>on</strong>tenegro et al., 2016; Pandey et<br />
al., 2016; Tétard‐J<strong>on</strong>es and Edwards, 2016) in<br />
agriculture does have tremendous potential to<br />
promote the growth, development and<br />
productivity of agricultural crops. In fact,<br />
eco-friendly agricultural practices will not<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly help in boosting sustainable soil management<br />
and food security but also benefit<br />
several other sectors including water supply<br />
system, socio-ec<strong>on</strong>omic, social health etc.<br />
(Panel 2).<br />
A BROADER PERSPECTIVE<br />
As a whole, if we do sustainable soil management<br />
effectively then we should be able to<br />
keep soil in its healthy c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>. As a result,<br />
healthy soil will serve as a gear to promote<br />
agricultural sustainability. In resp<strong>on</strong>se, sustainable<br />
agriculture will be able to produce<br />
enough food to meet the demand of growing<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. It will also boost our chances of<br />
accomplishing two goals, “ending poverty in<br />
all its forms everywhere” (SDG 1) and “ending<br />
hunger, achieving food security and improved<br />
nutriti<strong>on</strong> and promoti<strong>on</strong> of sustainable agriculture”<br />
(SDG 2). Furthermore, healthy soil<br />
and sustainable agriculture will complement<br />
directly or indirectly the efforts required in<br />
achieving rest of the SDGs (Table 1). Therefore,<br />
we must protect soil and make sure that it<br />
is in healthy c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> as sustainable development<br />
of the people and the planet is dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> it (Figure 2).<br />
Bearing in mind the important facts about<br />
soil (Table 2) (UN, 2016); we need to understand<br />
that our survival <strong>on</strong> this planet is not<br />
possible if we do not manage soil and its health<br />
in a sustainable manner. Hence, we need to<br />
promote the awareness about sustainable soil<br />
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Bhore<br />
Panel 2: Benefits of eco-friendly agriculture are bey<strong>on</strong>d c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> of soil and its sustainable<br />
management.<br />
Figure 2: The role of soil in achieving agricultural sustainability and sustainable development for<br />
the people and the planet.<br />
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Table 2: Facts about soils depicts the importance<br />
of sustainable soil management for<br />
the sustainable development (UN, 2016).<br />
No Fact<br />
1. About 95% of our food comes from<br />
soil.<br />
2. Soils are the foundati<strong>on</strong> for family<br />
farming, where food supply chain begins.<br />
3. Globally, up to 50,000 sq. km of soil,<br />
an area around the size of Costa Rica is<br />
lost every year.<br />
4. 33% of our global soils are degraded.<br />
5. 16% of the Africa c<strong>on</strong>tinent has been<br />
affected by soil degradati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
6. 11 hectare of soils are sealed under<br />
expanding cities every hour in Europe.<br />
7. Soil is teeming with life – soils host a<br />
quarter of our planets biodiversity.<br />
8. There are more organisms in <strong>on</strong>e tablespo<strong>on</strong><br />
of healthy soil than there are<br />
people <strong>on</strong> earth.<br />
9. Healthy soil is the key to food security<br />
and nutriti<strong>on</strong> for all.<br />
10. It can take up to 1000 years to produce<br />
just 2-3 cm of soil.<br />
11. Our soils are in great danger.<br />
12. Estimates suggest that we <strong>on</strong>ly have 60<br />
years of topsoil left.<br />
13. Sustainable soil management could<br />
produce up to 58% more food.<br />
management and its importance am<strong>on</strong>g communities<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly to commemorate the ‘World<br />
Soil Day’ but also in everyday life, till the<br />
sustainability goal is achieved. All public and<br />
private instituti<strong>on</strong>s, universities, and departments<br />
those are associated with agriculture and<br />
sustainable development also need to promote<br />
awareness about the importance of sustainable<br />
soil management by highlighting the role of<br />
healthy soil for our wellbeing, and local, regi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
and global sustainable development.<br />
CONCLUDING REMARKS<br />
Bhore<br />
To sum up, we have to make sure that we are<br />
managing soil and its health in a sustainable<br />
manner for a sustainable agricultural productivity.<br />
Healthy soil is essential to “end hunger,<br />
achieve food security and improved nutriti<strong>on</strong><br />
and promote sustainable agriculture” (SDG 2)<br />
and to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere”<br />
(SDG 1). Sustainable soil management is also<br />
vital for the inclusive sustainability as all the<br />
SDGs are interdependent. Therefore, we need<br />
to promote sustainable soil management efficiently<br />
at local, regi<strong>on</strong>al and global level.<br />
We need to bear in mind that without<br />
protecting the soil, we will not be able ― to<br />
feed rapidly growing world populati<strong>on</strong>; to<br />
achieve a goal of keeping global warming below<br />
2°C, a pledge made through Paris<br />
Agreement <strong>on</strong> Climate Change (PACC); and<br />
to halt the loss of biodiversity.<br />
Unquesti<strong>on</strong>ably, soil is not <strong>on</strong>ly a core<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of the natural system but also a<br />
vital c<strong>on</strong>tributor to human wellbeing. Nevertheless,<br />
will power of policy makers, active<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> and timely input from all stakeholders,<br />
and efficacy of soil c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> at<br />
local, regi<strong>on</strong>al and global level will determine<br />
the overall success of sustainable soil management<br />
and its c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> in accomplishing<br />
SDGs for the people and the planet.<br />
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST<br />
The author declares no c<strong>on</strong>flict of interest.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
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6(4), 296–302.<br />
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B<strong>on</strong>an G. (2008). Forests and Climate<br />
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Chemnitz, C. and Weigelt, J. (Eds). (2015).<br />
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earth, land and fields. Heinrich Böll<br />
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Kuan, K.B., Othman, R., Abdul Rahim, K.,<br />
Shamsuddin, Z. H. (2016). Plant<br />
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H., Herrero, M., Schmid, E., … Obersteiner,<br />
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in Brazil can reduce global Luo, X., Fu, X., Yang, Y., Cai, P., Peng, S.,<br />
greenhouse gas emissi<strong>on</strong>s by sparing land Chen, W., and Huang, Q. (2016). Mi-<br />
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A Brief Overview of Soils Role in Sustainability<br />
crobial communities play important<br />
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Scientific Reports 6, 20326.<br />
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89.<br />
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Torres-Díaz, C., Atala, C., Zurita-Silva,<br />
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AoB Plants 8, plw062.<br />
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Shanker, K., Srivastava, N.K., Shukla,<br />
A.K., Kalra, A. (2016). Fungal endophytes<br />
of Catharanthus roseus enhance<br />
vindoline c<strong>on</strong>tent by modulating structural<br />
and regulatory genes related to terpenoid<br />
indole alkaloid biosynthesis. Scientific<br />
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Robins<strong>on</strong> B. L., Feng, W., Gulbis, N., Hajdu,<br />
K., Harris<strong>on</strong>, R. J., Jeffries, P., Xu,<br />
X. (2016). The Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal<br />
Fungi to Improve Strawberry<br />
Producti<strong>on</strong> in Coir Substrate. Fr<strong>on</strong>tiers in<br />
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(2016). Sustainable Development<br />
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p/en/home/mdgoverview/post-2015-dev<br />
elopment-agenda.html (accessed <strong>on</strong> 17<br />
November 2016).<br />
Wahbi, S., Prin, Y., Thioulouse, J., Sanguin,<br />
H., Baudoin, E., Maghraoui, T., …<br />
Dup<strong>on</strong>nois, R. (2016). Impact of<br />
Wheat/Faba Bean Mixed Cropping or<br />
Rotati<strong>on</strong> Systems <strong>on</strong> Soil Microbial<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>alities. Fr<strong>on</strong>tiers in Plant Science<br />
7, 1364.
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
Short Note<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P116-119<br />
Basics for Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment: Reduce Wastage,<br />
Reuse, and Recycle<br />
Rajesh Perumbilavil Kaithamanakallam 1, * , Samudhra Sendhil 2 , Aarthi Rajesh 3<br />
1 Microbiology and Medical Educati<strong>on</strong> Unit, Faculty of Medicine, AIMST University,<br />
Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia; 2 School of Ec<strong>on</strong>omics, Faculty of Arts and Social<br />
Sciences, Nottingham University Malaysia, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor,<br />
Malaysia; 3 Department of Pathology, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago,<br />
9016 Dunedin, New Zealand<br />
*Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Email: rajesh@aimst.edu.my<br />
We, in the name of c<strong>on</strong>sumerism, are<br />
destroying the <strong>on</strong>ly planet that supports<br />
the life. All resources are depleting very<br />
rapidly which makes global<br />
sustainability questi<strong>on</strong>able. Our Earth<br />
which <strong>on</strong>ce hosted 5 billi<strong>on</strong> species has<br />
lost about 99% of it to extincti<strong>on</strong><br />
(Novacek, 2014; Stearns et al., 2000). It<br />
doesn’t stop there. Predicti<strong>on</strong>s state that<br />
human activities will result in the<br />
Holocene extincti<strong>on</strong> where 30% of the<br />
existing species today may be extinct by<br />
2050 (Daws<strong>on</strong> et al., 2016; Hance et al.,<br />
2015).<br />
Meanwhile, it is sad to state that<br />
we have managed to eradicate <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e<br />
infectious disease so far. By 2050, the<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly infectious disease that we have<br />
hopes of eradicating is poliomyelitis.<br />
The world is spiralling downwards.<br />
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle is the<br />
mantra for waste management and<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental sustenance. The waste<br />
hierarchy scope ranges from the least<br />
favoured opini<strong>on</strong> of disposal through<br />
energy recovery, recycling, reuse,<br />
minimisati<strong>on</strong> to the most favoured<br />
opini<strong>on</strong> ‘preventi<strong>on</strong>’.<br />
With this wide scope, we need to<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> people’s awareness of these<br />
issues at stake. The impact <strong>on</strong> the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment due to plastics, toxic<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents including radioactive<br />
elements, the growing usage and limited<br />
supply of potable water are just a few<br />
examples. Deforestati<strong>on</strong> leading to<br />
global climate change as well as<br />
emerging diseases, the ecological ticking<br />
time bomb crisis that most of the<br />
earthlings are blissfully unaware off<br />
need to be addressed. Tapping the felt<br />
need of the people is the key element to<br />
health educati<strong>on</strong>. For example awareness<br />
campaign against infectious diseases<br />
promoting immunisati<strong>on</strong> is best targeted<br />
against pregnant ladies; likewise the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues are best made<br />
aware by the introducti<strong>on</strong> of ‘Tragedy of<br />
comm<strong>on</strong>s’. The tragedy can include<br />
overfishing in the ocean to misuse of<br />
antibiotics to spam emails and many<br />
more. Each spam email, even if not<br />
opened, adds <strong>on</strong> significantly to the<br />
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carb<strong>on</strong> foot print. World Wildlife Fund<br />
(WWF) Australia has a human footprint<br />
calculator <strong>on</strong> its website allowing people<br />
to track how much of the earth they are<br />
misusing with their lifestyle. The<br />
website also menti<strong>on</strong>s that we would<br />
need approximately 3.6 earths to sustain<br />
life <strong>on</strong> this planet given our current<br />
lifestyle. By 2050, humanity needs to<br />
produce twice the amount of food we do<br />
today in order to feed the forecast 9.7<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> people (United Nati<strong>on</strong>s, 2015).<br />
For more <strong>on</strong> tragedy, <strong>on</strong>e just needs to<br />
review the Love canal landfill incident<br />
which signifies the importance of<br />
primordial preventi<strong>on</strong> of waste<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>. It also is a grim less<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
precauti<strong>on</strong>s necessary to protect and<br />
cover a landfill, especially to prevent<br />
leakage of leachate (Beck, 1979).<br />
This is an era where forests are<br />
cleared and cities built to accommodate<br />
a world c<strong>on</strong>gress <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
development. This proves that most<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferences do not achieve what they<br />
meant to in the first place. Deforestati<strong>on</strong><br />
has resulted in cities being built in place<br />
of jungles leaving rodents and other<br />
vectors homeless. This in turn has<br />
caused an alarming rise in the emergence<br />
and re-emergence of infectious diseases.<br />
To counter the vector problem, humans<br />
have used insecticides to fog the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. This has resulted in<br />
reducing the number of queen bees<br />
(Gouls<strong>on</strong> et al., 2015). Albert Einstein<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce prophetically remarked, “Mankind<br />
will not survive the h<strong>on</strong>eybees’<br />
disappearance for more than five years.”<br />
Queen bees are master pollinators and<br />
their extincti<strong>on</strong> would result not <strong>on</strong>ly in<br />
the world going h<strong>on</strong>ey-less but also will<br />
affect a huge list of fruits and flowers<br />
pollinated by the bees. Extensive<br />
research has been d<strong>on</strong>e recently to<br />
understand the developmental and<br />
Kaithamanakallam et al<br />
evoluti<strong>on</strong>ary genetics of H<strong>on</strong>ey bees to<br />
aid in their c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>. Genetic<br />
approaches can be used to modify plants<br />
to become resistant to insects, even<br />
withstand drastic changes in the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment and increasing crop<br />
produce (DeWoody et al., 2010). This<br />
can reduce the burden of using<br />
insecticides and potentially increase food<br />
resources.<br />
Natural resources exist in a fixed<br />
amount and can take milli<strong>on</strong>s of years to<br />
get replaced. Once they are depleted,<br />
they are depleted forever. Losses of<br />
forests lead to implicati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the water<br />
and the atmosphere. Less trees result in<br />
less rains. To quote the department of<br />
natural resources, South Carolina from<br />
their study <strong>on</strong> Earth’s Natural Resources<br />
and Human Impacts, “Recycling helps<br />
the envir<strong>on</strong>ment by slowing down the<br />
rate at which we have to burn garbage or<br />
put it in landfills. With fewer landfills<br />
we can have more space for people to<br />
farm, live, and work. Recycling also<br />
helps by reducing our need to c<strong>on</strong>sume<br />
fresh natural resources to make new<br />
products. As a result, we can save these<br />
resources for use by future generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Most importantly, recycling saves<br />
energy and reduces polluti<strong>on</strong>. This could<br />
also help in slowing-down global climate<br />
change, another envir<strong>on</strong>mental problem<br />
caused by burning fossil fuels like oil<br />
and gas.<br />
Earthlings have ignored l<strong>on</strong>g<br />
term and serious implicati<strong>on</strong>s just to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>centrate <strong>on</strong> short term gains. (A joke<br />
as usual with a deep message states -<br />
Aliens observe that humans are the most<br />
intelligent species in the universe as they<br />
have utilised the nuclear power;<br />
however, they also note that the humans<br />
have directed nuclear missiles against<br />
themselves). Mitoch<strong>on</strong>drial DNA and<br />
Ancestry genetic studies need to be<br />
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publicised more to prove and c<strong>on</strong>vince<br />
earthlings that they have arisen from a<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> ancestor. Each <strong>on</strong>e would<br />
possess 99% of the same genome with<br />
each other. We all have varied genes,<br />
including the genes from the countries<br />
they have sworn to eternal enmity. This<br />
should reduce wars (the biggest waste<br />
that cause havoc for years) and help us<br />
to focus <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental and human<br />
c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>. It is high time to join<br />
together to combat the envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
issues together.<br />
Lack of awareness, poor planning<br />
and excessive tapping of resources has<br />
led to the Holocene extincti<strong>on</strong> event<br />
including co-extincti<strong>on</strong> of many species.<br />
It was hypothesised that Dodo’s and the<br />
tambalacoque trees went into extincti<strong>on</strong><br />
as they needed each other for their<br />
survival (Temple, 1979). When a<br />
predatory species becomes threatened or<br />
extinct, this removes a check and<br />
balance in the food chain <strong>on</strong> the<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> of prey previously c<strong>on</strong>sumed<br />
by that predator. C<strong>on</strong>sequentially, the<br />
prey populati<strong>on</strong> can explode (Primack,<br />
2007).<br />
We are in need of a forum where<br />
we can instil the awareness of the<br />
ecological crisis we are dealing with and<br />
the soluti<strong>on</strong>s that lies closely embedded<br />
within the problems themselves.<br />
The envir<strong>on</strong>mental awareness<br />
programmes should aim to educate the<br />
younger generati<strong>on</strong> about the importance<br />
of saving the planet for themselves and<br />
for the future generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
In summary, every<strong>on</strong>e should<br />
practice reduce, reuse, and recycle<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cept in daily life which will help in<br />
part to minimize the damage to<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment for a sustainable future. We<br />
can nurture nature, the next generati<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
future by using AIMST. Where these<br />
alphabets stands for - A: Alternate<br />
Kaithamanakallam et al<br />
sources of energy and by creating<br />
Awareness about the benefits of<br />
reducing waste; I: Informing people to<br />
reuse a resource again without changing<br />
or reprocessing it, for instance, using<br />
glassware instead of paper plates should<br />
be preferred, Internalising these<br />
informati<strong>on</strong> and adopting a healthy ecofriendly<br />
life style; M: adopting Modern<br />
and Molecular methods of<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>; S:<br />
Sustaining the envir<strong>on</strong>ment by recycling<br />
materials that can be used in another<br />
item; T: Transforming the envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
and the peoples mind set to ensure a<br />
better tomorrow for the next gen.<br />
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Daws<strong>on</strong>, A. (2016). Extincti<strong>on</strong>: A<br />
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DeWoody, J.A., Bickham, J.W.,<br />
Michler, C.H., Nichols, K.M.,<br />
Rhodes, O.E.Jr., and Keith E.<br />
Woeste, K.E. eds. (2010).<br />
Molecular Approaches in Natural<br />
Resource C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Management. Cambridge<br />
University Press, 2010.<br />
FAO (2016). The State of World<br />
Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tributing to food security and<br />
nutriti<strong>on</strong> for all. Rome. 200 pp.<br />
Gouls<strong>on</strong>, D., Nicholls, E., Botías, C., and<br />
Rotheray, E.L. (2015). Bee<br />
declines driven by combined stress<br />
from parasites, pesticides, and lack<br />
of flowers. Science 347(6229),<br />
1255957.<br />
Hance, J., (2015). "How humans are<br />
driving the sixth mass extincti<strong>on</strong>".<br />
The Guardian<br />
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Basics for Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Novacek, M. J., (2014). "Prehistory's<br />
Brilliant Future". New York<br />
Times. Retrieved 25 December<br />
2014.<br />
Stearns, B.P., Stearns, S.C., Stearns,<br />
S.C., (2000). Watching, from the<br />
Edge of Extincti<strong>on</strong>. Yale<br />
University Press. p. 1921. ISBN<br />
978-0-300-08469-6. Accessed <strong>on</strong><br />
May 2, 2016.<br />
Temple, S.A. (1979). The dodo and the<br />
tambalacoque tree. Science 203,<br />
1364.<br />
http://www.wwf.org.au/our_work/people<br />
_and_the_envir<strong>on</strong>ment/human_foo<br />
tprint/footprint_calculator.<br />
Accessed <strong>on</strong> May 4, 2016.<br />
Kaithamanakallam et al<br />
Love Canal. Center for Health,<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Justice, P.O. Box<br />
6806, Falls Church, Virginia<br />
22040. Available <strong>on</strong>line at<br />
http://depts.washingt<strong>on</strong>.edu/envir2<br />
02/Readings/Reading05.pdf.<br />
Accessed <strong>on</strong> May 3, 2016.<br />
United Nati<strong>on</strong>s, Department of<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic and Social Affairs,<br />
Populati<strong>on</strong> Divisi<strong>on</strong> (2015).<br />
World Populati<strong>on</strong> Prospects: The<br />
2015 Revisi<strong>on</strong>, Key Findings and<br />
Advance Tables. Working Paper<br />
No. ESA/P/WP.241. Available<br />
<strong>on</strong>line<br />
at<br />
https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Public<br />
ati<strong>on</strong>s/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2<br />
015.pdf. Accessed <strong>on</strong> May 4,<br />
2016.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
Short Note<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016), P120-122<br />
Natural Farming: Malaysian Farmers Experience<br />
N V Subbarow<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Farming Unit, C<strong>on</strong>sumers Associati<strong>on</strong> of Penang, Penang, Malaysia<br />
Email: subbarow@gmail.com<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
In February 2005, the C<strong>on</strong>sumers Associati<strong>on</strong><br />
of Penang (CAP) embarked <strong>on</strong> Sustainable<br />
Agriculture Project - to promote organic<br />
farming in Malaysia. The pi<strong>on</strong>eers in this<br />
field were Namvalvar, Gopalakrishnan, a<br />
vermicomposting expert; a soil biologist and<br />
Director of the Ecosciense Research Foundati<strong>on</strong><br />
from India Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail;<br />
Rajamanikam, a herbal specialist in<br />
treating cattle diseases were invited by CAP<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>duct trainings for farmers and public<br />
<strong>on</strong> sustainable agriculture.<br />
The organized programmes have<br />
been popular am<strong>on</strong>g the Chinese, Indian and<br />
Malay farmers. The Chairman of the Farmers<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>, Mr. Chayeem<strong>on</strong>g took a<br />
keen interest in the programme and encouraged<br />
other Chinese farmers to join him.<br />
These programmes have successfully educated<br />
many farmers about organic farming<br />
using vermiculture.<br />
About 36 Chinese farmers went to<br />
India for Natural Farming Study Tour in<br />
2006 which was organized by CAP. Various<br />
Training and Awareness programmes<br />
have been organized by CAP in Penang,<br />
Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan<br />
and Johor for farmers, public, students,<br />
teachers and trainee teachers.<br />
What is organic farming all about?<br />
Organic agriculture is a way of farming that<br />
avoids the use of synthetic chemicals, pesticides,<br />
and other chemicals. Organic farming<br />
systems rely <strong>on</strong> crop rotati<strong>on</strong>s, crop residues,<br />
animal manures, legumes, green manures,<br />
off-farm organic wastes, mechanical<br />
cultivati<strong>on</strong>, and biological pest c<strong>on</strong>trol to<br />
maintain soil productivity, to supply nutrients<br />
to plants, and to c<strong>on</strong>trol weeds and<br />
pests. All kinds of agricultural products are<br />
produced organically, including produce,<br />
grains, meat, dairy, eggs, and fibers including<br />
cott<strong>on</strong>. Now growing crops is not all<br />
about using the latest, str<strong>on</strong>gest chemical. It<br />
is also about using what is freely available<br />
from Mother Nature and churning it into<br />
something useful. In this short note, I am<br />
sharing Malaysian farmers experience about<br />
organic (also known as natural) farming.<br />
FARMERS EXPERIENCE<br />
Case 1<br />
Somasundaram is <strong>on</strong>e of the first farmer<br />
who started Organic farming. During Mr.<br />
Gopalakrishnan’s visit to Malaysia he introduced<br />
Somasundaram to organic farming by<br />
guiding him in finding earthworms. The<br />
earthworms have multiplied fast and so has<br />
Somasundaram‘s income. He was full of<br />
praise for this system of farming and his<br />
new found friends-the earthworms. This pi<strong>on</strong>eer<br />
project of producing vermicompost<br />
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from farm waste started with just two beds,<br />
measuring three meters by 1.5 meters. These<br />
beds were sheltered from extreme climates<br />
and were covered with cow dung. The cow<br />
dung is produced by Somasundaram’s twenty<br />
cows and dried over a period of two<br />
weeks. During this time the chicken eat all<br />
the worms and keep the cow dung free of<br />
worms. The drying helps to make the cow<br />
dung completely safe and ready for use.<br />
He also prepares ‘Panchakavya’, a<br />
multi-purpose fertilizer. This fertilizer can<br />
be easily prepared at home using fresh milk,<br />
yogurt, banana, egg, yeast, molasses, yeast,<br />
cow- urine, coc<strong>on</strong>ut and manure being an<br />
indispensable comp<strong>on</strong>ent. Its usefulness<br />
surpasses the unpleasant smell.<br />
Somasundaram not <strong>on</strong>ly uses Panchakavya<br />
for his jasmine plants and vegetables<br />
such as ladies finger, brinjal, bitter<br />
gourd and chilly. He says the Jasmine<br />
plants have a str<strong>on</strong>g fragrance and flowers<br />
remain fresh l<strong>on</strong>ger. He was surprised to<br />
find the growth rate of his chickens multiplied<br />
and his cows producing better quality<br />
milk.<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g the other fertilizers, Vermiwash<br />
is another famous <strong>on</strong>e. Coc<strong>on</strong>ut milk<br />
serves as plant growth enhancer it is comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
used.<br />
Case 2<br />
Subbarow<br />
K. Sanmargam started growing Jasmines in<br />
his backyard as a past time for his wife.<br />
What started, as a past time is flourishing<br />
fast. K. Sanmargam was introduced to organic<br />
farming by Gopalakrishnan using<br />
vermiculture. The c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> of earthworm<br />
beds is in progress. Sanmargam like<br />
many other farmers has set aside all his<br />
chemicals. He says that his wife had been<br />
suffering from breathing problems and <strong>on</strong> a<br />
visit to the doctor; she was diagnosed with<br />
asthma and underlying facial burns not visible<br />
to the naked eye. He swore to find a better<br />
way of farming. His search was so<strong>on</strong> answered<br />
by organic farming. He says he feels<br />
much safer working with the plants now.<br />
Jasmine plants like any other plant has a<br />
peak seas<strong>on</strong> and at the end of this seas<strong>on</strong> the<br />
yield is very low; however, after switching<br />
to organic farming, Sanmargam says that the<br />
yield remained c<strong>on</strong>sistent till end of the<br />
flowering seas<strong>on</strong>. Another interesting thing<br />
that Sanmargam brought out is the difference<br />
in the way birds react to the herbal repellant<br />
and the chemical pesticide. Earlier,<br />
he says the birds never ate the insects after<br />
the chemical pesticide repelled them; however,<br />
thanks to the miracle herbal repellant<br />
the birds gladly eat the insects.<br />
Currently, Sanmargam is renting <strong>on</strong>e<br />
acre of land to breed earthworm, planting<br />
vegetables, rearing goats and chickens. He<br />
has 4 earthworm breeding beds whereby he<br />
produces vermicast.<br />
Case 3<br />
Kanniappan from Kulai, Johor has been ventured<br />
into organic lime planting after attending<br />
CAP’s organic farming training. He used<br />
to harvest ping-p<strong>on</strong>g ball sized lem<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
his <strong>on</strong>e-acre orchard, is now reaping fruits<br />
that are bigger than hockey balls. It happened<br />
after he replaced chemical fertilizers<br />
with organic fertilizers and pest repellents.<br />
He has set up a vermiculture unit that<br />
produces 80 kg of vermicast per m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
which he uses as fertilizers. He earns at least<br />
RM 500 a m<strong>on</strong>th from lime, and RM 250<br />
from vermiculture.<br />
Case 4<br />
Md Saad Bin Haji Ali is a paddy farmer<br />
from Alor Setar who experimented using<br />
panchakavya and neem oil <strong>on</strong> his farm last<br />
year. To his surprise, he realized a 35% increase<br />
in producti<strong>on</strong> after using panchakav.<br />
This farmer stated that he was unable to take<br />
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the smell of pesticides. This farmer is feeding<br />
his dog with panchakavya and finds it<br />
healthy and fat.<br />
On the whole, about 200 farmers<br />
have already adopted n<strong>on</strong>-chemical alternatives<br />
to farming and 500 paddy farmers are<br />
experimenting effectiveness of vermicompost<br />
and panchakavya in their fields. The<br />
number of farmers moving towards natural<br />
farming is expected to increase because of<br />
the benefits and sustainability.<br />
Subbarow<br />
Besides Somasundaram, Sanmargam,<br />
Kanniappan,, Md Saad and their<br />
friends, farmers from Hulu Yam are also<br />
shifting towards organic farming. Currently,<br />
they are trying composting in a bigger scale<br />
for their vegetable farms.<br />
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS<br />
Author is grateful to the farmers (menti<strong>on</strong>ed)<br />
for sharing their experience.<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Abstracts<br />
Natural Resources and C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
Fadzil bin Abd Kadir<br />
Sungai Petani Municipal Council, Kompleks MPSPK, Jalan Patani, 08000 Sugai Petani, Kedah,<br />
Malaysia<br />
Email: norriza@mpspk.gov.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Natural resources are resources that exist without the acti<strong>on</strong>s of humankind. This includes all<br />
valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitati<strong>on</strong>al, and electrical properties and forces. On<br />
earth, we include sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, air (includes all minerals) al<strong>on</strong>g with all<br />
vegetati<strong>on</strong> and animal life that naturally subsists up<strong>on</strong> or within the heretofore identified<br />
characteristics and substances. A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh<br />
water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form<br />
which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, petroleum, and most forms of<br />
energy. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known<br />
as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources <strong>on</strong>ly occur in small sporadic areas, and are<br />
referred to as localized resources. During my presentati<strong>on</strong>, I will talk about ‘renewable and<br />
n<strong>on</strong>renewable resources’, ‘c<strong>on</strong>serving natural resources’, ‘reducing, reusing and recycling of<br />
waste’, ‘soil polluti<strong>on</strong>’, ‘water polluti<strong>on</strong>’, ‘air polluti<strong>on</strong>’ and other aspects of envir<strong>on</strong>ment to<br />
highlight the importance of natural resources c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Keywords: Air; c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>; nature; polluti<strong>on</strong>; resources; water<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Biodegradable Plastics for a Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Sudesh K.<br />
School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia<br />
Ph<strong>on</strong>e No.: (+6) 04-6534367; Email: ksudesh@usm.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Bioplastics are mostly derived from renewable plant sources such as sugars and plant oils. They<br />
have a high potential in substituting petrochemical plastics as a renewable and sustainable<br />
material. Most types of bioplastics are also biodegradable, which makes them popular in<br />
developed countries. Switching to the use of biodegradable plastics not <strong>on</strong>ly reduces our<br />
dependence <strong>on</strong> fossil fuels but at the same time helps to fight global warming. For the past three<br />
decades, biodegradable plastics, namely polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) has been the subject of<br />
intense investigati<strong>on</strong> due to its thermoplastic properties as well as being biodegradable and<br />
biocompatible. PHA is also being researched in Malaysia because palm oil can be used as an<br />
efficient feedstock to produce PHA via microbial fermentati<strong>on</strong>. It is accumulated as water<br />
insoluble storage polyester in the cell cytoplasm of bacteria. However, successful<br />
commercializati<strong>on</strong> of this biodegradable plastic is currently hindered by its high cost compared<br />
to existing petroleum-based plastics in the market. The main reas<strong>on</strong> for costly producti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
PHA is its recovery and purificati<strong>on</strong> process from bacterial cells. A novel biological extracti<strong>on</strong><br />
method has recently been developed by feeding freeze-dried cells c<strong>on</strong>taining PHA to animal<br />
models. Since PHA granules are not digested by the digestive enzymes, the granules are excreted<br />
in the form of fecal matter. The resulting whitish fecal matter c<strong>on</strong>sisted of more than 90 wt% of<br />
PHA. The biologically recovered PHA has been successfully used in the development of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trolled release fertilizers.<br />
Keywords: Biodegradable; bioplastics; fermentati<strong>on</strong>; polyhydroxyalkanoate<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Forensics: An Overview of Selected Cases<br />
Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman<br />
ACM, Director, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch, Malaysia<br />
Email: zaini@kimia.gov.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental forensics is a complex discipline where forensic investigati<strong>on</strong> techniques are<br />
applied to determine the origin and source of c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>. Successful investigati<strong>on</strong>s need to<br />
apply knowledge <strong>on</strong> chemical fate and sampling protocols with sound statistical understanding,<br />
apart from being trained in the fields of analytical and envir<strong>on</strong>mental chemistry. To promote the<br />
awareness, an overview of envir<strong>on</strong>mental forensics with few selected cases received by the<br />
Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Penang Branch will be presented.<br />
Keywords: C<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>; detecti<strong>on</strong>; envir<strong>on</strong>ment; forensics; polluti<strong>on</strong><br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Polluti<strong>on</strong> and Its Biological Impacts<br />
Palanisamy Arulselvan*, Katyakyini Muniandy, Sivapragasam Gothai<br />
Laboratory of Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra<br />
Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia<br />
*Corresp<strong>on</strong>ding author; Email: arulbio@gmail.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
The envir<strong>on</strong>ment plays an important role in human and animal health al<strong>on</strong>g with its well-being.<br />
Various key envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors such as physical, chemical and microbial can have<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s for human and animal health. We have good c<strong>on</strong>stant cross interacti<strong>on</strong>s with the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment; therefore, health is c<strong>on</strong>siderably determined by the envir<strong>on</strong>mental quality.<br />
According to the World Health Organizati<strong>on</strong> (WHO), definiti<strong>on</strong> of health emphasizes <strong>on</strong> the<br />
physical, mental and social well-being, hence, human health is c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a complete<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong> reaching bey<strong>on</strong>d, in the absence of diseases. Apart from, human well-being and<br />
quality of life are matter to a notable number of envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors from indoor and outdoor.<br />
In the last three decades, there has been accumulative global c<strong>on</strong>cern over the health impacts<br />
attributed from numerous envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong>s, especially the global burden of chr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
disease. The WHO predicted that more than a quarter of diseases faced by mankind nowadays<br />
occur due to c<strong>on</strong>tinued exposure to harmful envir<strong>on</strong>mental pollutants. These envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
factors associated diseases are not intermittently diagnosed, however, we identified in the later or<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>ic stages. Overall envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong> has an imperative impact <strong>on</strong> living organisms,<br />
including health and physiology of human and animals. The impact <strong>on</strong> our health not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
comprises the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of air, ground and water polluti<strong>on</strong>, but also other factors such as<br />
genetic susceptibility, food c<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong>, radiati<strong>on</strong>, lifestyle and life quality. Adding to it,<br />
notable pollutants such as pesticides, heavy metals, fluorine and other agro-chemicals are the<br />
primary cause of envir<strong>on</strong>mental toxicity, which affects humans, animals, plants and wildlife. The<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>ic and minimal c<strong>on</strong>tact of pollutants is often linked to chemical residues in animal system.<br />
As for subclinical effects, these include mainly oxidative stress, immunotoxicity,<br />
carcinogenicity, and endocrine disrupti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Keywords: Carcinogenicity; envir<strong>on</strong>mental polluti<strong>on</strong>; immunotoxicity<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Impact of Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Alterati<strong>on</strong> and Human Infectious<br />
Diseases<br />
S. Suresh Kumar<br />
Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400,<br />
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia<br />
Email: suresh@upm.edu.my<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Climate changes by human activities influenced the distributi<strong>on</strong>, reproducti<strong>on</strong>, and survival of<br />
disease between pathogens and host. Several envir<strong>on</strong>ment-associated variables also influence the<br />
means of pathogen transmissi<strong>on</strong> and the changeover of n<strong>on</strong>-pathogenic to infectious diseases,<br />
including air-, water-, and food- or vector-borne diseases. This may present new health threat to<br />
human beings, and further multiply existing health problems. One of the key factor influencing<br />
the likelihood and outcome of disease emergence is the pathogen invasiveness, which may result<br />
from the combinati<strong>on</strong> of pathogen traits including opportunism. Particularly, high mutati<strong>on</strong> rate<br />
in viruses and bacteria capable of acquiring genetic material and pathogens infecting multiple<br />
hosts are more likely to turn into an emerging disease agent. Some species such as<br />
Legi<strong>on</strong>ella spp. and n<strong>on</strong>-tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) are am<strong>on</strong>g the microbes that arise to<br />
be pathogenic due to envir<strong>on</strong>mental changes. Recently, numbers of peoples infected with<br />
n<strong>on</strong>tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) have increased worldwide. Disturbances to microbial<br />
ecosystems caused by the changes in envir<strong>on</strong>ment system might lead to NTM diseases.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental alterati<strong>on</strong> cause disturbance <strong>on</strong> the ecosystems that leads to occurrence of<br />
infectious diseases and finally give impact <strong>on</strong> human society. Thus, clarifying the relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between envir<strong>on</strong>mental alterati<strong>on</strong>s and changes in microbial ecosystems is important to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the restorati<strong>on</strong> of the health of the ecosystem and also to prevent further<br />
outbreaks of infectious diseases. It is imperative to recognize research development and gaps<br />
<strong>on</strong> how human society may resp<strong>on</strong>d to, acclimatize to, and prepare for the related changes.<br />
Scientific advances, early warning systems, public health awareness campaign are needed<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with research associati<strong>on</strong> between climate change and shifts in infectious diseases.<br />
Keywords: Infectious diseases; n<strong>on</strong>tuberculous Mycobacteria; public health awareness<br />
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Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> Envir<strong>on</strong> (2016)<br />
Recycling of Household Wastes (Resources) for Cleaner<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
D<strong>on</strong> Theseira<br />
Green Crusaders, Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia<br />
Email: datoje@gmail.com<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Disposal of the household waste is a challenge in most of the counties. For public awareness<br />
purpose, I do dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> how we can recycle our household wastes for cleaner<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment and income generati<strong>on</strong>. I will be doing a demo <strong>on</strong> reducing, recycling and reusing<br />
wastes to promote the envir<strong>on</strong>mental cleanliness.<br />
Keywords: Envir<strong>on</strong>ment; household waste; recycle; reuse<br />
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Speakers who delivered their talk in<br />
‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’<br />
Appendices<br />
Appendix 1: A Brief Biography of Speakers<br />
Biography of Prof. Sultan Ahmed Ismail<br />
Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D., D.Sc., (9.10.1951)<br />
is Managing Director of the Ecoscience Research Foundati<strong>on</strong>, a notfor<br />
profit organizati<strong>on</strong>, in Chennai. He was the Head of Zoology and<br />
later the Department of Biotechnology, The New College, Chennai.<br />
Has d<strong>on</strong>e extensive work (both research and applied) <strong>on</strong> ecology<br />
and envir<strong>on</strong>ment, earthworms and organic inputs since 1978. He has<br />
been associated with several farmers and self-help groups promoting<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>cepts of ecology, sustainability, organic c<strong>on</strong>cepts, waste<br />
management, waste water treatment, etc. He was awarded the<br />
CASTME award for 1994-95 in the UK, the Arignar Anna Award<br />
by the Department of Envir<strong>on</strong>ment of the Government of Tamil<br />
Nadu for 2005, and the award of Excellence presented by His<br />
Excellency Governor of Jharkhand in Dec 2010. Classified as <strong>on</strong>e<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the “TOP 10” people of Tamil Nadu for 2013 by Anantha<br />
Vikathan. He has travelled widely in India and abroad, with rich<br />
expertise in envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues. His book “The Earthworm Book” is popular am<strong>on</strong>g both<br />
academics and others interested in earthworms. He also authored “simple tasks great c<strong>on</strong>cepts”<br />
which is a bo<strong>on</strong> to science teachers and students. It c<strong>on</strong>sists of 100 life science experiments<br />
which any child can perform without a laboratory. His earthworm book has been translated in<br />
Tamil as well as in Chinese. He has published more than 75 papers in Nati<strong>on</strong>al and Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Journals, guided 32 M.Phil students and 17 Ph.D, students. More info about his work can be had<br />
from www.erfindia.org or just google his name.<br />
Biography of Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir<br />
Dr. Fadzil Bin Abdul Kadir, AMK., BCK will enlighten us with<br />
his talk <strong>on</strong> ‘Natural Resources and C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>’. He holds a<br />
doctorate in local government studies. He started his career in the<br />
Kedah state government service as a Kedah civil service officer<br />
(KCS) and has worked as a district land administrator, director of<br />
water services board and state chief auditor. Presently, Dr. Fadzil<br />
is the secretary of Sungai Petani municipal council.<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 129
Speakers who delivered their talk in<br />
‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’<br />
Biography of Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar<br />
Prof. Dr. Sudesh Kumar’s main research interest is in the design and<br />
synthesis of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) using<br />
microbial systems. He started research in this area in 1992 and<br />
obtained his Masters in Biotechnology from University Malaya.<br />
Then, he c<strong>on</strong>tinued his research for his PhD, which was sp<strong>on</strong>sored<br />
by Japanese Government (M<strong>on</strong>busho). The research was c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
at RIKEN Institute, Japan under the supervisi<strong>on</strong> of Prof. Y. Doi. He<br />
obtained his PhD in 1999 and then c<strong>on</strong>tinued as a Special<br />
Postdoctoral Researcher at RIKEN. He returned to Malaysia under<br />
the Brain Gain program and joined the School of Biological<br />
Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia as a lecturer in 2001 and became<br />
a full professor in 2011. He has significantly c<strong>on</strong>tributed to the<br />
research and development of biodegradable plastics in Malaysia from palm oil products. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to the numerous scientific publicati<strong>on</strong>s in both local and internati<strong>on</strong>al journals, he has 6<br />
granted patents, two of which has been successfully licensed.<br />
Biography of Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman<br />
Hj. Mohamed Zaini bin Abdul Rahman earned his B.Sc. in Chemistry<br />
from the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (1985) and joined<br />
the Department of Chemistry, Malaysia <strong>on</strong> 15 May 1985. He later<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued his studies and obtained the Certificate in Forensic Medicine<br />
and M.Sc. in Forensic Toxicology, both from Glasgow University,<br />
Scotland (1991). He had enjoyed servicing the nati<strong>on</strong> in various fields<br />
within the Forensic, Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Health and Applied Science<br />
Divisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
He was promoted to the Senior Chemist positi<strong>on</strong> leading the newly formed Pesticide Residues<br />
Analytical Centre, Department of Chemistry Malaysia, Perak Branch <strong>on</strong> 1 April 2003. Six years<br />
later, he was sec<strong>on</strong>ded to the Office of the Permanent Delegati<strong>on</strong> of Malaysia to UNESCO, Paris<br />
as Malaysia’s 1 st Science Attache to UNESCO. Having completed his term, Hj. Zaini was called<br />
to serve the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovati<strong>on</strong> (MOSTI), Putrajaya as Deputy<br />
Undersecretary, Nati<strong>on</strong>al Oceanography Directorate. He left MOSTI and moved back to the<br />
Department of Chemistry as Penang Branch Director <strong>on</strong> 17 December 2013. Hj. Zaini had been<br />
an active member of Institute Kimia Malaysia, having served the Institute as H<strong>on</strong>orary Secretary<br />
IKM Perak Branch and is currently the Vice Chairman of IKM Northern Branch.<br />
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‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’<br />
Biography Mr. D<strong>on</strong> Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi<br />
Mr. D<strong>on</strong> Theseira and Ms. Mylene Ooi from<br />
GreenCrusaders.com are two recycling<br />
enthusiasts, who started their household waste<br />
recycling project in 1996. This retired couple<br />
are based in Bukit Mertajam, Penang and they<br />
have travelled across Malaysia to educate<br />
various organisati<strong>on</strong>s, corporati<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
residents’ associati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the need to recycle<br />
household waste. They also teach the art of<br />
composting household scraps, using a method<br />
which D<strong>on</strong> has perfected over the years. D<strong>on</strong><br />
and Mylene have successfully combined<br />
recycling with charitable causes by d<strong>on</strong>ating<br />
the proceeds of each recycling project to<br />
charity organisati<strong>on</strong>s. Besides being featured<br />
in countless magazines and newspapers over the years, they have also been awarded the title<br />
“Everyday Heroes” by Readers’ Digest in 2002 for their tireless efforts in helping the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. They present <strong>on</strong> how you can achieve zero waste, how to recycle your household<br />
waste and at the same time, how you can raise m<strong>on</strong>ey for your favourite charity organisati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
They have presented more than 250 talks <strong>on</strong> recycling and participated in 8 exhibiti<strong>on</strong>s. He has<br />
received many awards that includes:<br />
Reader’s Digest ‘Every Day Hero’ (featured in December 2002 issue)<br />
Guang Ming Heroes (Chinese daily 14 April 2005)<br />
Received PKT title given out by The Governor of Penang (13 July 2008)<br />
Biography of Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar<br />
Dr. Haslinda Mohd Anuar is a Senior Lecturer at School of Law,<br />
Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). She obtained LL.B (HONS) from<br />
the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Islamic University in 1994, and LL.M (Public<br />
Law) from University of Wales Aberystwyth, United Kingdom in<br />
1996, she then been awarded with her PhD in Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Law<br />
from Newcastle University, United Kingdom in 2015. In academic,<br />
she involves in a number of researches, i.e., Kajian Penerokaan<br />
Terhadap Hukuman Di Bawah Undang-Undang Berkaitan<br />
Pencemaran Perairan Daratan Di Malaysia; Kajian Terhadap Tahap<br />
Pengetahuan, Amalan Dan Sikap Berkaitan Alam Sekitar Di<br />
Kalangan Pelajar Sekolah - Kubang Pasu; and Peraturan Berkaitan<br />
Pengurusan Sisa Pepejal Di Utara Semenanjung Malaysia. Dr<br />
Haslinda Mohd Anuar also produced several articles in envir<strong>on</strong>mental issues: Mohd. Anuar, H.,<br />
& Wahab, H.A. (2015). Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam: Pengurusan dan Perundangan.<br />
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‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’<br />
Solid Waste Soluti<strong>on</strong>s Journal. 1(), 1 – 14; Yaacob, N., Wahab, H.A., & Mohd. Anuar, H.<br />
(2015). Peraturan Yang Mengawal Selia Industri Getah dalam Menangani Pencemaran Air di<br />
Malaysia. 4th Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong> Law & Society. 1(1), 1 – 10; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2014).<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Governance in Malaysia: An Overview. The UUM Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference <strong>on</strong><br />
Governance 2014. 00(), 154 – 162; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2013). The c<strong>on</strong>cept of envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
rights: an overview. 7th UUM Internati<strong>on</strong>al Legal C<strong>on</strong>ference 2013; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2012).<br />
Towards An Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Sustainability: Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Educati<strong>on</strong> or Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Rights?.<br />
Proceeding of The 5th Internati<strong>on</strong>al Borneo Business C<strong>on</strong>ference (IBBC) 2012. (), 108 – 113;<br />
Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). An Overview of Public Participati<strong>on</strong> under EIA. Proceeding of The 6th<br />
UUM Internati<strong>on</strong>al Law C<strong>on</strong>ference 2011. (1), 346 – 351; Mohd. Anuar, H. (2011). Right to<br />
Informati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Impact Assessment (EIA). Proceeding of the Internati<strong>on</strong>al Soft<br />
Science C<strong>on</strong>ference 2011 (ISSC2011); and Mohd. Anuar, H., & Wahab, H.A. (2010). Akta<br />
Pepejal Sisa Pepejal dan Pembersihan Awam 2007: Satu Pandangan. Internati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Regi<strong>on</strong>al Development, Law and Governance in Malaysia and Ind<strong>on</strong>esia.<br />
Biography of Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan<br />
Dr. PalanisamyArulselvan received his Doctorate in the field of<br />
Biochemistry from the University of Madras, India and he was<br />
trained as a post-doctoral researcher at Academia Sinica, Taiwan.<br />
Currently, he is c<strong>on</strong>tinuing his scientific research career as a<br />
Research Fellow at Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra<br />
Malaysia, Malaysia. He has published over 65 papers in<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>ally reputed journals, refereed proceedings and book<br />
chapter. His current research focuses <strong>on</strong> natural products based drug<br />
discovery; nano-drug delivery system and role of inflammatory<br />
signalling targets in diabetic wound healing. He has w<strong>on</strong> many<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al and internati<strong>on</strong>al level scientific awards from different<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>. He is serving as Associate Editor and Editorial board<br />
member of few internati<strong>on</strong>ally reputed scientific Journals.<br />
Biography of Dr. Suresh Kumar<br />
Dr. Suresh Kumar has degrees in Microbiology (B.Sc), Life<br />
science specializati<strong>on</strong> in bio-macromolecules (M.Sc.,) and<br />
Microbiology (Ph.D.,). He is currently working as a senior<br />
lecturer in Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. He has been<br />
Post-Doctoral research Fellow in Nati<strong>on</strong>al Central University<br />
and Nati<strong>on</strong>al Taiwan University, Taipei-Taiwan in the field of<br />
yeast genetics and Stem cells. He also has been Senior Research<br />
Executive (Fermentati<strong>on</strong> of Microbial drugs) in IPCA<br />
Laboratory Ltd, Mumbai, India, R&D officer (Fermentati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Microbial drugs) in Gujarat Themis Biosyn Ltd.), Vapi, Gujarat,<br />
India, a Senior and Junior Research fellow (Fermentati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
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‘Nati<strong>on</strong>al Seminar <strong>on</strong> Sustainable Envir<strong>on</strong>ment and Health 2016’<br />
purificati<strong>on</strong> of enzymes) in University of Delhi South campus, New Delhi, India. Currently, he is<br />
also a c<strong>on</strong>sultant in <strong>on</strong>e of the Project of King Saud University, Saudi Arabia and he is an editor<br />
for PLoS One and American Journal of Tissue Engineering, Columbia internati<strong>on</strong>al Publishing.<br />
His research interests have focused <strong>on</strong> Infectious Diseases in Tuberculosis, Dengue and<br />
Leptospirosis, Bio-macromolecules, Yeast genetics, Fermentati<strong>on</strong> and purificati<strong>on</strong> of Microbial<br />
drugs and enzymes, Stem cells with Infectious diseases, Stem cell niches, Induced Pluripotent<br />
stem cells.<br />
Biography of Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan<br />
Prof. Dr. Kannan Narayanan is essentially an Interdisciplinary pers<strong>on</strong><br />
with background in biology and chemistry with a specific focus <strong>on</strong><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems. He has d<strong>on</strong>e basic toxicology <strong>on</strong> pesticides <strong>on</strong><br />
house hold pests in his B.Sc. & M.Sc (1970-75) and got into<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Analytical Chemistry during his PhD work in India<br />
(1976-85) where he studied the chemodynamics of pesticides in semitropical<br />
climate. Thus he acquainted himself with gas chromatographic<br />
techniques and has developed multiple residue methodologies for<br />
pesticides in agricultural produce. The work he developed in India<br />
fetched him a M<strong>on</strong>bukagakusho fellowship in Japan (1985-89) where he<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued his envir<strong>on</strong>mental studies <strong>on</strong> industrial trace chemicals such as<br />
PCBs, Dioxins etc. He went from local to global studies involving migratory whales and birds to<br />
establish global distributi<strong>on</strong> of anthropogenic pollutants. He was largely resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the<br />
scientific awareness <strong>on</strong> dioxin-like PCBs in humans and other biota. He also got an opportunity<br />
to observe and implement in-vitro cellular bioassays for the impact assessment of toxic<br />
pollutants in biota, marine sediments, water and terrestrial samples. His studies <strong>on</strong> co-planar<br />
PCBs took him to Germany where he worked for more than 10 years at GEOMAR Helmholtz-<br />
Zentrum für Ozeanforschung, Kiel (1989-2002). There he refined his knowledge <strong>on</strong> utilizing<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-radioactive, anthropogenic chemical signatures in understanding biogeochemistry of ocean<br />
processes such as sedimentati<strong>on</strong>, ocean circulati<strong>on</strong> etc. He c<strong>on</strong>tinued this research later in Korea<br />
(2003-2011) with a more regi<strong>on</strong>al focus, such as in the Yellow sea, South and East seas. Korea<br />
offered him an opportunity to develop his skills <strong>on</strong> outreach activities and capacity building for<br />
developing nati<strong>on</strong>s. He was the program director for APEC Marine Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Training and<br />
Educati<strong>on</strong>al Center (AMETEC) at KIOST, Korea. This internati<strong>on</strong>al training and teaching<br />
experience gave him the power to be adaptive and innovative in his research at UPM, Malaysia<br />
(2013-16). With essential teaching load <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental courses he utilized Final Year Project<br />
(FYP scheme) to work <strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems in Malaysia. He developed simple semipermeable<br />
membrane devices to m<strong>on</strong>itor air polluti<strong>on</strong>. With minimum equipment and<br />
measurement techniques like GCMS, HS GC-FID, AAS his team measured toxic chemicals in<br />
waste motor engine oil, atmosphere and marine sediments. They utilized marine micro debris<br />
such as plastic pellets to understand marine polluti<strong>on</strong> in Malaysia. He is also involved in<br />
improving Gas Purge Micro extracti<strong>on</strong> techniques with Yanbian University China and Università<br />
di Foggia, Italy <strong>on</strong> Green Chemistry for a sustainable world. Thus his academic interests include<br />
the transport and fate of industrial c<strong>on</strong>taminants and horm<strong>on</strong>e disruptors in the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. This<br />
includes, aspects of intermediate transport, polluti<strong>on</strong> modelling, degradati<strong>on</strong> processes, human<br />
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exposure pathways, bio-geochemistry of POPs and their use as unc<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>al chemical tracers<br />
in understanding Ocean Processes. He loves teaching and mentoring and he has taught students<br />
at tertiary level and guided students for their Master/M.Phil/PhD courses. He has a str<strong>on</strong>g track<br />
record <strong>on</strong> publicati<strong>on</strong> and his current H index is 31. He has working relati<strong>on</strong>ship with Instituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
in China, Korea, Japan, Europe and USA which could be utilized for the benefit of a hosting<br />
Instituti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Biography of Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh<br />
Prof. Dr. P. K. Rajesh has held academic positi<strong>on</strong>s at Chennai,<br />
India and at Kedah, Malaysia. He joined AIMST University in<br />
Malaysia in March 2005, where he is currently holding the posts of<br />
Head of the Unit of Microbiology and Medical Educati<strong>on</strong>. He was<br />
the former Deputy Dean of Preclinical studies and the former Dean<br />
of faculty of Medicine at AIMST University. Dr.Rajesh is a Fellow<br />
of the Academy of Clinical Microbiology, Life member of the<br />
Malaysian society of microbiologists, and also a life member of the<br />
college of chest physicians, New Delhi. He has authored 18<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong>s in peer reviewed indexed journals <strong>on</strong> various fields of<br />
clinical microbiology and medical educati<strong>on</strong>. Dr Rajesh has<br />
presented papers <strong>on</strong> many internati<strong>on</strong>al platforms. In March 2011<br />
Dr. Rajesh received the bioinnovati<strong>on</strong> medal from Malaysian biotechnology society for his work<br />
<strong>on</strong> bacteriophage therapy. He is passi<strong>on</strong>ate about youth empowerment and leadership and has<br />
pi<strong>on</strong>eered the world first preclinical quiz which was held at AIMST in 2011. He is also advisor<br />
to the RED committee a charity organizati<strong>on</strong> working in AID of the less privileged patients. He<br />
organized district 3310 RYLA 2013/2014 and was invited to be an inspirati<strong>on</strong> coach at the<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al RYLA in Sydney in May 2014. He was the president of the Rotary Club of Bandar<br />
Sungai Petani 2015-16 and is in charge of new generati<strong>on</strong>s 2016-17. A winner of the Rotary<br />
Internati<strong>on</strong>al’s 5 avenues of citati<strong>on</strong> award in 2014. Dr Rajesh was involved in internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
community service with regard to water and sanitati<strong>on</strong> in India and Bangladesh in 2013-15. Dr<br />
Rajesh is a life member of the World Wildlife Fund and is an active supporter of the preservati<strong>on</strong><br />
of forests.<br />
Biography of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan<br />
Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan has a Ph.D. in Biotechnology from Kyoto<br />
University, Japan. Prior to joining at Universiti Utara Malaysia<br />
(UUM) as a full professor in August 2014 he was managing his own<br />
firm-Bioinnovare Co., Ltd., an internati<strong>on</strong>al business development<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sulting company, based in Kobe, Japan which he founded in 2009.<br />
Prior to that he was a Professor at Japan Advanced Institute of<br />
Science and Technology (JAIST), a nati<strong>on</strong>al postgraduate university,<br />
in Ishikawa, Japan (1997- 2005). He also worked for Procter &<br />
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Gamble Company, as an R&D Scientist and Manager (1994-2001). Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan<br />
established a n<strong>on</strong>-profit organizati<strong>on</strong> – Japan Halal Research Institute (JAHARI) in Hyogo,<br />
Japan in 2014 and he became the founder Chairman of this organizati<strong>on</strong>. A Japanese nati<strong>on</strong>al, he<br />
had been living in Kobe, Japan with his family since 1994.<br />
Some of the key achievements of Prof. Dr. Quamrul Hasan are:<br />
Professi<strong>on</strong>al biotechnologist with more than twenty five years of experiences in research<br />
and management (in Japan and USA)<br />
Extensively experienced in both the Western and Japanese (multi-cultural) business<br />
settings.<br />
Invented, co-developed and successfully launched a health-care c<strong>on</strong>sumer product, from<br />
original idea and laboratory test to prototyping and field-testing (Febreze- Allergen<br />
Reducer has been globally marketed by Procter & Gamble since 2004)<br />
Recipient of Procter & Gamble Innovati<strong>on</strong> Award<br />
Published more than 50 patents and articles.<br />
At UUM, currently Prof. Quamrul Hasan is also the Director of an internati<strong>on</strong>al research center<br />
collaborating with the universities and companies in Japan, which were initiated by him.<br />
Biography of Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman<br />
Dr. Md. Aminur Rahman has been working as a Senior Research<br />
Fellow (Senior Associate Professor Equivalent) in the Institute of<br />
Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) since January, 2010. He<br />
has been involved in teaching/supervising undergraduate and<br />
postgraduate students in various fields of marine sciences, fisheries<br />
and aquaculture as well as c<strong>on</strong>ducting research <strong>on</strong> “Biology, ecology,<br />
diversity, breeding, seed producti<strong>on</strong>, culture and biochemical<br />
compositi<strong>on</strong> of sea urchins, sea cucumbers and fishes”. Meanwhile, he<br />
is involved in some internati<strong>on</strong>al collaborative research work <strong>on</strong><br />
marine biology, fisheries and aquaculture with scientists of different<br />
institutes, including Smiths<strong>on</strong>ian Instituti<strong>on</strong> (USA), Australian<br />
Nuclear Science and Technology Organizati<strong>on</strong> (Australia), Sultan<br />
Qaboos University (Oman), Kindai University, Japan, Sinop University (Turkey) etc., while<br />
others are under the process of establishment. Before that, Dr. Rahman had obtained his M.S.<br />
and Ph.D. degrees in Marine and Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Sciences from University of the Ryukyus,<br />
Okinawa, Japan (1995-2001), where he also did two years (2003-2005) JSPS postdoctoral<br />
research <strong>on</strong> “marine biology, reproducti<strong>on</strong>, fertilizati<strong>on</strong>, hybridizati<strong>on</strong>, speciati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
aquaculture in the Indo-Pacific sea urchins”. He also worked in the Smiths<strong>on</strong>ian Tropical<br />
Research Institute, Panama, and USA for two years (2007-2009) in the same field with Atlantic<br />
sea urchins as the Smiths<strong>on</strong>ian postdoctoral researcher. In additi<strong>on</strong>, he worked as a Chief<br />
Researcher in the Ocean Critters Ranch, Inc., Crowley, Texas, USA <strong>on</strong> “breeding and<br />
propagati<strong>on</strong> of various marine ornamental fishes and corals”. Moreover, he worked as a senior<br />
scientist in Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute during 1988 to 2007 in various fields of<br />
Breeding Biology, Nursing, Aquaculture and Fisheries Management. His expertise areas broadly<br />
lie in Marine and Freshwater Biology, Limnology and Aquatic Ecology, Reproductive Biology<br />
and Fertilizati<strong>on</strong> kinetics, Populati<strong>on</strong> dynamics, Breeding, Nursing and Seed Producti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
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Aquaculture and C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>, and Tax<strong>on</strong>omy and Evoluti<strong>on</strong>. His multidisciplinary research and<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al backgrounds provide him a unique and novel perspective in c<strong>on</strong>ducting research<br />
work in a diverse field of Aquatic Biology and Ecology, Marine and Envir<strong>on</strong>mental sciences,<br />
Fish Nutriti<strong>on</strong>, Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences, and Biodiversity c<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong>, and thus<br />
enable him to coordinate with scholars in different academic disciplines. Dr. Rahman has<br />
published 110 scientific papers in internati<strong>on</strong>al and nati<strong>on</strong>ally reputed high impact journals, 19<br />
referred proceedings, 2 books and 12 book chapters. A good number (22) of scientific papers<br />
have also been presented and published in internati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>ferences, symposia and workshops.<br />
He has also been serving as editors and editorial board members of some reputed journals and<br />
proceedings.<br />
Biography of Mr N V Subbarow<br />
Mr N V Subbarow has been serving with C<strong>on</strong>sumers Associati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Penang for the past 40 years. He has been actively involved in<br />
organising many Health campaigns in CAP namely Anti Smoking,<br />
Anti Alcohol and Anti Pesticides Campaigns. At present he is the<br />
Coordinator for the CAP’s Sustainable Agriculture Project. He has<br />
been advocating for Chemical Free farming and is working closely<br />
with farmers, teachers, government officials, housewives, students of<br />
primary, sec<strong>on</strong>dary and higher learning instituti<strong>on</strong>s. He is also<br />
engaged in developing urban garden techniques for urban dwellers.<br />
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WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
Appendix 2: WED-2016 Events held at AIMST University<br />
A. WED-2016 Event 1 ─ Planting trees in AIMST University campus<br />
This event was held <strong>on</strong> June 6, 2016. The event informati<strong>on</strong> and some snaps are given<br />
below:<br />
Date of event: June 6, 2016 (M<strong>on</strong>day)<br />
Time: 8.00am – 10.30 am<br />
Meeting point: Foyer, Admin building<br />
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WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 138
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 139
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 140
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 141
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 142
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 143
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
B. WED-2016 Event 2 ─ Slogan writing competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Info: This competiti<strong>on</strong> was open to all staff and students of the AIMST University.<br />
Participants were allowed to submit multiple slogans for the competiti<strong>on</strong> by following the<br />
guidelines made available <strong>on</strong> university’s website.<br />
We had received a total of 417 slogan entries from which winners were selected by the<br />
judges.<br />
Winners of the competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Prize<br />
Winner<br />
Prize Winning Slogan of<br />
the Winner<br />
Champi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Cash prize Malaysian<br />
Ringgit (RM) 500 +<br />
Certificate)<br />
Dr. P.K. Rajesh<br />
“Nurture Nature, The Next<br />
Generati<strong>on</strong>'s Future”<br />
1 st Runner up<br />
(Cash Prize Malaysian<br />
Ringgit (RM) 300 +<br />
Certificate)<br />
Dr. Kailash Kharkwal<br />
“Earth is a divine<br />
expressi<strong>on</strong>; d<strong>on</strong>'t spoil it<br />
with carb<strong>on</strong> impressi<strong>on</strong>”<br />
2 nd Runner up<br />
(Cash Prize Malaysian<br />
Ringgit (RM) 200 +<br />
Certificate)<br />
Ms. Ashadeep Kaur Vidwan<br />
“Polluti<strong>on</strong> is not an illusi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
it is your creati<strong>on</strong>”<br />
C. WED-2016 Event 3 ─ Trash to treasure innovati<strong>on</strong> competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The event informati<strong>on</strong> and some snaps are given below:<br />
Date of event: September 22, 2016<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong> : AIMST University, Jalan Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Semeling, 08100, Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah<br />
Info: Twenty-two ( 22) school teams had participated in this competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
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WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
Special Presence:<br />
DCP (R) Dato' Dr Yew Ch<strong>on</strong>g Hooi, Council Member, Institut Kimia Malaysia &<br />
President of Forensic Society of Malaysia<br />
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mas Rosemal Hakim Mas Haris, Chairman, Institut Kimia<br />
Malaysia (Northern Branch)<br />
Tn. Hj. Mohamed Zaini b. Abdul Rahman, Director, Jabatan Kimia Malaysia,<br />
Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Jalan Tull, 10450 Pulau Pinang.<br />
Winners of the competiti<strong>on</strong>*<br />
Prize<br />
Winner<br />
SMK ST George (Girls),<br />
Champi<strong>on</strong><br />
Pulau Pinag<br />
1 st MRSM Transkrian Nib<strong>on</strong>g<br />
Runner up<br />
Tebal, Pulau Pinang<br />
2 nd Runner up SMK Ibrahim, Kedah<br />
*The prizes were sp<strong>on</strong>sored by Institut Kimia Malaysia (IKM).<br />
D. WED-2016 Event 4 ─ Inter school quiz competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The event informati<strong>on</strong> is given below:<br />
Date of event: September 22, 2016<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong> : AIMST University, Jalan Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Semeling, 08100, Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah<br />
Info: In total, 24 school teams had participated in the interschool envir<strong>on</strong>mental quiz<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Winners of the competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Prize<br />
Winner (School Team)<br />
Champi<strong>on</strong><br />
SMK Khir Johari<br />
1 st Runner up SMK Kota Kuala Muda<br />
2 nd Runner up SMK Sin Min<br />
E. WED-2016 Event 5 ─ Intervarsity debate competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
The event informati<strong>on</strong> is given below:<br />
Date of event: September 22, 2016<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> : 8.00 am – 5.00 pm<br />
Locati<strong>on</strong> : AIMST University, Jalan Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Semeling, 08100, Bed<strong>on</strong>g, Kedah<br />
Info: Six (6) teams had participated for this intervarsity envir<strong>on</strong>mental debate<br />
competiti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
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WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
Winners of the competiti<strong>on</strong><br />
Prize<br />
Champi<strong>on</strong><br />
1 st Runner up<br />
2 nd Runner up<br />
Winner<br />
Multimedia<br />
University Malaysia,<br />
Malaysia<br />
Multimedia University<br />
Malaysia, Malaysia<br />
University Malaysia Pahang,<br />
Malaysia<br />
F. WED-2016 Event 6 ─ World envir<strong>on</strong>ment day cycling event - ride for fun<br />
The event informati<strong>on</strong> is given below:<br />
Date of event: 16 October, 2016.<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong>: 7.30 am (Flag Off)<br />
Venue (Start and Finish): AIMST University to Tupah to AIMST University<br />
Info: 219 cyclist participated in the event.<br />
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World Envir<strong>on</strong>ment Day-2016 (WED-2016) Events Steering Committee<br />
AIMST University, Kedah, Malaysia<br />
WED-2016 Events<br />
Held at AIMST University, Malaysia<br />
ISBN: 978-967-14475-0-5; eISBN: 978-967-14475-1-2 147
How you can help in saving the world?<br />
Appendix 3: How you can help in saving the world?<br />
A. Things you can do from your couch<br />
1. Save electricity by plugging appliances into a power strip and turning them off<br />
completely when not in use, including your computer.<br />
2. Stop paper bank statements and pay your bills <strong>on</strong>line or via mobile. No paper, no need for<br />
forest destructi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
3. Share, d<strong>on</strong>’t just like. If you see an interesting social media post about women’s rights or<br />
climate change, share it so folks in your network see it too.<br />
4. Speak up! Ask your local and nati<strong>on</strong>al authorities to engage in initiatives that d<strong>on</strong>’t harm<br />
people or the planet. You can also voice your support for the Paris Agreement and ask<br />
your country to ratify it or sign it if it hasn’t yet.<br />
5. D<strong>on</strong>’t print. See something <strong>on</strong>line you need to remember? Jot it down in a notebook or<br />
better yet a digital post-it note and spare the paper.<br />
6. Turn off the lights. Your TV or computer screen provides a cosy glow, so turn off other<br />
lights if you d<strong>on</strong>’t need them.<br />
7. Do a bit of <strong>on</strong>line research and buy <strong>on</strong>ly from companies that you know have sustainable<br />
practices and d<strong>on</strong>’t harm the envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
8. Report <strong>on</strong>line bullies. If you notice harassment <strong>on</strong> a message board or in a chat room, flag<br />
that pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
9. Stay informed. Follow your local news and stay in touch with the Global Goals <strong>on</strong>line or<br />
<strong>on</strong> social media at @GlobalGoalsUN.<br />
10. Tell us about your acti<strong>on</strong>s to achieve the global goals by using the hashtag #globalgoals<br />
<strong>on</strong> social networks.<br />
11. Offset your carb<strong>on</strong> emissi<strong>on</strong>s! You can calculate your carb<strong>on</strong> footprint and purchase<br />
climate credit from Climate Neutral Now.<br />
B. Things you can do at home<br />
1. Air dry. Let your hair and clothes dry naturally instead of running a machine. If you do<br />
wash your clothes, make sure the load is full.<br />
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How you can help in saving the world?<br />
2. Take short showers. Bathtubs require gall<strong>on</strong>s more water than a 5-10-minute shower.<br />
3. Eat less meat, poultry, and fish. More resources are used to provide meat than plants.<br />
4. Freeze fresh produce and leftovers if you d<strong>on</strong>’t have the chance to eat them before they<br />
go bad. You can also do this with take-away or delivered food, if you know you will not<br />
feel like eating it the next day. You will save food and m<strong>on</strong>ey.<br />
5. Compost—composting food scraps can reduce climate impact while also recycling<br />
nutrients.<br />
6. Recycling paper, plastic, glass & aluminium keeps landfills from growing.<br />
7. Buy minimally packaged goods.<br />
8. Avoid pre-heating the oven. Unless you need a precise baking temperature, start heating<br />
your food right when you turn <strong>on</strong> the oven.<br />
9. Plug air leaks in windows and doors to increase energy efficiency.<br />
10. Adjust your thermostat, lower in winter, higher in summer.<br />
11. Replace old appliances with energy efficient models and light bulbs.<br />
12. If you have the opti<strong>on</strong>, install solar panels in your house. This will also reduce your<br />
electricity bill!<br />
13. Get a rug. Carpets and rugs keep your house warm and your thermostat low.<br />
14. D<strong>on</strong>’t rinse. If you use a dishwasher, stop rinsing your plates before you run the machine.<br />
15. Choose a better diaper opti<strong>on</strong>. Swaddle your baby in cloth diapers or a new,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mentally resp<strong>on</strong>sible disposable brand.<br />
16. Shovel snow manually. Avoid the noisy, exhaust-churning snow blower and get some<br />
exercise.<br />
17. Use cardboard matches. They d<strong>on</strong>’t require any petroleum, unlike plastic gas-filled<br />
lighters.<br />
C. Things you can do outside your house<br />
1. Shop local. Supporting neighbourhood businesses keeps people employed and helps<br />
prevent trucks from driving far distances.<br />
2. Shop Smart—plan meals, use shopping lists and avoid impulse buys. D<strong>on</strong>’t succumb to<br />
marketing tricks that lead you to buy more food than you need, particularly for perishable<br />
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How you can help in saving the world?<br />
items. Though these may be less expensive per ounce, they can be more expensive<br />
overall if much of that food is discarded.<br />
3. Buy Funny Fruit—many fruits and vegetables are thrown out because their size, shape, or<br />
color are not “right”. Buying these perfectly good funny fruit, at the farmer’s market or<br />
elsewhere, utilizes food that might otherwise go to waste.<br />
4. When you go to a restaurant and are ordering seafood always ask: “Do you serve<br />
sustainable seafood?” Let your favorite businesses know that ocean-friendly seafood’s <strong>on</strong><br />
your shopping list.<br />
5. Shop <strong>on</strong>ly for sustainable seafood. There are now many apps like this <strong>on</strong>e that will tell<br />
you what is safe to c<strong>on</strong>sume.<br />
6. Bike, walk or take public transport. Save the car trips for when you’ve got a big group.<br />
7. Use a refillable water bottle and coffee cup. Cut down <strong>on</strong> waste and maybe even save<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ey at the coffee shop.<br />
8. Bring your own bag when you shop. Pass <strong>on</strong> the plastic bag and start carrying your own<br />
reusable totes.<br />
9. Take fewer napkins. You d<strong>on</strong>’t need a handful of napkins to eat your takeout. Take just<br />
what you need.<br />
10. Shop vintage. Brand-new isn’t necessarily best. See what you can repurpose from<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d-hand shops.<br />
11. Maintain your car. A well-tuned car will emit fewer toxic fumes.<br />
12. D<strong>on</strong>ate what you d<strong>on</strong>’t use. Local charities will give your gently used clothes, books and<br />
furniture a new life.<br />
13. Vaccinate yourself and your kids. Protecting your family from disease also aids public<br />
health.<br />
14. Take advantage of your right to elect the leaders in your country and local community.<br />
SOURCE: Sustainable development goals. The lazy pers<strong>on</strong>'s guide to saving the world.<br />
Available <strong>on</strong>line at http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/<br />
(accessed <strong>on</strong> November 21, 2016).<br />
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WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
WITH BEST COMPLIMENTS
About Editors<br />
Subhash Bhore, PhD: Subhash completed his BSc (Botany) and MSc<br />
(Botany) degrees educati<strong>on</strong> at University of Pune, India. Immediately<br />
after completing his MSc (May 1996), he got an opportunity to work at<br />
‘Biochemical Engineering Department’ and ‘Plant Tissue Culture Pilot<br />
Plant’ of the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India. In June 2000,<br />
he received a Doctoral Fellowship (GRA) to pursue a PhD Degree in<br />
Molecular Genetics at the Nati<strong>on</strong>al University of Malaysia (UKM). In<br />
2004, he was appointed as Senior Research Officer at Melaka Institute of<br />
Biotechnology (MIB), a research wing of Melaka Biotechnology<br />
Corporati<strong>on</strong>, Malaysia. Based <strong>on</strong> his performance, in April 2005, he was<br />
promoted as ‘Principal Investigator & Head of R&D Department’ at MIB, Malaysia. In 2008, he<br />
was invited by the AIMST University as a ‘Visiting Faculty’ for their Department of<br />
Biotechnology and now serving as a Senior Associate Professor. In 2009, he was nominated for<br />
the AASIO (Associati<strong>on</strong> of Agricultural Scientists of Indian Origin) Young Scientist Award. He<br />
has published more than 47 peer-reviewed articles, 5 books, and submitted more than 11,900<br />
DNA sequences in Gene Bank, and got more than 10 awards/fellowships. As of May 2016, he<br />
has supervised more than 67 students including postgraduates, undergraduates and industrial<br />
trainees. He is actively involved in research as well as teaching and advising of postgraduate and<br />
undergraduate students. You may c<strong>on</strong>tact him using email, subhash@aimst.edu.my or<br />
subhashbhore@gmail.com<br />
Kasi Marimuthu, PhD: Marimuthu accomplished his BSc (Zoology);<br />
MSc (Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Biotechnology); PhD (Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
Biotechnology/ Zoology Interdisciplinary) degree educati<strong>on</strong> at<br />
Man<strong>on</strong>maniam Sundaranar University, Tamilnadu, India. In 2003 he<br />
joined as a Post-Doctoral Fellow at School of Biological Sciences,<br />
University Science Malaysia, Penang for 2 years. Presently, he is<br />
appointed as a Professor in the Department of Biotechnology AIMST<br />
University, Malaysia. He teaches Aquaculture, Biostatistics, Research<br />
Methodology, Biology of Invertebrates and Vertebrates courses for undergraduate biotechnology<br />
programme. He is specialized in fish reproducti<strong>on</strong> and breeding, larval rearing, hatchery<br />
management, fish immunology and aquatic toxicology related research. He has published more<br />
than 95 research publicati<strong>on</strong> in fisheries and aquaculture in various reputed and indexed journals.<br />
He has participated in more than 35 local and internati<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>ferences, seminars, and<br />
workshops. He has been appointed as an external examiner for six Indian Universities<br />
(Man<strong>on</strong>maniam Sundaranar University, Annamalai University, Bharathiyar University,<br />
Bharathidasan University, Madras University, and Priest University) Tamilnadu, India. He is<br />
also currently serving as a Deputy Vice chancellor for Academic and Internati<strong>on</strong>al Affairs at<br />
AIMST University. You may c<strong>on</strong>tact him at marimuthu@gmail.com.
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Focus</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> Envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Challenges and Perspectives for Sustainable Development<br />
Published by AIMST University