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POLICE<br />
and<br />
PSYCHOLOGY<br />
LIU Cheuk Yik Regina 53904346<br />
Cheng Hoi Man 54794163<br />
Cheung Ka Wai 54799761<br />
Chia Chen Hsuan 54051451<br />
Lam Chak Hei 54067887
Contents<br />
1. Introduction of police p. 2<br />
2. Police culture p. 3<br />
3. Influence to police p. 8<br />
4. Stresses of police p. 11<br />
5. Emotion of police p. 17<br />
6. Prejudice in police p. 21<br />
7. Reference P.27<br />
1
1. Introduction of police<br />
Law is used to regulate what we<br />
can do and what we cannot do in order<br />
to create a safe and fair society. To ensure<br />
the social order and we all obey to the law,<br />
police is then needed. Police officers’<br />
primary duty is to protect people and<br />
property. And according to the Bureau of<br />
Labor Statistics, common duties of a police<br />
officer include patrolling designated areas,<br />
enforcing laws, answering calls for help,<br />
arresting individuals suspected of<br />
committing crimes, issuing citations,<br />
testifying in court, detecting criminal cases,<br />
controlling the stream of people in events or<br />
protests and conducting traffic stops. So<br />
police act as an important role in the city<br />
to keep social harmony.<br />
2
2. Police culture<br />
2.1 Onion concept<br />
Onion concept will be used and illustrated in the following<br />
in order to show the culture among police officers. Values<br />
will also be analyzed with Hofstede's cultural dimensions<br />
theory.<br />
Badge, uniform, jargon<br />
B<br />
Fallen officers<br />
Worship Guan<br />
Gong<br />
B<br />
B<br />
Cultural<br />
Dimension<br />
Theory<br />
There are number of layers in the onion concept which<br />
represent different features when viewing a culture.<br />
3
SYMBOLS<br />
The outer layer is symbols which is the most<br />
superficial layer and can be easily mimicked<br />
(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). The example of<br />
this layer for police officers would be the uniform<br />
they wear, the jargons they use as well as their<br />
badges.<br />
HEROES<br />
Heroes of that particular culture makes up the second<br />
layer of the model. Heroes refer to whoever has an<br />
influence on the group of people (Hofstede, Hofstede,<br />
& Minkov, 2010). Those fallen police officers would<br />
be considered as the heroes in the task force.<br />
RITUALS<br />
The second most inner layer is rituals that are unique<br />
to the culture which worshiping the god of war (Guan<br />
Gong) would be an example (Hofstede, Hofstede, &<br />
Minkov, 2010).<br />
VALUES<br />
The center of the onion is the values that the culture<br />
upholds. This layer however is difficult to recognize<br />
because it is embedded deep down in the culture<br />
(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).<br />
4
2.2 Values- Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory<br />
We have picked three aspects in the Hofstede's cultural<br />
dimensions theory. The theory mainly describes the<br />
values of a particular culture and how those values affect<br />
their behaviours.<br />
POWER DISTANCE<br />
Power distance refers to the extent of less powerful<br />
members in an organization perceive, expect and accept<br />
that the power is distributed unequally (Qian, & Li, 2015).<br />
Police tend to have a high level of power distance mainly<br />
due to the strict hierarchy. Police is a professional that<br />
highly emphasizes on rankings and status and people<br />
project different level of respect towards supervisors and<br />
colleagues. Besides, high level of obedience and discipline<br />
also contribute to the high level of power distance.<br />
5
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDDANCE<br />
Uncertainty avoidance means to what extent the members<br />
are comfortable with changes and unknown situations<br />
(Dorfman, & Howell, 1988). Uncertainty avoidance among<br />
police officers is relatively low. The reason of that is<br />
because it is rather dangerous to be in uncertain<br />
situations where officers are not able to control. Therefore,<br />
officers receive large amount of training in better<br />
handling uncertain environments. Officers also need to<br />
follow protocols and rules to minimize the effects of<br />
uncertainties.<br />
COLLECTIVISM VS INDIVIDUALISM<br />
Collectivism values interdependence relationships, group<br />
cohesion and harmony (Lee, Beckert, & Goodrich, 2010).<br />
Police department acts as a government body and officers<br />
are members of the group. Officers tend to value<br />
collectivism rather that individualism because they are<br />
representing the department, therefore they need to<br />
maintain the harmony within group. The idea of<br />
collectivism is emphasized even at the beginning of the<br />
training. All the team members will be punished when an<br />
individual made a mistake. Individuals also need to seek<br />
acceptance from other members, so they are more likely<br />
to be collectivists.<br />
6
COMMUNICATION<br />
Chinese is a language which is indirect and high in context.<br />
Indirect conversation aims in maintaining a harmonious<br />
relationship with others and ignore the possibilities in<br />
creating misunderstanding. High context communication<br />
refers to the implicit communication with unclear details<br />
and instructions. The gestures, voice and context maybe<br />
include hidden agenda as well (Kim, Pan, & Park, 1998).<br />
This however may not facilitate communication among<br />
police officers as it usually takes more time and efforts to<br />
understand the meaning behind the conversation. Police<br />
officers should try to communicate in a more direct way<br />
especially when there are emergencies.<br />
7
3. What influences the police?<br />
We are constantly influence by others on a daily basis.<br />
Let’s discuss some influence factors that could possibly<br />
influence our police officers.<br />
1. Conformity<br />
Conformity refers to the changes in behaviour or<br />
opinion because of real or imagined pressure given<br />
by groups or a person (Aronson, 2011). The first<br />
type of conformity is informational influence which<br />
an individual takes others’ opinion as a reference<br />
and follows the information received. Police<br />
officers especially who are newly recruited would<br />
highly rely on the information given by others or<br />
by observing others to adjust their own behaviour.<br />
The second one is normative social influence which<br />
people want to be accepted by the others. In our<br />
example, police officers work in a team which they<br />
would want to be accepted by teammates,<br />
therefore, they could be easily influenced by the<br />
others.<br />
8
2. Compliance<br />
Compliance refers<br />
to the behavior changes because of others’<br />
direct requests, either a person or a group<br />
(Griggs, 2014). People do that because they<br />
want to maintain a good relationship with<br />
others or they want to receive help from others<br />
in the future. The example of compliance within<br />
the taskforce could be from colleagues at the<br />
same rank. Co-workers might want to change<br />
shift with another employee, he/she may be<br />
reluctantly agreed because they want to<br />
maintain a positive relationship with others.<br />
3. Obedience<br />
Obedience basically means the behaviour<br />
changes because of an order given by<br />
authority which obey is the only option<br />
(Aronson, 2011). This is probably the most<br />
common type of influential force in the<br />
police department because of the strict<br />
hierarchy. For police officers, they normally<br />
do not get to raise objection when they<br />
receive an order.<br />
9
Deindividuation<br />
Deindividuation refers to people who lose their<br />
individuality when they are in a group (Wilson, &<br />
Brewer, 1993). Wearing police uniform is a way to<br />
enhance the effect of deindividuation because it is<br />
more difficult to identify an individual when they all<br />
dressed the same. When police officers are in a team,<br />
they might lose self-control or moral restraints and<br />
feel unaccountable for their behaviour (Donner,<br />
Fridell, & Jennings, 2016). One example would be<br />
police officers act more aggressively than they have<br />
to in dealing with protests. Police officers who are<br />
deindividualized may also experienced responsibility<br />
diffusion which increased the chances of performing<br />
undesirable behaviour.<br />
10
4. Stress of police<br />
1. Stress level of police<br />
Many police officers suffer from distress, which<br />
is a kind of bad and negative stress, people will<br />
feel anxious and worry. This is mainly a result of<br />
excess of adaptive demand placed upon us.<br />
From A cross-sectional study conducted from<br />
June to August 2014, above one tenth of the<br />
participants reported to have at least one of the<br />
chronic diseases. In a study done by Selokar et<br />
al., 18%, 6%, and 2% of participants reported of<br />
having hypertension, diabetes, and tuberculosis,<br />
respectively, and three-fourth were addicted to<br />
tobacco use. (Selokar et al., 2011)<br />
2. Sources of stress<br />
1. Environmental Source<br />
2. Psychological Source<br />
3. Social Source<br />
11
1. Environmental Source<br />
For environmental source of stress, it is mainly related<br />
to working schedule, financial status and illness. Firstly,<br />
police are stressed because of their job nature. For<br />
example, police officers are constantly exposed to<br />
danger which threatens their safety and that creates<br />
huge amounts of stress. In addition, dues to the fact that<br />
Chinese society is considered as a high power distance<br />
society, police need to obey and strictly follow the<br />
orders from their supervisors even if they don’t want to.<br />
The hierarchy also projects stress to people who are<br />
involved. Another job related stress factor would be the<br />
difficulties in delivering bad news to citizens. Cops<br />
sometimes need to deliver death notification to victims’<br />
families which could seriously affect their emotions.<br />
Also, most of the officers need to work on shifts,<br />
including night shifts, this make them hard to spend<br />
quality time with families and friends. Besides, working<br />
on shifts could also affect their functions of circadian<br />
rhythms (see below for definition) and cause different<br />
levels of stress on individuals. Many of them also suffer<br />
from fatigue since police need to pay their full attention<br />
during work, be alert of the surroundings and mobilize<br />
energy. Besides, they may even need to be aware of<br />
what is going on around them when they are off shift, in<br />
order to maintain social order.<br />
12
Circadian rhythms A system that controls our<br />
daily internal fluctuations which everyone’s<br />
internal clock is different. Shift work could<br />
adversely affect one’s circadian rhythms and<br />
cause negative impacts. This could also be a<br />
stressor for the police officers. For those who<br />
need to work on shift, they should expose<br />
themselves to lots of light while working which<br />
however could be difficult for those who work<br />
at the field.<br />
2. Psychological Source<br />
For psychological source of stress, police may feel stress<br />
because sometimes they failed to protect someone or<br />
catch the suspects. They may also have a hard time in<br />
controlling their emotion while they are in work. For<br />
example, during the Occupy Central movement, police<br />
need to conceal their feelings, they still need to perform<br />
their job duties whether or not they support this<br />
movement. This may be one of the stimuli which cause<br />
the distress. Besides, fear of lawsuits is one of the<br />
psychological stressors too. Most of the police officers<br />
believe that they have to act as a role model in the<br />
society, it is important for them to strictly follow the<br />
laws and regulations. However, one may be fear that<br />
he/she cannot comply with those rules and this belief<br />
might as well be a psychological source of stress to the<br />
officers.<br />
13
3. Social Source<br />
Other than that, social aspect is also a stressor to police.<br />
Police may suffer from prejudice from citizens. Referring<br />
to the prejudice topic we mentioned, lots of citizens<br />
have bias on police, police may feel stressful as they are<br />
not that kind of people mentioned by those residents.<br />
Lastly, especially for female police officers, they also<br />
suffer from another kind of stress that male officers do<br />
not, which is the disapproval from public. As people<br />
always have stereotyped thinking in the job of police,<br />
many people think that female should not be a police as<br />
police is a really dangerous job which is not suitable for<br />
women. Therefore, female police officers’ friends or<br />
families may disapprove them for joining the task force<br />
due to their bias.<br />
14
3. Reactions to stress<br />
Psychological reactions<br />
First of all, for psychological reaction, police might<br />
experience the diminishing hedonic capacity which<br />
means they are less able to experience happiness and<br />
pleasure. Regarding to their salaries, benefits, and job<br />
satisfaction, most of the officers are unhappy with their<br />
jobs and almost three quarters of the officers quit<br />
(McIntyre,1990).<br />
Cognitive stress<br />
Police officers who are experiencing stress may also be<br />
vulnerable to cognitive reactions, such as poor<br />
judgement, unable to concentrate, questioning one’s<br />
ability.<br />
15
Emotional reactions<br />
In terms of emotional reactions, officers might not be<br />
able to control their temper and emotions at work or at<br />
other places. They might also ab anxious about work<br />
even though they are well aware of the work duties.<br />
Depression could also be another emotional reaction if<br />
cops are under stress.<br />
Behavioural reactions<br />
For behavioural reaction, police may experience<br />
symptoms of the last stage of the General Adaption<br />
Syndrome, which include exhaustion. Other than that,<br />
they may also suffer from headaches, fatigue, pounding<br />
heart, lower sex drive, overeating, alcohol and drug<br />
abuse and insomnia (Leeds, 2009)<br />
16
5. Emotion of police<br />
According to Gerrig and<br />
Zimbardo, emotion is “a<br />
complex pattern of changes, including<br />
physiological arousal, feelings, cognitive<br />
processes, and behavioral reactions, made<br />
in response to a situation perceived to<br />
be personally significant.” (2002).<br />
1. Contemporary Model of Emotion<br />
By definition, it is no doubt that police will have different<br />
emotions, especially behavioral reactions, from normal<br />
citizen. It is meaningful to figure out the differences and<br />
why the the differences exist. According to Coon and<br />
Mitterer, emotion appraisal, or cognitive appraisal,<br />
means “evaluating the personal meaning of a stimulus or<br />
situation” (2011). And Lazarus, a psychologist who<br />
stressed the emotion appraisal is important, had<br />
suggested a model of emotion called Contemporary<br />
Model of Emotion by using the above concept as the core<br />
of it. The model suggested that any emotional stimulus or<br />
situation we met will be evaluated by our own mind<br />
firstly, and then we will have relevant bodily arousal,<br />
behavioral respond, emotional expression and emotional<br />
feelings according to the appraisal we made.<br />
17
Example<br />
Below, we will illustrate the model using Yau Ma Tei gang<br />
fight which happened on 2 October 2016.<br />
Emotional<br />
Stimulus<br />
Yau Ma Tei<br />
gang fight<br />
Cognitive<br />
Appraisal<br />
Citizen: RUN!!<br />
vs<br />
Police: my duty<br />
to stop them<br />
Bodily<br />
arousal<br />
Behavioural<br />
response<br />
Emotional<br />
expression<br />
Emotional<br />
feelings<br />
Bodily arousal<br />
Both citizens and officers will be alert and heart<br />
rate increases, but the intensity may vary as<br />
police officers received sufficient training and<br />
they already know what to do.<br />
18
Behavioural response<br />
Citizens would sense the danger and probably<br />
just run away immediately. Police officers,<br />
however have to perform their duty and will<br />
try to stop the fight by all means.<br />
Emotional expression<br />
Citizens would show their fear on their faces,<br />
some of them might cry. Police need to conceal<br />
their facial expressions even though they are<br />
also scared.<br />
Emotional feelings<br />
Citizens would be scared and nervous but<br />
police officers might be less nervous because<br />
they know they have sufficient tools to solve<br />
the issue.<br />
19
With the illustration using the above model,<br />
we found that the major differences<br />
between police and normal citizens are the<br />
behavioral response and the emotional<br />
expression. The differences are mainly due<br />
to the cognitive appraisal about the duty<br />
and characteristic of police which are<br />
unique to them. Bodily arousal and<br />
emotional feelings are mainly affected by<br />
the common cognitive appraisal of danger,<br />
so there are not much differences but only<br />
the intensity as police are supposed to be<br />
well-trained to face those situation.<br />
20
6. Prejudice<br />
1. What is prejudice?<br />
According to McLeod (2008), prejudice is an<br />
unjustified or incorrect attitude (usually negative)<br />
towards an individual based solely on the<br />
individual’s membership of a social group.<br />
Discrimination is prejudice in the form of action<br />
and behavior and it has caused some serious<br />
issues in the police department, especially racism<br />
in the U.S. An investigation done by U.S justice<br />
department in 2016 indicated that racism exists in<br />
different cities such as San Francisco. There are<br />
multiple reasons that U.S police are racist against<br />
black people.<br />
21
2. Police’s roots of prejudice<br />
Social roots<br />
In American history, African American has<br />
always been struggling in lower class level.<br />
They generally perform poorer in school or in<br />
other social aspects comparing to others<br />
because of their social status, thus many of<br />
them make a living by selling drug or other<br />
illegal activities. Therefore, police tend to think<br />
and believe“Black people = Criminal” (Levitt &<br />
Dubner, 2005).<br />
Emotional roots<br />
Emotional root is about finding a scapegoat to<br />
be looked down when one is in frustration. For<br />
example, a police officer encountered some<br />
negative incidents at work, he/she might just<br />
find a scapegoat and unleash the anger or<br />
frustration on that person. Another possible<br />
reason why African American are often picked<br />
as scapegoats is that they might not be able to<br />
seek legal advice due to financial and other<br />
reasons.<br />
22
Cognitive roots<br />
Police might overestimate the similarity of<br />
black communities. They categorize<br />
African American based on their skin<br />
colour and treated them with unjustified<br />
manner. Sometimes this mindset might<br />
effectively prevent an actual crime but<br />
unfortunately it will also create other<br />
social issues or injustice among the<br />
society.<br />
3. Discrimination<br />
Affect<br />
I feel this guy is<br />
about to do<br />
something illegal<br />
Stimuli:<br />
Seeing a<br />
black<br />
person<br />
ATTITUDE<br />
Behaviour<br />
I will go and<br />
check him out<br />
Cognition<br />
I think he is<br />
definitely<br />
carrying a gun or<br />
drugs<br />
23
4. Common prejudice against police<br />
Police officers’ negative attitude<br />
Some citizens might have unpleasant<br />
experiences when they interacted with police<br />
officers. This might include impolite, lazy or<br />
unhelpful officers. Therefore, people would have<br />
a false impression that all the other officers are<br />
the same. This leads to awful attitude projected<br />
from citizens when they meet other police<br />
officers in the future.<br />
Scandals<br />
The public is influenced by the news and<br />
scandals reported from the media. Many citizens<br />
believe that the majority of the officers are<br />
involved in all types of illegal activities including<br />
corruption, bribery, gambling and<br />
prostitution. Having exposed to large amount of<br />
news and reports made people believe that<br />
every officer is involved in such behaviours.<br />
24
Police brutality<br />
The recent all over news incident in America<br />
which a cop killed an African-American make<br />
people believe police were acting violently.<br />
Obviously, polices should react strongly or even<br />
violently against dangerous criminals. However,<br />
violent measures should not be taken in every<br />
situation. However, these sad incidents have left a<br />
negative impression towards the police.<br />
Political Control<br />
Police are sometimes used for suppressing the<br />
objection in authoritarian regime like Germany.<br />
Lately, in some democratic countries, police are<br />
accused of attacking protesters in different events<br />
and the citizens believe the government<br />
commanded the police to do so( Aljazeera, 2016).<br />
People prefer to think that the police are<br />
controlled by the government rather than<br />
believing they are simply maintaining the order of<br />
the society.<br />
25
5. Citizens’ roots of prejudice towards police<br />
Cognitive roots<br />
People learn from the mass media that many police<br />
officers choose to hurt innocent citizens, even kill<br />
African American by shooting. They did not spend time<br />
in understanding why police act in a certain way, then<br />
just regard all the police are violent.<br />
Emotional roots<br />
Some people are annoyed when they receive a fine<br />
from the police, so they might express their anger or<br />
disappointment to the cops by insulting or mocking<br />
them. Moreover, there were cases which people just<br />
randomly attack some officers who were not the<br />
culprit of killing an African American. In the<br />
“Assaulting Dallas police officers event”, a man shot<br />
and killed the police officers who were on duty (CNN,<br />
2016). The man who committed the act obviously<br />
possess prejudice that all white male police will hurt or<br />
kill black men; Therefore, when they saw any white<br />
male officers, they might long to attack them by<br />
revenge.<br />
Social roots<br />
Compared to barbaric times, nowadays, people seek<br />
for peaceful and nonviolent ways to solve social<br />
problems. So, seeing the police subduing the criminal<br />
violently on TV made people who encourage nonviolence<br />
believe that they are all fierce.<br />
26
6. Steps to reduce prejudice<br />
1. Reflect<br />
Police should think about whether or not they have<br />
an impression of all African American are<br />
criminals. They should be honest to themselves in<br />
order to better reflect the thoughts of themselves.<br />
Citizens at the same time should also be aware of<br />
any opinions, either positive or negative, that they<br />
possess towards the police. Also, everyone should<br />
remember human lives are all equal and we should<br />
treat each other with dignity and respect.<br />
2. Contact<br />
By interacting with the police, people will<br />
understand more about the police department in<br />
general and also realize that there are many good<br />
police officers out there.<br />
On the other hand, police officers who falsely<br />
believe that all African American are criminals<br />
should proactively reach out to the community and<br />
try to put themselves into their shoes.<br />
27
3. Learn<br />
It is important to know the reasons behind the<br />
actions of others. For those who promote nonviolence<br />
need to realize and understand know<br />
that violence is necessary to subdue the criminal<br />
in some circumstances after realize police’s<br />
difficulties (Pranzo, n.d.).<br />
Police officers will need to understand more about<br />
the background and the obstacles that African<br />
Americans are facing. Being friends with African<br />
American also can help reduce prejudice in both<br />
ways (Greater Good in Action, 2015).<br />
28
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http://www.simplypsychology.org/prejudice.html<br />
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