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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
JUNE 2011
VOL 3, NO 2
contacts seem to be conducted from various perspectives. Kim (2001), for example, highlights
that studies on adaptation have been carried out with different perspectives in the length of
intended stay in a foreign culture. According to her, studies with a longer term perspective, are
often analyzing immigrants and refugees migrating to a new cultural environment (see also e.g.
Van Tubergen 2006; Fair 2008). On the contrary, studies with a rather short term-perspective are
focusing on temporary sojourners and expatriates (see also e.g. Torbiörn 1982; Oberg 1960;
Selmer 1998-2007). This paper, however, agrees with researchers such as Kim (2001) on the
importance of combining these two perspectives and applied, as explained above, a broader
definition of expatriates. Gudykunst & Kim (2003) suggest that foreigners who intend to stay
permanently might have a greater motivation to adapt to the local culture than expatriates or
other sojourners who only spend a limited amount of time in the host country. Moreover, in the
attitude the foreigner encounters in the host society might vary. It might for example be more
accepted that temporary sojourners act in divergent ways than if permanent sojourners do so.
(Kim 2001) Hence, it seems interesting to examine the differences and commonalities of these
two groups of expatriates. Furthermore, much of the existing literature on cross-cultural
adaptation can be perceived as either looking at the macro or at the micro level of cultural
contact. At the macro-level, researchers study the changes that groups of individuals from
different cultures go through when coming in contact with each other. On the other hand, studies
conducted at the micro-level, focus on the “intrapersonal and interpersonal experiences” (Kim
2001:15) of individuals entering a new culture. Although not done by many studies yet,
researchers such as Berry et al. (2002), Berry (2001) and Kim (2001) highlight the importance to
combine these levels when analyzing the adaptation process of an individual entering a social
group in the host culture environment. In this research work, the focus lies on the micro-level
considering the cases of individual expatriates. However, the receiving cultural environment, in
this case the Danish society, as a group and its influence on the adaptation process of the
expatriates is taken into consideration. Moreover, many studies use existent theories such as
Berry’s (2001) (see point 3.2.4) to find tendencies in migrating cultural groups (e.g. Ward and
Rana-Deuba 1999). Berry’s work seems highly valuable and received a lot of attention and
affirmation in the literature. However, according to Ward (2008) due to its established relevance
and its strong developed framework it might constrain new research in its development. She
therefore requests researchers to “think outside the Berry boxes” (Ward 2008:106). For this
paper, Berry’s theory seems a valuable framework that provides a good insight into the research
topic. However, in accordance with Ward, many other researches and theories are included.
Furthermore, the expatriates are not simply tested in which of Berry’s acculturation strategies
they fit best; rather, they are asked to give their own definition of integration. These definitions
might develop a new perspective on acculturation strategies and might even display hybrid forms
of Berry’s existing strategies.
Expatriate ‘integration’ theories
The objective of the paper is to find a definition of the term ‘integration’ and to ascertain what
integration means to expatriates. The author of the present paper, thus, is very open to all kinds
of different perspectives on that term. At this point it therefore considers the different terms the
literature uses to describe processes that occur when individuals come into contact with a foreign
culture and environment. Different authors use several common terms for these processes such as
‘adaptation’ (e.g. Berry 2001; Berry et al. 2002; Kim 2001; Gudykunst & Kim 2003),
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