Wikipedia Book: Exploring the Read-Write Web - ASK

Exploring the Read/Write 

Web 

User generated content 

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PDF generated at: Mon, 30 May 2011 14:14:54 UTC

Contents 

Articles 

World Wide Web 1 

Wikipedia 13 

Creative Commons 42 

Amazon.com 52 

Squidoo 70 

User:David Holmes 72 

References 

Article Sources and Contributors 73 

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 80 

Article Licenses 

License 81


World Wide Web 

Inventor 

World Wide Web 

The Web's historic logo designed by Robert Cailliau 

Launch year 1991 

Company CERN 

Tim Berners-Lee [1] 

Availability Worldwide 

The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW or W3 and commonly known as the Web, is a system of interlinked 

hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, 

images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks. Using concepts from earlier 

hypertext systems, British engineer and computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee, now the Director of the World Wide 

Web Consortium, wrote a proposal in March 1989 for what would eventually become the World Wide Web. [1] At 

CERN in Geneva, Switzerland, Berners-Lee and Belgian computer scientist Robert Cailliau proposed in 1990 to use 

"HyperText ... to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at 

will", [2] and publicly introduced the project in December. [3] 

"The World-Wide Web was developed to be a pool of human knowledge, and human culture, which would allow 

collaborators in remote sites to share their ideas and all aspects of a common project." [4] 

History 

In the May 1970 issue of Popular Science magazine Arthur C. Clarke was reported to have predicted that satellites 

would one day "bring the accumulated knowledge of the world to your fingertips" using a console that would 

combine the functionality of the Xerox, telephone, television and a small computer, allowing data transfer and video 

conferencing around the globe. [5] 

In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee wrote a proposal that referenced ENQUIRE, a database and software project he 

had built in 1980, and described a more elaborate information management system. [6] 

With help from Robert Cailliau, he published a more formal proposal (on November 12, 1990) to build a "Hypertext 

project" called "WorldWideWeb" (one word, also "W3") as a "web" of "hypertext documents" to be viewed by 

"browsers" using a client–server architecture. [2] This proposal estimated that a read-only web would be developed 

within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of new links and new material by 

readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification of a reader when new material 

of interest to him/her has become available." See Web 2.0 and RSS/Atom, which have taken a little longer to mature.


The proposal was modeled after the Dynatext SGML reader by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the 

Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, 

was technically advanced and was a key player in the extension of SGML ISO 8879:1986 to Hypermedia within 

HyTime, but it was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high 

energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration. 

A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the world's first web 

server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 

1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary 

for a working Web: [7] the first web browser (which was a web editor as 

well); the first web server; and the first web pages, [8] which described 

the project itself. On August 6, 1991, he posted a short summary of the 

World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup. [9] 

This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available 

service on the Internet. The first photo on the web was uploaded by 

Berners-Lee in 1992, an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles 

Cernettes. 

Web as a "Side Effect" of the 40 years of Particle Physics 

Experiments. It happened many times during history of science 

that the most impressive results of large scale scientific efforts 

appeared far away from the main directions of those efforts... 

After the World War 2 the nuclear centers of almost all 

developed countries became the places with the highest 

concentration of talented scientists. For about four decades many 

of them were invited to the international CERN's Laboratories. 

So specific kind of the CERN's intellectual "entire culture" (as 

you called it) was constantly growing from one generation of the 

scientists and engineers to another. When the concentration of 

This NeXT Computer used by Tim Berners-Lee 

at CERN became the first web server 

The CERN datacenter in 2010 housing some 

www servers 

the human talents per square foot of the CERN's Labs reached the critical mass, it caused an intellectual 

explosion The Web – crucial point of human's history – was born... Nothing could be compared to it... We 

cant imagine yet the real scale of the recent shake, because there has not been so fast growing multi-dimension 

social-economic processes in human history... [10] 

The first server outside Europe was set up at SLAC to host the SPIRES-HEP database. Accounts differ substantially 

as to the date of this event. The World Wide Web Consortium says December 1992, [11] whereas SLAC itself claims 

1991. [12] [13] This is supported by a W3C document entitled A Little History of the World Wide Web. [14] 

The crucial underlying concept of hypertext originated with older projects from the 1960s, such as the Hypertext 

Editing System (HES) at Brown University, Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart's oN-Line System 

(NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based "memex", which was 

described in the 1945 essay "As We May Think". 

Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he 

had repeatedly suggested that a marriage between the two technologies was possible to members of both technical 

communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally tackled the project himself. In the process, he 

developed three essential technologies: 

1. a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the Universal Document 

Identifier (UDI), later known as Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and Uniform Resource Identifier (URI); 

2. the publishing language HyperText Markup Language (HTML);


3. the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). [15] 

The World Wide Web had a number of differences from other hypertext systems that were then available. The Web 

required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones. This made it possible for someone to link to another 

resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing 

web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot. 

Unlike predecessors such as HyperCard, the World Wide Web was non-proprietary, making it possible to develop 

servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. On April 30, 1993, CERN 

announced [16] that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due. Coming two months after the 

announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this produced a rapid 

shift away from Gopher and towards the Web. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW, which was based 

upon HyperCard. 

Scholars generally agree that a turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction [17] of the Mosaic 

web browser [18] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing 

Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding 

for Mosaic came from the U.S. High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a funding program 

initiated by the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, one of several computing 

developments initiated by U.S. Senator Al Gore. [19] Prior to the release of Mosaic, graphics were not commonly 

mixed with text in web pages and the Web's popularity was less than older protocols in use over the Internet, such as 

Gopher and Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS). Mosaic's graphical user interface allowed the Web to become, 

by far, the most popular Internet protocol. 

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization 

for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October, 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet; a year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national 

computer research lab) with support from the European Commission DG InfSo; and in 1996, a third continental site 

was created in Japan at Keio University. By the end of 1994, while the total number of websites was still minute 

compared to present standards, quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the 

precursors or inspiration for today's most popular services. 

Connected by the existing Internet, other websites were created around the world, adding international standards for 

domain names and HTML. Since then, Berners-Lee has played an active role in guiding the development of web 

standards (such as the markup languages in which web pages are composed), and in recent years has advocated his 

vision of a Semantic Web. The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an 

easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularizing use of the Internet. [20] Although the 

two terms are sometimes conflated in popular use, World Wide Web is not synonymous with Internet. [21] The Web is 

an application built on top of the Internet. 

Function 

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in every-day speech without much distinction. However, the 

Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected 

computer networks. In contrast, the Web is one of the services that runs on the Internet. It is a collection of 

interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. In short, the Web is an application 

running on the Internet. [22] 

Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into a web 

browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of 

communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it. As an example, consider the Wikipedia 

page for this article with the URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web .


First, the browser resolves the server-name portion of the URL (en.wikipedia.org) into an Internet Protocol address 

using the global, distributed Internet database known as the Domain Name System (DNS); this lookup returns an IP 

address such as 208.80.152.2. The browser then requests the resource by sending an HTTP request across the 

Internet to the computer at that particular address. It makes the request to a particular application port in the 

underlying Internet Protocol Suite so that the computer receiving the request can distinguish an HTTP request from 

other network protocols such as e-mail delivery; the HTTP protocol normally uses port 80. The content of the HTTP 

request can be as simple as the two lines of text 

GET /wiki/World_Wide_Web HTTP/1.1 

Host: en.wikipedia.org 

The computer receiving the HTTP request delivers it to Web server software listening for requests on port 80. If the 

web server can fulfill the request it sends an HTTP response back to the browser indicating success, which can be as 

simple as 

HTTP/1.0 200 OK 

Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 

followed by the content of the requested page. The Hypertext Markup Language for a basic web page looks like 

 

 

World Wide Web — Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 

 

 

The '''World Wide Web''', abbreviated as '''WWW''' and commonly known ... 

 

 

The web browser parses the HTML, interpreting the markup (, for bold, and such) that surrounds the 

words in order to draw that text on the screen. 

Many web pages consist of more elaborate HTML which references the URLs of other resources such as images, 

other embedded media, scripts that affect page behavior, and Cascading Style Sheets that affect page layout. A 

browser that handles complex HTML will make additional HTTP requests to the web server for these other Internet 

media types. As it receives their content from the web server, the browser progressively renders the page onto the 

screen as specified by its HTML and these additional resources. 

Linking 

Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source documents, 

definitions and other web resources (this Wikipedia article is full of hyperlinks). In the underlying HTML, a 

hyperlink looks like 

Early archive 

of the first Web site


Such a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via 

hypertext links is dubbed a web of information. Publication on the 

Internet created what Tim Berners-Lee first called the WorldWideWeb 

(in its original CamelCase, which was subsequently discarded) in 

November 1990. [2] 

Over time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear, 

relocate, or are replaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks 

obsolete, a phenomenon referred to in some circles as link rot and the 

hyperlinks affected by it are often called dead links. The ephemeral 

nature of the Web has prompted many efforts to archive web sites. The 

Internet Archive, active since 1996, is one of the best-known efforts. 

Dynamic updates of web pages 

Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the 

WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks 

JavaScript is a scripting language that was initially developed in 1995 by Brendan Eich, then of Netscape, for use 

within web pages. [23] The standardized version is ECMAScript. [23] To overcome some of the limitations of the 

page-by-page model described above, some web applications also use Ajax (asynchronous JavaScript and XML). 

JavaScript is delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP requests to the server, either in response to user 

actions such as mouse-clicks, or based on lapsed time. The server's responses are used to modify the current page 

rather than creating a new page with each response. Thus the server only needs to provide limited, incremental 

information. Since multiple Ajax requests can be handled at the same time, users can interact with a page even while 

data is being retrieved. Some web applications regularly poll the server to ask if new information is available. [24] 

WWW prefix 

Many domain names used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming 

Internet hosts (servers) according to the services they provide. The hostname for a web server is often www, in the 

same way that it may be ftp for an FTP server, and news or nntp for a USENET news server. These host names 

appear as Domain Name System (DNS) subdomain names, as in www.example.com. The use of 'www' as a 

subdomain name is not required by any technical or policy standard; indeed, the first ever web server was called 

nxoc01.cern.ch, [25] and many web sites exist without it. Many established websites still use 'www', or they 

invent other subdomain names such as 'www2', 'secure', etc. Many such web servers are set up such that both the 

domain root (e.g., example.com) and the www subdomain (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others 

require one form or the other, or they may map to different web sites. 

The use of a subdomain name is useful for load balancing incoming web traffic by creating a CNAME record that 

points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently, only a subdomain can be cname'ed the same result cannot be 

achieved by using the bare domain root. 

When a user submits an incomplete website address to a web browser in its address bar input field, some web 

browsers automatically try adding the prefix "www" to the beginning of it and possibly ".com", ".org" and ".net" at 

the end, depending on what might be missing. For example, entering 'microsoft' may be transformed to 

http://www.microsoft.com/ and 'openoffice' to http://www.openoffice.org. This feature started appearing in early 

versions of Mozilla Firefox, when it still had the working title 'Firebird' in early 2003, from a much more ancient 

practice in browsers such as Lynx. [26] It is reported that Microsoft was granted a US patent for the same idea in 

2008, but only for mobile devices. [27] 

The scheme specifiers (http:// or https://) in URIs refer to the Hypertext Transfer Protocol and to HTTP Secure 

respectively and so define the communication protocol to be used for the request and response. The HTTP protocol 

is fundamental to the operation of the World Wide Web; the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when


confidential information such as passwords or banking information are to be exchanged over the public Internet. 

Web browsers usually prepend the scheme to URLs too, if omitted. 

In English, www is pronounced by individually pronouncing the name of characters (double-u double-u double-u). 

Although some technical users pronounce it dub-dub-dub this is not widespread. The English writer Douglas Adams 

once quipped in The Independent on Sunday (1999): "The World Wide Web is the only thing I know of whose 

shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it's short for," with Stephen Fry later pronouncing it in his 

"Podgrammes" series of podcasts as "wuh wuh wuh." In Mandarin Chinese, World Wide Web is commonly 

translated via a phono-semantic matching to wàn wéi wǎng (万维网), which satisfies www and literally means 

"myriad dimensional net", [28] a translation that very appropriately reflects the design concept and proliferation of the 

World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee's web-space states that World Wide Web is officially spelled as three separate 

words, each capitalized, with no intervening hyphens. [29] 

Privacy 

Computer users, who save time and money, and who gain conveniences and entertainment, may or may not have 

surrendered the right to privacy in exchange for using a number of technologies including the Web. [30] Worldwide, 

more than a half billion people have used a social network service, [31] and of Americans who grew up with the Web, 

half created an online profile [32] and are part of a generational shift that could be changing norms. [33] [34] Facebook 

progressed from U.S. college students to a 70% non-U.S. audience, and in 2009 estimated that only 20% of its 

members use privacy settings. [35] In 2010 (six years after co-founding the company), Mark Zuckerberg wrote, "we 

will add privacy controls that are much simpler to use". [36] 

Privacy representatives from 60 countries have resolved to ask for laws to complement industry self-regulation, for 

education for children and other minors who use the Web, and for default protections for users of social networks. [37] 

They also believe data protection for personally identifiable information benefits business more than the sale of that 

information. [37] Users can opt-in to features in browsers to clear their personal histories locally and block some 

cookies and advertising networks [38] but they are still tracked in websites' server logs, and particularly web 

beacons. [39] Berners-Lee and colleagues see hope in accountability and appropriate use achieved by extending the 

Web's architecture to policy awareness, perhaps with audit logging, reasoners and appliances. [40] 

In exchange for providing free content, vendors hire advertisers who spy on Web users and base their business model 

on tracking them. [41] Since 2009, they buy and sell consumer data on exchanges (lacking a few details that could 

make it possible to de-anonymize, or identify an individual). [41] [42] Hundreds of millions of times per day, Lotame 

Solutions captures what users are typing in real time, and sends that text to OpenAmplify who then tries to 

determine, to quote a writer at The Wall Street Journal, "what topics are being discussed, how the author feels about 

[43] [44] 

those topics, and what the person is going to do about them". 

Microsoft backed away in 2008 from its plans for strong privacy features in Internet Explorer, [45] leaving its users 

(50% of the world's Web users) open to advertisers who may make assumptions about them based on only one click 

when they visit a website. [46] Among services paid for by advertising, Yahoo! could collect the most data about users 

of commercial websites, about 2,500 bits of information per month about each typical user of its site and its affiliated 

advertising network sites. Yahoo! was followed by MySpace with about half that potential and then by 

AOL–TimeWarner, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, and eBay. [47]


Security 

The Web has become criminals' preferred pathway for spreading malware. Cybercrime carried out on the Web can 

include identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering. [] Web-based vulnerabilities now outnumber 

traditional computer security concerns, [48] [49] and as measured by Google, about one in ten web pages may contain 

malicious code. [50] Most Web-based attacks take place on legitimate websites, and most, as measured by Sophos, are 

hosted in the United States, China and Russia. [51] The most common of all malware threats is SQL injection attacks 

against websites. [52] Through HTML and URIs the Web was vulnerable to attacks like cross-site scripting (XSS) that 

came with the introduction of JavaScript [53] and were exacerbated to some degree by Web 2.0 and Ajax web design 

that favors the use of scripts. [54] Today by one estimate, 70% of all websites are open to XSS attacks on their 

users. [55] 

Proposed solutions vary to extremes. Large security vendors like McAfee already design governance and compliance 

suites to meet post-9/11 regulations, [56] and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of code 

and all content regardless of its source. [57] Some have argued that for enterprise to see security as a business 

opportunity rather than a cost center, [58] "ubiquitous, always-on digital rights management" enforced in the 

infrastructure by a handful of organizations must replace the hundreds of companies that today secure data and 

networks. [59] Jonathan Zittrain has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking 

down the Internet. [60] 

Standards 

Many formal standards and other technical specifications and software define the operation of different aspects of the 

World Wide Web, the Internet, and computer information exchange. Many of the documents are the work of the 

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), headed by Berners-Lee, but some are produced by the Internet Engineering 

Task Force (IETF) and other organizations. 

Usually, when web standards are discussed, the following publications are seen as foundational: 

• Recommendations for markup languages, especially HTML and XHTML, from the W3C. These define the 

structure and interpretation of hypertext documents. 

• Recommendations for stylesheets, especially CSS, from the W3C. 

• Standards for ECMAScript (usually in the form of JavaScript), from Ecma International. 

• Recommendations for the Document Object Model, from W3C. 

Additional publications provide definitions of other essential technologies for the World Wide Web, including, but 

not limited to, the following: 

• Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), which is a universal system for referencing resources on the Internet, such as 

hypertext documents and images. URIs, often called URLs, are defined by the IETF's RFC 3986 / STD 66: 

Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax, as well as its predecessors and numerous URI 

scheme-defining RFCs; 

• HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), especially as defined by RFC 2616: HTTP/1.1 and RFC 2617: HTTP 

Authentication, which specify how the browser and server authenticate each other. 

Accessibility 

Access to the Web is for everyone regardless of disability including visual, auditory, physical, speech, cognitive, or 

neurological. Accessibility features also help others with temporary disabilities like a broken arm or the aging 

population as their abilities change. [61] The Web is used for receiving information as well as providing information 

and interacting with society, making it essential that the Web be accessible in order to provide equal access and 

equal opportunity to people with disabilities. [62] Tim Berners-Lee once noted, "The power of the Web is in its 

universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect." [61] Many countries regulate web


accessibility as a requirement for websites. [63] International cooperation in the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative led 

to simple guidelines that web content authors as well as software developers can use to make the Web accessible to 

[61] [64] 

persons who may or may not be using assistive technology. 

Internationalization 

The W3C Internationalization Activity assures that web technology will work in all languages, scripts, and 

cultures. [65] Beginning in 2004 or 2005, Unicode gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both 

ASCII and Western European as the Web's most frequently used character encoding. [66] Originally RFC 3986 

allowed resources to be identified by URI in a subset of US-ASCII. RFC 3987 allows more characters—any 

character in the Universal Character Set—and now a resource can be identified by IRI in any language. [67] 

Statistics 

Between 2005 and 2010, the number of Web users doubled, and was expected to surpass two billion in 2010. [68] 

According to a 2001 study, there were a massive over 550 billion documents on the Web, mostly in the invisible 

Web, or Deep Web. [69] A 2002 survey of 2,024 million Web pages [70] determined that by far the most Web content 

was in English: 56.4%; next were pages in German (7.7%), French (5.6%), and Japanese (4.9%). A more recent 

study, which used Web searches in 75 different languages to sample the Web, determined that there were over 11.5 

billion Web pages in the publicly indexable Web as of the end of January 2005. [71] As of March 2009, the indexable 

web contains at least 25.21 billion pages. [72] On July 25, 2008, Google software engineers Jesse Alpert and Nissan 

Hajaj announced that Google Search had discovered one trillion unique URLs. [73] As of May 2009, over 109.5 

million websites operated. [74] Of these 74% were commercial or other sites operating in the .com generic top-level 

domain. [74] 

Statistics measuring a website's popularity are usually based either on the number of page views or associated server 

'hits' (file requests) that it receives. 

Speed issues 

Frustration over congestion issues in the Internet infrastructure and the high latency that results in slow browsing has 

led to a pejorative name for the World Wide Web: the World Wide Wait. [75] Speeding up the Internet is an ongoing 

discussion over the use of peering and QoS technologies. Other solutions to reduce the congestion can be found at 

W3C. [76] Guidelines for Web response times are: [77] 

• 0.1 second (one tenth of a second). Ideal response time. The user doesn't sense any interruption. 

• 1 second. Highest acceptable response time. Download times above 1 second interrupt the user experience. 

• 10 seconds. Unacceptable response time. The user experience is interrupted and the user is likely to leave the site 

or system. 

Caching 

If a user revisits a Web page after only a short interval, the page data may not need to be re-obtained from the source 

Web server. Almost all web browsers cache recently obtained data, usually on the local hard drive. HTTP requests 

sent by a browser will usually only ask for data that has changed since the last download. If the locally cached data 

are still current, it will be reused. Caching helps reduce the amount of Web traffic on the Internet. The decision about 

expiration is made independently for each downloaded file, whether image, stylesheet, JavaScript, HTML, or 

whatever other content the site may provide. Thus even on sites with highly dynamic content, many of the basic 

resources only need to be refreshed occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as 

CSS data and JavaScript into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. This helps reduce page 

download times and lowers demands on the Web server.


There are other components of the Internet that can cache Web content. Corporate and academic firewalls often 

cache Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of all. (See also Caching proxy server.) Some search 

engines also store cached content from websites. Apart from the facilities built into Web servers that can determine 

when files have been updated and so need to be re-sent, designers of dynamically generated Web pages can control 

the HTTP headers sent back to requesting users, so that transient or sensitive pages are not cached. Internet banking 

and news sites frequently use this facility. Data requested with an HTTP 'GET' is likely to be cached if other 

conditions are met; data obtained in response to a 'POST' is assumed to depend on the data that was POSTed and so 

is not cached. 

Notes 

[1] "Tim Berners Lee — Time 100 People of the Century" (http:/ / 205. 188. 238. 181/ time/ time100/ scientist/ profile/ bernerslee. html). Time 

Magazine. . Retrieved 17 May 2010. "He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web 

is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and 

free. ." 

[2] "Berners-Lee, Tim; Cailliau, Robert (November 12, 1990). "WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a hypertexts Project" (http:/ / w3. org/ Proposal. 

html). . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[3] Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background" (http:/ / w3. org/ 2004/ Talks/ w3c10-HowItAllStarted/ ?n=15). World Wide 

Web Consortium. . Retrieved April 21, 2009. 

[4] Wardrip-Fruin, Noah and Nick Montfort, ed (2003). The New Media Reader. Section 54. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-23227-8. 

[5] von Braun, Wernher (May 1970). "TV Broadcast Satellite" (http:/ / www. popsci. com/ archive-viewer?id=8QAAAAAAMBAJ& pg=66& 

query=a+ c+ clarke). Popular Science: 65–66. . Retrieved January 12, 2011. 

[6] Berners-Lee, Tim (March 1989). "Information Management: A Proposal" (http:/ / w3. org/ History/ 1989/ proposal. html). W3C. . Retrieved 

July 27, 2009. 

[7] "Tim Berners-Lee: client" (http:/ / w3. org/ People/ Berners-Lee/ WorldWideWeb). W3.org. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[8] "First Web pages" (http:/ / w3. org/ History/ 19921103-hypertext/ hypertext/ WWW/ TheProject. html). W3.org. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[9] "Short summary of the World Wide Web project" (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ alt. hypertext/ msg/ 395f282a67a1916c). 

Groups.google.com. August 6, 1991. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[10] Roads and Crossroads of Internet History (http:/ / www. netvalley. com/ cgi-bin/ intval/ net_history. pl?chapter=2) by Gregory Gromov 

[11] "W3C timeline" (http:/ / w3. org/ 2005/ 01/ timelines/ timeline-2500x998. png). . Retrieved March 30, 2010. 

[12] "About SPIRES" (http:/ / slac. stanford. edu/ spires/ about/ ). . Retrieved March 30, 2010. 

[13] "The Early World Wide Web at SLAC" (http:/ / www. slac. stanford. edu/ history/ earlyweb/ history. shtml). . 

[14] "A Little History of the World Wide Web" (http:/ / www. w3. org/ History. html). . 

[15] "Inventor of the Week Archive: The World Wide Web" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ invent/ iow/ berners-lee. html). Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology: MIT School of Engineering. . Retrieved July 23, 2009. 

[16] "Ten Years Public Domain for the Original Web Software" (http:/ / tenyears-www. web. cern. ch/ tenyears-www/ Welcome. html). 

Tenyears-www.web.cern.ch. April 30, 2003. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[17] "Mosaic Web Browser History — NCSA, Marc Andreessen, Eric Bina" (http:/ / livinginternet. com/ w/ wi_mosaic. htm). 

Livinginternet.com. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[18] "NCSA Mosaic — September 10, 1993 Demo" (http:/ / totic. org/ nscp/ demodoc/ demo. html). Totic.org. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

[19] "Vice President Al Gore's ENIAC Anniversary Speech" (http:/ / cs. washington. edu/ homes/ lazowska/ faculty. lecture/ innovation/ gore. 

html). Cs.washington.edu. February 14, 1996. . Retrieved July 27, 2009. 

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Information Sciences Institute. 

• Berners-Lee, Tim; Bray, Tim; Connolly, Dan; Cotton, Paul; Fielding, Roy; Jeckle, Mario; Lilley, Chris; 

Mendelsohn, Noah; Orchard, David; Walsh, Norman; Williams, Stuart (December 15, 2004). Architecture of the 

World Wide Web, Volume One (http:/ / www. w3. org/ TR/ webarch/ ). Version 20041215. W3C. 

• Polo, Luciano (2003). "World Wide Web Technology Architecture: A Conceptual Analysis" (http:/ / newdevices. 

com/ publicaciones/ www/ ). New Devices. Retrieved July 31, 2005. 

• Skau, H.O. (March 1990). "The World Wide Web and Health Information" (http:/ / newdevices. com/ 

publicaciones/ www/ ). New Devices. Retrieved 1989. 

External links 

• Early archive of the first Web site (http:/ / www. w3. org/ History/ 19921103-hypertext/ hypertext/ WWW/ ) 

• Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet (http:/ / www. mit. edu/ people/ mkgray/ net/ ) 

• Living Internet (http:/ / www. livinginternet. com/ w/ w. htm) A comprehensive history of the Internet, including 

the World Wide Web. 

• Web Design and Development (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Computers/ Internet/ Web_Design_and_Development/ ) 

at the Open Directory Project 

• World Wide Web Consortium (http:/ / www. w3. org/ ) 

• World Wide Web Size (http:/ / www. worldwidewebsize. com/ ) Daily estimated size of the World Wide Web. 

• Antonio A. Casilli, Some Elements for a Sociology of Online Interactions (http:/ / cle. ens-lyon. fr/ 40528325/ 0/ 

fiche___pagelibre/ )


Wikipedia 

URL 

Wikipedia 

The logo of Wikipedia, a globe featuring glyphs from many different writing systems 

wikipedia.org [1] 

Slogan The free encyclopedia that anyone can edit. 

Commercial? No 

Type of site Internet encyclopedia project 

Registration Optional (required only for certain tasks such as editing protected pages, creating new article pages or uploading files) 

Available language(s) 269 active editions (281 in total) 

Content license Creative Commons Attribution/ 

Share-Alike 3.0 (most text also dual-licensed under GFDL) 

Media licensing varies 

Owner Wikimedia Foundation (non-profit) 

Created by 

Jimmy Wales, Larry Sanger [2] 

Launched January 15, 2001 

Alexa rank 

Current status Active 

7 (As of May 2011) [3] 

Wikipedia ( /En-uk-Wikipedia.oggˌwɪkɪˈpiːdi.ə/ or /en-us-Wikipedia.oggˌwɪkiˈpiːdi.ə/ wik-i-pee-dee-ə) is a free, 

web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 

18 million articles (over 3.6 million in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world, 

and almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site. [4] Wikipedia was launched in 2001 by 

Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger [5] and has become the largest and most popular general reference work on the 

Internet, [3] [6] [7] [8] [3] [9] 

ranking around seventh among all websites on Alexa and having 365 million readers. 

The name Wikipedia was coined by Larry Sanger [10] and is a portmanteau of wiki (a technology for creating 

collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. 

Wikipedia's departure from the expert-driven style of encyclopedia building and the large presence of unacademic 

content has been noted several times. When Time magazine recognized You as its Person of the Year for 2006, 

acknowledging the accelerating success of online collaboration and interaction by millions of users around the 

world, it cited Wikipedia as one of several examples of Web 2.0 services, along with YouTube, MySpace, and 

Facebook. [11] Some have noted the importance of Wikipedia not only as an encyclopedic reference but also as a


frequently updated news resource because of how quickly articles about recent events appear. [12] [13] Students have 

been assigned to write Wikipedia articles as an exercise in clearly and succinctly explaining difficult concepts to an 

uninitiated audience. [14] 

Although the policies of Wikipedia strongly espouse verifiability [15] and a neutral point of view [16] , critics of 

Wikipedia accuse it of systemic bias and inconsistencies (including undue weight given to popular culture), [17] and 

allege that it favors consensus over credentials in its editorial processes. [18] Its reliability and accuracy are also 

targeted. [19] Other criticisms center on its susceptibility to vandalism and the addition of spurious or unverified 

information; [20] however, scholarly work suggests that vandalism is generally short-lived. [21] [22] A 2005 

investigation in Nature found that the science articles they compared came close to the level of accuracy of 

Encyclopædia Britannica and had a similar rate of "serious errors." [23] 

History 

Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online 

English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by 

experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on 

March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, Inc, a web portal 

company. Its main figures were Jimmy Wales, Bomis CEO, and Larry 

Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was 

Wikipedia originally developed from another 

encyclopedia project, Nupedia. 

licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, switching to the GNU Free Documentation License 

before Wikipedia's founding at the urging of Richard Stallman. [24] 

Larry Sanger and Jimmy Wales founded Wikipedia. [25] [26] While 

Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable 

encyclopedia, [27] [28] Sanger is usually credited with the strategy of 

using a wiki to reach that goal. [29] On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger 

proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" 

project for Nupedia. [30] Wikipedia was formally launched on January 

15, 2001, as a single English-language edition at 

www.wikipedia.com, [31] and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia 

mailing list. [27] Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view" [32] was 

codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier 

"nonbiased" policy. Otherwise, there were relatively few rules initially 

and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. [27] 

Main Page of the English Wikipedia on October 

20, 2010.


Graph of the article count for the English 

Wikipedia, from January 10, 2001, to September 

9, 2007 (the date of the two-millionth article). 

Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, 

and web search engine indexing. It grew to approximately 20,000 

articles and 18 language editions by the end of 2001. By late 2002, it 

had reached 26 language editions, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by 

the final days of 2004. [33] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the 

former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text 

was incorporated into Wikipedia. English Wikipedia passed the two 

million-article mark on September 9, 2007, making it the largest 

encyclopedia ever assembled, eclipsing even the Yongle Encyclopedia 

(1407), which had held the record for exactly 600 years. [34] 

Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in a perceived English-centric Wikipedia, users of the 

Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create the Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. [35] Later that year, 

Wales announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and its website was moved to wikipedia.org. [36] 

Various other wiki-encyclopedia projects have been started, largely under a different philosophy from the open and 

NPOV editorial model of Wikipedia. Wikinfo does not require a neutral point of view and allows original research. 

New Wikipedia-inspired projects – such as Citizendium, Scholarpedia, Conservapedia, and Google's Knol where the 

articles are a little more essayistic [37] – have been started to address perceived limitations of Wikipedia, such as its 

policies on peer review, original research, and commercial advertising. 

Though the English Wikipedia reached three 

million articles in August 2009, the growth 

of the edition, in terms of the numbers of 

articles and of contributors, appeared to 

have flattened off around early 2007. [38] In 

2006, about 1,800 articles were added daily 

to the encyclopedia; by 2010 that average 

was roughly 1,000. [39] A team at the Palo 

Alto Research Center speculated that this is 

due to the increasing exclusiveness of the 

project. [40] New or occasional editors have 

significantly higher rates of their edits 

reverted (removed) than an elite group of 

regular editors, colloquially known as the 

"cabal." This could make it more difficult 

for the project to recruit and retain new 

contributors over the long term, resulting in 

Number of articles in the English Wikipedia plotted against Gompertz function 

trending to 4.4 million articles. 

stagnation in article creation. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because the low-hanging fruit 

[41] [42] 

already exist. 

In November 2009, a Ph.D thesis written by Felipe Ortega, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, 

found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, the 

project lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. [43] [44] The Wall Street Journal reported that 

"unprecedented numbers of the millions of online volunteers who write, edit and police [Wikipedia] are quitting." 

The array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content are among the reasons for this trend that are 

cited in the article. [45] These claims were disputed by Jimmy Wales, who denied the decline and questioned the 

methodology of the study. [46]


For the first time in January 2011, Wikipedia cracked the top ten list of the most popular websites in the United 

States, according to comScore Networks Inc. With 42.9 million unique visitors and rank #9, Wikipedia surpassed 

New York Times (#10) and Apple Inc. (#11). It is a significant increase as in January 2010 the rank was #33 with 

just 18.3 million unique visitors. [47] 

Nature of Wikipedia 

Editing 

In a departure from the style of traditional encyclopedias, Wikipedia 

employs an open, "wiki" editing model. Except for a few particularly 

vandalism-prone pages, every article may be edited anonymously or 

with a user account. Different language editions modify this policy: 

only registered users may create a new article in the English edition. 

No article is owned by its creator or any other editor, or is vetted by 

any recognized authority; rather, the articles are agreed on by 

consensus [49] . [50] 

By default, any edit to an article becomes available immediately, prior 

to any review. This means that an article may contain errors, misguided 

contributions, advocacy, or even patent nonsense, until another editor 

corrects the problem. Different language editions, each under separate 

administrative control, are free to modify this policy. For example the 

In April 2009, the Wikimedia Foundation 

conducted a Wikipedia usability study, 

questioning users about the editing 

mechanism. [48] 

German Wikipedia maintains a system of "stable versions" of articles, [51] to allow a reader to see versions of articles 

that have passed certain reviews. In June 2010, its administrators announced that the English Wikipedia would 

remove strict editing restrictions from "controversial" or vandalism-prone articles (such as George W. Bush, David 

Cameron or homework) by using reviews. [52] [53] In place of an editing prohibition for new or unregistered users, 

there would be a "new system, called 'pending changes'" which, as Jimmy Wales told the BBC, would enable the 

English Wikipedia "to open up articles for general editing that have been protected or semi-protected for years." The 

"pending changes" system was introduced on June 15, 2010, shortly after 11 pm GMT. Edits to specified articles are 

now "subject to review from an established Wikipedia editor before publication." Wales opted against the German 

Wikipedia model of requiring editor review before edits to any article, describing it as "neither necessary nor 

desirable." He added that the administrators of the German Wikipedia were "going to be closely watching the 

English system, and I'm sure they'll at least consider switching if the results are good." [54] 

Editors keep track of changes to articles by 

checking the difference between two revisions of 

a page, displayed here in red. 

Contributors, registered or not, can take advantage of features available 

in the software that powers Wikipedia. The "History" page attached to 

each article records every single past revision of the article, though a 

revision with libelous content, criminal threats or copyright 

infringements may be removed afterwards. [55] [56] This feature makes 

it easy to compare old and new versions, undo changes that an editor 

considers undesirable, or restore lost content. The "Discussion" pages 

associated with each article are used to coordinate work among 

multiple editors. [57] Regular contributors often maintain a "watchlist" 

of articles of interest to them, so that they can easily keep tabs on all 

recent changes to those articles. Computer programs called Internet 

bots have been used widely to remove vandalism as soon as it was


made, [22] to correct common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a 

standard format from statistical data. 

Articles in Wikipedia are organized roughly in three ways according 

to: development status, subject matter and the access level required for 

editing. The most developed state of articles is called "featured article" 

status: articles labeled as such are the ones that will be featured in the 

main page of Wikipedia. [58] [59] Researcher Giacomo Poderi found that 

articles tend to reach the FA status via the intensive work of few 

editors. [60] In 2007, in preparation for producing a print version, the 

English-language Wikipedia introduced an assessment scale against 

which the quality of articles is judged. [61] 

The editing interface of Wikipedia. 

A WikiProject is a place for a group of editors to coordinate work on a specific topic. The discussion pages attached 

to a project are often used to coordinate changes that take place across articles. Wikipedia also maintains a style 

guide called the Manual of Style or MoS for short, which stipulates, for example, that, in the first sentence of any 

given article, the title of the article and any alternative titles should appear in bold. 

Rules and laws governing content 

For legal reasons, content in Wikipedia is subject to the laws (in particular copyright law) of Florida, where 

Wikipedia servers are hosted. Beyond that, the Wikipedian editorial principles are embodied in the "five pillars [62] ", 

and numerous policies and guidelines [63] are intended to shape the content appropriately. Even these rules are stored 

in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors as a community write and revise those policies and guidelines [64] and enforce 

them by deleting, annotating with tags, or modifying article materials failing to meet them. The rules on the 

non-English editions of Wikipedia branched off a translation of the rules on the English Wikipedia and have since 

diverged to some extent. While they still show broad-brush similarities, they differ in many details. 

According to the rules on the English Wikipedia, each entry in Wikipedia to be worthy of inclusion must be about a 

topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-like. [65] A topic should also meet Wikipedia's 

standards of "notability", [66] which usually means that it must have received significant coverage in reliable 

secondary sources such as mainstream media or major academic journals that are independent of the subject of the 

topic. Further, Wikipedia must expose knowledge that is already established and recognized. [67] In other words, it 

must not present, for instance, new information or original works. A claim that is likely to be challenged requires a 

reference to a reliable source. Among Wikipedia editors, this is often phrased as "verifiability, not truth" to express 

the idea that the readers, not the encyclopedia, are ultimately responsible for checking the truthfulness of the articles 

and making their own interpretations. [68] Finally, Wikipedia must not take a side. [69] All opinions and viewpoints, if 

attributable to external sources, must enjoy an appropriate share of coverage within an article. [70] This is known as 

neutral point of view, or NPOV. 

Wikipedia has many methods of settling disputes. A "bold, revert, discuss" cycle sometimes occurs, in which a user 

makes an edit, another user reverts it, and the matter is discussed on the appropriate talk page. In order to gain a 

broader community consensus, issues can be raised at the Village Pump, or a Request for Comment can be made 

soliciting other users' input. "Wikiquette Alerts" is a non-binding noticeboard where users can report impolite, 

uncivil, or other difficult communications with other editors. 

Specialized forums exist for centralizing discussion on specific decisions, such as whether or not an article should be 

deleted. Mediation is sometimes used, although it has been deemed by some Wikipedians to be unhelpful for 

resolving particularly contentious disputes. The Wikipedia Arbitration Committee settles disputes when other 

methods fail. The ArbCom generally does not rule on the factual correctness of article content, although it sometimes 

enforces the "Neutral Point of View" policy. Statistical analyses suggest that Wikipedia's dispute resolution ignores 

the content of user disputes and focuses on user conduct instead, functioning not so much to resolve disputes and


make peace between conflicting users, but to weed out problematic users while weeding potentially productive users 

back in to participate. Its remedies include banning users from Wikipedia (used in 15.7% of cases), subject matter 

remedies (23.4%), article bans (43.3%) and cautions and probations (63.2%). Total bans from Wikipedia are largely 

limited to instances of impersonation and anti-social behavior. Warnings tend to be issued for editing conduct and 

conduct that is anti-consensus, rather than anti-social. [71] 

Content licensing 

All text in Wikipedia was covered by GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the 

redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their 

work, [72] up until June 2009, when the site switched to Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC-by-SA) 

3.0. [73] Wikipedia had been working on the switch to Creative Commons licenses because the GFDL, initially 

designed for software manuals, was not considered suitable for online reference works and because the two licenses 

were incompatible. [74] In response to the Wikimedia Foundation's request, in November 2008, the Free Software 

Foundation (FSF) released a new version of GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content 

to CC-BY-SA [75] by August 1, 2009. Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum to decide 

whether or not to make the license switch. [76] The referendum took place from April 9 to 30. [77] The results were 

75.8% "Yes," 10.5% "No," and 13.7% "No opinion." [78] In consequence of the referendum, the Wikimedia Board of 

Trustees voted to change to the Creative Commons license, effective June 15, 2009. [78] The position that Wikipedia 

[79] [80] 

is merely a hosting service has been successfully used as a defense in court. 

The handling of media files (e.g., image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the 

English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, while the others have opted not to. This is in 

part because of the difference in copyright laws between countries; for example, the notion of fair use does not exist 

in Japanese copyright law. Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g., Creative Commons' cc-by-sa) are 

shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia 

Foundation. 

Reusing Wikipedia's content 

Because Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can re-distribute it at no charge. The content 

of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside of the Wikipedia website. 

Thousands of "mirror sites" exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones, that also include 

content from other reference sources, are Reference.com and Answers.com. Another example is Wapedia, which 

began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. 

Some web search engines also display content from Wikipedia on search results: examples include Bing.com (via 

technology gained from Powerset) [81] and Duck Duck Go. 

Some wikis, most notably Enciclopedia Libre and Citizendium, began as forks of Wikipedia content. 

The website DBpedia, begun in 2007, is a project that extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of 

the English-language Wikipedia and makes it available in a queriable semantic format, RDF. The possibility has also 

been raised to have Wikipedia export its data directly in a semantic format, possibly by using the Semantic 

MediaWiki extension. Such an export of data could also help Wikipedia reuse its own data, both between articles on 

the same language Wikipedia and between different language Wikipedias. [82] 

Collections of Wikipedia articles have also been published on optical disks. An English version, 2006 Wikipedia CD 

Selection, contained about 2,000 articles. [83] [84] The Polish-language version contains nearly 240,000 articles. [85] 

There are also German-language versions. [86] 

"Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs/DVDs, produced by Wikipedians and SOS Children, is a free, 

hand-checked, non-commercial selection from Wikipedia targeted around the UK National Curriculum and intended


to be useful for much of the English-speaking world. [87] The project is available online; an equivalent print 

encyclopedia would require roughly 20 volumes. 

There has also been an attempt to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. [88] [89] Since 

2009, tens of thousands of print on demand books which reproduced English, German, Russian and French 

Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of 

the German publisher VDM. [90] 

Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is 

discouraged. [91] Wikipedia publishes "dumps" of its contents, but these are text-only; as of 2007 there is no dump 

available of Wikipedia's images. [92] 

Defenses against undesirable edits 

The open nature of the editing model has been central to most criticism of Wikipedia. For example, a reader of an 

article cannot be certain that it has not been compromised by the insertion of false information or the removal of 

essential information. Former Encyclopædia Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry once described this by 

saying: [93] 

The user who visits Wikipedia to learn about some subject, to confirm some matter of fact, is rather in the 

position of a visitor to a public restroom. It may be obviously dirty, so that he knows to exercise great care, or 

it may seem fairly clean, so that he may be lulled into a false sense of security. What he certainly does not 

know is who has used the facilities before him. [94] 

John Seigenthaler has described Wikipedia as "a 

flawed and irresponsible research tool." [95] 

tightening up the verifiability of all biographical articles of living people [98] . 

Obvious vandalism is easy to remove from wiki articles, since the 

previous versions of each article are kept. In practice, the median time 

[21] [22] 

to detect and fix vandalisms is very low, usually a few minutes, 

but in one particularly well-publicized incident, false information was 

introduced into the biography of American political figure John 

Seigenthaler and remained undetected for four months. [95] John 

Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder 

of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt 

University, called Jimmy Wales and asked if Wales had any way of 

knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales replied that he 

[96] [97] 

did not, but nevertheless the perpetrator was eventually traced. 

This incident led to policy changes on the site, specifically targeted at 

Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls, spamming, and those with an agenda 

to push. [55] [99] The addition of political spin to articles by organizations including members of the U.S. House of 

Representatives and special interest groups [20] has been noted, [100] and organizations such as Microsoft have offered 

financial incentives to work on certain articles. [101] These issues have been parodied, notably by Stephen Colbert in 

The Colbert Report. [102] 

For example, in August 2007, the website WikiScanner began to trace the sources of changes made to Wikipedia by 

anonymous editors without Wikipedia accounts. The program revealed that many such edits were made by 

corporations or government agencies changing the content of articles related to them, their personnel or their 

work. [103] 

In practice, Wikipedia is defended from attack by multiple systems and techniques. These include users checking 

pages and edits (e.g. 'watchlist's and 'recent changes'), computer programs ('bots') that are carefully designed to try to 

detect attacks and fix them automatically (or semi-automatically), filters that warn users making undesirable 

edits, [104] blocks on the creation of links to particular websites, blocks on edits from particular accounts, IP


addresses or address ranges. 

For heavily attacked pages, particular articles can be semi-protected so that only well established accounts can edit 

them, [105] or for particularly contentious cases, locked so that only administrators are able to make changes. [106] 

Such locking is applied sparingly, usually for only short periods of time while attacks appear likely to continue. 

Coverage of topics 

Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the 

form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic of knowledge covered 

encyclopedically in one article. Since it has virtually unlimited disk 

space, it can have far more topics than can be covered by any 

conventional print encyclopedias. [108] It also contains materials that 

some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. [109] It 

was made clear that this policy is not up for debate, and the policy has 

sometimes proved controversial. For instance, in 2008, Wikipedia 

rejected an online petition against the inclusion of Muhammad's 

depictions in its English edition, citing this policy. The presence of 

politically sensitive materials in Wikipedia had also led the People's 

Republic of China to block access to parts of the site. [110] (See also: 

IWF block of Wikipedia) 

As of September 2009, Wikipedia articles cover about half a million 

places on Earth. However, research conducted by the Oxford Internet 

Institute has shown that the geographic distribution of articles is highly 

uneven. Most articles are written about North America, Europe, and 

East Asia, with very little coverage of large parts of the developing 

world, including most of Africa. [111] 

A 2008 study conducted by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University 

and Palo Alto Research Center gave a distribution of topics as well as 

growth (from July 2006 to January 2008) in each field: [107] 

• Culture and the arts: 30% (210%) 

• Biographies and persons: 15% (97%) 

• Geography and places: 14% (52%) 

• Society and social sciences: 12% (83%) 

• History and events: 11% (143%) 

• Natural and the physical sciences: 9% (213%) 

• Technology and the applied science: 4% (−6%) 

• Religions and belief systems: 2% (38%) 

• Health: 2% (42%) 

• Mathematics and logic: 1% (146%) 

• Thought and philosophy: 1% (160%) 

Pie chart of Wikipedia content by subject as of 

January 2008. [107] 

Wikipedia compresses information in a variety of 

topics, including earthquakes, by example. In the 

picture, the 2010 Pichilemu earthquake. 

However, it must be considered that these numbers relate only to articles; it is possible that one topic contains a lot 

of short articles and another one quite large ones. 

Furthermore, the exact coverage of Wikipedia is under constant review by the editors, and disagreements are not 

[112] [113] 

uncommon (see also deletionism and inclusionism).


Quality of writing 

Because contributors usually rewrite small portions of an entry rather than making full-length revisions, high- and 

low-quality content may be intermingled within an entry. Critics sometimes argue that non-expert editing 

undermines quality. For example, Roy Rosenzweig had several criticisms of its prose and its failure to distinguish 

the genuinely important from the merely sensational. He said that Wikipedia is "surprisingly accurate in reporting 

names, dates, and events in U.S. history" (Rosenzweig's own field of study) and that most of the few factual errors 

that he found "were small and inconsequential" and that some of them "simply repeat widely held but inaccurate 

beliefs", which are also repeated in Encarta and the Britannica. However, he made one major criticism. 

Good historical writing requires not just factual accuracy but also a command of the scholarly literature, 

persuasive analysis and interpretations, and clear and engaging prose. By those measures, American 

National Biography Online easily outdistances Wikipedia. [114] 

Contrasting Wikipedia's treatment of Abraham Lincoln to that of Civil War historian James McPherson in American 

National Biography Online, he said that both were essentially accurate and covered the major episodes in Lincoln's 

life, but praised "McPherson's richer contextualization... his artful use of quotations to capture Lincoln's voice ... and 

... his ability to convey a profound message in a handful of words." By contrast, he gives an example of Wikipedia's 

prose that he finds "both verbose and dull." Rosenzweig made a further criticism, contrasting "the skill and confident 

judgment of a seasoned historian" displayed by McPherson and others to the "antiquarianism" of Wikipedia (which 

he compares in this respect to American Heritage magazine), and said that while Wikipedia often provides extensive 

references, they are not the best ones. [114] 

Rosenzweig also criticized the "waffling—encouraged by the npov policy—[which] means that it is hard to discern 

any overall interpretive stance in Wikipedia history." By example, he quoted the conclusion of Wikipedia's article on 

William Clarke Quantrill. While generally praising the article, he pointed out its "waffling" conclusion: "Some 

historians...remember him as an opportunistic, bloodthirsty outlaw, while others continue to view him as a daring 

soldier and local folk hero." [114] 

Other critics have made similar charges that, even if Wikipedia articles are factually accurate, they are often written 

in a poor, almost unreadable style. Frequent Wikipedia critic Andrew Orlowski commented: "Even when a 

Wikipedia entry is 100 per cent factually correct, and those facts have been carefully chosen, it all too often reads as 

if it has been translated from one language to another then into to a third, passing an illiterate translator at each 

stage." [115] A study of cancer articles by Yaacov Lawrence of the Kimmel Cancer Center at Thomas Jefferson 

University found that the entries were mostly accurate, but they were written at college reading level, as opposed to 

the ninth grade level seen in the Physician Data Query. He said that "Wikipedia's lack of readability may reflect its 

varied origins and haphazard editing." [116] The Economist noted that the quality of writing of Wikipedia articles can 

be a guide to the reader: "inelegant or ranting prose usually reflects muddled thoughts and incomplete 

information." [117] A 2005 study by the journal Nature compared Wikipedia's science content to that of Encyclopædia 

Britannica, stating that Wikipedia's accuracy was close to that of Britannica, but that the structure of Wikipedia's 

articles was often poor." [23]


Reliability 

As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no 

guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately 

responsible for any claims appearing in it. [118] Concerns have been 

raised regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' 

anonymity, [119] the insertion of spurious information, [120] vandalism, 

and similar problems. 

Wikipedia has been accused of exhibiting systemic bias and 

inconsistency; [19] additionally, critics argue that Wikipedia's open 

nature and a lack of proper sources for much of the information makes 

it unreliable. [121] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia is 

generally reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not 

always clear. [18] Editors of traditional reference works such as the 

Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and 

The way Wikipedia crowdsources means that 

anyone can lie or vandalize, yet these risks are 

common knowledge. Moreover, anyone can 

correct suspect assertions or criticize openly, 

behaviors empowered by the system. 

status as an encyclopedia. [122] Many university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in 

academic work, preferring primary sources; [123] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. [124] Co-founder 

Jimmy Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate as primary sources, and should not 

be relied upon as authoritative. [125] 

However, an investigation reported in the journal Nature in 2005 suggested that for scientific articles Wikipedia 

came close to the level of accuracy of Encyclopædia Britannica and had a similar rate of "serious errors." [23] These 

[126] [127] 

claims have been disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica. 

Economist Tyler Cowen writes, "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on 

economics was more likely to be true, after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that many 

traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases. Novel results are over-reported in journal articles, and 

relevant information is omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on 

Internet sites, and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. [128] 

In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that some of the professors at Harvard 

University include Wikipedia in their syllabi, but that there is a split in their perception of using Wikipedia. [129] In 

June 2007, former president of the American Library Association Michael Gorman condemned Wikipedia, along 

with Google, [130] stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a 

dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything." He also said that "a generation of intellectual 

sluggards incapable of moving beyond the Internet" was being produced at universities. He complains that the 

web-based sources are discouraging students from learning from the more rare texts which are either found only on 

paper or are on subscription-only web sites. In the same article Jenny Fry (a research fellow at the Oxford Internet 

Institute) commented on academics who cite Wikipedia, saying that: "You cannot say children are intellectually lazy 

because they are using the Internet when academics are using search engines in their research. The difference is that 

they have more experience of being critical about what is retrieved and whether it is authoritative. Children need to 

be told how to use the Internet in a critical and appropriate way." [130]


Plagiarism concerns 

The Wikipedia Watch criticism website in 2006 has listed dozens of examples of plagiarism by Wikipedia editors on 

the English version. [131] Jimmy Wales, the Wikipedia co-founder, [132] has said in this respect: "We need to deal with 

such activities with absolute harshness, no mercy, because this kind of plagiarism is 100% at odds with all of our 

core principles." [131] 

Sexual content 

Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing graphic sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and 

ejaculation as well as photos from hardcore pornographic films found on its articles. Child protection campaigners 

say graphic sexual content appears on many Wikipedia entries, displayed without any warning or age 

verification. [133] 

The Wikipedia article Virgin Killer – a 1976 album from German heavy metal band Scorpions – features a picture of 

the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy 

and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for 

four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom, after it was reported by a member of the public 

as child pornography. [134] The Internet Watch Foundation, a nonprofit, nongovernment-affiliated organization, 

criticized the inclusion of the picture as "distasteful." [135] 

In April 2010, Larry Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two 

categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of U.S. federal 

obscenity law. [136] Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon, 

were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of 

children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003. [137] That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images 

and drawings of children that are obscene under American law. [137] Sanger also expressed concerns about access to 

the images on Wikipedia in schools. [138] Wikipedia strongly rejected Sanger's accusation. [139] Wikimedia 

Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh said that Wikipedia does not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we 

did, we would remove it." [139] Following the complaint by Larry Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without 

consulting the community. After some editors who volunteer to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete 

had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his 

co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing list that this action was "in the 

interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how 

quickly I acted." [140] 

Privacy 

One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia is the right of a private citizen to remain private; to remain a "private 

citizen" rather than a "public figure" in the eyes of the law. [141] It is somewhat of a battle between the right to be 

anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life ("meatspace"). Wikipedia Watch argues that 

"Wikipedia is a potential menace to anyone who values privacy" and that "a greater degree of accountability in the 

Wikipedia structure" would be "the very first step toward resolving the privacy problem." [142] A particular problem 

occurs in the case of an individual who is relatively unimportant and for whom there exists a Wikipedia page against 

their wishes. 

In 2005 Agence France-Presse quoted Daniel Brandt, the Wikipedia Watch owner, as saying that "the basic problem 

is that no one, neither the trustees of Wikimedia Foundation, nor the volunteers who are connected with Wikipedia, 

consider themselves responsible for the content." [143] 

In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full 

name of Boris Floricic, aka "Tron", a deceased hacker who was formerly with the Chaos Computer Club. More 

specifically, the court ordered that the URL within the German .de domain (http:/ / www. wikipedia. de/ ) may no


longer redirect to the encyclopedia's servers in Florida at http:/ / de. wikipedia. org although German readers were 

still able to use the US-based URL directly, and there was virtually no loss of access on their part. The court order 

arose out of a lawsuit filed by Floricic's parents, demanding that their son's surname be removed from 

Wikipedia. [144] On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court 

rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents were being violated. [145] The plaintiffs appealed 

to the Berlin state court, but were refused relief in May 2006. 

Community 

Wikipedia's community has been described as "cult-like," [146] although 

not always with entirely negative connotations, [147] and criticized for 

failing to accommodate inexperienced users. [148] 

Power structure 

The Wikipedia community has established "a bureaucracy of sorts", 

including "a clear power structure that gives volunteer administrators 

the authority to exercise editorial control." [149] [150] [151] Editors in 

good standing in the community can run for one of many levels of 

volunteer stewardship; this begins with "administrator," [152] [153] a 

group of privileged users who have the ability to delete pages, lock 

articles from being changed in case of vandalism or editorial disputes, 

Wikimania, an annual conference for users of 

Wikipedia and other projects operated by the 

Wikimedia Foundation. 

and block users from editing. Despite the name, administrators do not enjoy any special privilege in 

decision-making; instead they are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are 

[154] [155] 

disallowed to ordinary editors, and to block users making disruptive edits (such as vandalism). 

Contributors 

Demography of Wikipedia editors 

Wikipedia does not require that its users provide identification. [156] 

although some participants are known. However, as Wikipedia grows 

with its unconventional model of encyclopedia building, "Who writes 

Wikipedia?" has become one of the questions frequently asked on the 

project, often with a reference to other Web 2.0 projects such as 

Digg. [157] Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a 

dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of 

contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like 

any traditional organization." Wales performed a study finding that 

over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users (at the 

time: 524 people). This method of evaluating contributions was later 

disputed by Aaron Swartz, who noted that several articles he sampled 

had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts. [158] 

A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to 

Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site." [159] Although 

some contributors are authorities in their field, Wikipedia requires that even their contributions be supported by 

published and verifiable sources. The project's preference for consensus [49] over credentials has been labeled 

"anti-elitism." [17] 

In a 2003 study of Wikipedia as a community, economics Ph.D. student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low 

transaction costs of participating in wiki software create a catalyst for collaborative development, and that a "creative


construction" approach encourages participation. [160] In his 2008 book, The Future of the Internet and How to Stop 

It, Jonathan Zittrain of the Oxford Internet Institute and Harvard Law School’s Berkman Center for Internet & 

Society cites Wikipedia's success as a case study in how open collaboration has fostered innovation on the web. [161] 

A 2008 study found that Wikipedia users were less agreeable and open, though more conscientious, than 

non-Wikipedia users. [162] [163] A 2009 study suggested there was "evidence of growing resistance from the 

Wikipedia community to new content." [164] 

At OOPSLA 2009, Wikimedia CTO and Senior Software Architect Brion Vibber gave a presentation entitled 

"Community Performance Optimization: Making Your People Run as Smoothly as Your Site" [165] in which he 

discussed the challenges of handling the contributions from a large community and compared the process to that of 

software development. 

Interactions 

The community predominantly interact with each other via 'talk' pages, 

which are wiki-edited pages which are associated with articles, as well 

as via talk pages that are specific to particular contributors, and talk 

pages that help run the site. These pages help the contributors reach 

consensus about what the contents of the articles should be, how the 

site's rules may change, and to take actions with respect to any 

problems within the community. [166] 

The Wikipedia Signpost is the community newspaper on the English 

Wikipedia, [167] and was founded by Michael Snow, an administrator 

and the former chair of the Wikimedia Foundation board of 

trustees. [168] It covers news and events from the site, as well as major 

events from sister projects, such as Wikimedia Commons. [169] 

Recognition 

Wikipedians and British Museum curators 

collaboration on the article Hoxne Hoard in June 

Wikipedians sometimes award one another barnstars for good work. These personalized tokens of appreciation 

reveal a wide range of valued work extending far beyond simple editing to include social support, administrative 

actions, and types of articulation work. The barnstar phenomenon has been analyzed by researchers seeking to 

determine what implications it might have for other communities engaged in large-scale collaborations. [170] 

New users 

60% of registered users never make another edit after their first 24 hours. Possible explanations are that such users 

only register for a single purpose, or are scared away by their experiences. [171] Goldman writes that editors who fail 

to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk pages, implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia 

outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders will target their contributions as a threat. Becoming a 

Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs; the contributor is expected to build a user page, learn 

Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to an arcane dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture 

rich with in-jokes and insider references." Non-logged-in users are in some sense second-class citizens on 

Wikipedia, [172] as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in 

preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation," [173] but the contribution 

histories of IP addresses cannot necessarily with any certainty be credited to, or blamed upon, a particular user. 

2010.


Demographics 

The New York Times ran a column about a Wikipedia survey at the time of Wikipedia's 10th anniversary. Quoting 

from it, "Wikimedia Foundation...collaborated on a study of Wikipedia’s contributor base and discovered that it was 

barely 13 percent women; the average age of a contributor was in the mid-20s, according to the study by a joint 

center of the United Nations University and Maastricht University" and also notes that "surveys suggest that less 

than 15 percent of its hundreds of thousands of contributors are women." A goal set by Sue Gardner, Wikimedia 

Foundation Executive Director, is to see female editing contributions increase to 25 percent by 2015. [174] Linda 

Basch, President of the National Council for Research on Women notes the contrast in these Wikipedia editors' 

statistics with the majority percentage which women are currently filling in enrollment in BA, Masters and PhD 

programs in nations such as the US. [175] 

Language editions 

There are currently 279 language editions 

(or language versions) of Wikipedia; of 

these, 3, the English, German, and French 

Wikipedias have over 1 million articles, 36 

have over 100,000 articles and 99 have over 

1,000 articles. [176] The largest, the English 

Wikipedia, has 0 articles. According to 

Alexa, the English subdomain 

(en.wikipedia.org; English Wikipedia) 

receives approximately 54% of Wikipedia's 

cumulative traffic, with the remaining split 

among the other languages (Japanese: 10%, 

German: 8%, Spanish: 5%, Russian: 4%, 

Percentage of all Wikipedia articles in English (red) and top ten largest language 

editions (blue). As of July 2007, less than 23% of Wikipedia articles are in English. 

French: 4%, Italian: 3%). [3] As of July 2008, the five largest language editions are (in order of article count) English, 

German, French, Polish, and Japanese Wikipedias. [177] 

Since Wikipedia is web-based and therefore worldwide, contributors of a same language edition may use different 

dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to 

some conflicts over spelling differences, (e.g. color vs. colour) [178] or points of view. [179] Though the various 

language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view," they diverge on some points of policy 

and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use. [180] 

[181] [182] 

Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest 

possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language." [183] Though each language edition 

functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by 

Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all of its projects (Wikipedia and others). [184] 

For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, [185] and it maintains a 

list of articles every Wikipedia should have. [186] The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, 

geography, society, culture, science, technology, foodstuffs, and mathematics. As for the rest, it is not rare for 

articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles 

about small towns in the United States might only be available in English. 

Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because fully automated 

translation of articles is disallowed. [187] Articles available in more than one language may offer "Interwiki links", 

which link to the counterpart articles in other editions.


Operation 

Wikimedia Foundation and the Wikimedia chapters 

Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit 

organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary 

and Wikibooks. The Wikimedia chapters, local associations of users and 

supporters of the Wikimedia projects, also participate in the promotion, the 

development, and the funding of the project. 

Software and hardware 

The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki, a custom-made, free and 

open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL 

database. [188] The software incorporates programming features such as a macro 

Wikimedia Foundation logo 

language, variables, a transclusion system for templates, and URL redirection. MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU 

General Public License and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. Originally, 

Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for 

article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), 

Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for 

Wikipedia by Magnus Manske. The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially 

increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, 

originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker. Several MediaWiki extensions are installed [189] to extend the functionality 

of MediaWiki software. In April 2005 a Lucene extension [190] [191] was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and 

Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Currently Lucene Search 2.1, [192] which is written in 

Java and based on Lucene library 2.3, [193] is used. 

Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers 

(mainly Ubuntu), [194] [195] with a few OpenSolaris machines for ZFS. 

As of December 2009, there were 300 in Florida and 44 in 

Amsterdam. [196] Wikipedia employed a single server until 2004, when 

the server setup was expanded into a distributed multitier architecture. 

In January 2005, the project ran on 39 dedicated servers in Florida. 

This configuration included a single master database server running 

MySQL, multiple slave database servers, 21 web servers running the 

Apache HTTP Server, and seven Squid cache servers. 

Wikipedia receives between 25,000 and 60,000 page requests per 

second, depending on time of day. [197] Page requests are first passed to 

a front-end layer of Squid caching servers. [198] Further statistics are 

available based on a publicly available 3-months Wikipedia access 

trace. [199] Requests that cannot be served from the Squid cache are sent 

to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, 

Overview of system architecture, December 

2010. See server layout diagrams on Meta-Wiki. 

which in turn pass the request to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. The web 

servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase 

speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to 

be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. Two larger clusters in the Netherlands and Korea now handle 

much of Wikipedia's traffic load.


Mobile access 

Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed 

internet connection. However, Wikipedia content is now also accessible through the mobile web. 

Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol 

(WAP), via the Wapedia service. In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org [200] , an official 

website for wireless devices. In 2009 a newer mobile service was officially released, [201] located at 

en.m.wikipedia.org [202] , which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone, Android-based devices, 

or the Palm Pre. Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged (See Help:Mobile access [203] ). 

Several devices and applications optimise or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while 

some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata (See Wikipedia:Metadata [204] ), such as 

[205] [206] 

geoinformation. 

Impact 

Impact on publishing 

Some observers claim that Wikipedia is undesirable, because it is an economic threat to publishers of traditional 

encyclopedias, many of whom may be unable to compete with a product that is essentially free. Nicholas Carr writes 

in the essay "The amorality of Web 2.0", speaking of the so-called Web 2.0 as a whole: "Implicit in the ecstatic 

visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." [207] Others 

dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. For instance, 

Chris Anderson, the editor-in-chief of Wired Magazine, wrote in Nature that the "wisdom of the crowds" approach of 

Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with their rigorous peer review process. [208] 

Cultural significance 

In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, [209] 

Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website 

since its inception in 2001. [210] According to Alexa and comScore, 

[8] [211] 

Wikipedia is among the ten most visited websites worldwide. 

The growth of Wikipedia has been fueled by its dominant position in 

Google search results; [212] about 50% of search engine traffic to 

Wikipedia comes from Google, [213] a good portion of which is related 

to academic research. [214] The number of readers of Wikipedia 

worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. [9] The Pew Internet 

and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users 

consulted Wikipedia. [215] In October 2006, the site was estimated to 

have a hypothetical market value of $580 million if it ran 

advertisements. [216] 

Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, 

conferences, and court cases. [217] [218] [219] The Parliament of Canada's 

website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the 

"related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage 

Act. [220] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a 

source by organizations such as the U.S. Federal Courts and the World 

Graph showing the number of days between 

every 10,000,000th edit. 

Wikipedia shown in Weird Al's music video for 

his song "White & Nerdy."


Intellectual Property Organization [221] – though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive 

to a case. [222] Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some U.S. 

intelligence agency reports. [223] In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for 

descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft 

article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia. [224] 

Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, [225] often without attribution, and several reporters have 

been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia. [226] [227] [228] In July 2007, Wikipedia was the focus of a 30-minute 

documentary on BBC Radio 4 [229] which argued that, with increased usage and awareness, the number of references 

to Wikipedia in popular culture is such that the term is one of a select band of 21st-century nouns that are so familiar 

(Google, Facebook, YouTube) that they no longer need explanation and are on a par with such 20th-century terms as 

Hoovering or Coca-Cola. 

On September 28, 2007, Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the Minister of 

Cultural Resources and Activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama. He said that the lack of such freedom 

forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website" to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and 

claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues. [230] 

On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia 

had become a focal point in the 2008 U.S. election campaign, saying, 

"Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a 

Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad 

in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being 

edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." [231] An 

October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status 

symbol," reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia 

article vindicates one's notability. [232] 

Awards 

Jimmy Wales receiving the Quadriga A Mission 

of Enlightenment award. 

Wikipedia won two major awards in May 2004. [233] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the 

annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at 

the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" 

category. [234] Wikipedia was also nominated for a "Best Practices" Webby. On January 26, 2007, Wikipedia was 

also awarded the fourth highest brand ranking by the readers of brandchannel.com, receiving 15% of the votes in 

answer to the question "Which brand had the most impact on our lives in 2006?" [235] 

In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along 

with Boris Tadić, Eckart Höfling, and Peter Gabriel. The award was presented to Jimmy Wales by David 

Weinberger. [236] 

Satire 

Many parody Wikipedia's openness and susceptibility to inserted inaccuracies, with characters vandalizing or 

modifying the online encyclopedia project's articles. 

Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert 

Report and coined the related term wikiality that meant "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the 

reality we just agreed on." [102] Another example can be found in a front-page article in The Onion in July 2006, with 

the title "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence." [237] Others draw upon Wikipedia's motto, 

such as in "The Negotiation," an episode of The Office, where character Michael Scott says "Wikipedia is the best 

thing ever. Anyone in the world can write anything they want about any subject, so you know you are getting the 

best possible information." "My Number One Doctor", a 2007 episode of the TV show Scrubs, also lampooned


Wikipedia's reliance on editors who edit both scholarly and pop culture articles with a scene in which Dr. Perry Cox 

reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone 

cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide. [238] 

In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia, which was set on a website which was a 

parody of Wikipedia. Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles. [239] 

The comedic website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia," in which the fictitious 

Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements. [240] 

Related projects 

A number of interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before 

Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project, which included text (entered on 

BBC Micro computers) and photographs from over 1 million contributors in the UK, and covering the geography, 

art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major 

multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an 

interactive map of the UK. The user-interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a 

website until 2008. [241] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public 

was h2g2, which was created by Douglas Adams and is run by the BBC. The h2g2 encyclopedia was relatively 

light-hearted, focusing on articles which were both witty and informative. Both of these projects had similarities with 

Wikipedia, but neither gave full editorial privileges to public users. A similar non-wiki project, the GNUPedia 

project, co-existed with Nupedia early in its history; however, it has been retired and its creator, free software figure 

Richard Stallman, has lent his support to Wikipedia. [24] 

Wikipedia has also spawned several sister projects, which are also run by the Wikimedia Foundation. The first, "In 

Memoriam: September 11 Wiki," [242] created in October 2002, [243] detailed the September 11 attacks; this project 

was closed in October 2006. Wiktionary, a dictionary project, was launched in December 2002; [244] Wikiquote, a 

collection of quotations, a week after Wikimedia launched, and Wikibooks, a collection of collaboratively written 

free textbooks and annotated texts. Wikimedia has since started a number of other projects, including Wikiversity, a 

project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. [245] None of these 

sister projects, however, has come to meet the success of Wikipedia. 

Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general 

public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation, the quality of the Wikipedia 

reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk, with an accuracy of 55%. [246] 

Other websites centered on collaborative knowledge base development have drawn inspiration from or inspired 

Wikipedia. Some, such as Susning.nu, Enciclopedia Libre, Hudong, Baidu Baike, and WikiZnanie likewise employ 

no formal review process, whereas others use more traditional peer review, such as Encyclopedia of Life, Stanford 

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Scholarpedia, h2g2, and Everything2. The online wiki-based encyclopedia Citizendium 

[247] [248] 

was started by Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger in an attempt to create an "expert-friendly" Wikipedia. 

[249]


Notes 

[1] http:/ / wikipedia. org 

[2] Jonathan Sidener. "Everyone's Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ uniontrib/ 20041206/ news_mz1b6encyclo. html). The San 

Diego Union-Tribune. . Retrieved 2006-10-15. 

[3] "Five-year Traffic Statistics for Wikipedia.org" (http:/ / www. alexa. com/ data/ details/ traffic_details/ wikipedia. org?range=5y& 

size=large& y=t). Alexa Internet. . Retrieved 2011-05-24. 

[4] In some parts of the world, the access to Wikipedia had been blocked. 

[5] Mike Miliard (2008-03-01). "Wikipediots: Who Are These Devoted, Even Obsessive Contributors to Wikipedia?" (http:/ / www. cityweekly. 

net/ utah/ article-5129-feature-wikipediots-who-are-these-devoted-even-obsessive-contributors-to-wikipedia. html). Salt Lake City Weekly. . 

Retrieved 2008-12-18. 

[6] Bill Tancer (2007-05-01). "Look Who's Using Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ business/ article/ 0,8599,1595184,00. html). Time. . 

Retrieved 2007-12-01. "The sheer volume of content [...] is partly responsible for the site's dominance as an online reference. When compared 

to the top 3,200 educational reference sites in the U.S., Wikipedia is #1, capturing 24.3% of all visits to the category" Cf. Bill Tancer (Global 

Manager, Hitwise), "Wikipedia, Search and School Homework" (http:/ / weblogs. hitwise. com/ bill-tancer/ 2007/ 03/ 

wikipedia_search_and_school_ho. html), Hitwise: An Experian Company (Blog), 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2008-12-18. 

[7] Alex Woodson (2007-07-08). "Wikipedia remains go-to site for online news" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ internetNews/ 

idUSN0819429120070708). Reuters. . Retrieved 2007-12-16. "Online encyclopedia Wikipedia has added about 20 million unique monthly 

visitors in the past year, making it the top online news and information destination, according to Nielsen//NetRatings." 

[8] "Top 500" (http:/ / www. alexa. com/ site/ ds/ top_sites?ts_mode=global& lang=none). Alexa. . Retrieved 2009-10-13. 

[9] Wikipedia's Evolving Impact (http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ meta/ 3/ 3a/ 

TED2010,_Stuart_West_full_presentation_updated_with_January_data. pdf), by Stuart West, slideshow presentation at TED2010 

[10] How I started Wikipedia, presentation by Larry Sanger 

[11] Grossman, Lev (2006-12-13). "Time's Person of the Year: You" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1569514,00. 

html). TIME (Time, Inc). . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[12] Jonathan Dee (2007-07-01). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 07/ 01/ magazine/ 01WIKIPEDIA-t. 

html). The New York Times Magazine. . Retrieved 2007-12-01. 

[13] Andrew Lih (2004-04-16). "Wikipedia as Participatory Journalism: Reliable Sources? Metrics for Evaluating Collaborative Media as a 

News Resource" (http:/ / jmsc. hku. hk/ faculty/ alih/ publications/ utaustin-2004-wikipedia-rc2. pdf) (PDF). 5th International Symposium on 

Online Journalism (University of Texas at Austin). . Retrieved 2007-10-13. 

[14] Witzleb, Normann (2009). Engaging with the World: Students of Comparative Law Write for Wikipedia. 19. Legal Education Review. pp. 

83–98 

[15] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Wikipedia%3AVerifiability 

[16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=WP%3ANeutral+ point+ of+ view 

[17] Larry Sanger, Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism (http:/ / www. kuro5hin. org/ story/ 2004/ 12/ 30/ 142458/ 25), Kuro5hin, 

December 31, 2004. 

[18] Danah Boyd (2005-01-04). "Academia and Wikipedia" (http:/ / many. corante. com/ archives/ 2005/ 01/ 04/ academia_and_wikipedia. php). 

Many 2 Many: A Group Weblog on Social Software. Corante. . Retrieved 2008-12-18. "[The author, Danah Boyd, describes herself as] an 

expert on social media[,] ... a doctoral student in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley [,] and a fellow at the 

Harvard University Berkman Center for Internet & Society [at Harvard Law School.]" 

[19] Simon Waldman (2004-10-26). "Who knows?" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 2004/ oct/ 26/ g2. onlinesupplement). 

Guardian.co.uk (London). . Retrieved 2007-02-11. 

[20] Ahrens, Frank (2006-07-09). "Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ 

article/ 2006/ 07/ 08/ AR2006070800135. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2006-11-01. 

[21] Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Kushal Dave (2004). "Studying Cooperation and Conflict between Authors with History Flow 

Visualizations" (http:/ / alumni. media. mit. edu/ ~fviegas/ papers/ history_flow. pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Human 

Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) (Vienna, Austria: ACM SIGCHI): 575–582. doi:10.1145/985921.985953. ISBN 1-58113-702-8. . 


[22] Reid Priedhorsky, Jilin Chen, Shyong (Tony) K. Lam, Katherine Panciera, Loren Terveen, and John Riedl (GroupLens Research, 

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota) (2007-11-04). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in 

Wikipedia" (http:/ / www-users. cs. umn. edu/ ~reid/ papers/ group282-priedhorsky. pdf) (PDF). Association for Computing Machinery 

GROUP '07 conference proceedings (Sanibel Island, Florida). . Retrieved 2007-10-13. 

[23] Jim Giles (December 2005). "Internet encyclopedias go head to head" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v438/ n7070/ full/ 

438900a. html). Nature 438 (7070): 900–901. doi:10.1038/438900a. PMID 16355180. . The study (that was not in itself peer reviewed) was 

cited in several news articles, e.g., 

• "Wikipedia survives research test" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 4530930. stm). BBC News (BBC). 2005-12-15. . 

[24] Richard M. Stallman (2007-06-20). "The Free Encyclopedia Project" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ encyclopedia/ encyclopedia. html). Free 

Software Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.


[25] Jonathan Sidener (2004-12-06). "Everyone's Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ uniontrib/ 20041206/ news_mz1b6encyclo. 

html). The San Diego Union-Tribune. . Retrieved 2006-10-15. 

[26] Meyers, Peter (2001-09-20). "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. 

html?res=9800E5D6123BF933A1575AC0A9679C8B63& n=Top/ Reference/ Times Topics/ Subjects/ C/ Computer Software). New York 

Times (The New York Times Company). . Retrieved 2007-11-22. " 'I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real 

expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph,' said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia 

with Mr. Wales." 

[27] Sanger, Larry (2005-04-18). "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir" (http:/ / features. slashdot. org/ features/ 05/ 04/ 18/ 

164213. shtml). Slashdot. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[28] Sanger, Larry (2001-01-17). "Wikipedia Is Up!" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20010506042824/ www. nupedia. com/ pipermail/ 

nupedia-l/ 2001-January/ 000684. html). Internet Archive. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[29] "Wikipedia-l: LinkBacks?" (http:/ / lists. wikimedia. org/ pipermail/ wikipedia-l/ 2001-October/ 000671. html). . Retrieved 2007-02-20. 

[30] Sanger, Larry (2001-01-10). "Let's Make a Wiki" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030414014355/ http:/ / www. nupedia. com/ pipermail/ 

nupedia-l/ 2001-January/ 000676. html). Internet Archive. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. nupedia. com/ pipermail/ nupedia-l/ 

2001-January/ 000676. html) on 2003-04-14. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[31] "Wikipedia: HomePage" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20010331173908/ http:/ / www. wikipedia. com/ ). Archived from the original 

(http:/ / www. wikipedia. com/ ) on 2001-03-31. . Retrieved 2001-03-31. 

[32] " Wikipedia:Neutral point of view (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view& oldid=102236018), 

Wikipedia (January 21, 2007) 

[33] " statistics "Multilingual statistics" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Wikipedia:Multilingual). Wikipedia. 2005-03-30. statistics. Retrieved 

2008-12-26. 

[34] "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed.. 18. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. pp. 257–286. 

[35] "[long] Enciclopedia Libre: msg#00008" (http:/ / osdir. com/ ml/ science. linguistics. wikipedia. international/ 2003-03/ msg00008. html). 

Osdir. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[36] Clay Shirky (2008-02-28). Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ 

reader/ 1594201536/ ref=sib_dp_srch_pop?v=search-inside& keywords=spanish& go. x=0& go. y=0& go=Go!). The Penguin Press via 

Amazon Online Reader. p. 273. ISBN 1-594201-53-6. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[37] "BBC News" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 7144970. stm). BBC News. 2007-12-15. . Retrieved 2010-07-13. 

[38] Bobbie Johnson (2009-08-12). "Wikipedia approaches its limits" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 2009/ aug/ 12/ 

wikipedia-deletionist-inclusionist). The Guardian (London). . Retrieved 2010-03-31. 

[39] Wikipedia:Size of Wikipedia#Annual growth rate 

[40] "The Singularity is Not Near: Slowing Growth of Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. wikisym. org/ ws2009/ procfiles/ p108-suh. pdf). the 

International Symposium on Wikis. Orlando, Florida. 2009. . 

[41] Evgeny Morozov. "Edit This Page; Is it the end of Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. bostonreview. net/ BR34. 6/ morozov. php). Boston review. . 

[42] Cohen, Noam (2009-03-28). "Wikipedia – Exploring Fact City" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 03/ 29/ weekinreview/ 29cohen. html). 

NYTimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-19. 

[43] Jenny Kleeman (2009-11-26). "Wikipedia falling victim to a war of words" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 2009/ nov/ 26/ 

wikipedia-losing-disgruntled-editors). London: Guardian. . Retrieved 2010-03-31. 

[44] (PDF) Wikipedia: A quantitative analysis (http:/ / libresoft. es/ Members/ jfelipe/ thesis-wkp-quantanalysis). . 

[45] Volunteers Log Off as Wikipedia Ages, The Wall Street Journal, November 27, 2009. 

[46] Barnett, Emma (2009-11-26). "Wikipedia's Jimmy Wales denies site is 'losing' thousands of volunteer editors" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. 

uk/ technology/ wikipedia/ 6660646/ Wikipedias-Jimmy-Wales-denies-site-is-losing-thousands-of-volunteer-editors. html). London: 

Telegraph. . Retrieved 2010-03-31. 

[47] "Wikipedia Breaks Into U.S. Top 10 Sites" (http:/ / www. pcworld. com/ article/ 129135/ wikipedia_breaks_into_us_top_10_sites. html). 

PCWorld. 2007-02-17. . Retrieved 2011-04-19. 

[48] "UX and Usability Study" (http:/ / usability. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ UX_and_Usability_Study). Usability.wikimedia.org. . Retrieved 

2010-07-13. 

[49] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=WP%3ACONSENSUS 

[50] Wikipedia:Ownership of articles 

[51] Birken, P. (2008-12-14). "Bericht Gesichtete Versionen" (http:/ / lists. wikimedia. org/ pipermail/ wikide-l/ 2008-December/ 021594. html) 

(in German). Wikide-l mailing list. Wikimedia Foundation. . Retrieved 2009-02-15. 

[52] "Wikimedia blog » Blog Archive » A quick update on Flagged Revisions" (http:/ / blog. wikimedia. org/ 2009/ 08/ 26/ 

a-quick-update-on-flagged-revisions/ ). . Retrieved 2009-08-30. 

[53] "Wikipedia:Flagged protection and patrolled revisions – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ 

Wikipedia:Flagged_protection_and_patrolled_revisions#cite_ref-7). . Retrieved 2009-08-25. 

[54] "Wikipedia introduces edit mechanism for divisive pages" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 10312095. stm), Jonathan Frewin, 

BBC, June 15, 2010 

[55] Kleinz, Torsten (2005-02). "World of Knowledge" (http:/ / w3. linux-magazine. com/ issue/ 51/ Wikipedia_Encyclopedia. pdf) (PDF). The 

Wikipedia Project (Linux Magazine). . Retrieved 2007-07-13. "The Wikipedia's open structure makes it a target for trolls and vandals who


malevolently add incorrect information to articles, get other people tied up in endless discussions, and generally do everything to draw 

attention to themselves." 

[56] The Japanese Wikipedia, for example, is known for deleting every mention of real names of victims of certain high-profile crimes, even 

though they may still be noted in other language editions. 

[57] Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, Jesse Kriss, Frank van Ham (2007-01-03) (PDF). Talk Before You Type: Coordination in 

Wikipedia (http:/ / www. research. ibm. com/ visual/ papers/ wikipedia_coordination_final. pdf). Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. . 


[58] "First Monday" (http:/ / firstmonday. org/ htbin/ cgiwrap/ bin/ ojs/ index. php/ fm/ article/ view/ 2365/ 2182). First Monday. . Retrieved 

2010-07-13. 

[59] Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Matthew M. McKeon (2007-07-22) (PDF). The Hidden Order of Wikipedia (http:/ / www. 

research. ibm. com/ visual/ papers/ hidden_order_wikipedia. pdf). Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. . Retrieved 2007-10-30. 

[60] Poderi, Giacomo, Wikipedia and the Featured Articles: How a Technological System Can Produce Best Quality Articles, (Master thesis), 

University of Maastricht, October 2008, 

[61] "Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment" (http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Wikipedia:Version_1. 0_Editorial_Team/ 

Assessment). . Retrieved 2007-10-28. 

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[204] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Wikipedia%3AMetadata 

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[216] Karbasfrooshan, Ashkan (2006-10-26). "What is Wikipedia.org's Valuation?" (http:/ / www. watchmojo. com/ web/ blog/ ?p=626). . 


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[226] Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article, Japan News Review, July 5, 2007 

[227] " Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071015045010/ http:/ / www. 

mysanantonio. com/ news/ metro/ stories/ MYSA010307. 02A. richter. 132c153. html)," San Antonio Express-News, January 9, 2007. 

[228] " Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal (http:/ / archives. starbulletin. com/ 2006/ 01/ 13/ news/ story03. html)," Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 

January 13, 2007. 

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[230] "Comunicato stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura 

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2008-12-26. 

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content/ article/ 2007/ 09/ 16/ AR2007091601699_pf. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

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[233] "Trophy Box," Meta-Wiki (March 28, 2005). 

[234] "Webby Awards 2004" (http:/ / www. webbyawards. com/ webbys/ winners-2004. php). The International Academy of Digital Arts and 

Sciences. 2004. . Retrieved 2007-06-19. 

[235] Zumpano, Anthony (2007-01-29). "Similar Search Results: Google Wins" (http:/ / www. brandchannel. com/ features_effect. 

asp?pf_id=352). Interbrand. . Retrieved 2007-01-28. 

[236] "Die Quadriga — Award 2008" (http:/ / loomarea. com/ die_quadriga/ e/ index. php?title=Award_2008). . Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

[237] "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence" (http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 50902). The Onion. 2006. . 


[238] Bakken, Janae. "My Number One Doctor"; Scrubs; ABC; December 6, 2007 

[239] "Interview With Nick Doody and Matt Kirshen" (http:/ / www. comedy. org. uk/ guide/ radio/ bigipedia/ interview/ ). British Comedy 

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[240] "Professor Wikipedia – CollegeHumor Video" (http:/ / www. collegehumor. com/ video/ 3581424/ professor-wikipedia). 

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[241] Website discussing the emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface (http:/ / www. domesday1986. com/ ) for the data from the 

Community Disc (contributions from the general public); the site is currently out of action following the death of its creator 

[242] "In Memoriam: September 11, 2001" (http:/ / www. sep11memories. org/ wiki/ In_Memoriam). . Retrieved 2007-02-06. 

[243] First edit to the wiki (http:/ / www. sep11memories. org/ index. php?title=In_Memoriam& oldid=1502) In Memoriam: September 11 wiki 

(October 28, 2002), 

[244] " Announcement of Wiktionary's creation (http:/ / meta. wikimedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Wikimedia_News& diff=prev& oldid=4133)," 

December 12, 2002. Retrieved on 2007-02-02. 

[245] " Our projects (http:/ / wikimediafoundation. org/ wiki/ Our_projects)," Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-01-24 

[246] " Wikipedia Reference Desk (http:/ / www. slis. indiana. edu/ news/ story. php?story_id=2064)," fetched 17 February 2010 

[247] Frith, Holden (2007-03-26). "Wikipedia founder launches rival online encyclopedia" (http:/ / technology. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ 

tech_and_web/ the_web/ article1571519. ece). London: The Times. . Retrieved 2007-06-27. "Wikipedia's de facto leader, Jimmy Wales, stood 

by the site's format. – Holden Frith."


[248] Orlowski, Andrew (2006-09-18). "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 

2006/ 09/ 18/ sanger_forks_wikipedia/ ). The Register. . Retrieved 2007-06-27. "Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a 

"progressive or gradual fork," with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits." – Andrew Orlowski. 

[249] Lyman, Jay (2006-09-20). "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site" (http:/ / www. crmbuyer. com/ story/ 53137. 

html). LinuxInsider. . Retrieved 2007-06-27. 

Further reading 

Academic studies 

• Nielsen, Finn (August 2007). "Scientific Citations in Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. firstmonday. org/ issues/ 

issue12_8/ nielsen/ index. html). First Monday 12 (8). Retrieved 2008-02-22. 

• Pfeil, Ulrike; Panayiotis Zaphiris and Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring 

of Wikipedia" (http:/ / jcmc. indiana. edu. / vol12/ issue1/ pfeil. html). Journal of Computer-Mediated 

Communication 12 (1): 88. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00316.x. Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

• Priedhorsky, Reid, Jilin Chen, Shyong (Tony) K. Lam, Katherine Panciera, Loren Terveen, and John Riedl. 

"Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia" (http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?doid=1316624. 

1316663). Proc. GROUP 2007, doi: 1316624.131663. 

• Reagle, Joseph (2007). "Do as I Do: Authorial Leadership in Wikipedia" (http:/ / reagle. org/ joseph/ 2007/ 10/ 

Wikipedia-Authorial-Leadership. pdf). WikiSym '07: Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Wikis. 

Montreal, Canada: ACM. Retrieved 2008-12-26. 

• Wilkinson, Dennis M.; Bernardo A. Huberman (April 2007). "Assessing the Value of Cooperation in Wikipedia" 

(http:/ / www. firstmonday. org/ issues/ issue12_4/ wilkinson/ index. html). First Monday 12 (4). Retrieved 

2008-02-22. 

• Goldman, Eric (2010). "Wikipedia’s Labor Squeeze and its Consequences" (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ 

papers. cfm?abstract_id=1458162##). Journal of Telecommunications and High Technology Law 8. ( a blog post 

by the autor (http:/ / blog. ericgoldman. org/ archives/ 2010/ 02/ catching_up_wit. htm)) 

Books 

• Phoebe Ayers, Charles Matthews, and Ben Yates (September 2008). How Wikipedia Works: And How You Can 

Be a Part of It. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-176-3. 

• Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia - The Missing Manual. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 0-596-51516-2. (See book rev. 

by Baker, as listed below.) 

• Broughton, John (2008). Wikipedia Reader's Guide. Sebastopol: Pogue Press. ISBN 059652174X. 

• Lih, Andrew (2009). The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest 

Encyclopedia. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0371-6. 

• Dalby, Andrew (2009). The World and Wikipedia: How We are Editing Reality. Siduri. ISBN 978-0956205209. 

• Reagle, Joseph Michael Jr. (2010). Good Faith Collaboration: The Culture of Wikipedia. Cambridge, MA: The 

MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01447-2. 

• Keen, Andrew (2007). The Cult of the Amateur. Doubleday/Currency. ISBN 978-0-385-52080-5. (substantial 

criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects). Listen to: Keen, Andrew (2007-06-16). "Does the Internet 

Undermine Culture?" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=11131872). Npr.org. Retrieved 

2010-03-31. the NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007. 

• Sheizaf Rafaeli & Yaron Ariel (2008). "Online motivational factors: Incentives for participation and contribution 

in Wikipedia." In Barak, A.. Psychological aspects of cyberspace: Theory, research, applications. Cambridge, 

UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 243–267. 

Book reviews and other articles 

• Crovitz, L. Gordon. "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." 

(http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB123897399273491031. html) (Originally published in Wall Street Journal 

online – 2009-04-06)


• Baker, Nicholson. "The Charms of Wikipedia" (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 21131). The New York 

Review of Books, 2008-03-20. Accessed 2008-12-17. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual, by John Broughton, as 

listed above.) 

• Rosenzweig, Roy. Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past (http:/ / chnm. gmu. edu/ 

resources/ essays/ d/ 42). (Originally published in Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–46.) 

Learning resources 

• Wikiversity list of learning resources. (Includes related courses, Web-based seminars, slides, lecture notes, text 

books, quizzes, glossaries, etc.) 

Other media coverage 

• Dee, Jonathan (2007-07-01). "All the News That's Fit to Print Out" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 07/ 01/ 

magazine/ 01WIKIPEDIA-t. html?_r=1& ref=magazine& oref=slogin). The New York Times Magazine (The New 

York Times Company). Retrieved 2008-02-22. 

• Balke, Jeff (2008-03). "For Music Fans: Wikipedia; MySpace" (http:/ / blogs. chron. com/ brokenrecord/ 2008/ 

03/ for_music_fans_wikipedia_myspa. html). Houston Chronicle (Blog). Retrieved 2008-12-17. 

• Giles, Jim (2007-09-20). "Wikipedia 2.0 – Now with Added Trust" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ 

mg19526226. 200). New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-01-14. 

• Miliard, Mike (2007-12-02). "Wikipedia Rules" (http:/ / thephoenix. com/ Boston/ Life/ 52864-Wikipedia-rules/ 

). The Phoenix. Retrieved 2008-02-22. 

• Poe, Marshall (2006-09). "The Hive" (http:/ / www. theatlantic. com/ doc/ 200609/ wikipedia). The Atlantic 

Monthly. Retrieved 2008-03-22. 

• Taylor, Chris (2005-05-29). "It's a Wiki, Wiki World" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 

0,9171,1066904-1,00. html). Time (Time, Inc). Retrieved 2008-02-22. 

• "Technological Quarterly: Brain Scan: The Free-knowledge Fundamentalist" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ 

science/ tq/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=11484062). The Economist Web and Print. 2008-06-05. Retrieved 

2008-06-05. "Jimmy Wales changed the world with Wikipedia, the hugely popular online encyclopedia that 

anyone can edit. What will he do next? [leader]." 

• Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?, The Independent, February 3, 2009 (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ 

gadgets-and-tech/ features/ is-wikipedia-cracking-up-1543527. html) 

• Runciman, David (2009-05-28). "Like Boiling a Frog" (http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v31/ n10/ runc01_. html). 

London Review of Books. Retrieved 2009-06-03. 

• Rosenwald, Michael S. (2009-10-23). "Gatekeeper of D.C.'s entry: Road to city's Wikipedia page goes through a 

DuPont Circle bedroom" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2009/ 10/ 22/ 

AR2009102204715. html?hpid=topnews). The Washington Post. Retrieved 2009-10-22. 


• Wikipedia (http:/ / www. wikipedia. org/ ) – multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions of the 

project) 

• Press coverage of Wikipedia at the English Wikipedia 

• Wikipedia mobile phone portal (http:/ / mobile. wikipedia. org/ ) 

• Wikipedia (http:/ / twitter. com/ Wikipedia) on Twitter 

• Wikipedia (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Computers/ Open_Source/ Open_Content/ Encyclopedias/ Wikipedia/ ) at 

the Open Directory Project 

• Wikipedia (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ wikipedia) collected news and commentary at The 

Guardian 

• Wikipedia (http:/ / topics. nytimes. com/ top/ news/ business/ companies/ wikipedia/ index. html) topic page at 

The New York Times


• Video of TED Talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia (http:/ / www. ted. com/ index. php/ talks/ 

jimmy_wales_on_the_birth_of_wikipedia. html) 

• Audio of interview with Jimmy Wales about Wikipedia in general (http:/ / www. econtalk. org/ archives/ 2009/ 

03/ wales_on_wikipe. html) on the EconTalk podcast 

• Wikipedia and why it matters (http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ class/ ee380/ Abstracts/ 020116. html) – Larry 

Sanger's 2002 talk at Stanford University about Wikipedia. video archive (http:/ / stanford-online. stanford. edu/ 

courses/ ee380/ 020116-ee380-100. asx) and transcript of the talk 

• "Intelligence in Wikipedia" Google TechTalk (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=cqOHbihYbhE) on 

YouTube, describing an intelligence project utilizing Wikipedia, and how Wikipedia articles could be 

auto-generated from web content 

ltg:Vikipedeja


Creative Commons 

Creative Commons 

Founders Lawrence Lessig 

Type Non-profit organization 

Founded 2001 

Location San Francisco, California 

Key people Joi Ito 

United States 

Focus Expansion of "reasonable", flexible copyright 

Method Creative Commons licenses 

Website 

creativecommons.org [1] 

Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization headquartered 

in Mountain View, California, United States devoted to expanding the 

range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and 

to share. [2] The organization has released several copyright-licenses 

known as Creative Commons licenses free of charge to the public. 

These licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they 

reserve, and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or 

other creators. An easy to understand one-page explanation of rights, 

with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative 

Commons license. This simplicity distinguishes Creative Commons 

from an all-rights reserved copyright. Creative Commons was invented 

Granada 

to create a more flexible copyright model, replacing "all rights reserved" with "some rights reserved". Wikipedia is 

one of the notable web-based projects using one of its licenses. 

The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, and Eric Eldred [3] with support of the 

Center for the Public Domain. The first set of copyright licenses was released in December 2002. [4] In 2008, there 

were an estimated 130 million works licensed under Creative Commons. [5] Creative Commons is governed by a 

board of directors and a technical advisory board. Joi Ito is currently the chair of the board and Catherine Casserly is 

the CEO. [6] Creative Commons has been embraced by many as a way for content creators to take control of how they 

choose to share their intellectual property. There has also been criticism that it does not go far enough, or 

discourages regional cultural production.


Aim and influence 

Creative Commons has been described as being at the forefront of the 

copyleft movement, which seeks to support the building of a richer 

public domain by providing an alternative to the automatic "all rights 

reserved" copyright, dubbed "some rights reserved." [7] David Berry 

and Giles Moss have credited Creative Commons with generating 

interest in the issue of intellectual property and contributing to the 

re-thinking of the role of the "commons" in the "information age". 

Beyond that, Creative Commons has provided "institutional, practical 

and legal support for individuals and groups wishing to experiment and 

communicate with culture more freely." [8] 

Creative Commons works to counter what the organization considers 

to be a dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture. 

According to Lawrence Lessig, founder of Creative Commons, it is "a 

culture in which creators get to create only with the permission of the 

powerful, or of creators from the past". [9] Lessig maintains that modern 

culture is dominated by traditional content distributors in order to 

maintain and strengthen their monopolies on cultural products such as 

popular music and popular cinema, and that Creative Commons can 

[10] [11] 

provide alternatives to these restrictions. 

Governance 

The current CEO of Creative Commons is Catherine Casserly. [12] Mike 

Linksvayer is Vice President and Diane Peters is the General Counsel. 

Board 

Golden Nica Award 

Creative Commons Japan Seminar, Tokyo 2007 

The current Creative Commons Board includes: Hal Abelson, Glenn Otis Brown, Michael W. Carroll, Catherine 

Casserly, Caterina Fake, Davis Guggenheim, Joi Ito (Chair), Lawrence Lessig, Laurie Racine, Eric Saltzman, 

Annette Thomas, Molly Suffer Van Houweling, Jimmy Wales, and Esther Wojcicki (Vice Chair). [6] 

Technical Advisory Board 

The Technical Advisory Board includes five members: Hal Abelson, Ben Adida, Barbara Fox, Don McGovern and 

Eric Miller. Hal Abelson also serves on the Creative Commons Board. [6] 

Audit Committee 

Creative Commons also has an Audit Committee, with two members: Molly Shaffer Van Houweling and Lawrence 

Lessig. Both serve on the Creative Commons Board. [6] 

Affiliate Network 

In 2011, there are more than 100 affiliates working in over 70 jurisdictions to support and promote CC activities 

around the world. [13]


Creative Commons Asia-Pacific 

South Korea 

Creative Commons Korea (CC Korea) is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in South Korea. In March 

2005, CC Korea was initiated by Jongsoo Yoon (in Korean: 윤종수), a Presiding Judge of Incheon District Court, as 

a project of Korea Association for Infomedia Law (KAFIL). The major Korean portal sites, including Daum and 

Naver, have been participating in the use of Creative Commons licences. In January 2009, the Creative Commons 

Korea Association was consequently founded as a non-profit incorporated association. Since then, CC Korea has 

been actively promoting the liberal and open culture of creation as well as leading the diffusion of Creative 

Commons in the country. 

• Creative Commons Korea [14] 

• Creative Commons Asia Conference 2010 [15] 

Creative Commons Europe 

Scandinavia and the Nordic Countries 

Sweden 

Creative Commons Sweden (CC Sweden)) is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in Sweden [16] . 

Supporters of Creative Commons 

Corporate Support 

Sustainer Level (Committed for 5 years) 

• The Beal Fund of Triangle Community Foundation, on behalf of Lulu.com 

• Google 

• Mozilla Foundation 

• Red Hat 

Investor Level ($25,000 and up) 

• Best Buy 

• Digital Garage 

• Duke University 

• Ebay 

• Microsoft Corporation 

• Mountain Equipment Co-op 

• Nike


Types of Creative Commons licenses 

There are six major licenses of the Creative 

Commons: [20] 

• Attribution (CC-BY) 

• Attribution Share Alike (CC-BY-SA) 

• Attribution No Derivatives (CC-BY-ND) 

• Attribution Non-Commercial (CC-BY-NC) 

• Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike 

(CC-BY-NC-SA) 

• Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives 

(CC-BY-NC-ND) 

There are four major conditions of the Creative 

Commons: Attribution (BY), requiring attribution to 

the original author; Share Alike (SA), allowing 

derivative works under the same or a similar license 

(later or jurisdiction version); Non-Commercial (NC), 

requiring the work is not used for commercial 

purposes; and No Derivative Works (ND), allowing 

only the original work, without derivatives. [20] 

As of the current versions, all Creative Commons 

licenses allow the "core right" to redistribute a work for 

non-commercial purposes without modification. The 

NC and ND options will make a work non-free. 

Additional options include the CC0 option, or "No 

Rights Reserved." [21] For software, Creative Commons 

Wanna Work Together? [17] animation by Creative Commons 

The second version [18] of the Mayer and Bettle [19] promotional 

animation explains what Creative Commons is. 

endorses three free licenses created by other 

[22] [23] 

institutions: the BSD License, the CC GNU LGPL license, and the CC GNU GPL. 

Usage and list of projects that release contents under Creative Commons 

licenses 

Creative Commons maintains a content directory wiki of organizations and projects using Creative Commons 

licenses. [24] On its website CC also provides case studies of projects using CC licenses across the world. [25] CC 

licensed content can also be accessed through a number of content directories and search engines (see CC licensed 

content directories). 

On January 13, 2009, some broadcasting content from Al Jazeera on the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict was 

[26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] 

released under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license. 

• Wikipedia (cc-by-sa, since June 2009) 

• Wikia (cc-by-sa, since June 2009) 

• Citizendium (cc-by-sa) 

• knol (mostly, cc-by-sa or cc-by-nc-sa) 

• Arduino (cc-by-sa) 

• NINJAM (cc-by-sa)


Jurisdiction ports 

The original non-localized Creative Commons licenses were written 

with the U.S. legal system in mind, so the wording could be 

incompatible within different local legislations and render the licenses 

unenforceable in various jurisdictions. To address this issue, Creative 

Commons has started to port the various licenses to accommodate local 

copyright and private law. As of May 2010, there are 52 

jurisdiction-specific licenses, with 9 other jurisdictions in drafting 

process, and more countries joining the worldwide project. [32] 

Criticism 

General criticism 

Péter Benjamin Tóth asserts that Creative Commons' objectives are 

already well served by the current copyright regime, and that Creative 

Commons' "some rights reserved" slogan, as against Copyright's "all 

rights reserved", creates a false dichotomy. "Copyright provides a list 

of exclusive rights to the rightholder, from which he decides which 

ones he wishes to "sell" or grant and which to retain. The "Some rights 

reserved" concept is therefore not an alternative to, but rather the very 

Countries to which Creative Commons licenses 

have been ported (green) or are being ported 

(blue) 

CC some rights reserved 

nature of classical copyright." [33] Other critics fear that Creative Commons could erode the copyright system over 

time. [34] 

Some of Creative Commons' critics support revision of the copyright act, but believe Creative Commons to be 

merely a contractual quick fix that dissuades the public from mobilizing toward a real revision of the Copyright Act 

and copyright term lengths. [34] Others, such as Jeffrey Harrison, believe the Creative Commons system to be too lax, 

and caution against "allowing some of our most precious resources—the creativity of individuals—to be simply 

tossed into the commons to be exploited by whomever has spare time and a magic marker." [35] 

Other critics question whether Creative Commons licenses are truly useful for artists, suggesting that Creative 

Commons is directed mainly toward a "remix culture" that often fails to account for the real needs, such as financial 

compensation and recognition, of fine artists, especially in the visual arts world. [35] Some critics also worry that a 

system that does not allow authors to obtain a reward for their creations will cause some artists to avoid sharing their 

work. [36] 

Creative Commons founder Lawrence Lessig counters that copyright laws have not always offered the strong and 

seemingly indefinite protection that today's law provides. [37] Rather, the duration of copyright used to be limited to 

much shorter terms of years, and some works never gained protection because they did not follow the 

now-abandoned compulsory format. [37] 

Another critic questions whether Creative Commons can really be the commons that it purports to be, given that at 

least some restrictions apply to people's ability to use the resources within the common field. [36] This is restricted 

entirely within the private rights of others and has nothing to do with rights shared by all. [38] Creative Commons also 

does not define "creativity" or what aspects a work requires in order to become part of the commons. [36] 

Critics such as David Berry and Giles Moss also argue that the founding of Creative Commons is not the proper 

mechanism for creating a commons of original content. [38] Rather, a commons should be created, and its presence 

preserved, through the political process and political activism, not through lawyers writing down new rules. [38]


Many criticize that 4/6 of the Creative Commons licenses are not truly "open" because of the restrictions they place 

on reuse. With the definition of open being " “A piece of content or data is open if anyone is free to use, reuse, and 

redistribute it — subject only, at most, to the requirement to attribute and share-alike." [39] 

License proliferation and incompatibility 

Critics have also argued that Creative Commons worsens license proliferation, by providing multiple licenses that 

are incompatible. [40] The Creative Commons website states, "Since each of the six CC licenses functions differently, 

resources placed under different licenses may not necessarily be combined with one another without violating the 

license terms." [41] Works licensed under incompatible licenses may not be recombined in a derivative work without 

obtaining permission from the license-holder. [42] [43] [44] Some worry that "without a common legal framework, 

works which inadvertently mix licenses may become unshareable." [45] 

License misuse 

Due to the nature of Creative Commons and the absence of a central data-base, it is possible that legitimate copyright 

holders could be exploited by abusive internet users that erroneously brand their copyrighted works with Creative 

Commons licenses and re-upload these works to the internet. Creative Commons encourages a broad participation of 

users, but absolves itself from any and all legal liability. The integrity of the Creative Commons system rests entirely 

with those of the online community. At present, there are no checks in place to hold users accountable for 

mislicensing. [46] 

Although Creative Commons offers multiple licenses for different uses, some critics suggest that the licenses still do 

not address the differences among the media or among the various concerns that different authors have. [36] For 

example, one critic points out that documentary filmmakers could have vastly different concerns from those held by 

a software designer or a law professor. [36] Additionally, people wishing to use a Creative Commons-licensed work 

would have to determine if their particular use is allowed under the license or if they need additional permission. [36] 

Lessig wrote that the point of Creative Commons is to provide a middle ground between two extreme views of 

copyright protection—one demanding that all rights be controlled, and the other arguing that none should be 

controlled. [37] Creative Commons provides a third option that allows authors to pick and choose which rights they 

want to control and which they want to relinquish. [37] The multitude of licenses reflects the multitude of rights that 

can be passed on to subsequent creators. [37] 

The Free Software Foundation 

Some of Creative Commons licenses have been denounced by FSF founder Richard Stallman because, he says, they 

"do not give everyone [...] minimum freedom" "to share, noncommercially, any published work". [47] 

Mako Hill asserts that Creative Commons fails to establish a "base level of freedom" that all Creative Commons 

licenses must meet, and with which all licensors and users must comply. "By failing to take any firm ethical position 

and draw any line in the sand, CC is a missed opportunity.... CC has replaced what could have been a call for a world 

where 'essential rights are unreservable' with the relatively hollow call for 'some rights reserved.'" Some critics fear 

that Creative Commons' popularity may detract from the more stringent goals of other free content organizations. [40] 

Other criticism of the non-commercial license 

Other critics, such as Erik Moeller, raise concerns about the use of Creative Commons' non-commercial license. 

Works distributed under the Creative Commons Non-Commercial license are not compatible with many 

open-content sites, including Wikipedia, which explicitly allow and encourage some commercial uses. Moller 

explains that "the people who are likely to be hurt by an -NC license are not large corporations, but small 

publications like weblogs, advertising-funded radio stations, or local newspapers." [48]


Lessig responds that the current copyright regime also harms compatibility and that authors can lessen this 

incompatibility by choosing the least restrictive license. [49] Additionally, the non-commercial license is useful for 

preventing someone else from capitalizing on an author's work when the author still plans to do so in the future. [49] 

Debian 

The maintainers of Debian, a GNU and Linux distribution known for its rigid adherence to a particular definition of 

software freedom, did not believe that even the Creative Commons Attribution License, the least restrictive of the 

licenses, adhered to the Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) prior to version 3.0 of the license due to the 

license's anti-DRM provisions (which could restrict private redistribution to some extent) and its requirement in 

section 4a that downstream users remove an author's credit upon request from the author. [50] As the other licenses are 

identical to the Creative Commons Attribution License with further restrictions, Debian considered them non-free for 

the same reasons. Version 3.0 of the license addressed these concerns [51] and is considered to be compatible with the 

DFSG. [52] 

Legal cases 

Dutch tabloid 

A Creative Commons license was first tested in court in early 2006, when podcaster Adam Curry sued a Dutch 

tabloid who published photos without permission from his Flickr page. The photos were licensed under the Creative 

Commons Non-Commercial license. While the verdict was in favor of Curry, the tabloid avoided having to pay 

restitution to him as long as they did not repeat the offense. An analysis by Professor Bernt Hugenholtz, director of 

the Institute for Information Science of the University of Amsterdam and main creator of the Dutch CC license of the 

decision states, "The Dutch Court's decision is especially noteworthy because it confirms that the conditions of a 

Creative Commons license automatically apply to the content licensed under it, and bind users of such content even 

without expressly agreeing to, or having knowledge of, the conditions of the license." [53] 

Virgin Mobile 

In 2007, Virgin Mobile launched an Australian bus stop ad campaign promoting their cellphone text messaging 

service using the work of amateur photographers who uploaded their work to Flickr using a Creative Commons-BY 

(Attribution) license. Users licensing their images this way freed their work for use by any other entity, as long as the 

original creator was attributed credit, without any other compensation required. Virgin upheld this single restriction 

by printing a URL leading to the photographer's Flickr page on each of their ads. However, one picture, depicting 15 

year-old Alison Chang at a fund-raising carwash for her church, [54] caused some controversy when she sued Virgin 

Mobile. The photo was taken by Alison's church youth counselor, Justin Ho-Wee Wong, who uploaded the image to 

Flickr under the Creative Commons license. [54] In 2008, the case (concerning personality rights rather than copyright 

as such) was thrown out of a Texas court for lack of jurisdiction. [55] 

CC-Music – Spanish Court (2006) 

The issue in this case was not whether the CC license was enforceable, but instead whether the major collecting 

society in Spain could collect royalties from a bar that played CC-licensed music. In this case, the main Spanish 

collecting society—Sociedad General de Autores y Editores ("SGAE") sued a disco owner for the public 

performance of music supposedly managed by the collecting society. However, the Lower Court rejected the 

collecting society's claims because the owner of the bar proved that the music he was using was not managed by the 

society, since it was under CC licence. [56]


Notes 

[1] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ 

[2] Creative Commons FAQ (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ FAQ) 

[3] "The Public Domain, James Boyle" (http:/ / yupnet. org/ boyle/ archives/ 169#4). . Retrieved 2010-02-05. 

[4] "History of Creative Commons" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ history/ ). . Retrieved 2009-11-08. 

[5] "History of Creative Commons" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ history/ ). . Retrieved 2010-02-05. 

[6] "Board of Directors - Creative Commons" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ people/ board). . Retrieved 2010-09-26. 

[7] Broussard, Sharee L. (September 2007). "The copyleft movement: creative commons licensing" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ 

mi_7081/ is_3_26/ ai_n28457434?tag=content;col1). Communication Research Trends. . 

[8] Berry & Moss 2005 (http:/ / www. freesoftwaremagazine. com/ free_issues/ issue_05/ commons_without_commonality/ ) 

[9] Lessig, Lawrence (2004) (PDF). Free Culture (http:/ / www. free-culture. cc/ freeculture. pdf). New York: Penguin Press. p. 8. 

ISBN 1594200068. . 

[10] Ermert, Monika (2004-06-15). "Germany debuts Creative Commons" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2004/ 06/ 15/ 

german_creative_commons/ ). The Register. . 

[11] Lessig, Lawrence (2006). "Lawrence Lessig on Creative Commons and the Remix Culture" (http:/ / talk. talis. com/ archives/ 2006/ 01/ 

lawrence_lessig. html) (mp3). Talking with Talis. . Retrieved 2006-04-07. 

[12] "People - Creative Commons" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ people/ ). . Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

[13] Creativecommons.org (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ affiliates) 

[14] CCkorea.org (http:/ / www. cckorea. org/ xe/ ?mid=main) 

[15] Wiki.creativecommons.org (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ CC_Asia_Conference_2010) 

[16] wiki.creativecommons.org (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ Sweden) 

[17] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ videos/ wanna-work-together 

[18] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ videos/ mayer-and-bettle2 

[19] http:/ / creativecommons. org/ videos/ mayer-and-bettle 

[20] "Licenses - Creative Commons" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ licenses/ ). . Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

[21] "About CC0 — "No Rights Reserved"" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ about/ cc0). . Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

[22] "Creative Commons GNU LGPL" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ license/ cc-lgpl). . Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

[23] "Creative Commons GNU GPL" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ license/ cc-gpl). . Retrieved 2009-07-20. 

[24] "Content Directories" (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ Content_Directories). creativecommons.org. . Retrieved 2009-04-24. 

[25] Creative Commons Case Studies (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ Casestudies) 

[26] Benenson, Fred (2009-01-13). "Al Jazeera Launches Creative Commons Repository" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ weblog/ entry/ 12049). 

creativecommons.org. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[27] Steuer, Eric (2009-01-13). "Al Jazeera Announces Launch of Free Footage Under Creative Commons License" (http:/ / creativecommons. 

org/ press-releases/ entry/ 12166). creativecommons.org. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[28] Cohen, Noam (2009-01-11). "Al Jazeera provides an inside look at Gaza conflict" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2009/ 01/ 11/ technology/ 

jazeera. php). International Herald Tribune. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[29] "Al Jazeera Announces Launch of Free Footage under Creative Commons License" (http:/ / cc. aljazeera. net/ content/ launch-press-release). 

Al Jazeera Creative Commons Repository. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[30] Andrews, Robert (2009-11-14). "Al Jazeera Offers Creative Commons Video, Lessig Lends Backing" (http:/ / www. paidcontent. co. uk/ 

entry/ 419-al-jazeera-offers-creative-commons-video-lessig-lends-backing/ ). paidcontent.co.uk. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[31] Ito, Joi (2009-01-14). "Al Jazeera Launches Creative Commons Repository" (http:/ / joi. ito. com/ weblog/ 2009/ 01/ 14/ al-jazeera-laun. 

html). joi.ito.com. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. 

[32] Project (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ worldwide) 

[33] Tóth, Péter Benjamin (2009), Creative Humbug (http:/ / www. indicare. org/ tiki-read_article. php?articleId=118), Indicare Project, 

[34] John Dvorak (July 2005), Creative Commons Humbug (http:/ / www. pcmag. com/ article2/ 0,2817,1838244,00. asp), PC Magazine, 

[35] Schaeffer, Maritza (2009). "Note and Comment: Contemporary Issues in the Visual Art World: How Useful are Creative Commons 

Licenses?" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_7081/ is_3_26/ ai_n28457434?tag=content;col1). Journal of Law and Policy. . 

[36] Elkin-Koren, Niva (2006). "Exploring Creative Commons: A Skeptical View of a Worthy Pursuit" (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. 

cfm?abstract_id=885466). The Future of the Public Domain (P. Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault, eds.). . 

[37] Lessig, Lawrence (2004). "The Creative Commons". 65 Mont. L. Rev. 1. 

[38] Moss, Giles (2005). "On the Creative Commons: A Critique of the Commons Without Commonality" (http:/ / www. freesoftwaremagazine. 

com/ articles/ commons_without_commonality). Free Software Magazine. . 

[39] {{cite web |title= Open Definition| url= http:/ / www. opendefinition. org } 

[40] Benjamin Mako Hill (29 July 2005). "Towards a Standard of Freedom: Creative Commons and the Free Software Movement" (http:/ / mako. 

cc/ writing/ toward_a_standard_of_freedom. html). . 

[41] CC Learn Explanations: Remixing OER: A guide to License Compatibility (http:/ / learn. creativecommons. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2009/ 

10/ cclearn-explanations-cc-license-compatability. pdf), Creative Commons CC Learn, , retrieved 29 November 2010


[42] "Can I combine two different Creative Commons licensed works? Can I combine a Creative Commons licensed work with another non-CC 

licensed work?" (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ FAQ#Can_I_combine_two_different_Creative_Commons_licensed_works. 

3F_Can_I_combine_a_Creative_Commons_licensed_work_with_another_non-CC_licensed_work. 3F). FAQ. Creative Commons. . Retrieved 

16 September 2009. 

[43] "Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 Unported" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/ ). Creative Commons. . 

Retrieved 18 November 2009. 

[44] "Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 Unported" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-nc-sa/ 3. 0/ ). Creative Commons. . 

Retrieved 18 November 2009. 

[45] Michael Fitzgerald (December 2005). "Copyleft Hits a Snag" (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ InfoTech-Software/ wtr_16073,300,p1. 

html). . 

[46] Orlowski, Andrew (July 2009). "The Tragedy of the Creative Commons" (http:/ / andreworlowski. com/ tag/ creative-commons/ ). . 

[47] Stallman, Richard M.. "Fireworks in Montreal" (http:/ / www. fsf. org/ blogs/ rms/ entry-20050920. html). FSF Blogs. . Retrieved 18 

November 2009. 

[48] Erik Moeller (2006). "The Case for Free Use: Reasons Not to Use a Creative Commons -NC License" (http:/ / www. technologyreview. 

com/ InfoTech-Software/ wtr_16073,300,p1. html). Open Source Jahrbuch. . 

[49] Lessig, Lawrence (2005). "CC in Review: Lawrence Lessig on Important Freedoms" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ weblog/ entry/ 5719). 

Creative Commons. . 

[50] Evan Prodromou (3 April 2005). "Summary of Creative Commons 2.0 Licenses" (http:/ / evan. prodromou. name/ ccsummary/ ccsummary. 

html). debian-legal (mailing list). . 

[51] Garlick, Mia (2007-02-23). "Version 3.0 Launched" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ weblog/ entry/ 7249). Creative Commons. . Retrieved 

2007-07-05. 

[52] "The DFSG and Software Licenses - Creative Commons Share-Alike (CC-SA) v3.0" (https:/ / wiki. debian. org/ 

DFSGLicenses#CreativeCommonsShare-Alike. 28CC-SA. 29v3. 0). Debian Wiki. . Retrieved 2009-03-16. 

[53] "Creative Commons License Upheld by Dutch Court" (http:/ / www. groklaw. net/ article. php?story=20060316052623594). Groklaw. 

2006-03-16. . Retrieved 2006-09-02. 

[54] Cohen, Noam. "Use My Photo? Not Without Permission." (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 01/ technology/ 01link. html). New York 

Times. . Retrieved 2007-09-25. "One moment, Alison Chang, a 15-year-old student from Dallas, is cheerfully goofing around at a local 

church-sponsored car wash, posing with a friend for a photo. Weeks later, that photo is posted online and catches the eye of an ad agency in 

Australia, and the altered image of Alison appears on a billboard in Adelaide as part of a Virgin Mobile advertising campaign." 

[55] Evan Brown (January 22, 2009). "No personal jurisdiction over Australian defendant in Flickr right of publicity case" (http:/ / blog. 

internetcases. com/ 2009/ 01/ 22/ no-personal-jurisdiction-over-australian-defendant-in-flickr-right-of-publicity-case/ ). Internet Cases, a blog 

about law and technology. . Retrieved 25 September 2010. 

[56] Mia Garlick (March 23, 2006). "Spanish Court Recognizes CC-Music" (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ weblog/ entry/ 5830). Creative 

Commons. . Retrieved 25 September 2010. 

References 

• Ardito, Stephanie C. (2003). "Public-Domain Advocacy Flourishes". Information Today 20 (7): 17, 19. 

• Asschenfeldt, Christiane. " Copyright and Licensing Issues—The International Commons. (http:/ / agenda. cern. 

ch/ askArchive. php?base=agenda& categ=a035925& id=a035925s5t6/ )" In CERN Workshop Series on 

Innovations in Scholarly Communication: Implementing the Benefits of OAI (OAI3), 12–14 February 2004 at 

CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. Geneva: CERN, 2004. (video) 

• Brown, Glenn Otis. " Academic Digital Rights: A Walk on the Creative Commons. (http:/ / www. syllabus. com/ 

article. asp?id=7475)" Syllabus Magazine (April 2003). 

• ———. " Out of the Way: How the Next Copyright Revolution Can Help the Next Scientific Revolution. (http:/ / 

www. plosbiology. org/ plosonline/ ?request=get-document& doi=10. 1371/ journal. pbio. 0000009)" PLoS 

Biology 1, no. 1 (2003): 30–31. 

• Chillingworth, Mark. " Creative Commons Attracts BBC's Attention. (http:/ / www. iwr. co. uk/ iwreview/ 

1155821/ )" Information World Review, 11 June 2004. 

• Conhaim, Wallys W. " Creative Commons Nurtures the Public Domain. (http:/ / www. infotoday. com/ 

newsbreaks/ nb020603-2. htm)" Information Today 19, no. 7 (2002): 52, 54. 

• "Delivering Classics Resources with TEI-XML, Open Source, and Creative Commons Licenses" (http:/ / xml. 

coverpages. org/ ni2004-04-28-a. html). Cover Pages. 28 April 2004. 

• Denison, D.C. "For Creators, An Argument for Alienable Rights." Boston Globe, 22 December 2002, E2.


• Ermert, Monika (15 June 2004). "Germany Debuts Creative Commons" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2004/ 

06/ 15/ german_creative_commons/ ). The Register. 

• Fitzgerald, Brian, and Ian Oi. " Free Culture: Cultivating the Creative Commons. (http:/ / eprints. qut. edu. au/ 

archive/ 00000122/ )" (2004). 

• Hietanen, Herkko " The Pursuit of Efficient Copyright Licensing — How Some Rights Reserved Attempts to 

Solve the Problems of All Rights Reserved (https:/ / oa. doria. fi/ handle/ 10024/ 42778)" (2008) PhD dissertation. 

• Johnstone, Sally M. "Sharing Educational Materials Without Losing Rights." Change 35, no. 6 (2003): 49–51. 

• Lessig, Lawrence (2003). "The Creative Commons". Florida Law Review 55: 763–777. 

• Möller Erik, The Case for Free Use: Reasons Not to Use a Creative Commons -NC License (http:/ / www. 

opensourcejahrbuch. de/ download/ jb2006/ chapter_06/ osjb2006-06-02-en-moeller. pdf), in Open Source 

Jahrbuch 2006 (http:/ / www. opensourcejahrbuch. de/ ). 

• Plotkin, Hal (11 February 2002). "All Hail Creative Commons: Stanford Professor and Author Lawrence Lessig 

Plans a Legal Insurrection" (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?file=/ gate/ archive/ 2002/ 02/ 11/ 

creatcom. DTL). SFGate.com (http:/ / www. sfgate. com). 

• Schloman, Barbara F. (13 October 2003). "Creative Commons: An Opportunity to Extend the Public Domain" 

(http:/ / www. nursingworld. org/ ojin/ infocol/ info_12. htm). Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. 

• Stix, Gary (March 2003). "Some Rights Reserved" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?chanID=sa006& 

colID=7& articleID=000C2691-4F88-1E40-89E0809EC588EEDF). Scientific American 288 (3): 46. 

doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0303-46. 

• Weitzman, Jonathan B., and Lawrence Lessig. " Open Access and Creative Common Sense. (http:/ / www. 

biomedcentral. com/ openaccess/ archive/ ?page=features& issue=16)" Open Access Now, 10 May 2004. 


• Creative Commons home page (http:/ / creativecommons. org/ ) (English) 

• Creative Commons wiki (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org) (English) (German) (Spanish) (Catalan) (French) 

(Hebrew) (Italian) (Portuguese) (Russian) 

• Creative Commons Videos with subtitles (http:/ / wiki. creativecommons. org/ Videos) 

• Short Flash animation describing Creative Commons (http:/ / mirrors. creativecommons. org/ ) 

• Creative Commons Explained: Lawrence Lessig (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ thehour/ video. php?id=975) on The Hour 

with George Stroumboulopoulos

Amazon.com 52 

Amazon.com 

Type Public 

Traded as 

Founded 1994 

Amazon.com, Inc. 

NASDAQ: AMZN [1] 

NASDAQ-100 Component 

S&P 500 Component 

Founder Jeffrey P. Bezos 

Headquarters Seattle, Washington, U.S. 

Area served Worldwide 

Key people Jeffrey P. Bezos 

(Chairman, President & CEO) 

Industry Online shopping 

Cloud computing 

Products Amazon.com 

Revenue 

Operating income 

Net income 

Total assets 

Total equity 

Employees 

Slogan | 


Alexa rank 

Zappos 

Amazon Studios 

Amazon Web Services 

A2Z Development 

A9.com 

Alexa Internet 

Audible.com 

Endless.com 

IMDb 

Kindle 

Lovefilm 

Woot 

US$ 34.204 billion (2010) [2] 

US$ 1.406 billion (2010) [2] 

US$ 1.152 billion (2010) [2] 

US$ 18.797 billion (2010) [2] 

US$ 6.864 billion (2010) [2] 

33,700 (2010) [2] 

Amazon.com [3] 

16 (April 2011) [4] 

Type of site E-commerce 

Advertising Web banners 

Videos

Amazon.com 53 

Available in English, Japanese, German, French, Italian & Chinese 

Launched 1995 

Amazon.com, Inc. (NASDAQ: AMZN 

[1] ) is a US-based multinational electronic commerce company. 

Headquartered in Seattle, Washington, it is the largest online retailer in the United States, with nearly three times the 

Internet sales revenue of the runner up, Staples, Inc., as of January 2010. 

Jeff Bezos founded Amazon.com, Inc. in 1994 and the site went online in 1995. The company was originally named 

Cadabra, Inc., but the name was changed when it was discovered that people sometimes heard the name as 

"Cadaver". The name Amazon.com was chosen because the Amazon River is one of the largest rivers in the world 

and so the name suggests large size, and also in part because it starts with "A" and therefore would show up near the 

beginning of alphabetical lists. Amazon.com started as an online bookstore, but soon diversified, selling DVDs, CDs, 

MP3 downloads, computer software, video games, electronics, apparel, furniture, food, and toys. Amazon has 

established separate websites in Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Japan, and China. It 

also provides international shipping to certain countries for some of its products. 

History 

Amazon was founded in 1995, [5] spurred by what Bezos called "regret 

minimization framework", his effort to fend off regret for not staking a 

claim in the Internet gold rush. [6] Company lore says Bezos wrote the 

business plan while he and his wife drove from New York to Seattle, [7] 

although that account is disputed. Bezos flew from New York to 

Texas, where he picked up a car from a family member, and then drove 

from Texas to Seattle. 

The company began as an online bookstore; [8] while the largest 

brick-and-mortar bookstores and mail-order catalogs for books might 

offer 200,000 titles, an online bookstore could offer more. Bezos 

named the company "Amazon" after the world's largest river. Since 

2000, Amazon's logotype is an arrow leading from A to Z, representing 

customer satisfaction (as it forms a smile); a goal was to have every 

product in the alphabet. [9] 

Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon.com 

Amazon was incorporated in 1994, in the state of Washington. In July 1995, the company began service and sold its 

first book on amazon.com - Douglas Hofstadter's Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the 

Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought. [10] In 1996, it was reincorporated in Delaware. Amazon issued its initial 

public offering of stock on May 15, 1997, trading under the NASDAQ stock exchange symbol AMZN, at an IPO 

price of US$18.00 per share ($1.50 after three stock splits in the late 1990s). 

Barnes and Noble filed a lawsuit on 12 May 1997, alleging that Amazon's claim to be "The world's largest 

bookstore" was false. They asserted "[It] isn't a bookstore at all. It's a book broker." The suit was later settled out of 

court. Amazon continued to call itself "The world's largest bookstore." [11] This was followed by Walmart filing suit 

on 16 October 1998, alleging that Amazon had stolen trade secrets by hiring former Walmart executives. Although 

this suit was settled out of court, it led to work restrictions and reassignment of the former Walmart executives. [11] 

Amazon's initial business plan was unusual: the company did not expect a profit for four to five years. Its "slow" 

growth provoked stockholder complaints that the company was not reaching profitability fast enough. When the 

dot-com bubble burst, and many e-companies went out of business, Amazon persevered, and finally turned its first 

profit in the fourth quarter of 2001: $5 million or 1¢ per share, on revenues of more than $1 billion, but the modest 

profit was important in demonstrating the business model could be profitable. In 1999, Time magazine named Bezos

Amazon.com 54 

Person of the Year, recognizing the company's success in popularizing online shopping. 

Acquisitions 

• 1998: Bookpages.co.uk, [12] a UK online book retailer, which became Amazon UK on October 15, 1998. [13] 

• 1999: Internet Movie Database (IMDb).; [14] Cambridge, Massachusetts-based PlanetAll, a reminder service; 

Sunnyvale-based Junglee.com, an XML-based data mining startup [15] Alexa Internet, Accept.com, and 

Exchange.com [16] 

• 2003: online music retailer CD Now. 

• 2004: Joyo.com, a Chinese e-commerce website. [17] 

• 2005: BookSurge, [18] [19] [20] 

a print on demand company, and Mobipocket.com, an eBook software company. 

CreateSpace.com (formerly CustomFlix), a Scotts Valley, California-based distributor of on-demand DVDs. [21] 

CreateSpace has since expanded to include on-demand books, CDs, and video. 

• 2006: Shopbop, a Madison, Wisconsin-based retailer of designer clothing and accessories for women. [22] 

• 2007: dpreview.com, a London-based digital photography review website; Brilliance Audio, the largest 

independent publisher of audiobooks in the United States. [23] 

• 2008: Audible.com; Fabric.com; [24] Box Office Mojo; [25] AbeBooks; [26] Shelfari; [27] (including a 40% stake in 

LibraryThing and whole ownership of Bookfinder.com, Gojaba.com, and FillZ); Reflexive Entertainment, [28] a 

casual video game development company. 

• 2009: Zappos, [29] an online shoe and apparel retailer [30] Lexcycle [31] 

• 2010: Touchco., [32] Woot, [33] Quidsi, Buyvip, Amie Street. 

• 2011: Lovefilm [34] 

Investments 

• 2010: LivingSocial, a local deal site. [35] 

Spinoffs 

• 2004: A9.com, a company focused on researching and building innovative technology. 

• 2007: Endless.com, an e-commerce brand focusing on shoes. [36] 

Merchant partnerships 

The website CDNOW is powered and hosted by Amazon. Until June 30, 2006, typing ToysRUs.com into a browser 

would similarly bring up amazon.com's Toys & Games tab; however, this relationship was terminated as the result of 

a lawsuit. [37] Amazon also hosted and ran the website for Borders bookstores, but this ceased in 2008. [38] 

Amazon.com powers and operates retail web sites for Target, Sears Canada, Benefit Cosmetics, bebe Stores, Timex, 

Marks & Spencer, Mothercare, and Lacoste. For a growing number of enterprise clients, currently including the UK 

merchants Marks & Spencer, Benefit Cosmetics' UK entity, edeals.com, and Mothercare, Amazon provides a unified 

multichannel platform where a customer can seamlessly interact with some people that they call the retail website, 

standalone in-store terminals, or phone-based customer service agents. Amazon Web Services also powers AOL's 

Shop@AOL.

Amazon.com 55 

Business results 

Amazon's net income was $35 million in 2003, $588 million in 2004, $359 million in 2005, and $190 million 

(including a $662 million charge for R&D) in 2006. Retained earnings were negative $1.8 billion in 2006, negative 

$1.4 billion in 2007, negative $730 million in 2008, and $172 million in 2009. [39] Annual revenues, aided by product 

line expansion and rapid growth in international sales, grew from $3.9 billion in 2002 to $10.7 billion by 2006. 

On November 21, 2005, Amazon entered the S&P 500 index, and, on December 31, 2008, the S&P 100 index. On 

March 26, 2010, Amazon had a higher market cap than Target Corporation, Home Depot, Costco, Barnes and Noble, 

and Best Buy, only lagging behind that of Walmart among American brick and mortar retailers. [40] 

Locations 

Amazon.com has offices, fulfillment centers, customer service centers and software development centers across 

North America, Latin America, Europe and Asia. [41] 

Headquarters 

The company's global headquarters is located in Seattle's South Lake 

Union neighborhood. 

Software development centers 

The company employs software developers in centers across the globe. 

While much of Amazon's software development is in Seattle, other 

locations include Slough and Edinburgh (Scotland), Dublin (Ireland), 

Bangalore, Chennai, and Hyderabad (India), Cape Town (South 

Africa), Iaşi (Romania), Shibuya, Tokyo (Japan), Beijing (China), 

Orange County (United States), and San Francisco (United States). 

Fulfillment and warehousing 

amazon.com's former headquarters in the former 

Veterans Hospital building in Beacon Hill, 

Seattle. 

Fulfillment centers are located in the following cities, often near airports. These centers also provide warehousing 

and order-fulfillment for third-party sellers: [42] 

• North America: 

• USA: Phoenix and Goodyear, AZ; New Castle, DE; Whitestown and Plainfield, IN; Coffeyville, KS; 

Campbellsville, Hebron (near Cincinnati), Lexington and Louisville, KY; Fernley and North Las Vegas, NV; 

Nashua, NH; Carlisle, Hazleton, Allentown, Lewisberry, PA; Chattanooga, TN; Sterling, VA; and Bellevue, 

WA. [43] 

These U.S. distribution centers have been closed: Dallas/Fort Worth, TX; Red Rock, Nevada; 

Chambersburg, Pennsylvania; Munster, Indiana; McDonough, Georgia; and a partially built location 

[44] [45] [46] 

near Columbia, SC. 

• Canada: Ontario, Mississauga - Canada Post facility 

• Europe:

Amazon.com 56 

• England: Marston Gate, near Brogborough, Bedfordshire, 

Peterborough, Doncaster. 

• Scotland: Gourock, Inverclyde; Glenrothes (Fife) 

• Wales: Crymlyn Burrows, Swansea [47] [48] near Jersey Marine [49] 

• France: Boigny-sur-Bionne (2000) and Saran (2007), Loiret; 

Montélimar, Drôme (2010) 

• Germany: Bad Hersfeld, Hesse; Leipzig, Saxony 

• Asia: 

• Japan: Ichikawa and Yachiyo, Chiba; Sakai and Daito, Osaka; 

Kawagoe, Saitama 

• China: Guangzhou, Suzhou, Beijing 

Products and services 

Amazon product lines include books, music CDs, videotapes and 

DVDs, software, consumer electronics, kitchen items, tools, lawn and 

garden items, toys & games, baby products, apparel, sporting goods, 

gourmet food, jewelry, watches, health and personal-care items, beauty 

products, musical instruments, clothing, industrial & scientific 

supplies, and groceries. 

The company launched amazon.com Auctions, a Web auctions service, 

in March 1999. However, it failed to chip away at industry pioneer 

eBay's large market share. amazon.com Auctions was followed by the 

launch of a fixed-price marketplace business, zShops, in September 

1999, and the now defunct Sotheby's/Amazon partnership called 

amazon.com in November. Auctions and zShops evolved into Amazon 

Marketplace, a service launched in November 2000 that let customers 

sell used books, CDs, DVDs, and other products alongside new items. 

Today, Amazon Marketplace's main rival is eBay's Half.com service. 

In August 2005, [50] Amazon began selling products under its own 

private label, "Pinzon"; the trademark applications indicated that the 

label would be used for textiles, kitchen utensils, and other household 

Amazon.co.uk warehouse, Glenrothes. 

Third-generation Amazon Kindle 

goods. [50] In March 2007, the company applied to expand the trademark to cover a more diverse list of goods, and to 

register a new design consisting of the "word PINZON in stylized letters with a notched letter O whose space 

appears at the "one o'clock" position." [51] Coverage by the trademark grew to include items such as paints, carpets, 

wallpaper, hair accessories, clothing, footwear, headgear, cleaning products, and jewelry. [51] On September 2008, 

Amazon filed to have the name registered. USPTO has finished its review of the application, but Amazon has yet to 

receive an official registration for the name. 

Amazon MP3, its own online music store, launched in the US on September 25, 2007, selling downloads exclusively 

in MP3 format without digital rights management. [52] This was the first online offering of DRM-free music from all 

[53] [54] [55] [56] 

four major record companies. 

In August 2007, Amazon announced AmazonFresh, [57] a grocery service offering perishable and nonperishable 

foods. Customers can have orders delivered to their homes at dawn or during a specified daytime window. Delivery 

was initially restricted to residents of Mercer Island, Washington, and was later expanded to several ZIP codes in 

Seattle proper. [58] AmazonFresh also operated pick-up locations in the suburbs of Bellevue and Kirkland from

Amazon.com 57 

summer 2007 through early 2008. 

In 2008 Amazon expanded into film production, producing the film The Stolen Child with 20th Century Fox. [59] 

Amazon's Honor System was launched in 2001 to allow customers to make donations or buy digital content, with 

Amazon collecting a percentage of the payment plus a fee. The service was discontinued in 2008. [60] and replaced by 

Amazon Payments. Amazon launched Amazon Web Services (AWS) in 2002, which provides programmatic access 

to latent features on its website. Amazon also created "channels" to benefit certain causes. In 2004, Amazon's 

"Presidential Candidates" allowed customers to donate $5–200 to the campaigns of 2004 U.S. presidential hopefuls. 

Amazon has periodically reactivated a Red Cross donation channel after crises such as the 9/11, Hurricane Katrina, 

and the 2004 earthquake and tsunami in the Indian Ocean. By January 2005, nearly 200,000 people had donated over 

$15.7 million in the US. [61] 

Amazon Web Services 

Amazon Web Services (AWS) was first launched as a public beta of Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud running 

Microsoft Windows Server and Microsoft SQL Server. [62] This was later expanded to several operating systems 

including various flavors of Linux and OpenSolaris. 

In March 2006, Amazon launched an online storage service called Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3). 

An unlimited number of data objects, from 1 byte to 5 gigabytes in size, can be stored in S3 and distributed via 

HTTP or BitTorrent. The service charges monthly fees for data stored and transferred. In 2006, Amazon introduced 

Amazon Simple Queue Service (Amazon SQS), a distributed queue messaging service, and product wikis (later 

folded into Amapedia) and discussion forums for certain products using guidelines that follow standard message 

board conventions. Also in 2006, Amazon introduced Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2), a virtual site 

farm, allowing users to use the Amazon infrastructure to run applications ranging from running simulations to web 

hosting. In 2008, Amazon improved the service adding Elastic Block Store (EBS), offering persistent storage for 

Amazon EC2 instances and Elastic IP addresses, static IP addresses designed for dynamic cloud computing. Amazon 

introduced SimpleDB, a database system, allowing users of its other infrastructure to utilize a high reliability high 

performance database system. 

Amazon continues to refine and add services to AWS, adding such services as Scalable DNS service (Amazon Route 

53), payment handling, and AWS specific APIs for their Mechanical Turk service. 

Amazon Prime 

Amazon Prime offers free two day shipping with no minimum purchase amount for a flat annual fee, as well as 

discounted priority shipping rates. [63] Amazon launched the program in the continental United States in 2005, in 

Japan, the United Kingdom and Germany in 2007, and in France (as "Amazon Premium") in 2008. In February 2011, 

Amazon Prime membership was expanded to include access to 5,000 instant streaming movies and TV shows at no 

additional cost. [64]

Amazon.com 58 

Other services 

Launched in 2005, Amazon Shorts offers exclusive short stories and non-fiction pieces from best-selling authors for 

immediate download. By June 2007, the program had over 1,700 pieces and was adding about 50 new pieces per 

week. In November 2005, amazon.com began testing Amazon Mechanical Turk, an application programming 

interface (API) allowing programs to dispatch tasks to human processors. 

In 2007 Amazon launched Amapedia, a now-defunct wiki for user-generated content to replace ProductWiki, the 

video on demand service Amazon Unbox, and Amazon MP3, which sells downloadable MP3s. [65] Amazon's terms 

of use agreements restrict use of the MP3s, but Amazon does not use DRM to enforce those terms. [66] Amazon MP3 

sells music from the Big 4 record labels EMI, Universal, Warner Bros. Records, and Sony BMG, as well as 

independents. Prior to the launch of this service, Amazon made an investment in Amie Street, a music store with a 

variable pricing model based on demand. [67] Also in 2007 Amazon launched Amazon Vine, which allows reviewers 

free access to pre-release products from vendors in return for posting a review, as well as payment service 

specifically targeted at developers, Amazon FPS. 

In November 2007, Amazon launched Amazon Kindle, an e-book reader which downloads content over 

"Whispernet", via the Sprint Nextel EV-DO wireless network. The screen uses E Ink technology to reduce battery 

consumption to provide a more legible display. As of March, 2011, the stated library numbers over 850,000 titles. In 

December 2007, In August 2007, Amazon launched an invitation-only beta-test for online grocery delivery. It has 

since rolled out in several Seattle, Washington suburbs. 

In January 2008 Amazon began rolling out their MP3 service to subsidiary websites worldwide. [68] In December, 

2008, Amazon MP3 was made available in the UK. In September, IMDB and amazon.com launched a Music 

metadata browsing site with wiki-like user contribution. [69] In November, Amazon partnered with Fisher-Price, 

Mattel, Microsoft and Transcend to offer products with minimal packaging to reduce environmental impact and 

frustration with opening "clamshell" type packaging. [57] Amazon Connect enables authors to post remarks on their 

book pages to customers. WebStore allows businesses to create custom e-commerce websites using Amazon 

technology. Sellers pay a commission of 7 percent, including credit-card processing fees and fraud protection, and a 

subscription fee of $59.95/month for an unlimited number of webstores and listings. 

In July 2010 Amazon announced that e-book sales for its Kindle reader outnumbered sales of hardcover books for 

the first time ever during the second quarter of 2010. Amazon claims that during that period sold 143 e-books for 

every 100 hardcover books, including hardcovers for which there is no digital edition; and during late June and early 

July sales rose to 180 digital books for every 100 hardcovers. [70] 

In 2010 Amazon launched two publishing imprints, AmazonEncore [71] and AmazonCrossing. [72] AmazonEncore 

publishes books that were previously self-published. [73] AmazonCrossing translates foreign works into English, the 

first books published—the French-language novel The King of Kahel and the German-language novel The 

Hangman's Daughter—were released in November and December 2010, respectively. [74] 

Amazon.com exclusives 

An Amazon.com exclusive is a product, usually a DVD, that is available exclusively on Amazon.com. Some DVDs 

are produced by the owner of the film/product, while others are produced by Amazon.com, itself. The DVDs 

produced by Amazon are made using their Createspace program, in which DVDs are created once ordered using 

DVD-R technology. The DVDs are then shipped about two days later after being produced. Some DVDs (such as the 

Jersey Shore Season 1 or The Unusuals Season 1) first release their DVD on Amazon as an Amazon.com Exclusive 

for a limited time before being released elsewhere. On May 23, 2011 Amazon.com offered customers to download 

Lady Gaga's Born This Way album for $0.99 which extremely high volume causing downloads to be delayed. [75]

Amazon.com 59 


The domain amazon.com attracted at least 615 million visitors annually by 2008, twice the number of 

walmart.com. [76] Amazon attracts approximately 65 million customers to its U.S. website per month. [77] The 

company has also invested heavily on a massive amount of server capacity for its website, especially to handle the 

excessive traffic during the December Christmas holiday season. [78] There are different versions of the website for 

different countries, such as amazon.co.uk, amazon.fr, amazon.de, amazon.it, amazon.at, amazon.jp, amazon.ca. 

These sites vary in assortment and prices. 

Reviews 

Amazon allows users to submit reviews to the web page of each product. Reviewers must rate the product on a rating 

scale from one to five stars. As with most rating scales, one star stands for the product being abysmal, five stars 

meaning that the item is stellar. Amazon provides an optional badging option for reviewers which indicate the real 

name of the reviewer (based on confirmation of a credit card account) or which indicate that the reviewer is one of 

the top reviewers by popularity. Customers may comment or vote on the reviews, indicating whether or not they 

found it helpful. 

Amazon.com's customer reviews are monitored for indecency, but do permit negative comments. Robert Spector, 

author of the book amazon.com, describes how "when publishers and authors asked Bezos why amazon.com would 

publish negative reviews, he defended the practice by claiming that amazon.com was 'taking a different 

approach...we want to make every book available – the good, the bad, and the ugly...to let truth loose'" (Spector 

132). Allegations have been made that Amazon has selectively deleted negative reviews of Scientology related items 

[79] [80] 

despite compliance with comments guidelines. 

Content search 

"Search Inside the Book" is a feature which allows customers to search for keywords in the full text of many books 

in the catalog. [81] [82] The feature started with 120,000 titles (or 33 million pages of text) on October 23, 2003. [83] 

There are currently about 250,000 books in the program. Amazon has cooperated with around 130 publishers to 

allow users to perform these searches. 

To avoid copyright violations, amazon.com does not return the computer-readable text of the book. Instead, it returns 

a picture of the matching page, disables printing, and puts limits on the number of pages in a book a single user can 

access. Additionally, customers can purchase online access to some of the same books via the "Amazon Upgrade" 

program. 

Third-party sellers 

Amazon derives about 40 percent of its sales from affiliate marketing called "Amazon Associates" and third-party 

sellers who sell products on Amazon. Associates receive a commission for referring customers to Amazon by 

placing links on their websites to Amazon, if the referral results in a sale. Worldwide, Amazon has "over 900,000 

members" in its affiliate programs. [84] Amazon reported over 1.3 million sellers sold products through Amazon's 

World Wide Web sites in 2007. Unlike eBay, Amazon sellers do not have to maintain separate payment accounts; all 

payments are handled by Amazon. 

Associates can access the Amazon catalog directly on their websites by using the Amazon Web Services (AWS) 

XML service. A new affiliate product, aStore, allows Associates to embed a subset of Amazon products within, or 

linked to another website. In June 2010, Amazon Seller Product Suggestions was launched (rumored to be internally 

called "Project Genesis") to provide more transparency to sellers by recommending specific products to third party 

sellers to sell on Amazon. Products suggested are based on customers' browsing history. [85]

Amazon.com 60 

A January 2010 survey of third-party sellers by Auctionbytes.com [86] found that Amazon was 4th overall. [87] 

amazon.com placed second in "Profitability". Its lowest rating, but still above average, was in "Ease of Use". Sellers 

felt Amazon had clearly defined rules, provided a steady stream of traffic to their listings, and put less emphasis on a 

community component. amazon.com came in second in the Recommended Selling Venue category. 

Controversies 

Since its founding, in summary, the website Amazon.com has attracted criticism and controversy from multiple 

sources over its actions, such as its "1-Click patent" claims, anti-competitive actions, price discrimination, 

anti-unionization efforts, Amazon Kindle remote content removal, taking public subsidies and avoiding sales tax 

collection duties. Various decisions over whether to censor or publish content such as the WikiLeaks web site; 

LGBT book sales rank; and works containing libel, facilitating dogfight, cockfight, or pedophile activities have been 

controversial. 

Sales and use taxes 

Amazon collects sales tax from just five states. Amazon is under increasing legal and political pressure from state 

governments, traditional retailers and other groups because of its refusal to collect sales tax in 40 of the 45 states 

with a statewide sales tax (as of May, 2011). Those 40 states include at least 12 where Amazon has a clear physical 

presence [88] via distribution centers and wholly owned subsidiaries. Critics of Amazon argue that its refusal to 

collect sales taxes has given it an unfair advantage over traditional retailers. While customers are required to remit 

use tax directly to their state, few customers do so. 

Amazon says it would support a federal solution to the sales tax problem as long as such legislation was fair and 

simple. As of May 2011 legislation has been introduced in Congress to allow states to impose sales taxes on sales to 

their residents from out-of-state. Amazon has not public position on the bill. Amazon's competitors say it is 

insincere. Similar legislation, called the Main Street Fairness Act, failed in committee in 2010. Several earlier 

versions of the bill also failed to advance. Amazon lobbyists met four times with members of Congress or their aides 

in 2010 regarding the Main Street Fairness Act. The company spent $610,000 on lobbying in 2010, although these 

expenses also covered other bills discussed at the same time. Amazon has increased political contributions to federal 

lawmakers. Amazon's political-action committee spent $214,000 during the 2010 election cycle, double what it spent 

for the 2008 elections. [89] 

California 

Rep. Nancy Skinner pushed legislation to tax online sales that was approved in 2009 as part of the state budget. Gov. 

Arnold Schwarznegger vetoed the legislation. [90] On 19 January 2011 Skinner introduced similar legislation in the 

form of AB153. The bill requires out-of-state online sellers with affiliates in California to collect sales tax on 

purchases made by state residents. The affiliate provision was included to ensure that only sellers with a California 

nexus are taxed, as required by federal law. [91] "This legislation will close the current loophole in tax law which has 

allowed out-of-state companies to avoid collecting California sales and use tax," stated Skinner. [90] Skinner 

estimated that AB153 could produce between $250 million and $500 million per year in new revenue. She and other 

supporters of the bill believe that the election of Jerry Brown to the governorship and support from retailers such as 

Barnes & Noble will help the measure become law. [92] 

In 2011 Amazon threatened to terminate roughly 10,000 of its affiliates located in California if legislation pending in 

the state legislature to deem such affiliates as constituting a nexus that requires the collection of sales tax is passed. 

California affiliates would no longer receive commissions on referrals to Amazon. [93] As of March 2011 four bills 

are pending in the state legislature would define the use of associates located in California for sales referrals as 

activity subject to taxation by California. In a letter addressed to California's Board of Equalization, the agency 

responsible for collecting sales taxes, Amazon called such legislation "unconstitutional" and said it would terminate

Amazon.com 61 

its California affiliates if passed. "If any of these new tax collection schemes were adopted, Amazon would be 

compelled to end its advertising relationships with well over 10,000 California-based participants in the Amazon 

'Associates Program,'" wrote Paul Misener, Amazon's Vice President for Global Public Policy. Responding to 

Amazon, Nancy Skinner said, "This is really about e-fairness. It's really to be fair and show our California Business 

that we're not hanging them out to dry.". [94] According to the American Independent Business Alliance, the 

corporation has operations in at least seven California cities and should be forced to collect sales tax regardless of its 

threats. [88] 

Missouri 

Two legislators in Missouri have proposed joining the Streamlined Sales Tax Project to ensure that the state collects 

sales tax on goods shipped from online retailers located out-of-state. Currently Missourians are required to remit use 

tax for purchases made online but the state government has no practical method to force compliance. Legislative 

staff report that taxing online sales should significantly increase revenue. Rep. Margo McNeil cited a University of 

Tennessee study saying that Missouri stands to lose $187 million in 2011 by not taxing online sales. McNeil also 

said the streamlined sales tax is a good way to end the unfair advantages enjoyed by online retailers over traditional 

businesses. "The tax is a step in trying to even the playing field because right now we have a lot of people who are 

going in and using the stores as a showroom and then going home and buying on the Internet ...," McNeil said. [95] 

New York 

In 2008, New York State passed a law that would force online retailers to collect sales taxes on shipments to state 

residents. [96] Shortly after the law was signed, amazon.com filed a complaint in the New York Supreme Court 

objecting to the law. [96] The complaint wasn't based on whether in-state customers should pay tax, but upon the 

long-standing practice of it being the responsibility of the customer to report the sales tax (known as use tax in this 

case) and not that of the out-of-state businesses. [96] The lawsuit was tossed out of court in January 2009, when New 

York State Supreme Court Justice Eileen Bransten stated "there is no basis upon which Amazon can prevail." [97] 

Texas 

In 2010, Texas sent a demand letter for $269 million in sales taxes that the state argues should have been collected 

and remitted for sales to Texas customers. This dollar amount covers uncollected taxes from December 2005 to 

December 2009 and also includes penalties and interest. Texas authorities began an investigation of Amazon's tax 

status after a May 2008 report by The Dallas Morning News questioned why Amazon does not collect sales tax from 

Texas customers despite maintaining a distribution center in Irving near the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. 

Amazon argues that this distribution center, owned by Amazon.com KYDC LLC, located at the same address as 

Amazon's corporate headquarters in Seattle, is a legally separate entity and thus does not establish a physical 

presence in Texas that would require Amazon to collect sales taxes. [98] Amazon has decided to close a distribution 

center located in Irving in order to avoid future attempts by Texas to force the collection of sales taxes. 119 workers 

will lose their jobs when the facility closes. [99] 

Texas Comptroller Susan Combs faced skeptical questions and criticism from members of the Texas Senate Finance 

Committee 16 February 2011 over her attempts to collect back sales tax from Amazon.com. Combs replied by 

saying that all businesses must obey the law "It is our belief that this is a very, very clear issue about nexus. As I say, 

this started probably because of catalog sales 47 years ago in 1963," said Combs. Combs also cited a Texas law to 

back up her argument that Amazon is required to collect sales taxes: "A retailer is engaged in business in this state if 

the retailer: 1.) maintains, occupies, or uses in this state permanently, temporarily, directly, indirectly or through a 

subsidiary or agent, however named, an office, place of distribution, sales or sample room or place, warehouse, 

storage place, or any other place of business.” [100] The Dallas Morning News published an editorial supporting 

Combs' efforts to collect sales tax from Amazon.com on 17 February 2011. The paper wrote, "It defies logic that a 

book bought online can elude sales tax while the same book bought in a bookstore can’t. A sales transaction is a sales

Amazon.com 62 

transaction, and if one is taxed, why shouldn’t the other be taxed as well?" [101] 

In March 2010 State Rep. Linda Harper-Brown filed House Bill 2719. House Bill 2719 would allow Amazon to 

avoid Texas sales tax by amending the state tax code to exempt companies or individuals from being classified as 

retailers or being ordered to provide state agencies with information on purchases made in Texas. if they make use of 

"only a fulfillment center...or computer server." House Bill 2719 is stands in sharp contrast to House Bill 2403, 

introduced by Rep. John Otto. House Bill 2403 would close loopholes in the Texas tax code that support Amazon's 

claim of being exempt from collecting sales tax. [102] 

Tennessee 

Amazon attempted to avoid being required to collect Tennessee sales tax during negotiations with economic 

development officials to build two warehouses outside of Chattanooga. Amazon argues that its warehouses are not 

directly affiliated with the company and thus do not create a nexus that would require the collection of sales taxes. 

Tennessee revenue officials will not reveal any specific information on a deal with Amazon as they claim doing so 

would violate state confidentiality laws. [103] 

Colorado 

In response to HB 10-1193 passed in 2010 Amazon.com terminated its relationship with all affiliates located in 

Colorado. The bill originally sought to tax sales to Colorado residents by online retailers with Colorado affiliates. 

The bill was amended to remove all reference to affiliates in order to discourage Amazon from cutting ties with 

them. The final bill required large online retailers to either remit tax on sales to Colorado residents or provide 

information on Colorado customers to the state. In spite of this move Amazon still decided to terminate its Colorado 

affiliates. [104] 

Illinois 

Illinois has passed legislation to tax online sales made to consumers located in the state. In March 2011 Gov. Pat 

Quinn signed the "Main Street Fairness Act," which targets online retailers with Illinois affiliates. Quinn said the act 

would help create fair competition and generate more revenue for the state. Illinois estimates that it loses $153 

million in sales taxes every year due to the fact that out-of-state retailers do not remit sales tax on purchases made by 

Illinois residents. Some online retailers have responded to this legislation and similar efforts in other states by 

threatening income tax revenues collected from their online affiliates. Amazon, along with Overstock.com, has 

threatened to terminate affiliates in states that demand that sales tax be collected by online retailers, including 

Illinois. Wal-Mart responded by inviting online businesses based in Illinois to join its affiliate network. [105] 

Nevada 

Legislation that would have required Amazon to collect sales tax on purchases shipped to Nevada failed in 

committee in the state legislature in May 2011. The legislation was proposed by the Retail Association of Nevada 

and was expected to generate $16 million annually in additional sales tax collections. Concerns about whether such a 

move might prompt Amazon.com to close its distribution center in the state were partially responsible for derailing 

this legislation. [106] 

Affiliates 

Amazon is often able to overcome these threats by cutting ties with local partners or leaving the state in question. 

Amazon severed its relationships with affiliates in Colorado due to efforts by the state government to collect sales 

tax on internet purchases. Amazon has threatened similar action against affiliates in Illinois over the same issue. [107]

Amazon.com 63 

Kindle content removal 

In July 2009, The New York Times reported that amazon.com deleted all customer copies of certain books published 

by MobileReference, [108] including the books Nineteen Eighty-Four and Animal Farm from users' Kindles. This 

action was taken with neither prior notification nor specific permission of individual users. Customers did receive a 

refund of the purchase price and, later, an offer of an Amazon gift certificate or a check for $30. The ebooks were 

initially published by MobileReference on Mobipocket for sale in Australia only—due to those works having fallen 

into public domain in Australia—however, when the ebooks were automatically uploaded to Amazon by 

MobiPocket, the territory restriction was not honored, and the book was allowed to be sold in territories such as the 

United States where the copyright term had not expired. 

Sale of Wikipedia's material as books 

German-speaking press and the blogosphere have criticized Amazon for selling tens of thousands of print on demand 

books which reproduced Wikipedia articles. [109] [110] [111] [112] These books are produced by an American company 

named Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM: Alphascript Publishing, 

Betascript Publishing and Fastbook Publishing. Amazon did not acknowledge this issue raised on blogs and some 

customers that have asked the company to withdraw all these titles from its catalog. [110] The collaboration between 

amazon.com and VDM Publishing was started in 2007. [113] 

Pedophile guide 

On November 10, 2010, a controversy arose over the sale by Amazon of an e-book by Phillip R. Greaves entitled 

The Pedophile's Guide to Love and Pleasure: a Child-lover's Code of Conduct. [114] 

Readers threatened to boycott Amazon over its selling of the book, which was described by critics as a "pedophile 

guide". Amazon initially defended the sale of the book, saying that the site "believes it is censorship not to sell 

certain books simply because we or others believe their message is objectionable" [115] and that the site "supported 

the right of every individual to make their own purchasing decisions". However, the site later removed the book. [116] 

The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that Amazon "defended the book, then removed it, then reinstated it, and then 

removed it again". [115] 

Christopher Finan, the president of the American Booksellers Association for Free Expression, argued that Amazon 

has the right to sell the book as it is not child pornography or legally obscene since it does not have pictures. On the 

other hand, Enough is Enough, a child safety organization, issued a statement saying that the book should be 

removed and that it "lends the impression that child abuse is normal". [117] People for the Ethical Treatment of 

Animals, citing the removal of The Pedophile's Guide from Amazon, urged the website to also remove books on dog 

fighting from its catalogue. [118] 

Greaves was arrested on December 20, 2010 at his Pueblo, CO home on a felony warrant issued by the Polk County 

Sheriff's Office in Lakeland, FL. Internet Crime Detectives ordered a signed hard copy version of Greaves' book and 

had it shipped to the agency's jurisdiction. According to Sheriff Grady Judd, upon receipt of the book, Greaves 

violated local laws prohibiting the distribution of "obscene material depicting minors engaged in harmful conduct," a 

third degree felony. [119]

Amazon.com 64 

WikiLeaks hosting 

On December 1, 2010, Amazon stopped hosting the website associated with the whistle-blowing organization 

WikiLeaks. Amazon did not initially comment on whether it forced the site to leave. [120] The New York Times 

reported: "Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, independent of Connecticut, said Amazon had stopped hosting the 

WikiLeaks site on Wednesday after being contacted by the staff of the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs 

Committee." [121] 

In a later press release issued by Amazon.com, they denied that they had terminated wikileaks.org due to either "a 

government inquiry" or "massive DDOS attacks". They claimed that it was due to "a violation of [Amazon's] terms 

of service", because wikileaks.org was "securing and storing large quantities of data that isn't rightfully theirs, and 

publishing this data without ensuring it won’t injure others" [122] 

Amazon's action demonstrated, in the eyes of Wikileaks founder Julian Assange, that Amazon (a USA based 

company) was in a jurisdiction that "suffered a free speech deficit". [123] 

Amazon's action led to a public letter from Daniel Ellsberg, famous for leaking the Pentagon Papers during the 

Vietnam war. Ellsberg stated that he was "disgusted by Amazon’s cowardice and servility", likening it to "China’s 

control of information and deterrence of whistle-blowing", and he called for a "broad" and "immediate" boycott of 

Amazon. [124] 

Entrepreneurship by former employees 

A number of companies have been started and founded by former Amazon.com employees. [125] 

• BankBazaar.com was founded by Arjun Shetty, a former senior product manager at amazon.com 

• Evri was led by Neil Roseman, a former VP at amazon.com 

• Findory was founded by Greg Linden 

• Flipkart was founded by Sachin Bansal and Binny Bansal, former Amazon India employees. [126] 

• Foodista was founded by Barnaby Dorfman 

• Hulu is led by Jason Kilar, a former SVP at amazon.com 

• Jambool/SocialGold was co-founded by former amazon.com engineers Vikas Gupta and Reza Hussein 

• Medio Systems was founded by Brian Lent, a former Director of Information Technology at amazon.com 

• Quora was co-founded by ex-amazon.com (and Facebook) engineer Charlie Cheever 

• TeachStreet was founded by Dave Schappell, an early amazon.com product manager 

• The Book Depository was founded by Andrew Crawford, former Amazon.co.uk employee. 

• TrackSimple was founded by Jon Ingalls and Ajit Banerjee 

• Trusera was founded by Keith Schorsch, an early Amazonian 

• Pelago was co-founded by Jeff Holden, a former SVP at amazon.com and Darren Vengroff, a former Principal 

Engineer 

• Wikinvest was founded by Michael Shea 

• Yellowleg.com was founded by Aashish Gupta, former Amazon.com and Amazon India employee.

Amazon.com 65 

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[113] "VDM Verlag erweitert sein Angebot kostenloser Buchveröffentlichungen mit ISBN" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5nrizNw5L) (in 

German). Germany: Offenes-Presseportal.de. 2007-06-08. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. offenes-presseportal. de/ 

medien_kommunikation/ vdm_verlag_erweitert_sein_angebot_kostenloser_buchveroeffentlichungen_mit_isbn_19773. htm) on 2010-02-27. . 


[114] http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ ap/ financialnews/ D9JDI0VG0. htm 

[115] Saint, Nick (2010-11-11). "Amazon Caves: Pedophile Guide Pulled From The Kindle Store (AMZN)" (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ 

article. cgi?f=/ g/ a/ 2010/ 11/ 11/ businessinsider-amazon-caves-pedophile-guide-pulled-from-the-kindle-store-2010-11. 

DTL#ixzz14z2BGJUn). San Francisco Gate. . Retrieved November 11, 2010. 

[116] Beaumont, Claudine (November 11, 2010). "Amazon removes 'paedophile guide' from Kindle store" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ 

technology/ amazon/ 8126013/ Amazon-removes-paedophile-guide-from-Kindle-store. html). London: The Telegraph. . Retrieved November 

11, 2010. 

[117] "Amazon no longer selling guide for pedophiles" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ ap/ article/ 

ALeqM5ivT42MBS-p3W453JeFgNop0vxQ9Q?docId=004a6acf3c774853b1fb08fc8ff07679). Associated Press. November 11, 2010. . 


[118] "PETA wants animal-fighting books removed" (http:/ / www. upi. com/ Top_News/ US/ 2010/ 11/ 13/ 

PETA-wants-animal-fighting-books-removed/ UPI-70901289672465/ ). United Press International. November 13, 2010. . Retrieved 


[119] "Polk Sheriff: Pedophilia book author arrested" (http:/ / www. baynews9. com/ article/ news/ 2010/ december/ 185471/ 

Polk-Sheriff:-Pedophilia-book-author-arrested). Bay News 9. December 20, 2010. . Retrieved December 20, 2010. 

[120] "Wikileaks leaves Amazon host servers" (http:/ / www. npr. org/ 2010/ 12/ 01/ 131730912/ wikileaks-leaves-amazon-host-servers ). . 

[121] Burns, John F.; Cowell, Alan (2010-12-02). "Swedish Court Confirms Arrest Warrant for WikiLeaks Founder" (http:/ / www. nytimes. 

com/ 2010/ 12/ 03/ world/ europe/ 03assange. html?_r=1& hpw). The New York Times. .

Amazon.com 69 

[122] "Amazon Press Services" (http:/ / aws. amazon. com/ message/ 65348/ ). . 

[123] "Julian Assange answers your questions" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ blog/ 2010/ dec/ 03/ julian-assange-wikileaks). The 

Guardian (London). 2010-12-03. . 

[124] Ellsberg, Daniel (2010-12-02). "Open Letter to Amazon.com Customer Service" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5uvQLiWp0). 

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on 2010-12-12. . Retrieved 2010-12-12. 

[125] Malik, Om (2008-11-21). "The Growing Ex-Amazon Club and Why It's a Good Thing" (http:/ / gigaom. com/ 2008/ 11/ 21/ 

the-growing-ex-amazon-club-and-why-its-a-good-thing/ ). Gigaom. . 

[126] "StartupDunia" (http:/ / www. startupdunia. com/ interview/ interview-with-flipkart-founder-binny-bansal-776/ ). . 

Further reading 

• Robert Spector (2000). amazon.com - Get Big Fast : Inside the Revolutionary Business Model That Changed the 

World. Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-662041-4. 

• Mike Daisey (2002). 21 Dog Years. Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2580-5. 

• Mara Friedman (2004). amazon.com for Dummies. Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0-7645-5840-4. 

• James Marcus (2004). Amazonia: Five Years at the Epicenter of the Dot.Com Juggernaut. W.W. Norton. 

ISBN 1-56584-870-5. 

• "A conversation with Werner Vogels" (http:/ / www. bloggerautofollow. com/ modules. php?name=Content& 

pa=showpage& pid=388), ACM Queue, May 2006 


• Official website (http:/ / http:/ / www. amazon. com/ ) 

• Official mobile site (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ aw/ ) 

• Christine Frey & John Cook (2004-01-28). "How Amazon.com survived, thrived and turned a profit" (http:/ / 

www. seattlepi. com/ business/ 158315_amazon28. html). seattlepi.com.

Squidoo 70 

Squidoo 

Type Search Engine 

Industry Internet 

Founded 2005 

Squidoo.com, LLC. 

Headquarters Hastings on Hudson, NY, USA 

Key people Seth Godin, Founder. 

Megan Casey, Cofounding member, Editor in Chief 

Gil Hildebrand, Jr., Cofounding member, Chief 

Engineer 

Revenue Unknown 

Employees 6 


Corey Brown, Cofounding member, COO 

squidoo.com [1] 

Squidoo is a community website that allows users to create pages (called lenses) for subjects of interest. Squidoo 

had 1.5 million hand-built lenses as of October, 2010. 

History 

Development on Squidoo started in 2005, launching a beta testing period in October of that year. [2] The launch team 

consisted of Seth Godin, his book editor Megan Casey, former Fast Company employee Heath Row, Corey Brown, 

and Gil Hildebrand, Jr. 

The site came out of beta testing two months later and reached 100,000 lenses within the first six months. 

Site structure 

Squidoo is a user-generated website which uses the concept of a lens as its primary feature. In his ebook "Everyone's 

an Expert," Godin describes a lens as "[filtering] light and [showing] us what we need to see." Lenses are much like 

blog posts, except they're on a single subject. The site also allows content creators to earn revenue from referral links 

to sites like Amazon.com and Ebay. 

The users who create lenses are called "lensmasters". A lensmaster can be anyone with an interest in a specific 

subject; they do not necessarily have to be externally-recognized experts. In Squidoo's early stages, Godin noted that 

Martha Stewart and Jane Goodall's lenses did not receive large amounts of traffic, whereas lenses on MySpace and 

the online game Line Rider were among the site's most successful. [3] Squidoo contains lenses on 35 different topics, 

including Food & Cooking, Green Living, About Me and Business. 

Squidoo is notable in that it allows users to create multimedia pages without learning HTML. [3] These pages often 

achieve built-in popularity due to their association with thousands of other Squidoo pages. 

The site introduced the use of 'SquidMonsters', along with SquidTrophies and an experience points system.

Squidoo 71 

The site also employs a unique revenue share: 50% of all revenue goes to the lensmasters. Squidoo and its lenses rely 

on advertising and affiliate links to create revenue. [4] Nearly half of lensmasters donate their royalties to any of 65 

featured charities, ranging from NPR and the American Heart Association to smaller organizations like Chimp 

Haven and Planet Gumbo. In October 2008, Squidoo donated $80,000 to charity. As of October 2010, Squidoo's list 

of supported charities exceeds 200. On October 13, 2010, the company donated an additional $275,000 to charity to 

celebrate their 5th anniversary. 

Reception 

[4] [5] 

Since its debut, Squidoo has been profiled in CNN, The New York Times, MSNBC, and The Washington Post. 

[6] [7] 

The site was given top prize in SXSW's community/wiki category. Squidoo has challenged established 

information websites like About and eHow for traffic, while staying very close in unique visitors to newer models 

[5] [8] 

like Mahalo and HubPages. 

Competitors 

• HubPages is a web publishing company with a similar business model 

• Knol, a competitor run by Google 

References 

[1] http:/ / www. squidoo. com/ homepage/ index. php 

[2] The next free ebook (Squidoo!) (http:/ / sethgodin. typepad. com/ seths_blog/ 2005/ 10/ the_next_free_e. html) Seth Godin's blog. October 7, 

2005. 

[3] Interview of Seth Godin on Squidoo (http:/ / www. stonetemple. com/ articles/ interview-seth-godin. shtml) Stone Temple Consulting. June 

20, 2007. 

[4] Squidoo.com (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 01/ 05/ AR2006010501846. html) Washington Post. 

January 8, 2006. 

[5] A Home Where Bloggers Can Plumb Those Obscure Passions (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 04/ 10/ technology/ 10ecom. 

html?ex=1302321600& en=af552cdcdbbae6e5& ei=5090& partner=rssuserland& emc=rss) The New York Times. April 10, 2006. 

[6] Tahmincioglu, Eve Beware of social networking overload (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 25707391/ ) MSNBC. July 21, 2008. 

[7] Squidoo Honored at 10th SXSW Interactive Web Awards (http:/ / www. viget. com/ blog/ 

squidoo_honored_at_10th_sxsw_interactive_web_awards) on Vigit Labs. March 14, 2007 

[8] Unique Visitors between Squidoo, Mahalo, and HubPages (http:/ / siteanalytics. compete. com/ squidoo. com+ hubpages. com+ mahalo. com/ 

?metric=uv) compete.com.

User:David Holmes 72 

User:David Holmes 

David Holmes is a blogger, digital curator, and content creator based in the United Kingdom. Fields of interest 

include: Internet Music, Open Content, and Social Media. For information and contact details see his * Profile Card 

[1] 

References 

[1] http:/ / www. retaggr. com/ Card/ DavidHolmes


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172.135.153.xxx, 18.47, 1diesel, 1wolfblake, 1worddome, 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 216.126.89.xxx, 21655, 21th, 23@25, 24.144.84.178., 28675, 2bar, 321, 321ratiug, 334a, 35493dl, 3friends, 3nih, 

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