The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hindusim vol 2
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Vishakhadatta<br />
758<br />
Vishakhadatta<br />
(6th c.) Sanskrit dramatist whose<br />
only surviving work is the play<br />
Mudrarakshasa (“Rakshasa’s Ring”).<br />
<strong>The</strong> play is <strong>of</strong> some historical interest,<br />
for its major theme is the rise <strong>of</strong><br />
Chandragupta Maurya (r. 321–297<br />
B.C.E.), founder <strong>of</strong> the Maurya dynasty,<br />
although the play ascribes his success to<br />
the machinations <strong>of</strong> his cunning brahmin<br />
minister, Chanakya. <strong>The</strong> play<br />
paints the king as a weak figure, with the<br />
minister as the real power behind the<br />
throne, although in fairness to the<br />
historical king this portrayal seems<br />
inaccurate. <strong>The</strong> drama’s plot is highly<br />
complex, as with many Sanskrit plays,<br />
but its climax comes when the principal<br />
characters are dramatically rescued<br />
from execution at the last moment.<br />
<strong>The</strong> play has been translated into<br />
English by Michael Coulson, and<br />
published in an anthology titled Three<br />
Sanskrit Plays, 1981.<br />
Vishishthadvaita (“Qualified Non-<br />
Dualism”) Vedanta<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the branches <strong>of</strong> Vedanta, the<br />
philosophical school purporting to<br />
reveal the ultimate meaning and purpose<br />
(anta) <strong>of</strong> the Vedas, the oldest and<br />
most authoritative Hindu religious<br />
texts. Vishishthadvaita’s greatest figure<br />
is the eleventh-century philosopher,<br />
Ramanuja, who was central to its formation,<br />
although he was building on<br />
earlier work. Ramanuja was convinced<br />
that Brahman or Supreme Reality was a<br />
personal deity, rather than an impersonal<br />
abstract principle, and he was<br />
also convinced that devotion (bhakti)<br />
was the most important form <strong>of</strong> religious<br />
practice. Vishishthadvaita<br />
Vedanta, his philosophical position,<br />
stressed both <strong>of</strong> these convictions and<br />
thus opposed the position <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Advaita Vedanta school, founded by<br />
the philosopher Shankaracharya.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Advaita school upholds a<br />
philosophical position known as<br />
monism, which is the belief in a single<br />
impersonal Ultimate Reality, which they<br />
call Brahman. For Advaita proponents,<br />
reality is “nondual” (advaita)—that is,<br />
all things are nothing but the formless<br />
Brahman, despite the appearance <strong>of</strong> difference<br />
and diversity in the perceivable<br />
world. For the Advaitins, this assumption<br />
<strong>of</strong> diversity is a fundamental misunderstanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ultimate nature <strong>of</strong><br />
things and a manifestation <strong>of</strong> avidya.<br />
Although <strong>of</strong>ten translated as “ignorance,”<br />
avidya is better understood as<br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> genuine understanding,<br />
which ultimately causes human beings<br />
to be trapped in karmic bondage, reincarnation<br />
(samsara), and suffering.<br />
Since for the Advaitins the real problem<br />
is this mistaken understanding, this<br />
means that realization (jnana) was the<br />
best spiritual path to gain final liberation<br />
(moksha).<br />
According to Ramanuja’s formulation,<br />
the material world and selves have<br />
real and independent existence,<br />
although their existence is ultimately<br />
rooted in God, whom he identifies as<br />
Vishnu. <strong>The</strong> world comes from God in a<br />
process <strong>of</strong> e<strong>vol</strong>ution adapted from the<br />
Samkhya model, but since matter is<br />
unconscious, it is both similar to and<br />
different from God. In the same way,<br />
human beings share similarity to God in<br />
having God as their source, and difference<br />
from him in being subject to ignorance<br />
and suffering. For Ramanuja and<br />
his followers, God is not identical to<br />
Selves or the world, all <strong>of</strong> which are perceived<br />
as having real and independent<br />
existence. This doctrine <strong>of</strong> identity and<br />
difference makes the perceivable world<br />
real, in a sense that the Advaita proponents<br />
would never admit. This same<br />
contention <strong>of</strong> simultaneous identity and<br />
difference distinguishes Ramanuja’s<br />
position from that <strong>of</strong> a later thinker,<br />
Madhva, whose Dvaita Vedanta stressed<br />
the great gulf between God and all other<br />
things. Given this difference in capacities<br />
between deity and devotee (bhakta),<br />
Ramanuja and his followers have<br />
stressed bhakti as the most efficacious<br />
means to salvation. Even after liberation<br />
the souls retain enough <strong>of</strong> a distinction