The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hindusim vol 2
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Shrauta Sutras<br />
dead. For further information see<br />
Pandurang Vaman Kane, A History <strong>of</strong><br />
Dharmasastra, 1968; and Raj Bali<br />
Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 1969.<br />
Shraddhanand, Swami<br />
(b. Lala Munshi Ram, d. 1926) Key figure<br />
in the development <strong>of</strong> the Arya Samaj, a<br />
modern Hindu reformist movement.<br />
Shraddanand was born in Punjab and<br />
got a law degree from the Government<br />
College in Lahore, but was most influential<br />
through his support for the Arya<br />
Samaj’s educational institutions. His<br />
greatest work was establishing the<br />
Gurukul Kangri near the sacred city <strong>of</strong><br />
Haridwar in 1901. <strong>The</strong> Gurukul<br />
(“teacher’s household”) was a boarding<br />
school where Arya Samaj children could<br />
be raised with “progressive” Arya values,<br />
far from the corrupting influences <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
mainstream Hindu society. This<br />
model was based on the Vedas, the earliest<br />
Hindu religious texts, which the<br />
Arya Samaj took as the sole religious<br />
authority, and in which a student would<br />
live as a member <strong>of</strong> his teacher’s family.<br />
Educationally, the curriculum stressed<br />
the arts and sciences necessary for a<br />
“modern” education, but also traditional<br />
Sanskrit learning, particularly <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Vedas. Shraddhanand became a Sanyasi<br />
in 1917 but continued to support political<br />
causes, particularly Indian social and<br />
political leader Mohandas Gandhi’s<br />
1919 call for non-cooperation with the<br />
British government. His fervor and<br />
strength <strong>of</strong> character made him an<br />
unpopular figure, and he was assassinated<br />
by a Muslim in 1926.<br />
Shramana<br />
(from the Sanskrit verb shram, “to<br />
strive”) General term denoting religious<br />
adepts from the middle <strong>of</strong> the first millennium<br />
before the common era whose<br />
beliefs stressed renunciation, ascetic<br />
practices, and the search for intuitive<br />
insights. Shramana religious practice<br />
was individualist, experiential, freeform,<br />
and independent <strong>of</strong> society. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these qualities put them in religious<br />
competition with the brahmin priests,<br />
whose practice stressed mastery <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred texts and performing enormously<br />
complex rituals; the need for sponsors<br />
for these rituals made brahmin religion<br />
“establishment” religion, serving its<br />
patron classes. Indian grammarians use<br />
the pair shramana and brahmin to illustrate<br />
typically bitter opponents, along<br />
with examples such as mongoose and<br />
cobra, and their difference seems to be<br />
between a religious model stressing<br />
individual charisma (shramana), and<br />
one stressing highly trained technical<br />
expertise (brahmin). Part <strong>of</strong> the shramana<br />
tradition remained outside the<br />
Hindu fold by virtue <strong>of</strong> resolutely rejecting<br />
the authority <strong>of</strong> the Vedas; the Jains,<br />
Buddhists, Ajivikas, and other religious<br />
groups developed as a result <strong>of</strong> this<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the Vedas. Part <strong>of</strong> the shramana<br />
tradition was absorbed into traditional<br />
Hinduism in the dharma literature,<br />
which found a place for renunciant<br />
asceticism in the form <strong>of</strong> the Sanyasi,<br />
the last <strong>of</strong> the four traditional stages<br />
<strong>of</strong> life (ashramas). For further information<br />
on the shramanas and the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> this tradition, see<br />
Padmanabh S. Jaini, “Sramanas: <strong>The</strong>ir<br />
Conflict with Brahmanical Society,” in<br />
Joseph Elder (ed.), Chapters in Indian<br />
Civilization, 1970.<br />
Shrauta Sutras<br />
(“aphorisms on Vedic rituals”) A set <strong>of</strong><br />
brief sayings (4th c. B.C.E.) explaining the<br />
ritual instructions for performing the<br />
public sacrifices prescribed in the<br />
Vedas, the earliest and most authoritative<br />
Hindu religious texts. Such sacrificial<br />
instructions had been prescribed in<br />
the Brahmana literature—itself considered<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the Veda—but with the passage<br />
<strong>of</strong> time the Brahmanas had become<br />
too complex and difficult to understand.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Shrauta Sutras were essentially<br />
manuals for the priests presiding over<br />
the Vedic sacrifices, composed to ensure<br />
that the sacrifices would be performed<br />
correctly. Aside from instructions for<br />
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