The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hindusim vol 2
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Samkhya<br />
Appar, Sambandar actively opposed the<br />
unorthodox sects <strong>of</strong> the times, particularly<br />
the Jains, whom he reviles in his<br />
poems. <strong>The</strong> depth <strong>of</strong> his hatred can be<br />
seen in a well-established tradition<br />
that, after converting the king <strong>of</strong><br />
Madurai, <strong>of</strong> the Pandya dynasty, from<br />
Jainism to Shaivism, Sambandar was<br />
instrumental in having eight thousand<br />
Jain ascetics executed by impalement.<br />
<strong>The</strong> collected hymns <strong>of</strong> the three most<br />
important Nayanars—Appar, Sambandar,<br />
and Sundaramurtti—comprise the<br />
Devaram, the most sacred <strong>of</strong> the Tamil<br />
Shaivite texts. See also Shaiva.<br />
Samharakrama<br />
(“destruction method”) Ritual in the<br />
Shrividya school <strong>of</strong> the secretive religious<br />
practice known as tantra. This ritual<br />
uses the shrichakra, a symbolic diagram<br />
used in worship. <strong>The</strong> adept’s ritual<br />
journey starts at the outer edges <strong>of</strong> the<br />
shrichakra, which represents the apparently<br />
“real” everyday world, and gradually<br />
moves toward the center, where a<br />
single point (bindu) represents absolute<br />
unity. This process is called “destruction”<br />
because the ritual process systematically<br />
deconstructs the notion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dualistic world and destroys the notion<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Self that is separate from the<br />
Absolute Reality. For further information<br />
see Douglas Renfrew Brooks, <strong>The</strong><br />
Secret <strong>of</strong> the Three Cities, 1990.<br />
Samhita<br />
(“collection”) <strong>The</strong> most archaic textual<br />
layer in the Vedas, comprising hymns to<br />
the Vedic deities, benedictions, prayers,<br />
spells, and litanies. <strong>The</strong> term indicates<br />
that this group <strong>of</strong> texts is a collection <strong>of</strong><br />
various things important, not only for<br />
their cognitive meaning, but for their<br />
power as mantra (sacred sound). <strong>The</strong><br />
samhitas were chanted during rites <strong>of</strong><br />
sacrifice and remain the oldest living<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the Hindu tradition. Following<br />
the samhitas are the three later textual<br />
levels: the Brahmanas, which are<br />
essentially manuals detailing correct<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> the sacrifice, and the<br />
Aranyakas and the Upanishads, which<br />
ask speculative questions about the<br />
power behind the sacrifice.<br />
Samkalpa<br />
(“intention”) Important ritual sequence<br />
at the beginning <strong>of</strong> many religious rites<br />
in which the person performing the rite<br />
states his or her identity, the time and<br />
place at which the action is being performed,<br />
the performer’s intention to<br />
carry out this particular ritual act,<br />
and the benefits desired from the action.<br />
<strong>The</strong> samkalpa is important as the<br />
formal commitment to perform the<br />
stated action. For ritual actions that<br />
promise several different possible<br />
benefits—for example, birth in heaven<br />
or final liberation—performing the<br />
samkalpa is believed to give one the<br />
result one desires.<br />
Samkhya<br />
(“enumeration”) One <strong>of</strong> the six schools<br />
<strong>of</strong> traditional Hindu philosophy, whose<br />
founding text is the Samkhyakarikas,<br />
written by Ishvarakrishna in the third<br />
century B.C.E. Samkhya espouses an<br />
atheistic philosophical dualism positing<br />
two fundamental principles as the<br />
source <strong>of</strong> all things. <strong>The</strong> first <strong>of</strong> these is<br />
called purusha (“person”), which is conscious,<br />
but completely inactive and<br />
unchanging. It is seen as a passive witness<br />
to the transformations going on<br />
around it. As the source <strong>of</strong> consciousness,<br />
purusha is ultimately identified<br />
with an individual’s true and eternal<br />
Self. Purusha is inferred as plural, given<br />
the plurality <strong>of</strong> conscious beings, combined<br />
with the fact that one person can<br />
gain enlightenment while all the rest<br />
remain in bondage.<br />
<strong>The</strong> other fundamental principle is<br />
prakrti, (“nature”), which provides the<br />
object to the purusha’s subject. Prakrti is<br />
better conceived <strong>of</strong> as force or power<br />
rather than a specific material object.<br />
Prakrti contains within it forces with three<br />
different primordial qualities (gunas):<br />
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