ARM, 2.

COST 9 

I. DRESSING : 

ORNANHENTS 

9 COShlETICS AND 

It is a pitiable truth that Indian dressing style and clothing are 

not often regarded as the part of Indian culture. Most of the scholars we of the 

opitlion that there is no certain improvement or development in the Indian style 

of dressing. The dress of present day like 'dhoti' 'ccidar' and 'pagag' had 

been c~stumes of the past 2000 years. So, where there would be the history of 

dressing? It is one another reason why scholars did not much regard the history 

of Indian dressing that it was and is believed by everyone that stitched clothes 

were introduced to Indians at 16' century AD by Muslims, but both the 

opinion of the scholars in connection with Indian dressing is wrong. It is true 

that we still use clotl~ings like dhoti, cddar etc., which were in use 2000 years 

ago; but the similarity of ancient and modern hdi

duence of Yunan, Iran, and central Asia, because the people in this region 

had a close relationship with these foreigners. Under these circumstances 

cultural exchange is quite cornon. 

In most of the atsc our litentturc give ismd ill idcntilying iuld 

namitig the clothes. Such names of' clothes are safely remaining in vedic, 

Buddhis* and Jaina literature, fables and fairy tales, and in lexicons. 'The 

bha~ya-s and vyakara~-s which came through this mighty system of 

literature, hfurther described the cloths. From the literature we come to know 

where the clothes of good quality were produced and from the lexicons we 

come to know about the dresses made up of jute and bark, which were most 

commonly used by ascetics and poor. Here we also get information about 

leather garments. Kpzdjinn etc., were used by ascetics with the view of 

serenity while the other leather garments might have been exported to foreign 

countries for the use of leather garments in this hot climate-prevailing country, 

is h ost chanceless. 

It is hard to say how our ancestors dressed in those days. Till 

date we do not know fiom our researches whether they used clothes or not. If' 

yes, whether dresses were made of leather or leaves ! It is known fkom the cave 

paintings of pre-historic period that man was naked and it was not considered 

unculture. In this context, it will be appropriate to mention some of the 

traditional seds which support nudity. There are lots of reference regarding 

naked sdhu-s in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Probably their nudity is an 

attempt to re-live the past tradition of primitive age wherein the awareness of 

dressing was absolutely absent. Gradually when the society pew more 

civilized, people becanie more inseparable fiom clothes while th&x spiritual 

preceptors maintained the age old tradition of non dressing which was quite 

common once upon a the. The reference about the dresses made up of leather, 

bark and grasses found in vedic and later literature, also indicate the primitive

tradition. The point to be considered is when a society gradually develops, not 

everyone folIows it. A certain group of people remain undeveloped and 

uncivilized. They are later treated as tribes. However, we can draw the clear 

picture of ancient culture by thoroughly studying the believes and habits of 

these tribes, 

We get the first pre-vedic reference about Indian dressing fi-om 

the Indus Valley. Later, we have countIess information in vedic and later 

writings. Here, a humble effort has been taken to study the dresses, their types 

of materials etc., found in ARM. 

1. MATERIALS OF GARMENTS : 

Dress indicates the refmed taste of men. For a study of the dress 

besides other facts, it is necessary to know which were the materials used in 

making clothes. For knowing the names of materials us4 in making cloth in 

ancient India, a study of ancient literature is essential. We frnd names of many 

kinds of clothes in the vedic, Buddl~ist and Jriina literature, friblcs and lexicons. 

AX places not only names of clothes but a detailed description of the materials 

are given. There was a tradition that man wore difrlt'erent clothes suitable for 

1 

different seasons. Fine, soft and cool cotton and silk clothes in the summer 

season, thick and heavy silk and woollen clothes in the winter season were 

worn by Indians, Similarly dresses differed fiom man to man according to their 

d8erent professions.2 Hermits, nuns, hunters and foresters wore clothes made 

up of barks and leaves. Kings and economically well-off individuals wore 

precious silk and gold-ernbroided clothes. In the same way, the dress of the 

people of one class differed from that of the other classes in one respect or the 

other. 

In the early age man used barks and leaves etc., to cover his 

body. With passage of time the kinds of clothes changed and man began to use

clothes made from cotton. wool, silk md fibres of various hits and barks. 

From a study of this literary evidence, we can know about the ancient Indirln 

style of dressing, and how far Indians were technically advanced in the art of 

weaving . Halayudha gives a classification of clothing into four major 

divisions as cloth made up of leather, cotton, silk and wool. 

i) Cotton: Probably cotton clothes originated in India. 

Excavations at the Itldus valley sites have lcd to the discovery of some 

appliances such as spindles which were used it1 spinning and weaving. This 

shows that the process of spinning and weaving had started in this age. A pink 

cotton piece of cloth was found in the excavation at one of the sites of this 

3 

culture. This is a testimony to the fact that the use of cotton cloth was in 

vogue even in the prehistoric period in India. Mackay had also discovered 

wound cotton thread at one of the sites of this culture. This also supports the 

view that cotton existed in this period. According to Sir John Marshall, the 

4 

word 'sindhu' is used in the sense of cloth in the Babylonian language. This 

leads us to the conclusion that cotton clothes were used in this region in this 

period. 

Probably we find the earliest literary evidence of the existence 

of the cotton cloth in the Srauta Si&ra-s of A~vabyana and ~ j~~~ana.~ In the 

list of clothes mentioned in the Ac~rli7iga szitra, cotton cloth is called 

khomiya. It was used for making a civara - a garment of a Buddhist monk6 

In the Vlnayapipka it is named as k~pprisikam.7 For making cloth, cotton 

was first ginned, later it was changed into fine thrd8 The process of making 

cloth was the same as is adopted in making with the handloom these days.' 

According to Anian, Indian cotton cloth was whiter and brighter than that

made in other countries. Lucien was of the opinion that Indian cloth was lighter 

and soltcr than cven Greek cloth. 

We do not have many references to cotton elo111es in the Gupla 

literature. There can be two hfkrences for the non-mention of cotton clothes, 

either cotton clothes were used only by a few people or the use of cotton clothes 

were so common that the writers considered it unnecessary to make a mention 

of their use. 

The Amurakoia mentions three words for cotton clothes 

1 I 

phala, knrpusa and bdara. Dr. Motichandra feels that the words garjabha 

and sphatika in the Ac~rangasutra have been used in the sense of the variety 

of cotton clothes. l2 Halapha gives the two words kdrpirpdsa and bddara to 

denote a cotton cloth.I3 

ii) Wool: Woollen clothes were called as kambala. It is stated 

in Divycivadcina that u variety ofthread called tungkela was made fi-om a tree 

named Kalpadea in the Uttara Kuru country. With this thread were made 

14 

woollen clothes of many colours such as blue, yellow, red and whlte. 

Beautiful cloth was also made by mixing wool and d~ktila.'~ Ordinary 

blankets and those made with the hair of camel were woven for trade as well. 

We come across the following varieties of woollen clothes in -4RM - uvika, 

16 

urabhra, rallaka, ur@p and kam baku. 

iii) Silk: It is a controversial matter when silken cloth began to 

17 

be manufactured in India. According to Dr. Sarkar, the term pGZn&iva 

mentioned in the vedic literature means silken cloth. But according to Dr. 

18 19 

Motichandra and Monier Williams the term means woollen cloth and not

silken cloth. h the absence of any definite evidence it is dacult to determine 

the correct meaning of the word p&n&va. Another word mentioned in the 

20 

vedic literature is tipya. Dr. Sarkw thinks it was a thick silken ~10th.~' 

Sayiuja and Katyaydna have irhorprctcd it it1 thc scn:ic o["a limn' (;I;:)UUMLI), '21 

piece of cloth dipped in clarified butter', 'a cloth made with a kind of grass 

called tlpa', or 'a piece of cloth dipped three times in the clarified butter'. 

From this it is quite clear that the commentators were not quite sure about the 

meaning of the Dr. Motichandra has not expressed any definite opinion 

about the correct meaning of the word. There is a reference to a garment made 

with kuia called ~a~dc2taka.~~ According to Sayqa, in this context Kuia 

means silk and so according to him candataka was a silken cloth. Thus If we 

take tlic t he words piirt&rvu, tapya and can&tuku in the sense of silken 

clothes, then it can be said that the vedic people were acquainted with silken 

clothes. 

It can be said that most probably silk was used in India in the 

5*' century BC as Paqini has mentioned thc word kanieY.yrr." Silken clothes 

(kauieya) are also mentioned in the ~rim~Z~d~,2~ and in the Buddhist 

literature. Besides kauieya, two other words used in the sense of silken clothes 

26 

werecinumiukuandpatfa. IntheSubhcZparva ofMuhabharara two other 

27 

kinds of silken clothes namely kotaja andpa@ja are mentioned. 

In the literature of the Kusgna and Gupta ages silken clothes of 

a number of varieties are mentioned. Haliiyudha interprets amiuka and 

kzuuieyu in the sense of a. silken cloth. 

a. Amhtka: It is a type of silken cloth widely used by the 

people of ancient India. The a,rit.Cuka was made both in India and China.

According lo the corntnentary of Niilthacuraqi, in tlae decoration of en 

a&ka gold thread was used to make beautiful designs.z8 In the 

B~atkalpasutro Bhcipa it is said to bc a soft and bright silken cloth.29 

V.S.Aganua1 also thinkr that it was a silken ~10th.~' 

Many varieties of a,~ka are mentioned on the basis of 

3 1 

different colours. Kglihsa has referred to sitGhSuka, am@kSuka, 32 

33 - - 34 35 

m&amSldka, nelanihku, and jlarniihiuka. Actually the aniSuka-s 

were once produced in white colour. Later they had been coloured with 

diflerent types of colours. Gtyayana also refers to, two arizhka-s - ScSkalika 

and krirdamika coloured by iokala and k~rdama.~~ Another variety 

mentioned was pa@?ni5nka. According to Dr. Motichandra it was white and 

plain silk ~ 10th~~ Another variety of a ~ kwas a cinri-ka. Most probably 

it was the variety of silk imported from China. According to the 

B~hatkalpasiit~a Bhasya it was made from a silk worm named kosak2ira or 

cloth made fiorn very smooth Chinese silk.38 According to the commentary of 

Niiithaclira~i, very fme silk or Chinese silk was called cindliri~ka.~~ On the 

basis of these commentaries it can be said that probably very fine Indian silk 

cloth and Chinese silk were called cinLzriziuka. 

B2nabhatta refers to amiuka many a times. In his opinion 

a-ka is a very thin and white ~10th.~' In another context he refers to an 

a-ka made up of fibre of stalkIk4' Bans has also referred to the o ~ k a 

decorated with designs of flowers, leaves, birds etc.42 In the works of Praw 

the word a&ya occurs in many a place. In Acarariga stZtra there is a 

43 

reference of ahuka and cincMhka. B~atkalpasufru BhQa also refers

44 

to both the varieties of aHzi-uka-s. In ancient India a~Suku was the most 

liked dress, next to dukt2la. P&icularly in the 10~ Cen. AD a*ku was a 

prominent g'ument. Hal~yudha mentions two types of silk cloth, they are 

dhauta kauieya and a*.hka. Dhauta kauieja is bleached silk cloth. It is 

also blown as patror?za. 45 

b. Kauieya: Kauieya is made from the silky threads produced 

by the worn. Silk is a very costly, beautfil and sophis$icnted kess. Since it 

is a costly one, ordinary people cannot afFord to use them regularly hut they 

used them in some important occasions like festivals etc. According to Dr. 

Motichandra the silk made fiom the cocoons of a silk worm, which subsisted 

on the leaves of rnulbeny trees was called kouiqx~.~~ 

Kautilya has given an elaborate note on kauieya. The silk 

worrns were cultivated in the trees of ndgav$sn, llikucu, vakula and vafa. 

The kauieya was also of four types accordingly. The kauseya made from the 

silk wonns of nuguv&a was yellow in colour. The knuieya of likuca tree 

was in the colour df wheat, kauieya of vukula tree was in the wlite colour and 

that of vafa was in the colour of fresh butter.47 KauSeya was also produced in 

The tern1 kauieya has been mentioned in the Modhyamavydyoga, 

49 

wherein a yellow coloured kauseya was worn by a brdzrna~. In the 

50 

Amarakoia the term dhautakauieya has been interpreted as 'washed silk'. 

~a12yudha calls it pa~orw.51 

iv) Leather: Most probably skin of deer, goat and cow was 

used to make leather garments. The skin of a deer is considered to be a 

52 

garment of ascetics in the Kirdtarjuniya, ~mdrasam bhava, 53 and

54 

Kudam bar i . The deer skin was used at .the time of sacred sacraments such 

as the vidycl..ranzbha etc. The slcin oftiger and deer were used on seats to cover 

55 

the bare ground. Skm of elephant was also used. Lord Siva is often descried 

56 

as Kmvasas. Dr. Motichandra mentions the use of the skin of a sea otter as 

57 

it was very thin and h e. -4part from this, the skins of animals like camel, 

leopard, were also used5' HaJayridha has not mentioned that the leather of 

which animals were used for preparing dresses during his days. 

v) Garment of Bark: The garments of tree barks are usually 

known as valkala-s. Monks, ascetics and foresters were expected to wear 

valkala garment. It was worn by women while practising penance or visiting 

We have also a reference to a bedding rnade of tree barks.60 It is 

6 1 

stated in the Vumana para% that vatkala-s can be cleaned with water. 

HaQyudha also calls it valka. 62 

vi) Cloth made with some other materials: 

a. Saw: Probably cloth made with hernp is called Sam. In 

Divyhvaduna there is a nmtion of a cloth measuring 36 feet long and about 

64 

24 feet 3 inches wide made of Sarees were also woven with hernp. 

Probably poor fmers put on dhoti-s made of According to Yuan 

66 

Chwang monks used to wear deep red garments made of hemp. 

b. I'halcrka: It is probably a cloth made fi-om fibres of some 

hit. Dr. ~otichandra~~ opines that it was most probably rnade with thin chips 

of a particular kind of timber. It can also mean clothes made with the fibres of 

some fruit.

c. Mufija: Monks, sages rutd ascetics used to put on girdles and 

68 

garments made of muija. MaEja is a kind of long seed used for making 

ropes. 

d. Uurbha: It was a kind of grass which was considered, 

according to Monier Williams, sacred and is also called ~ufa.~' It was used by 

70 

7 1 

monks and ascetics as a gamlent. E3h;ls.a calls these garments kiriucira. 

vii) Otllcr miscellaneous gmmcilts: Here are listed somc of the 

clothes for it is doubthl to concludc with which material they were made of: 

a. Patroma: It is called paplnnu in the Jaina literature and is 

mentioned in thc list of costly varieties of clothes.7z According to Dr. J.C. Jain 

it was made with the fibres of the bark of a In some dictionaries 

pulrorrux is considered a cotton textile, but Dr. Motichandra has expressed 

doubts about the interpretation of the word.I4 According to him patrorF 

variety were named after the regions where they were made (like Maghada, 

Paun&, Sauvarqakla@~ka then, lakt~ci, biikgli etc.,). In the A~nurakoia it 

is called washed silk.75 It is possible that it may have been a wild variety of 

silk. According to Ksirasv2mi, the commentator of Amarakoia, this variety of 

silk was produced by those worms which subsisted on the leaves of va@ and 

lahca The meaning of the word urqa is wool. In the Rgveda sheep is 

77 

called urpzvari. On the basis of this evidence Dr. Gayatri Varma thinks that 

patrorw might have been woollen ~10th.~~ In the M&lavikljgnimitrca we have 

a reference to kauieya-patrorw (Act V). Dr. Gayatri thinks that the phrase 

Kauieya-patror- may mean a beautal and a smooth variety of cloth made 

of mixed yarn of silk and wool of putrorv. According to Monier Williams

156 

79 

pulrorruz was a variety of silk. In the opinion of IIalayudha it is bleached 

silk8' 

b. Dnkula: IlzrktZlu is a tvoven silk garment. In olden times the 

royal flags were nude in dukuiu and omiuku. ,fdankucajya ihe commentator 

ofA~uru%a opined tliat dukulu is a peculiar clotii madc up of Lhc: special 

8 1 

variety of cotton threads produced in Bengal. The iViSithactim?;r?k~r has 

told that dukrlla is made up of the threads produced fro111 the barks of a tree 

called dl,dkrlia.82 We get q 1 e information about dukda in Arthaiiist~a, 

Kautilya says that dukiila made in Bengal were white and soft that of Paup&a 

deia were of deep blue colour and shining, and the same of Sauvcrrwkud)a 

were red in co~our.~~ He has also told that duklila were weaved in three styles 

and they were named after their weaving as ek&?f&ka, aghj~ardhcirizSuka, 

dvyaliliuka and tryalithlka." 

In the Jaina literature dukBla is called dugrilu and it is 

mentioned with other costly varieties of clothes.85 In the Acdn&?tga sritra it is 

86 

stated that the cotton growing in the Arigu country were called as dukala. 

According to Divycivaduna a fine variety of cloth is made by mixing wool with 

the fibres of d~ktila.~~ A variety of cloth dukrila mentioned in the 

89 

,LalitavistarasG was a white cloth made with tlle fibres of dukrila. According 

to Dr. Motichandra, tlie explanaltion of tlie word dukulu given in the 

commentary of NiSZtha ctka~i is correct, which says that for making dukula 

cloth, the bark of the duktila tree is soaked in water and pounded in a mortar to 

separate its fibre. Later these fibres are spun.g0 In the AmarukoSa, dukala is 

given as a synonym of ksauma (linen). B2na has used both the words dzlkda

and dugtila. According to Dr. Aganval both these words were synonyms. 91 

According to Bana, dukfila was made in the country of Puv& (Bengal). 

Baqia mentions many dresses made of duktLla such as rn upper garment, 

sarees, bed sheets, pillow covers et~.'~ Dr. Aganval comes out with a 

farfetched derivation ofthe word dukda. Probably cloth was called as kula in 

the local dialect, or in the primitive language fion~ which is derived the word 

Kolika (weaver). Probably the cloth was brought for sale in two layers so it 

was called dvikda or dz~ktila.'~ 

In the Gupta ,4ge weaving dukiila with the design of 

hamsamirhzrna, in the border was a fashion. Bana says in Kdumbari- that the 

dukda of ~udraka was white like the foam of nectar and its border was 

94 

decorated with the harnsa-mifhuna marked by gorocani. Harsavardhma 

too wore a pair of duk2la with the design of h~7msi~mithuncr when he was 

going to the battle field.95 It is said in Acicrdllgo that the prir of hmsa 

dukrila given to Mahavira by ~3kra was so thin that it could be blown away 

even by a gentle breeze. Any weaver skilled in his profession will appreciate 

its quality. The dukula was weaved along with the threads of Kaldvaifu and it 

is decorated with the design of swan.96 According to the Antoga& daslio, 

97 

costly dresses were given as dowry along with a pair of dukula. 

Kfili&sa also refers to the homsa d~krila.'~ But he did not 

mne~ltion that tither it was single or pair. In Bhafti KUI~CT the word duktZla 

occurs two times. But the references did not show any light to know if it was 

single or double." In Gitagovindo there are some refet-enes about dirklao for

more than lb'our times. There is also a reference of the dual form of usage as 

ciukdu. loo 

From thi: abovc rcl'ircnccs LVC can co~lfinll !hat dtik;lilu was also 

i~sed as a pair - one piece to wear and the another piocc to cover Ihc upper 

portion of the body. Some other dresses were also designed out of duktiln. 

Bana refers to utmriya, sarees, pcrlarigu posa dc., made up of duktila. 101 

In the above discussion we have tried to make out the meaning 

of the word dukula. Keeping in view the great popularity of it, we may 

conclude that the material with which the cloth made was easily available in 

the various forests of India. Illis fine and rxttractive cloth must have been very 

pleasant in the summer season. 102 

There is one more thing to be cl&ed about the word dukula 

that is the later authors and the lexicographers have treated k.pzdn2a and dukGtn 

103 

as synonyms. Amara has sa.id k.yurncim duki2lorn synt. Hal~yldhn, also 

104 

says u'ukularn kqumamiycxte. But actually both were not the same. 

Kautilya has treated both dukula and k~aurna separately. Rana compares the 

whiteness of k+aurna with knrasdgaralo5 and the softness of nrnhka with 

duktila.lo6 Hence it becomes clear that technically there were some minor 

differences between dukula and kpuma. Dukula and kquma both were made 

up of the same material. The only difference between them is - the thicker one 

was k~auma and the thinner one was dukulu. Galapathy Sastry has clearly 

mentioned that the thick dukrila was called as ksaurna. lo7 

Hemacaidra has strived hard enough to solve tlie problem. He 

says utasi - linseed is called as k+xmcS. Halayudha also says : afasb s yd uma

108 

k~umd. The cloth made of k.pmc?. is ksauma. In the same way the cloth 

made from the fibres of k+md is dtcklilc~."~ Sgdhu Sundara Gani has also 

110 

mentioned that the cloth made up of atasi is krlown as dukula. The grass 

namcly kpmd or rrtasE was cultivated in tf~c piu4 of I'aslcm India. DuE:~ikr 

and ksauma must be the products ofthe fibres or threads of these grasses. 

Somadeva has referred to dukeZla many a times in his 

Yaiastilaka b~lt he did not use the word ksauma even a single time. Probably 

even before the time of Somadeva both the words dukela and ksuuma must 

have become synonyms. Hence Somadeva has used the word dakela alone. 

But it is very clear from him that dukda was very much in use up to his time 

(I 0' 43) and it was treated as a majestic and costly dress. 

c. Ksaurna: It is also called as khomiyo."' According to Dr. 

Motichandra it was made with the fibres of the bark of linseed. "3 According 

to Dr. J.C.Jain it is a cotton textile.'l4 It was used for preparing civara, a 

garment for Buddhist monk.'15 According to the explanation given in the 

Niiitha csruni it was made either of the cotton or with the fibres of tree bark 

116 

of a banyan tree. 

2. TYPES OF DRESSES: 

i) Nudity: Halayudha refers to the Buddhist mendicants as 

nagntifa and digvdsas. Regarding the origin of clothing and its development, 

we have no evidence of dress in the sketch of krfa yugu. Like houses and 

dwellings, dresses too had its origin in the Pefu age. This was an age of 

luxuriant vegetation and the trees offered man his requirements of clothes and 

111

ornaments. ' l7 When we come to the chapters on Srddhu we fmd clothes as a 

primary necessity of men. It is stated that without clothes there can be no 

activity, no sacrrfrce, no knowledge of Veda-s, nay penance; so should clothes 

be givcn to hrcihmay on thc time of irrrddtzu as a highly comcn&ble 

118 

act. 

ii) Anmya: The B$af KaEpa SGfra refers that it covered the 

waist and the upper half of the thighs. It was worn while changing garments. 

(It can be compared to our modem tinles towel). Though Hal3yudh.a has 

counted both antorip and nwasnnn as they are ddlierent. I- 

Tsing, the Chinese traveller has given at some Imgth the description of tlle 

layrncn as wcll LL~ of the clergy. Dcscribiilg costu~nc of the clergy of thc 

Mt%lasarvG,~itiv&in school of Buddhism, I-Tsing observes that their costume 

was made up of sornc ar-ticles like antcrnuisa and nivnsunu ctc. Here, I-Tsing 

opines that antarvGsa is an inner garment, whereas nivasana is a lower 

120 

garment. 

iii) Nivasana: I-Tsing int-'oms that the Buddhist of Gupta age 

wore the lower gamed or nivt~sana in four different ways. Halgyudha 

mentions the words like upsakv)%nu, paridh&na and antartya as synonyms 

of nivasana. 122 

iv) Upsasfivysna: It is a kind of lower garment. Somadeva 

refers to upasarizvydna twice ill Yafastiluka. In a pczrtictilar context, a guru 

lalls his ii.9" to tie tl~e god with his r~pusuri7~y&rzino.1z3 Hcre the Sanskrit 

commentator says that upsa?hvy&a means uitariyo In another place 

125 

the Rajumutu is described to be wearing the upasn?izvyuna. Here the 

121

wrntnentator gives 'the tlpsa~vdna is 

as synonpous to paabdhha, antartya and njvasana. 126 

v) Pddhana: It is one another lower garment. Halaymdlra has 

liatcd thia word with ~~~orhv~&o.''~ Amiuauimha ha also (Tcatcd both 

128 

upasa?hvycZna and paridhdna as adhovastra. Mewandra says tbat both 

129 

are lower garments. The Sanskrit commentator of Yaiastilaka has given the 

meaning of adhovastra in one place and uttariya in mother place for the same 

word Amara says upsarhy&a is lower and sa?fwyana is upper garment. 

Probably the commentator should have been confused by these two terms. 

: Dr. J.C. Jain i&om that Jaina mints are 

allowed to use three pieces of cloth as upper ent. They are pracchikiana, 

rqbhara pu, and mukhovastrikd."* 

vii) Mvarqa: It is mentioned in the Arthaiatra in the sense 

131 

of a curtain. In the ~ oh~iva~~a,'~~ it is mentioned that the bhikkus used 

uttar&o@a or mantle. In the ~hikkunipatimokkha'~~ it is described that the 

uttarusariga is worn in different styles such as hastiiau @ka - elephant trunk 

in which the pleated end was made to fall down in the same way as the pleated 

end of the wee of the women of Cola country; in the mafsyavdlaka style the 

long and short borders were pleated in the shape of fish-tail; in the 

catzi&arquku style four ends ofthe garment were shown. This is only possible 

either in the case of uttarksariga or kaiicuka cut at sides. 

viii) Watiya: Habyudha has included uttariya in the group of 

upper garment. The shawl used to cover the upper portion of the body is said 

to be an uftar@a. Arnara has included the word into the group of dresses &ed

134 

to cover. Bu&& mrsnks and nuns mainly wore these gments - satigh&i, 

ontorvlisoko, md uttarrisafiga (ment~e).~~~ In the works of Midasa we have 

m e 

reference to ladies wearing an uttariya. But ladies wearing an 

zltprij,a is generally not in vogue. 

ix) Arcilhowka: In the Mathwa museum an idol of Vigu 

belonging to the Gupta period figures with a petticoat which can be identified 

wiah ardhoruka. This lower garment is transparent and is slicking to the body. 

In some garments of this kind circular designs are shown. This lower garment 

has tied round the waist with the help of a silk doth cded pa&u. It seems that 

is was stitched as a modem lower garment is sewn these days. The only 

difference in a modem lower and ardhoh was that the present 

day's lower garment has a stitched hollow strip ia the upper part wherein a cord 

is passed for tying round the waist. Wle the crrdharuka was kept in position 

round the waisr with the help of a In the Bfiatkolpasrina 

~h@ya,'~* the description of ardhoruka and its mode of wearing are given. It 

covered the avagraha and the pa,@ therefore the whole waist. It was shaped 

like the wrestler's &orts (jiirtghiy4 malla calandkflh) except that its broad 

end was firmly tied between the two thighs (iimdvaye ca kaiuvabaddhah). It 

resembled like the madern lap@. It was mainly used by Jaina nuns. 

In the Har~carita the word CanpZtaka occurs and Cowell has 

translated it as a petticoat139 Amarakoia says that the women's petticoat 

reaching to half the length of the thigh was known as co&tcrk~.~~* 

Halayudha also says that ardhoruka is the dress of women folk also known as 

cag&taka. 14' 

136

x) Kaficuka: It is a type. of mat va has used the word 

entator sf YaSasalaka says that 

Kafimka means ko2rprisaka. But kt;ip&aka is different fi-om kaficuku. The 

lMah1zvuggu mou s should not use the kaf cuka befitting the 

laymen.142 The Bhikhnipotimokkho says that the kaiicuka-s were wan in 

different styles like hasti h u ~ k a in the Sornoyornritlk4 emenha 

observes a typically miser shop-keeper wearing a torn, woollen cckiar over his 

long and thick k~iicuku.'~~ in the ~mara'~' the meaning of a kaficuka is an 

armour. On the basis of its description in various literary works, Dr. Agarwal 

thinks it was a long coat which came down to the feet, had full sleeves and its 

collar was closed in fk~nt.'~~ According to Dr. Motichandra the kaRcuku of the 

waniors was like a modem kurrri - loose upper Dr. Indu Rabha 

Pandey opines that the kaiicuka was worn by bth men and women. The 

kaAcuka worn by women mostly came down to their feet while that worn by 

men came down to a little above the knees. This type of kaAcuku can be seen 

on the ordinary coins of Samudra Gupta. On these coins Samudra Gupta is 

shown wearing half-sleeved kalicuka. 148 

xi) V8rab2na: HalQudha says that both kaficuka and 

vrirablina are synonyms.149 Amamirnha also treats the two words as 

samrin~rfhu?~u-s.~~~ Dr. Aganual thinks that it was a garment of the same kind 

as kalicuka but somewhat shorter in length and came down to the knees. A 

statue made up of marble stone, belong to the 4' cent. AD is found out near 

Kabul. The statue is wearing a long coat which more or less resembles the 

~drobri~.'~~ There is also a toy of Ahicchatra found out wearing s similar 

coat.lS2 But Dr. Agarwal has not clearly stated the difference benveen a

vcZrabdw and a kaficuka. The kdcuka was of many types. Some came 

down to the thigh, others to the knees still others to the calves, still others to 

the heels. Therefore it does not seem proper to distinguish between the 

kaficuka and ~e vdrubup~ on the basis of its length. Dr. Motichandra states 

that a varabaw was made Erom a variety of 40th called stavaraka, which 

were stitched with bunches of pearls.lS3 According to him stnvurnka is a word 

of Pahlavi language which means a wstly On the basis of the 

mention of stavaraka Dr. Motichandra was ofthe opinion that it was not an 

amour made of iron. It was a coat stuffed with cotton which was most 

probably worn to protect the body fiom the attack of sword. In this connection 

we may also mention the views of Dr. Agarwal. He that the over coat in 

the dress of the Sun and his attendant Dq& and Pirigala in the Miithura style 

of sculpture is vkubaya. On the basis of the decoration on the coat of the 

Sun, he was of opinion that it was viirubdv made fkom a variety of cloth 

called stavaraka. 

A h a mideration of the views of Dr. Motichandra and Dr. 

Agarwal it seems proper to come to a conclusion that varubu~ was a 

kcriicuka made fiom a variety of cloth called stavaraka. Probably this kind of 

cloth was used for garments worn in a battle field. For the sake of convenience 

in fighting and to keep the body agile, probably viirab5q.u was comparatively 

a close fitting gment. It might have been either closed or open in front, and 

sometimes with full sleeves and the other times with half sleeves. 

The reference to v&abdw is very less in Sanskrit literature. 

Kaufilya has included vdrabdy with woollen dresses.154 IGli&sa describes 

that the soldiers of Raghu were wearing the v~rab liw-s. 155 Malliniltha gives 

the meaning of vlirnb5~ as koiic~ka.'~~ Baqa has mentioned that some of

165 

the kings in the army were wearing ~rirabri~-s.'~~ The body guard of 

Dadhici was also wearing a white vdrablina. '58 Bgqa has also refmed about 

varubup in Kaumbari. When Candrapi& started for hunting he wore a 

159 

varubay. ARer returning &om hunting, he seated on the seat brought by 

his servants, removed his varabaw. 160 

From the above reference, it can be known that the v&ubdy 

was not only used as an amour, but also as an ordinary wear. According to 

Kau~ilya vurabc2.w was made in wool also. It is very difficult to find out 

when the dress would have been known or introduced to India. But fiom the 

reference available, one thing is certain that vdrabdw was in use in the royal 

houses and just like kaiicuka, vrirabap was also worn by both men and 

women. It can be assumed &om the meagre reference of vdrabupa in Sanskrit 

literature that it was used by royal personalities alone. It is possible that, as it 

was too expensive, it was not in use among ordinary people. 

xii) Nivi: The one among the three garment. worn generally 

during vedic age is nivi. It is a loin cloth or a piece of cloth tied round the 

waist like a dhoti. Both men and women wore this garment. Dr. Motichandra 

also opines that ntvE is a kind of under garment used by vedic Indim. He also 

opines further that nivi and paridhdna probably consisted of simple apron 

worn by the men and women alike. The nEvi has been explained by Sucar as 

wider border of the cloth. He also gives the origin of the word nivi &om the 

Tamil word 'ney' to weave.l6l But Halayudha says that nivi means the knot 

which fastens the lower garment round the loins. 162 

xiii) Niwlaka: Sometimes it was called as Cinnacolaka. On the 

basis of its literal meaning of the word Dr. ~~arwal'~~ has connected this

garment with China. It was worn over all other garments such as a tunic. It 

has been identified with the garment carved on an image of Kani~ka, in the 

Mathura which belongs to the Kyn~a period According to Dr. 

Aganval this gannent was worn in the Kusaqa period and it continued to be 

worn even in the Gupta period. According to Dr. Motichdra it must have 

been a fblI sleeve coat stuffed with cotton which is worn even up to the present 

day in the Central Asia. It should have been worn over other garments like a 

tunic. Indian soldiers have worn this garment in the 7" Cent. AD. Halayudha 

has given the meaning of nicoiaka as a jacket.165 Amara gives the meaning of 

166 

nicola as a pracchadapap i.e. coverlet. JQirasv8rni has also explained it 

clearly that nicolo is that spread on the bed etc. 167 $abdararn&ara also gives 

the five words nicoli, rzicuiaka, nicoiu, nicoli and nicula in the sense of a 

168 

coverlet. There is a reference of nicula in the beautiful description in 

Yaiastilaka. The black-clouds were spread over the earth as if a black cloth 

169 

was spread on the earth. So it can bc unde&ood that nicolaka means bod1 

the jacket and bed-spread. 

xiv) Kurpasaka: Both men ad women wore this garment. The 

1 70 

Kurpdsaka worn by males were like half sleeved coats stuffed with cotton. 

Dr. Agarwal has pointed out two special features of this gannent. It came 

down only upto the waist and was generally without hll sleeves. No doubt it 

must have been called as kzirpusaka because the sleeves came only upto the 

elbows. It is considered to be a garment which was originally worn in Central 

Asia. This was brought to India by Uzgar Turks and Hunas who had settled in 

Chinese, Turkistan before they came to 1ndia.17' HalQ~dha treats both 

172 

kurpusaka and nicolaka as synonyms.

xv) Avika: It is a woollen garment. It is men~oned in the 

SabhZparva that Yu+@a was presented with woollen cloth-avika, 

manufactured fiom the soft wool of the sheep.'73 The earliest reference to 

uvika is found in the vedic literature. The wool was obtained from the sheep 

(avi) for spinning and weaving. So it is called as ri~ika.'~~ The ArthaS'sfro 

of Kautilya refers that the woollen fabrics (avika) were usually made of 

sheep's wool and were either plain white, deep red, or light red. 175 Halsyudha 

simply mentions that it is a type of woollen garment. 176 

xvi) Rallaka. In Kavy~~mimcZmsa, it is described -that the 

women of LampGZka wore their hair fiee and their dresses were made of thick 

woollen cloth (rollakam u ~ l a ~ ~ ~ ~ Ra11ak.a y a n means ~ ~ ) a . kind ~ ~ of ~ wild 

goat. The blanket made up of its wool is also known as rallaka. Somadeva, 

while describing the jungle refm to the rallaka goats being disturbed by a 

Amara says that rallaka is a type of kmbala (woollen cloth).179 

During the time of Yuan Chwang, the Chinese traveller, the rallaka was very 

common among the people. He has mentioned about 'Hulul;I1Z ' or 'Rallaka' in 

lris work as follows - the rullaka is made om the wool of some wild animal 

and this dress was quite expensive.180 Somadeva has clearly mentioned in 

another place that the woollen blanket was made h m the wool of rallaka 

goats and were used in the cold season.181 HalGyudha treats rivika, aurcrbhra, 

rallaka, u rw. and kum bala all synonyms, meaning a woollen blanket. 182 

. wii) Kambala: It is mentioned in the Athorva ~eda.'*~ It 

formed part of the ordinary domestic outfit of men and women. Hahyudha has 

1 84 

counted it under the category of woollen garment.

It is the basic tendency of human beings in all ages and climes 

to arrange their hair in one way or the other. The practice of hair dressing was 

in vogue from very early times as is evident from the antiques unearthed from 

the Harappa and Mohenjadaro. These antiques reveal that men had varied 

style of hair dressing Their hair was taken back &om the fore head and was 

either cut short behind or coiled in a knot or a chignon at the back with a fillet 

to support it. 186 

In the vedic period men wore their hair long or short according 

to the fashion or pleasure. In the Pgveda reference has been made to Vasigha 

having long hair, braided and coiled on the right lg7 Further, Gods Rudra and 

Pusqa have been described as arranging their hair in the fonn of a conch- 

shell.lH8 In the time of Rgvedo women dressed their hair in braids, so did 

men. 18' The Gjtyastitra-s, however, contain two sothskoro-s (the 

cu&arman and the goduna) which give numerous prescriptions regarding 

the arrangement of the hair. 190 

The ArthaSGstra of Kaufilya goes a long way in supplementing 

the history of hair-dressing by men. Kautilya says that a man with shaven head 

or braided hair desirous of earning is a spy under disguise of an ascetic.1g1 He 

has mentioned the term Kapalaka which probably corresponds to the barber 

class.192 This m8y indicate that 'to have hair mts' was considered as an item of 

personal decoration. Manu and Y2jfiavakya says that snataka-s are allowed

to keep long and beautihl hair, while elaborate fashion of hair-dressing was 

known among laymen. 193 

Pataiijali, the author ofhluhiibhd~ya has given some details of 

the ways in which the people dressed their hair during his time. It was arranged 

with a parting line in the middle and the mass of hair was gatfiered logether at 

the back and plaited into one or two long rolls hanging down as low as the 

waist or twisted and tied into a large knot at the back.Ig4 In the Raghuvaliria, 

Kali&sa has alluded to the hair dressing by the term Sikh& which was probably 

locks of hair coiled on the apex of the head. lg5 Kdi&sa probably refers to the 

top-knot fashion by his time. He has also mentioned the tenns sihan&vo196 

and k&~~ak~a'~~ probably corresponds to the hair in locks resembling the 

wings of a raven. This type of hair style was popular among chldren. This 

shows that during the time of mlidiisa it was the practice among men to have a 

tuft of hair which, if long, was tied with a tape. Boys also wore long hair in 

locks. 

The Amarakoia, also adds some information regarding the 

method of hair arrangement. Different terms are used to denote different types 

of hair-style such as cikura, kuntala, keh, kaca etc. The mop of curled halr 

has been alluded to by the terms Kaiiika and Kaijla. Curled locks have two 

designations as ataka (curled locks) and cww kuniala (curly ringlets), the 

latter being the favourite practice of hair-dressing in this period. The fore lock 

or the lock of hair falling on the forehead has been alluded to by the term 

iikhanhku. Sikha or hair-lock worn by men at the top of the head has been 

198 

described by the terms cu& and keiupasi;

The practice of arranging the hair prevalent in the Gupta period 

must have continued to survive in the succeeding periods. This fact may bz 

corroborated by the literary accounts of fie post Gupta period. Baqa has 

furnished many interesting infomations as regar& the hair dressing of the 

P 99 

males and females. As regards the arrangement of the hair by the males, he 

says that, Bhanl~, the brother of the Queen Yaiovati had side locks of curly 

hair at the rge of eight. The chiefs who had come to visit Harsa had peacock's 

feather stuck in the top-knot. In the Kdambari, Miitarigaka, the Sabara chief 

had thick locks curled at the end and hanging on his shoulden. The hair of the 

king bristled like an array of arrow-heads shot out in hundred to lighten him for 

hy.200 Bans hrther says that the students wore long trofts of hair.'" Children 

probably wore matted hair.202 

Yuan Chwang on refering to the customs of non-believers, 

relates how some pull out their hair and cut off their moustaches, some mat 

their side hairs and made a top knot wilUZo3. 

The above literary accounts test@ to the practice of adorning 

the hair and arranging it in different ways. 

2. FEMALE HAIR-DRESSING: 

The appearance and attractiveness of women depend very much 

on their hair and the style in which they arrange and adorn it. In fact there is a 

hair style to suit every age and every face and a beautifid hair style enhances 

the beauty. It appears fkom the antiques of the Indus valley that the females 

were very fond of arranging their hair in different ways. But according to 

~acka~:~~ more is known of the styles of hair dressing by the men than of

those in vaogue among wornen, for the head dress worn by the female figurines 

prevent their hair i?om being seen. 

In the vedic period women dressed their hair in various ways as 

is evident fiorn the literature. It Ins been dcscribcd by the terms stuka, kurira, 

op& iiad kakardrdo.205 These terms probably denote different styles of hair 

dressing. Young ladies probably dressed tlleir hairs in four braids of kaparda-s 

which dangled at the back. In the opaia style the hair was arranged in a loose 

topknot, but A.C.D~S~O~ has identified it with the plaits used in dressing the 

hair especially of the women. Patafijali also conforms that the arrangement of 

207 

the hair was not so simple. He says that it was parted in the middle or the 

rnass of the hair was gathered together at the back and plaited into one or two 

long rolls hanging down as low as the waist, He also says that some times it 

was twisted and tied into a large knot at the back of the head. 

?'hc Nu@uStistru also co~fimq that proper attention was given 

by women towards arranging their hair.''* It is mentioned there that women 

arranged their tufts of hair in well drawn up positions. Regarding the female 

209 

hau dressing Glidisa says that women grew long hair; combedz1* and 

parted211 and then ht them in long They wore flowers, pearls and 

gems in their iong hanging tresses and on the p&g line.213 It is mentioned in 

the Meghadiita that the separated wives neither coiled nor combed their hair 

nor did they undo their tresses in order to knot them afresh which consequently 

grew rough and dry.214 In times of mourning also they did not comb their hair. 

They tied their tresses in one knit and put it at the top of the head, and it was 

called ikhikhci or cli&.215 They also knit the mass of hair in a single long braid, 

- 216 

technically known as ekavent. It was probably a simple style of arranging

their hair which was worn at the time of sorrow as well as the ple~re.~~~ in 

the ,$ci~unlula, it is mentioned that ~akunta~ appeared before the kmg with a 

218 

single braid, \vl~ili: in the Rlusuri~hhra, a wife sepw:itited from her husband 

719 

has been described as wearing ekaveni.- Probably the chief element in 

women's glory lay in dark and glossy locks hanging down to the hip,220 which 

may be proved by the fact that the poet refers to it more than once and uses it 

in simile. 

In the ~ ndambarc~~ Blna has mentioned the tying of the 

hair. Besides this he has mentioned that hair net was also used by the females 

222 

to make it more attractive. The hair was sleeked with oil and a thick bunch 

of flowers were used on the top. 223 

Thus it appears that various types of lkair dressing was known to 

the people of this period. Hence it may be suggested that people of this period 

showcd much intcrcst in decorating tllcir hair in diKercnt ways. Majurndar, has 

rightly observed that particularly women took more care for their hair 

dressing.224 Other learned historians like G.H. 0jha2" and C.V. ~ a i d ~ a 

have also opined that people during the period 6" -1 zLb cen. AD used to give 

special attention to hair dressing. 

There are some interesting references about the keia-vinyasa in 

the ARM. Haliiyudha mentions the following words keSa, Sirasrjh; murdhuja, 

koca, cikura, .firomha and vda, to denote the hair.227 Mer bathing the hair 

will be dried by the fragrant smokes. Then it will be arranged or decorated 

with fiagrant oil, sprouts, flowers etc. The decorated hair lock had different 

names according to their style of arrangement. Veni; dhammilla, kuntala and

kavart were the bandha viiesa-s mentioned by Hal2yudha. The mode of 

arranging hair is quite interesting in the research point of view. 

At frrst, the wet hair aRer bath will be dried with the fragrant 

smokes. mlidasa has described about the drying procedure. While drying the 

hair in smokes, the fragrance will pass into the hair. Kali&sa refers to the hair 

dried in smokes as liiycina - beautified.228 Since the hair is scented by the 

smokes, it is called as ~ihii~avlira.~~~ Ths method is known as ke3a 

230 

saniskGra. The heroincs of Blicbsa, sitting on the ups~irs, near the 

windows used to dry their hair, and from the smokes escaping out of the 

windows, the people passing through the'house will easily infer that a certain 

ndyikd is doing keia sn~kskrira.~~' After this keia sathskriro the hair lock is 

arranged in different styles. IIal2yudha refers to some hair styles prevalent in 

his time. 

i) Kuntala: It is a type of arranging the lock of hair.z32 It is also 

known as kuntala kaldpa. Kaldpa means both a peacock and a multitude. 

The word kalapa in kuntala kalupa has got the suggestion of the above said 

meaning. Arranging the hair, to appear beautifully as the feathers of peacock is 

known as kuntala kaldpa. According to McZnascEra, kuntala style of hair 

dressing will be done to the images of Goddesses LAqmi and ~arasvati."~ 

ii) Dhammilla: It is another type of hair style. According to 

Arnara the lock of hair combined collectively as a single braid is known as 

dhamrni~la.~~~ This type of hair style is adopted by both men and women. 

Men's hair style is called mauli and that of women's is called dhammi2lu. The 

hair will be collected and grouped, then it will be tied with wreath of flowers. 

Flowers are also kept inside the lock of hair. Glidiisa mentions about this in

the ~a~huvalizsc~.~~~ Bgga refers to the release of the knot of hair. This art of 

dhummilla vinydsa can be seen in the Ajmha paintings. There are several 

types of dhammilla vinyaa-s are figured in the toys of Rajghat. Ths hair 

style is also figures in the stone image of Gupta period. 236 

There are also hvo more varieties of hair dressing is mentioned 

in the ARM. They are veni or ve?zidun& and kavar~~~~ Tying the lock of 

hair in a single knot is called veni. KavarE is the arrangement of hair in a 

simple style. 

111. COSMETICS 

It is the basic tendency of human being in all ages and climes to 

use cosmetics and to decorate one self in a way or other. ff a man of present 

day decks himself with various means of cosmetics and clothing in connection 

to his civilization and culture so did, the man of stone age, decorate himself 

with a feather into his hair, as his possessions were limited and whose main 

profession was hunting. 

In the Indus valley civilization, the finds of 'Kohl' - (collyrium) 

pots iud vases reveal the tnitll that kohl was applied to the lashes, eye-lids, the 

part immediately below the eye-brows. It was applied for both beautifjrlng and 

auspicious purposes as it was and is used by some sections of the Indian people 

to guard against thc evil-eye at marriages and other rituals. 

Cosmetics played an important part in the rituals while they 

also satisfied the variety of men and women by adding charm to their 

personality, increasing their natural beauty by artificial means. This is the 

purpose of various recipes and formulas for cosmetics in ancient India.

In the hdus valley civilization which flourished at the most 

conservative estimate about 2500 years before the Christian era, ornaments 

have been found; gold, silver, copper, ear rings, nose studs of blue glaze and 

bracelets of metals, shell and pottery. Hair pins, combs and mirrors are the 

important articles of proof for the make-up and the arrangements of coiffures. 

Bath farmed a very important part of the daily routine of the 

vedic people, and one cannot take part in religious ceremonies before bodily 

purification. In the ,.fatapatha Brdhihmaw it is mentioned that after the bath, 

eyes and feet were anointed because, 'such indeed are human means of 

embellishment and therewith they keep off death fiom therare~ves'.~~~ 

Atharvaveda offen information of ointments being presented to the brides239 

and lo thc guests.24o 

An interesting description ofthe costumes and cosmetics of a 

housc Ilolder is give11 in thc A.+a/uyuna g$ya stitra in connection with the 

equipment of a brahrnacarin, when aRer finishing his studies he was ready to 

take leave of his teacher. Ai that time he was equipped with a jewel, necklace, 

a wreath, a pair of ear ring, a pair of garments, a turban, a parasol, a pair of 

shoes and a staff As regards cosmetics he had powder prepared fiom karafiju 

seeds, ointment and eye-sa1ve.241 Scents were favourites of women. In an 

incantation to sleep, in the Athawaveda, the women of pure odour 

242 

(pu yagandaya fz) are mentioned. 

?'he most important section fiom the point of view of cosmetics 

and articles of pelfume is to be found in the KauGlya'~ ~rthoidstra.~~~ It 

mentions a list of varieties of sandal wood as follows:

Satana - 11 smels like the earth aRer the rain had fallen. 

GoSir~aka 

- Dark red in colour; smels like a fish. 

Haricanclana - Fine old wood; greenish yellow in colour. 

Ttirpisu - Same as above. 

Grameruka - Red or dark red; sniels like goat's urine. 

Daiisasabhayaka - Red colour; smels llke lotus flower. 

Japaka - The same as above. 

Jorigaku - Red or dark red; soR in structure. 

TaurGpir - Same as above. 

Malaynka - Reddish white in colour. 

Kucandana - Black as aloe; red or dark red, very rough. It 

seems to be the true sandal wood. 

Koiakiiraparvataka - Black or variegated black in colour. 

Kalapawataka - It has a pleasant appearance. 

Sitodakiya - Black and so&, smelt like a lotus. 

Nagapawutaku - Product of the mountain of the same name. 

was rough and had the colour of Saivdla. 

jdcala - It was brown coloured. 

The majority of the Indians used twigs obtained from babul, 

neem or some other trees. Tooth powders and pastes must have also been used, 

as several have been prescribed in the Indian books of medicine. According to 

SuSruta the best tooth pate was obtained from honey, trika~, trivarga, 

fejovati, salt and oil. 244 

In Kdambart, Ba~a describes the King ~~draka who &r 

bathing in pefimed water, worshipped the deities and then proceeded to the 

toilet room (vilepana bhumi) where he besmeared his body with sandal paste

mixed with musk, camphor and Even, when king Harsa started for 

battle, anointed his body and his bow with sandal paste, put a chaplet of white 

flowers on his head and drew to the regiola of krs ear a fresh gorocanu spotted 

durva sprout.246 

~al~yudha~~~ refers to some ofthe materials used as make-up 

elements. Kz~hb~ma, candana, kastiiriku, karpura, agaru, farnbtiia, 

a7igarciga, alaktaka and afijana are the chief articles of decoration to adorn 

oneself After a bath the body of a person was perfumed by some modes called 

248 

carck or marsti. The ornaments are worn on appropriate places. 

Mewards the forehead is decorated with tiiaka or pun&~.z4' Then 

patravalli, a patch of musk and other ointments with which women adorn their 

person, are painted on shoulders, breasts and on At last afigarrigq 

different unguents used for perfuming the body, is applied.25 The art of make- 

252 

up is called pras&dhana. Sometimes, they also used ornaments of flowers, 

leaves md sprouts. 

IV. BaVAMENTS 

Human mind has always been a worshipper of beauty since pre- 

hstoric period. It is human nature to discover new things and present in an 

attractive and usehl manner. All the attractive forms of nature must have 

given an impetus to the development of man's desire for wearing ornaments. 

Most probably man started wearing ornaments with a view of increasing beauty 

but in course of time the practice was also associated with the utilitarian 

aspects. With the passage of time there were many changes in ornaments. No 

doubt the metals, jewels and stones which were used for making ornaments 

changed but there were many notable clianges in their foms and designs as

well. The artists while making ornaments make the best of their imagination to 

display their art at it? best. This results in changes in their ornamentation. 

These changes in the art of malung ornaments can be clearly noticed from 

various sources of 'Indi~m History'. 

It is a controversial question when man begun to wear 

ornaments and whether the tradition of wearing ornaments is earlier than that of 

wearing garments or vice-versa. Most probably man began to wear ornaments 

even in the pre-historic times and most probably man adopted both the 

practices i.e, wearing garments and ornaments simultaneously. 

In India the earliest authentic evidence of the practice of 

wearing ornaments is available in the Itldus valley civilization. A perusal of 

the art of making ornaments of this period makes us infer that long before this 

civilization the tradition of wearing ornrunetlts had started. Probably first of all 

men must have begun wearing ornaments made of flowers, feathers of birds, 

beads, bones, conch sl~ells and horns of animals. 

We havc some idea of the art of making ornmnents in the Iildus 

valley period fiom the images and the ornaments discovered in the excavations 

at Mohenjadxo and Harappa. Most of the ornaments were made of gold or 

silver in which were inlaid precious and semi-precious jewels and beads or 

piece of stone. 

From thc vedic literature we how the names af ornaments 

worn by India* in that period.253 At some places we also have informixtion 

about the shape of the ornament. 

In the epics are mentioned a number of ornaments of that 

period. The materials used for nuking ornaments were gold, silver, brass, 

254 

pearls, coral, diamonds, small shell and some times iron was also used.

People even in the sixth cat. B.C. were fond of wearing 

ornaments. In the Buddhist literature, we find the names of many ornaments. 

On the basis of the description of these omancnts is Buddhist literature we can 

say that the art of making ornaments was fiilly developed in this period. 

Man has always been in love with ornaments. The jewellers 

with their power of imagination have been providing variety and beauty to the 

ornatnents. It is dficult to identlfL all the ornaments used in the ancient time. 

But man has been wearing these ornaments in various parts of his body not 

only with a view of making them look beautifbl but also in compliance with the 

requirements of Indian religious beliefs. hi the following pages, a humble 

effort has been taken to identlfji the ornaments nlentiotled in the ARM. 

1. NeA'TEKIALS OF JEWELS: 

Ornaments cm be regarded as a symbol of man's attachment to 

the material world. A man wears ommerits to satisfy his natural instinct 

which makes lzim take steps by which he rnay look beautifid. People of lower 

economic slaius satisfy this instinct by making omLvnents only with beads of 

clay and conch shells. On the contrary the people with higher economic status, 

in addition to the ornaments made with aforesaid material, wore those made 

with precious metals like gold, silver etc., inlaid with precious grms such as 

diamonds, emerald, sapphire and adorned with beautifill ornamentation. The 

ornaments made of flowers were popular with men and women of all 

categories. Tlie tradition has come to us from very ancient times. From a 

study of the literary sources of ancient India it appears that ornaments were 

made with the following materials. 

i) Gold: Gold is a precious, lustrous, yellowish and beautxful 

metal. This metal has been used in India for making ornament3 since very 

ancient times. In the Amarkoiu we havc a list of eighteen synonyms of gold 255

and the gold ornaments are called ~nigi and ~anakarn.'~~ The scissors which 

was used to cut pieces of gold was called kypnni or karturi. 257 

ASvagliosa considers gold to bc tlic pu~cst and tllc bcst of all 

258 

metals. References to gold ornaments are met in plenty in the works cf 

Bhasa, K2lid$sa, Magha etc. It was a precious ~r~etal. It might, therefore, have 

been used by people of high economic sL~tus. According to Yuan Chwxng the 

business magnets wore finger lings made of gold. 259 

From the ancient literature we know that kings, emperors and 

the rich used gold utensils for eating food. Chain, seats and beds were also 

261 

made of gold or they were gold plated.260 Pitchen, pestles, yokes, 262 

pi~arsZ63 and coins264 were also made of gold. There is a reference in 

Kumurasambhava 6-om whch we know that seveii sages (sapfarig) had worn 

gold ornaments.265 The horn of the cows were also plated with gold.266 

From the Sivi Jatciku we know that gold was given in 

charity.267 The business of goldsmith was flourishing because people were fond 

of gold ornaments. From the Buddhist literature we know that five hundred 

gold smiths continuously worked all the twenty four hours for four months 

before they could complete the work of making ornaments for a lady named 

There is a reference to i~dgi konaku variety of gold in the 

~ddambari.~~~ This variety has also been mentioned in Amorakoio. Thus 

there is atnple evidence to show that people were very fond of gold ornaments 

from the ancient time itself. 

270 

It may be mentioned in this connection that Kaufilya 

mentioned five varieties of gold and has also specified their colours.

1. Jam bunada: It's colour was similar to that of'the h it of rose apple 

(black- plum). It was excavated in tllehferu mountai11 region. 

2. Scirulcum b ha: Its colour resembled the colour of the pollen of lotus 

Ilowcr. It wns excavatcd in thc ,

precious gems and jewels.'73 Tlie middle class people used silver for making 

274 

ornaments. Just as people gave gold in charity so they did silver. 275 

Besides the word raj~~fa, r@ya was also used for silver.276 The AmarukoSa 

gives five synonyms of silver namely 1) duvurym, 2) rajatam, 3) rGpyam, 4) 

khurjurclun and 5) S V ~ / U I ~ . C S ~ ~ or11iioic11ts 

C S 

etc., were also made of silver 

277 278 

;md coins, n~ir.r.or-s ;iild .jars 

~au~il~a'~~ mentions fom variety of silver namely - 

1. Tmlttadgata: Its colour resembled that of Jasmine flower. It was 

excavated fiom the Tu ttu tllou~ltain region. 

2. Gau@ka: Its colour was equal to that of tagara flower. It was 

found in Assam. 

3. K'dm buka: Its colour also resembled the flower of tcrgara. It was 

excavated from the region of Kd~n bu mountain. 

3. Cdkrav~laiiza: Its colour- was similar to that ofKunda flower. It 

was cxcnvatcd from the ccrkrnvaln mines. 

%kite, smooth and soft silver was considered the best. Black 

coarse silver with cracks was regarded worst. Haliiyudha me~~tltions four words 

to denote the silver.28D 

iii) Pearl: Pearl has been used for making ornament in India 

since very ancient times. The pearls were con~idered more useful for making 

neck ornaments than for other From a perusal of sculptures of 

the Kusaqa a ~d Guph periods it cat1 bc stated hat Ihe coxntnon practice was to 

thread the pearls in a string or wire and wear it as a neck ornament. A gasland 

282 

made of good quality pearls was called tdr&hdra.

Pearls were also used to decorate fbrnitures such as a wooden 

seat, umbrella283 or the handle of a sword.284 A pearl was also known as 

S&i and muktuphalu. The necks of elephants were also decorated with the 

285 

garlands of pearls. The pearl is regarded as having originated from a 

286 

mountain rock. AmarkoSa informs about the drills used for piercing hole in 

a pearl, namely risphopni or vnidhanikci. Z87 Halsyudha gives two words for 

a pearl. 288 

iv) Stiryakiinta: The gem siiryakantu is mentioned with other 

precious gems ir. the Jaina literature.289 According to ASvaghoga, the gem 

produced fire of fire1 and the Sun rays were brought together through this 

gem.2go 11 is not possible to identify such a gem in modern times. Scientifically 

the existence of such a gem is not i~npossible because if a lence or curved gem 

is placed in front of the Sun at a particular angle, fire can be produced. 

~autil~a~~' has called this gem, a kind of'crystd gem (sphogku). 11 is possible 

that t hs gem was prepared by having curves in various ways. The synonyms 

292 

llkc ark%~na rind dahanopala mentioned by Haliiyudha lu-e note worthy. 

v) Sph3ika: It is a crystal gem. It is a colourless, transparent 

295 

gem. It was used for making ornaments,293 staircase$g4 begging bowls 

decorating buildings296 etc. Kautilya has mentioned four varieties of this 

H~al2yudha has treated it as a synonym of siiryakrinta gem. 298 

vi) Vaidurya: It is considered one among the nine precious 

299 

gems. In the Sara ~ktaka~" its colour is said to be blue, and in the 

~ratjmlincifnka~~' its colour is said to be dark (Syrimn). Besides its use in

302 

ornaments it was also used in making feet of a bed-stead etc. Kau~ilya has 

given a detailed account of tlds gem.303 Haljyudha calls it also as 

304 

bal~vayyfu. 

vii) Marakata: It is also one among the nine The 

Ama~.akoSu gi.ves thee other synonyms of -&his word as murzitrnata, 

airnagarbha and h~zrinrna~i.~" 63na has also referred to tlis gem at many 

places. Its colour is said to be green. Halayudha nmes it iza~inmcr?d denoting 

its green colour. 307 

viii) Diamond: In the Amara it is called ratna and rna~zi. It was 

considered as precious as any other gem. Bana rnentioi~s a room inlaid with 

diamonds. '" Kaultily a gives a ddailed account of this log HalByudha 

also mentions the terms rutna and ma%. 310 

ix) Padmaruga: According to Kau~ilya it rcsernbled a variety 

of lotus called padma.311 It was red in colour and was used in ornaments as 

my other gem. It was also !mown as Son&51zd. 

312 

x) Saikllrt : In the literary works we do have many references to 

313 

the ornaments made of conch shells. Probably people with Ijrnited economic 

means used these ornaments. It is also possible that even the rich might 11a.ve 

worn ornaments made of conch shells for a change. Halayudha also mentions 

xi) Iron: Probably the pcople of limited ecoiiomic means must 

have used ornaments made of iron. It is also probable as in rnodern times, 

people might have worn iron ornaments to protect thernselves from various

misfortunes. From Bgna we how that an ascetic named ~aivncar~a wore a 

conch shell threaded in an ir~n-rin~.~" Halayudha refers eight different words 

3 16 

to mean the iron. 

xii) Flower Ornaments: It is vety popular in Indian Society. 

Kings and poor, nzen md women all were equally fo'und of wearing flower 

ornaments. Probably flower ornmnents must have been so popular because 

they could be worn always in new designs and ways. On the contrary the 

ornaments made of precious metals, gems and other substances cannot be made 

in different designs so easily. It was for this reason that flower ornaments of 

various designs contiliued to be popular for so long. The fashion of wearing 

garlands of flower appears to have been very popular with the Rgvedic 

317 

Arym. From the words of Bh2sa, IGli&sa, M2gha, and Ba~a it can be 

bown that the ornaments made of flowers were won1 in all parts of the body 

from feet to the head. 

These ornments werc n-ladc with flowcrs like voscrnl~, i~'~ridrl, 

kurcrvuka, kumula, manddra, nameru, Icar+lkWra, sindhuv&-a, kesara, 

parpita, Grip, lodhru, kudarnba, malati, uioka etc. In addition to all these 

flowers, s~ndl leaves, sprouts, stalks of gasses and clusters of blossom of 

various bees were also won1 as omments. 

3 18 

There is a reference in the Pc~~lmcryrGZzhfluiccr that a wonla11 

decorated her hair with flowers of -\:dsanli, ~ C ~ L M and ~ U k~rravaka. In the 

Meghduta it is stated that in the Alakapurz, women had lotus flowers in their 

hands to play; they used kunda flomlcrs to decorate their hair, powder of lodhra 

to beauti& their fdces, used kurcrvuku lo decorate their coiffires, used 6rZu 

flo~ier as an ear ornament and in parting of their hair they used kadhmba

flower which bloomed on the arrival of their beloved.319 Ornaments made with 

tender leaves were also very popular. Kalidasa has stated that in the spring 

season, not only the flowers of aioka tree excited the lovers for sexual pleasure 

but also the tender leaves of that tree worn as ear rings by their sweet hearts 

320 

also generated amorous feelings in the hearts of pleasure seeking gentlemen. 

B2na states that the tender leaves of the dBrva grass in the ears of king Harsa 

resembled an ear ring made of emerald (marakafoTZ1 Flower ornaments were 

also worn at the time of marriage. It is stated in the Narsacarita that 

Orahavanni wore a garland of rnallika flowers on his head, nuptial head dress 

made of flowers in the centre and the vaikak~kzr (a garland won1 in tlie 

manner ofa sacred thread) made offlorvers on his chest.32z 

A bird's eye view of the literary refkrences quoted above makes 

us conclude that jewels, gems and other substances were widely used for 

making ornaments by the people in that period. 

Halayudha gives some valuable information regirding flower 

ornaments prevailed in his time. The flower garland is known as mulu or 

sr&323 The wreath of flower worn on the lock of hair is called garbhaka.324 

If the wreath is fastened to the look on the crown and hrther hanging down 

with the braid of hair, it iq grabhraS&kii.325 A wreath of flower worn on the 

forehead is named as lalcimoka.326 The vaikak;~ is a garland ww-n scarf-like 

327 

in the same way as the upav$ta, across the chest. A garland worn round the 

328 - 

neck is termed as pralambaka. Apt& is a chaplet worn on the crown of the 

head.329 Flowers, sprouts and some leaves were also worn on the ear.330 Apart 

from flower, leaves and sprout, the red lac called ahktu was also produced 

33 1 

from some trees and were used to dccorate the Feet.

2. TYPES OF ORNAMENTS : 

Probably wearing or~~ments has played at1 inlportant role in 

increasing the beauty of human beings. The different types of ornan~ents worn 

in thc various parts of t11c batly citn bc classified ns hcad omiullcnts, ciu 

ornaments etc., Here an effort is made to identity and study the on~aments 

mentioned by HalByudha. 

i) Head Ornament: The habit of wearing liead ornaments is 

very old and it can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization. Most of the 

figures of Indus valley period have high fan-like head-dress on the head and in 

some cases broad ribbon like ob-jects are shown around the lower parts of the 

head dresses. Other types such as 'V' shaped ornaments are also noticed on the 

forehead or some of the l~u~le figures found tiom Mohelljodaso. 'i'he hair 

333 

pins have also been found which might have been used by women. 

We have no evidence from the Rgveda whether the people used any head 

ornaments such as a crown or a turban. The iutapotha B~ahihmapa describes 

lllclra~i as weari~lg 

332 

334 

lJle usrLr.!n as her head-dcss. Ciods mid men li-ow the 

Barhwt sculptures wore mostly the turbans and not the jewelled crowns,335 and 

the same can be said from the evidence of Sanchi The 

Nagarjn~zakonda sculptures of about the second century A.D. shows that in tlie 

South India of that period, turbans formed the most cornmoll head dress for 

Inen but here we find the wearing of crowns coming illto practice especially by 

337 

princes. Halayudha has also included USTL~W into the head ornament 

category. 338 

The use of head ornaments has been attested to by Panini who 

has alluded it to by the term lailipk~Z.kr~ Various types of head ornaments worn

y both men atld women are referred to in the ~d~yo~cisra;~~~ they are 

muJzm@, ma&, kzri~, czidumapi, Sirsajda, SikhzpGtra, rnuktajda, 

gcrvdk~ukt7, ver~ikuZjc~, si'khapuiu, Sikh&j&la, pinqkputra, vczrtulala~ik& and 

lal6ipkntild-o. K2lidast-i has menlioned ns many of three types of head 

ornaments and had alluded to it by the term cr,i&nzani, kapulama* and 

inri/~.~~' Cli&maru and Kaprilamn@ were worn on the forehead and 

correspond to djildem, wlds the kirtg cor~esponds to the cro\vn was studded 

with jewels. According to ~ lidisa~~~ only two types of head ornaments were 

worn by women and they are rnukt@iinla and rndlya. Mukfujdla was a net of 

pearls while mdya was worn on the bun or knot of the hair. ~2gha~" has 

frequently mentioned about mukufa which was made up of gold and was beset 

344 

with prccious gcms. l3;irja has dcs~ribcd ttlc licad orl~amcnls by lhc tcrnis 

ctZ@rna@, laldtikli, mnuktikn, ~nukutcr, Siroruhn and marigdlthara?zcl. , 

Cu&ma@, Kirip, Ko#ira, U.t:tisn uid hhhp were the head ornaments 

345 

meiltioned by I-Ialiiyudlia. The It?rir&z, ko@~'cr a11d mukup are one and Ihe 

But Somadeva in his YaSastilakm, uses the word uspi~a in the sense of a 

si'rovusz~a-turbm. He describes that the soldiers of northern region were 

wearing multi-coloured uSnisa-s.347 From him it is not h~otwi how it war in 

shape and appearance and how to wear it. But one thing we can know from 

348 

this reference is that us?zi$.a-s are made up of clothes of different colours, 

CG&ma@ is a popular head ornament ofwornan. It is a crest jewel. It was in 

vogue right from the day of Rumdyn?za where S i gives ~ her cii@rnani as a 

token for Hanumn. It was not o.tlly regarded as an ornament but also 

respected as the mark of auspiciousness. Garbhuku, prubhra#aka, Ealumaka,

iipi47, Sekhnrtx, ~rttnmsL~ and nvatnmsn are all flowery ornaments worn on 

ii) Ear orncunent: The terr:~cottas discovered from Harappa and 

350 

Mohenjodaro reveal the use of' only circular type of ear-drops. In the 

351 

I~arnaya~m, two types of car omimlcnts arc mcntioncd. '141oy arc lcu~(ialn 

and trikaraqa. P,;i~ini refen to a type of car ornament called Kctrykc? 352 

There is a mention of a heavy type of kunhla in Muhubhwa by 

~ataiijali."~ In the NZtyufstra there are references to five hds of ear 

ornaments used by men and they are kcrrvabhi2rav, kuv&la, mocakala, kilo 

354 

and .CronisGtm. It also informs us that various types of ear rings were also 

used by women like kundala, karwkd, karpuvalaya, pafmkar@ku, 

kumplpinudrci, kurnotkilaka and ka:nrwrira.35s ~ali&sd~~ has mentioned 

L 

many kinds of ear ornaments. Most of these types were pendants made up of 

357 

rubies and other precious stones. Bsna has described the ear ornaments by 

the terms karnuvurumsu, kur?uptira, ktl~~&la, tpka~~faku, bdika and 

3 58 

kur nab h qy. Uttamsa, avatunisa, kur.!mpuru, tdurijdil, tfiqbpatril, 

kundaia and karnikd are the ex ornaments mentioned by ~ a ~ ~ u d h a . 

Among them uftamsa and avatamsa are flowery ornaments, usually made of 

sprouts and flowers. The habit of wearing uvatamsa was in practice in 

Karnataka and Bengal. This can be known from the references - 'Kar?&@ 

yuvuti surat~vatamsa' and 'bangavanitu Srava~avatamsa' of somadeva in 

his ~n.f'o,~tilaka.~" Karnnytiro, rfi~aljkn or tddapotra, k14,cndala and korwkd 

are ear ornaments made up of gold. The deii word available for kcrrypura is 

lianphul (Kaqmp uru r k-arqzphtila > kanphi.71). It was in the stage of a hlly 

bloomed flower and an opening bud. Kar~ikli is a golden ear ring. According

to Apnura both kar~pkd and tdlaparra are one and the same.3" Kpmvdmi 

further clarifies that kar*zici was mkde in gold like tdlnparro.362 But 

Halayudha generalises the te~m by denoting all the ear onlaments as 

k ~ r ~ u Probably k b ~ ~ by ~ the time ol. Halayudha the tern1 must have lost its 

particular rnea~ling mid came to mean 2u.t ear ornament in general. 

jii) Neck On~rm~ert: The neck o~r~aments as revealed from the 

terracotta figurines ofthe Indus vallcy pcriod iwe characterised by two different 

types, ilallely llre dog-collared or close fitting type md the flowing type which 

passed round the neck hanging down to the chesi region.'" The use of 

nccltlace as or~~larncnts is as old as the figveclu for wc Br~d in il such an 

to be wo111 in later times. The Ad&i?ablziirnta refers to jewelled necklaces. 366 

367 368 

A? a cnsc in point, reference may bc l~~adc to ~i.~kagriva, rzikma a~nd 

kanfhahdra369 corresponding to close fitting strings. TI12 hanging necklaces 

which xe not nu close fitting as thc dog collared types have also their parallel 

in ,sraju, IcuZcanmalu and cundruhd~c.i ofvedic and Rrdmmical literature. 

371 

Kautilya adds many niosr: types of nzck ornkunents. Thesl: types of neck 

ornaments were rna~ufic~ctured under the supervision of Suvarr~~dhy(zksu. 

According to the -Rii?g,nScistra various types of neck ornaments were used by 

372 

men and Even Kslidgsa has nrentiooned various types of neck 

ornm~ents, From him we come to b ow the colltinuation of the two types of 

necklaces (close fitting and hanging) though they have been described Ey 

different terms on the basis of their fom, shape and design. Among the short 

necklaces he hs~s iner~tioncd niska, a neclclace probably i~lrrde up of coiils 

stringing togcdler. Among the liiingi~lg or flowing types hc h:\s n~cniioiicd 

370

mukrrivali, . fdrkhcira, hrirahuraiekhara, haraya.s#, vaijaylintikd, 

hemast.itra,pralamba and In the KLidornbari it has been alluded to 

by the tern kanakamayya, hara, tciro, hGraprabh& gkGvali and m d ~ ~ 

M2gha has described the neck orn~ment,~ by the terms mauktikahara and 

mdld. 376 

Hal2pdha gives the following names of the ornaments worn 

around neck. De~acchanda, mayavaka, hum, guccha, ardhaguccha, 

gopuccha, ekuvali, kantika, nakqtramald - and pralam baka are the 

grivdbhurana-s mentioned by him.377 Devacchonda is a necklace of pearls 

consisting of hundred strings. A4&wvaka is w. necklace of hundred strings. 

In a h&ra there will be 108 or 64 strings of pearls. A necklace of 3 2 strings is 

3 78 

called guccha. According to Nemacandra, ardhaguccha is a necklace 

consisting of 24 strings and gopuccho is of two ~trjngs.~~' Ekrivali is a 

ncckluc of singlc stri~~g of pcnrls. Ajnlrrlr hi^ dcfincd it as E~UVU& 

ekaya~p'k6 i.e. single string necklace. 380 Many images and pictures of Gupta 

- 381 

age can be seen wearing ekaalz. Bdna has refereed to an interesting story 

in connection with ekuvali, in Harqacarita, Divakaramitra narrates the 

background of the ekavali to Haqa. 'This ekavalt' was made fiom the pearls 

born out of the eye-drops of moon. Vgsuki, the king of serpants collected all 

the pearls and made it as an ekmuli. Later he presented it to Nsga juna and 

he inturn gave it to his friend Siitav~hana. The same ekavalf has now come to 

us through tradition'.382 K ~ is also Q a necklace ~ of single string ofpearls. 

Nuksutrumdld is a necklace of 27 pearls. Prdurhbaka is the garland worn 

round the neck.383 The centrat gem of the hura is known as t ara~a.~~~

iv) Hand Qrnaent : Some of the male figures &om 

Mohenjodaro have been shown wearing circular ring round the arms and 

hands. There are as many as eleven rings from the wrist to the arm. Several 

such rings have been found in Harappa and ~ohenjodaro.~*~ They are 

nothing but wristlets and armlets. The hand oments appear to be very 

popular among women during this period. This is confiied by two bronze 

figures with each of their hands having been adorned with a row of rings rising 

Frmn the wrist to the shoulders.386 Bracelets were used by the Aryans of the 

Rgvedic period.387 Both ongada and keyrira are frequently mentioned in 

the Mahdbhdrara . Hopkins says that armlets are the most commonly 

mentioned ornaments in the great epic.388 There use is also indicated in the 

South. India of the 2'' cen. 

Pataijali confirms the use of hand ornament called kap~ka.~~' 

Various types of hand ornaments used by men are mentimed in the 

Nhtyaidstra and ffiey are valaya, rucika, citika, hastavali, keytira and 

a~i~odo.~~' It also contoins numerous references regarding the use of hand 

ornaments by women.3g2 These ornaments were worn on the wrists, arms, in 

between the elbows etc. Ulidiisa has alluded to it by the terms aiLgada and 

vulayu corresponding to armlets and bracelets.393 Arcordig to Bg~a, B h d 

has decorated his fore arms with bra~e1et.s.~~~ In the Kdambari, some chiefs 

of Udain have been described wearing bracelets. 395 ~2gha has also 

mentioned that these ornaments were worn by men during his 

Keyiiru, angada, LZvGpa and parihdrya are the ornaments 

worn on the arms mentioned by ~ala~udha.~" They all denote UIC armlets.

Halayudha treats both keyt3ra and aligadu as synonym. Amara also has 

treated them in the same way.398 &irasv2mi gives the etymology of the two 

words - 'ke bahuiirse yauti iti keyuram, ahgam dayate zti aligadam'. 399 

Both men and women wore this armlots. Valap, kurikap~ and knpkct arc 

the ornaments worn around the wrist enlisted by ~ala~udha.~*~ Kufaka and 

valaya are a kind of bangle or bracelet. Kalikay is a rope or thread tied 

around the wrist during some auspicious ceremonies. It is also known as 

40 1 

pratr'sura. 

v) Waist Ornament : The use of girdles or the waist ornaments 

can be traced back to the Indus valley ~ivilization.~" In the vedic;O3 

I3rahmanicd4O4 nod ePic4O5 period as well wc get numerous literary references 

to the use of various types of ornaments. It has been alluded to by the term 

roianri and rnekhalri.406 The $atapntha Brahmap shows that waist band 

was worm around the lower garment and it appears that it was more a part of 

dress than an ornamental devicen407 Its use in South India of about znd 

Century AD is clearly testified by the evidence of Na@rjunakon& 

sculptures. 408 

PA~ini also codm the use of wais.t ornament by the term nivf 

409 . The Nu&aSGstra informs us that two types of girdles were used and they 

were called taralu and ~titraoka.~'~ Tamla was a loose girdle while siitroka 

was a girdle string. It also inform about kuAcl; mekhala, raiand aid kalupa 

worn by women.411 KGiiici was made up of one string of pearls or beads, 

mekhulu was a girdle with eight strings, rahna was made up of sixteen 

strings, while kaldpa was a girdle of twenty five strings. Gli&sa also

confirms the use of girdles during his tirne412 In the Har;acarita, it har been 

stated that king Haw has presented tlie ambassador kern the king of Assan, 

besides other ornaments, a waist-band called the parinive$a.413 In the 

$iwrilnvadha also mention has been made to the use of k~bandho.~~~ It was 

probably made with the mufija grass. 

Kaldpa, saptaki; ka ficl, mekhala raianu, ka p's atra, 

s8rasana, ki&iqi; k.pdraghantjkii were the ornaments worn around the 

waist, referred by ~abyudha,~* Both HaQydha and ~tnarashha~'~ have 

treated kaldpa, saptaki, kaAci, mekhala, rasand and sdrasana as synonyms 

meaning a girdle. But from the description of Sornadeva it can be known that 

there was a slight difFerence between mekhalfi and kafici. Kt.Zici should be a 

girdle of strings of small beads and mekhu2d should be entwined with small 

bells. He refers to kufici as ka2cigu~ and mekhal6 as mmukhara 

rna@rnekhalii. In another context he refers to a mekhaEGZ entwined with bells 

- mekhlci mani kinkini j61a ~odane~.~'~ KaQ'sliha was a silken thread or 

cord worn by females round their loins. Kilikiyi and k+xdrughan#u must 

be the tiny bells attached with mekhnlli. 418 

vi) Leg Ornament : That the anklets were worn by the women 

of Mohenjodaro becomes certain from the little bronze foot and the pottery 

419 

figurines. The Na%yaSiistra informs us that various types of leg ornaments 

were used by women during that period iil~d they are pdapafra, ngpura, 

krr&@, andp&aka@ka."' Ulidlisa makes numerous references to the use 

of various types of anklets by women. 421 It appears from the literary 

evidences that men were initially not fond of log ommonts, as there are no

evidence of men wearing leg ornaments in the early literature. But later on, 

they also adopted it from the women. B2na says that the chieftain who came to 

visit king Htqa had worn anklets called pidubandha inset with precious 

422 

stones. 

Si fijin i, plfdakcr&ka, tul~3koti, n apura, rnaiijira and 

hamsaka are the cara@bhara~-s enlisted by ~ ali~yudha.~~~ According to 

him all the words are synonyms of an anklet or a tinkling ornament for the 

feet of women. 

vii) Finger Ornament: Finger rings have occasionally been 

found at Mohenjodaro. The discovery of a few silver rings may suggest that 

424 

frnger rings were used. The arriguliyukcr is found frequently mentioned in 

the Ramuya~ta and Mahtibhiirata. The NdySdstra idom us that the 

finger rings were used by men. It has been alluded to by the terms aligulvaka 

and mudr~i.~'~ During Lhe time of Kalidlsa finger ring have become very 

popular and were worn by both men and women as it is evident fi-om his 

master piece namely ~dtuiiculam. The poet makes numerous references to 

the use of finger rings by women. They are either with the design of serpent 426 

or with the name of the owner imprinted on them. In the Siiupdavadha there 

427 

is a reference to another type of finger ring called urmikd. 

According to Halgyudha both ariguliyaka and tkrnika mean 

a ring worn in the finger.428 A ring marked with the initials of its owner is 

called a~iguljrnudrs~~ (signet ring). Du~yanta presented sucli a ring to 

~akuntak. 

The aliguZimudr&-s are very common among royal personalities. 

* * *

NOTES 

Raghu, 5.76; 6.10; Rtusam., 1.7, 2.26, 4.3, 5.2, 6.15 etc. 

Raghu, 9.1 1, 9.50; Vikrama, III. 12; hk., VII.2 2 etc. 

Dr. Pmdey, Indu Prabha, Dress and Onximnets in Ancient India, p. 17 

Marshall, Mohenjodaro and hdus Valley Civilmation, I. p.33. 

iiva.~r.SU.,2.3.4.17; Lat.Su.,2.6.1+; 9.2.14. 

Jain, J, C, Jaina Agama Sahitya meriz Bhiiratiya Samaj, pp. 206-7. 

Mahgvagga, 8.2.1, 

Divyavadana, 1 1 + 9, 11, 

Ibid, 11.21. 25, 

Warrnington, Commerce betweent the Roman Empire and India, 

p. 212. 

Amara, 2.6,111, 

Motichandra, Bharatiya VeSabhUsa, p. 154, 

ARM, 2.395, 

Divya, ~~216. 

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p. 301. 

ARM, 2.326, 

Sarkar, Some Aspects of the ealier Social History of India, p. 59. 

Motichaidra, p. 13. 

Monier Williams, A Sanslait English Dictionary, p, 616. 

AV, 18.4,3 1, 

21. Sarkar, p. 6, fn. 5.

Motichandra, op, cit., p.15. 

sat. Bra. 5.2,1.8, 

Panini, Astadhyayi, 4.3.42. 

Rama, 2,40.9, 

Aca, ~ a., 2.5.~. 

Mbh, 2,47,22, 

Nisitha carani, p, 467. 

Br. Kal, Su. Bha~ya, 4. 3661, 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsacarita eka Samskrtika Adhyayana, pp. 78, 79. 

Vikrama,, 111.12. 

Raghu., 9.43. 

Rtu., 6.4. 27. 

Vikrama., p, 60. 

Megha,, p, 41, 

Agarwal, V. S., India known to Panini, p. 225, 

Motichandra, p. 93, 

By, Kal, Su. Bhasya, 4. 3661, 

Nsitha,, 7, p.467. 

Harsacarita, p. 7. 

Ibid, p. 10, 

Ibid, p. 114. 

Acarariga, Vastra, 14.6. 

ARM, 2,394,

Motichandra, p, 95. 

Arth. Sas., 2. 11. 

Ibid. 

Madhyama Vydyoga, p, 5. 

Amara, ed. Ramanathan, A. A,, 1, p. 434; V, 1 13. 

ARM, 2,394, 

Wta, 11.15, 

Kumara,, 5. 30. 

Agruural, V. S., KSdambari: eka SfimsQtika Adhyayana, p, 56. 

Kumara., 7. 37; Raghu, 4. 65, 14.81. 

Kumgra., 5. 67; SZU., 4, 64. 

Motichandra, p. 15 1. 

Niiithacurani, 7.467. 

Sak., I, 8.19; Kum2ra, 5.8.16; V.S. Aganval, K2d. Sam. Adhy,, 

pp. 178,214, 328. 

Agarwal, V. S,, Kad. S2m. Adhy, p. 150. 

V2mana pur,, 14,61. 

ARM, 2.28. 

Divyavadsna, p. 349 quoted by Motichandra, p. 96. 

Ibid, p, 83 quoted Ibid, 

Ibid, p. 194. quoted Ibid. 

Watters, Yuan Chwang Travels in India, I. p, 120. 

Motichandra, p. 3 1.

199 

Lalitavktara, p. 3 12; ed. Vaidya, P.L., Mithila Vidyapitha, 

Darbhanga - 1958. 

Minier WiEliams, p. 470. 

Lalita., p. 312. 

Paiicatantra, I. 66. 

Br. Kal. Su. Bhiisya, 4. 3661, 

Jain, J. C,, p. 207, fn,5. 

Motichandra, p. 61. 

Amara, 2. 6, 113. 

AlIotichandra, p. 149. 

RV., I. 67. 3. 

Gayatri Varma, Kglidgsa ke granth Tatkalina Samsm, p. 200. 

Monicr Williams, p, 581. 

ARM, 2. 394. 

'dukt2lam gau vigya vifisp ktirpdsikam' Acsraliga, 2. Vastra. 

Srl. 368. 

NiSitha.,7. 10. 12. 

Arth. as., 2. 11. 

Ibid, 

Jain, J. C., 11. 206 - 7, 

Acaranga, I. 7,5, 1 ., 11, 5. 1. 3. 

DivyavadZina, p+ 316. 

Lalita, p. 333,

Motichandra, p. 97. 

Ibid. 

200 

Agawd, V. S4, Harsacaritsl eka Sarnskma Adhyayana, p. 77 

Ibid, pp. 77, 78. 

Ibid, p. 78, 

Kad.: p. 17. 

Hqa, p, 202. 

Motichandra, p. 147 ( Bhar, ves. bhu) 

Antaga* das30, p. 32, quoted by Motichandra, p. 148. 

Raghu., 17. 25. 

Bha?ft'kavya, 3. 34; 10 -1. 

Gimgovinda, 1, 4, 6., 2. 6. 3,, 12. 22. I., 12. 23. 3. 

Agarwal, V, S,, I-Iarsa Sam, adhy,, p. 76. 

Rtu., 1, ,4 

Amara, 2. 6. 1 13. 

ARM, 2,394. 

Harsa, p, 60. 

Ibid, p, 16. 

Ah, Sgs., 2.11, with the comrnenatary of Ganapathy Sastri. 

ARM, 2,217, 

kpmatast rasyavik~ra~k~unmm duhyate k~rnLZylZ &gate 

duk dam / Abhi, Cint2maa., 3. 3 3 3. 

~abdaramilkara, 3. 213$

201 

Dicy. of Eco. Pro., I. p. 468 - 9. 

xcurariga, 2.5. 1. 1 .; Mahavagga, 8.9. 14. 

Motichandra, p, 145, 

Jain, J. C,, P, 206 

Quoted, Ibid, fn. 3, 

Motichandra, p, 146, 

VSyu b., 8. 89. 

Ibid, 80, 4-6, 


A Record of Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and the Malaya 

Archipelago, tr. by Takakusu, Oxford - 1896; p. 54 

Ibid, p, 43, 

AM, 2.291, 

YaSatilaka, p. 132. 

Ibid, Sarnskp pka . 

Ibid, Uttara, p, 82. 

ARM, 2.39 1, 

hid. 

Amara, 2.3, 1 18. 

Abhi. cinti3rnqii, 3. 336 - 37. 

Jh, J, C., Jaina Agarna Sahitya mem Bharatiya Sarns~a, 

Chaukhamba Vidya Bhavana, Varanasi - 1965. 

Arth. as., ed. R, Sarma Shastry, p. 114.

M&vagga, VIII. 13.4, 5. 

Takakusu, p. 54. 

Amma, 2. 3. 117. 

MahAvagga, 8. 13.4 - 5. 

Kumra., 8. 2; M$lavikg., 5.7. 

Mathura museum, Se. No. 3532. 

Byhat. Kal. Su. Bbsya, IV. 4084. 

Hqa., Tr. Cowell, p. 261. 

ham, 2. 6. 118. 

ARM, 2. 392. 

Mahiivagga, VIII. 29. 1. 

Bhik. moWa, IV. 40.96. 

Samayam2itrk.2 , VIII. 54 - 56. 

Atnara, 11. 8. 64. 

Agrawal, V. S,, Harsa. Sam. Adhy., Fig. 72. 

Motichandra, Bh2r. VeS. Bhtis, p. 161. 

Quoted, Ibid, pp. 184, 185. 


Amara, 2. 8. 64. 

Agarwal V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 150. 

Agarwal, V. S.., Ahicchatra ke khilone, fig. 305, p. 173. 

Motichandra, p. 16 1. 

Raghu., 4. 55. 

Ibid, Sarhs- tika. 

Harsa., p. 206. 

Ibid, p. 24. 

GdarnbM, p. 215.

%id, p. 216. 

Motichandra, Costume Textiles Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and 

Mediaeval India, p. 8. 

ARM, 2. 392. 

Mathura Museum, Sec. No. 213. 

Notichandra, Costume, Testiles Cosmetics and CoiffUre in Ancient and 

Mediaeval. India, p. 16 1. 

, 2. 397. 

h a , 2.6. 1 13, with the commentary of K.+irasv%ni. 

Ibid, Sarfi. fiu. 

Sabda Rat,, 3. 225. 

YaSastilaka, Piirva., p. 7 1. 

Notichandra, Coshune, Tediles Gosmetics and Coiffinre in Ancient and 

Mediaeval India, p. 16 1. 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsa. Sam. Adhy., p. 154. 


Mbh., ed. ICinjawadekar, Poona - 1929; 11. 5. 1. 8. 

Brhad. Up., II,3. 6. 

Arth. ~2s. ed. Shama Sllastxy, p. 89-90. 


YaSas., uttara, p. 200. 

Amara, 2.3.116. 

Watters, Yuan - T-sang 's travels in Indian, part - I. 

YaSas., parva., p. 575.


AV, XEV. 2. 66-67. 

ARhl, 2.396, 

Mackay , C., p. 80. 

Marsahall, pl, XCIX - 5,6,8. 

RV, VII. 33. 

Ibid, I. 114; VI. 55, 1; IX. 67. 11. 

Das, Rgvedaic Culture, p. 21 7. 

Social and Religious Life in Gyhyasutras, Bombay - 1939, p. 73. 

Arth. ~%s., ed Shama Shastry, p. 18, V. 19. 

Ibid, p. 20, V. 21. 

Manu.,IV. 34-36; Y;?;jjr?a., 1. 131-33. 

Puri, B. N., India in the tirne of PatafijaJi, p. 106. 

Raghu, XVI, 43. 

Vikrarna., V. 247. 

Raghu., I. 42; 111. 28. 

Arnara, pp, 423,24; V. 95-97; ed. Ranlanathan, A. A. 

Hssa, pp, 30,72, 116, 203 and 243. 

Kadarnbm-, ed. Kane, P. V,, p. 28. 

Harsa., pp. 35, 47, 94. 

Kiidarnbari, ed, Kane, P. V,, p, 13, 

Watters, OnYuanChwang, I, p. 148. 151. 

Mackay, E., Early Indus Civilization, p. 180,

RV, X. 114.37; VZII, 14. 5. 

Das, A. C., Rgvedic Culture, p. 21 7. 

Pataiijali, I. 1. 2; 11. 2. 24. 

N2 fyaSastra, XXIII, 66. 

Rtu,, IV. 15. 

Ibid. 

Megha., Uttaa, 2, 

Raghu,, XIV, 12, 

Upadhy%ya, B, S., p. 204, 

Megha., Uttara, 30. 

Ibid, 96,112; Raghu., VI, 33. 

~akuntalii, VIII.21. 

Malavika,, 111, 22, 

SakuntaEi, VII .2 1. 

Indian Historical Quarterly, IV, 1929, 303. 

K%d,, Kane, P,V,, paras. 131,133. 

Cowel, Hasacarita, p. 83 

Ibid, p. 72. 

Majumdar, History of Bengal, Vo1.1, p. 6 1 5. 

Ojha,O.H., Madhya Kalina Bhiiratiya Smsw, p.44. 

Vaidya., C.V., The History of Mediaval India, I. pp. 92, 93. 

ARM, 2.375.

tam dhupGyana knSGnfam.. . Rap, 17.25; cESyd~a - Sobhifa, Sarin. 

pla. 

Ibid, 16.50. 

Megha, I. 32. 

Ibid. 

m, 2. 375. 

Banerjee, IN., The Development og Hindu Iconography. 

Arnara, 11. 6. 97. 

Raghu, 17. 13. 

Agarwal. V. S., R;ijghat ke filauM b eka adhyayana, p. 25 1. 


Sat. Bra., XIII. 8. 4. 7. 

AV, XIV. 1.6. 

Ibid, IX. 6. 1 1. 

As. g. s~., III. 8. 1. 

AV., XIX. 44. 1. 

Arth. Sgs., Tr. by S2maS%stri, p. 79. 

Suiruta Cikitsgthna, XXIX. 4, Tr,. by Kunja Lal. 

IGd, ed. Kale, M. E., Bombay - 1928; p. 34. 

Harsa, Tr. by Cowell and Thomas, London - 1897; p. 198. 

ARM, 2.388 - 90. 

Ibid, 2. 385. 

Ibid, 2.386. 


Ibid, 2. 390 


for the detail descrition of the ornaments mentioned in the Vedic 

literature, please see - Rai Govind Cahnd, Vaidika Kelina Abhusana.

mma. I. 58. 11; MLa71li. 13. 48. 32; 33. 

Amara, TI. 9.95. 

nbid, 11.9.96. 

Ibid, IT. 10. 33. 

Buddhac~ta of ASvaghosa, 11.37. 

Yuan Chwmg, p. 58. 

Jain, J. C., pp. 143-44. 

PraW nataka, I. 3. 

Agarwal, V. S., Ed. S2m. Adhy., p. 8. 

Madhyarna V2yoga, I. 42. 

Carudatta, I. 1. 

Kumara, VI. 6. 

K~abkra, I. 18. 

~ivi Jataka, Verse 3. E 

Dhammapada Atthakat~, I. p. 384. 

Agarwal, V. S., Kgd, Sam. Adhy., p. 110. 

Arth. Sas., tr. Gairola. 

ARM, 2. 18 - 19. 

Encyclopeadia Britanica, 20. p. 545. 

Jain, J, C., p. 144. 

Ibid 

~ibi Jataka, Verse 3. E 

~ a J&ika, ~ a Verse 5. ff. 

Ibid. 

Aganval, V. S. KAd. S%m. Adhy., p. 265. 

Arth. s~s., Tr. By Gairola, p. 265. 


KumBrta, I. 42; III. 53; M.6; PX. 24; Agmral, V. S., #ad. Sam. 

Adhy., pp. 22,23,27,29,30,34,48,59,66-68,73, 80,97, 103, 107, 

112, 120, 130, 145, 147, 148, 188, 193, 194,223,225,242,251, 

259,294,306. 

Aganval, V. S., T I~I-s;~, p. 2 1 . 

Ibid. 

Ibid, p. 44. 

Jain, J. C., p. 143. 

Agmal, Kad. S2m. Ad~y., p. 23. 

Amara, ed. Rammathan, A. A, p. 440, V.33. 

ARM, 3.42. 

Jain, J. C., p. 144. 

Buddhacarita, 2. 16.92. 

Artk Sas., Tr. By Galrola, p. 94. 


Vikrama, 111. 5. 

Agarwal, V. S., Harsa, p. 15. 

Kum2ra, VI. 42. 

Arth. s~s., 73. By Gairola, p. 94. 


Jain, J.C., p. 144. 

~ a Jgtaka, ~ a Before verse. 1. 

Pratirniin2t&a, V. 5. 

Buddhacarita, I. 1. 17. 

Arth. S~S., Tr. Gairola, p. 94. 


Jain, J. C., p. 144. 

baa, 2. 9. 22. 

,2. 20. 

Agarwal, V. S., Qd. Sam. Adhy., p. 67. 

Arth. h s., p. 95. 

ARM, 2. 21. 

Arttx. $as., Gabla, p. 94. 


S~SU, 7.30;&, 3. 4; Agwal, V. S., Ed., pp. 66, 101, 111, 148. 150; 

Hwa, pp. 15,58. 

ARM, 2. 15, 16. 

Agmal, V. S., Hapa, p. 58. 

ARM, 2. 15, 16. 

Rgvedic Culture, p. 2 16. 

Padmap~%bh@ka of hdraka, 25 (a). 

Megha, 11. 2. 

R.aghu, IX. 29. 

Agarwal, V. S ., Harsa, p. 136. 

Ibid, p. 83. 


Ibid. 


Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid, 2.399.



Mackay, E., Further E om at Mohenjodaro, pp. 524-26, 544. 

Ibid, pp. 261,273,277,278, 519 and 539. 

sat. Bra.,XIV. 2. 1. 8. 

Bachofer, Early lndain Sculpture, platttcs 10. fT 

Bid. 

Bulletin of the Deccan College Reaserch Institute? hne; 2. 66. E 


Paqini &tidhy2yi, IV. 3. 65. 

Na~yaSasd.ra (Ns) XXIII. 16, 18,23,25,26 etc. 

Raghu, VI. 19,80; Kumara, VII. 94; gay V.5. ~ak., VII. 24. 

Kum2ra, VIII. 89; Ragh, V11.6; Megha,I. 67. 

Trip% R.P., Magha lqta SiSupdavadha Mdk~vya, I. 6,45, II. 19. 

111.7; X.6, XIII.9 etc. 

Harsacarita, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., pp. 52, 74; K2darnbari, ed. Kane. P. V., 

para. 133, 171 and 191. 

ARM, 2. 409-410. 


YGas, pu., p. 465. 

For further details on us~is'a, see Dr. Motichadra, Bkrstiya. 

veiabhusa, 

ARM, 2. 397,98,99. 

Marshall, J., Mohenjoho and Ind~ns Vally Civilization, I. 44. 

=ma, sundara, 10" and 1 5" sarga. 

Panini, IV. 3.65. 

Pwi, B. N., hdia in the time of PaMjali, p. 105.

NS,XXXIII. 10, 17, 19,20, 114,etc. 

Ibid, XXXII. 23,25,26. 

Raghu, III. 19, V.65, VTI. 27; Rtu. 111. 19. 

Ug2dhyaya, B. S., Indis in Ulidasa, p. 203. 

Harsa, ed. Fuhrer, A. A., p. 14,25,52, 149,190,192,207; Kgd. ed 

Kana., P. V.,par. 131, 145, 149, 174, 191, 194. 

AIRM, 2. 401. 

Yas'as., p. 180 & p. 188. 


Ibid, Sam. fib. 

ARM, 2.40 1. 

Dasgupta, A. C., hchn Clay Sculptures, dig. 34. and 37. 

Das, Rgvedic Culture, p. 217. 

Journal American Oriental Society, 13.3 1 7 h. 

RV, V. 19.3. 

Ibid, I. 166. 40. 

Rama, luskinda, 9' sarga. 

RV, VIII. 47. 15; &ma, kiskind2 - 11" sarga, Ayodhya - 32nd sarga, 

Sundara - 9' saga 

,kth, sns., samaiastri, R., pp. 76-77. 

Ibid, XIII.2, 3 1,33. 

Updhyaya, B. S., India in Kalidasa, p. 202. 

Kad., Kane., P.V., para, 135, 137, 142, 153, 174, 189, 191,204. 

S~SU., X. 16, XVI. 84. 

ARM, 2.407,408. 

Ibid, 2. 407.

Abhi. cinB., 3. 324,325. 


Agarwal, V. S., harsa, p. 189, pl. 24, fig. 82. 

Ibid, p. 197. 

ARM, 2.407.408. 


Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro arid Indus Vally Civilization, plates 

CXLIV. 7,9, 1 1. 

%id, vol. 2, p. 345. 

Macdonnel, A. A, history of Sanskrit literature, p. 164. 

JAOS, 13. 137 fn. 

Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune, 2. 85. 

PataEijali, MahabGsya, I. 1. 1, 7, 15. 

NS, XXIII. 18. 

Ibid, XXIII. 34,3 5. 

Raghu, VI. 14-53, VI. 73. XIX. 74; Rtu, IV. 3, VI. 7; Vikrana, I. 1, 

v.2. 

Harsa, ed. Cowel, E. K., & Thomas, F. W., p. 116 -7. 

Kad, Kane, P. V., para. 174. 

~iiu, 111.7. 

ARM, 2.402. 

Amara, 2.6. 107. 

Ibid, Sarbskja oka. 

Arm, 2,402,403. 

Ibid, 2.402. 

Maokay, Further Exacavation at Mohenjodaro. 

Das, S. K, Economic History of Ancient Inda, p. 52. 

sat. Bra., 111. 5. 1. 6, XI. 8. 4. 7.

Rilrna, Sundara, 14th & 15th sarga (kundala), 1st and 1 t h (armlets), 

15th (Bangles). 

Vedic Index, Macdonnel and Keith, Vol.11. 223. 

Altekar, A S., Position of Women in Hindu Covilization, p. 334. 

Bullelin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 2.87 flE 

Panini, IV. 3. 40. 

Ftu, I. 4. 6,II. 20,111. 26, IV. 4; Kumiira, I. 37,38. 

Harsa, Cowell & Thonlas, p. 23 1. 

S~SU, XVIII. 53. 



liaSas, purva, p. 8. 


Mackay, Futher Ex., Vol.11, plate. LLYII. 5; &W. 10. 

NS, XXTII. 39,40. 

Raghu, VIII. 63 (nGpura), XII. 33 ( kirikini ); Rtu, 111. 27 

(mwiniSlpma); Malavikii, p. 296 ( caraqalarikara) 

Harsa, Cowell and Thomas, p. 202. 


Marshall, J., Mohenjodaro and hdus Civil., Vol. 11. p. 528. 


Ibid.

ARM, 2.

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