Background Paper on Sources and Occurrence of Bisphenol A ...

Food and Agriculture 

Organization of the 

United Nations 

<strong>Background</strong> <strong>Paper</strong> on 

WHO/HSE/FOS/11.1 

Sources and Occurrence of Bisphenol A Relevant for 

Exposure of Consumers 

FAO/WHO Expert Meeting on Bisphenol A (BPA) 

Ottawa, Canada, 2–5 November 2010 

Prepared by 

Dr Allan B. Bailey 

United States Food and Drug Administration, 

College Park, Maryland, USA 

and 

Dr Eddo J. Hoekstra 

Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, 

Ispra, Italy 

Note to readers: 

The first draft of this paper was prepared by the named authors, and the paper 

was then revised following discussions at the November 2010 meeting.

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1

Toxicological and Health Aspects of Bisphenol A 

CONTENTS 

1. Sources and uses of BPA..................................................................................................................................2 

1.1 Polycarbonate resins ..............................................................................................................................3 

1.2 Epoxy resins ..........................................................................................................................................3 

1.2.1 Surface coatings..........................................................................................................................4 

1.2.2 Food and beverage cans..............................................................................................................4 

1.3 Polyvinyl chloride and thermal paper....................................................................................................5 

1.4 Others (including flame retardants) .......................................................................................................5 

2. Levels and patterns from oral exposure............................................................................................................6 

2.1 Food surveys (by age group) .................................................................................................................6 

2.1.1 Infant formula and breast milk (age 0–6 months) .......................................................................6 

2.1.2 Baby and toddler food (age 6–12 months)..................................................................................9 

2.1.3 Food for young children (age 1–3 years) ..................................................................................10 

2.1.4 Adult food (age >1 year)...........................................................................................................11 

2.1.5 Tap water and mineral water.....................................................................................................17 

2.2 Food contact material testing...............................................................................................................17 

2.2.1 Polycarbonate............................................................................................................................19 

2.2.2 Epoxy resins..............................................................................................................................46 

2.2.3 <strong>Paper</strong> and paperboard................................................................................................................48 

2.2.4 Polyvinyl chloride.....................................................................................................................51 

2.3 Other sources of oral exposure ............................................................................................................52 

2.3.1 Dental materials ........................................................................................................................52 

2.3.2 Other oral exposure sources for children ..................................................................................54 

3. Levels and patterns from other exposure routes .............................................................................................56 

3.1 Air........................................................................................................................................................56 

3.2 Dermal contact.....................................................................................................................................57 

4. Effects of processing ......................................................................................................................................58 

5. Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................................................................59 

References .............................................................................................................................................................62 

The Expert Meeting considered bisphenol A (BPA) concentrations in food from food surveys and from 

migration studies from food contact materials. Free BPA levels were no more than 11 µg/l in canned liquid 

infant formula as consumed and no more than 1 µg/l in powdered infant formula as consumed. In toddler food, 

BPA concentrations were approximately 1 µg/kg on average. Total BPA levels were below 8 µg/l in breast milk. 

For adult foods, 30 studies representing about 1000 samples from several countries were available, and the data 

were segregated according to food type. The occurrence data that were deemed to be valid for use in the 

exposure assessment were tabulated. For adult foods, average concentrations ranged from 10 to 70 µg/kg in 

solid canned food and from 1 to 23 µg/l in liquid canned food. For the migration of BPA from polycarbonate, 

worst-case realistic uses were defined, and a maximum migration of 15 µg/l was selected for use in the exposure 

assessment. 

1. SOURCES AND USES OF BPA 

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a monomer used primarily in the production of polycarbonate (PC) 

resins and epoxy resins, with “other” uses that include flame retardants, unsaturated polyester 

resins, polysulfone (PS) resins and polyetherimides (PEIs) (CEH, 2010). The world 

consumption of BPA in 2009 by end use was as follows: PC resins, 2768 kt; epoxy resins, 

1093 kt; and “other”, 180 kt. Thus, over 95% of the world consumption of BPA in 2009 was 

for PC resins and epoxy resins. 

The major world producers of BPA as of mid-2010 included Bayer (23% share in the 

Americas, Europe and Asia), Mitsui and Nan Ya Plastics (9% and 8% shares, respectively, in 

2

3 

Sources and Occurrence of BPA 

Asia) and SABIC, Dow and Hexion (16.2%, 7.3% and 5.6% shares, respectively, in the 

Americas and Europe). 

Two grades of BPA are sold in the marketplace. PC grade contains a maximum of 0.2% 2,4isopropylidenediphenol, 

whereas epoxy grade may contain up to 5–7% of the 2,4-isomer. 

However, in commercial practice, the epoxy grade is reported to be the same purity as the PC 

grade. Producers in Japan and Western Europe and some producers in the United States of 

America (USA) use PC-grade BPA to manufacture epoxy resins. 

1.1 Polycarbonate resins 

The largest market for BPA is PC resins, accounting for about 75% of the demand in 2009 in 

both the USA and Western Europe (CEH, 2008). The world consumption of PC resins in 

2007 by end use was as follows: electrical/electronic, 617 kt; optical media, 500.5 kt; glazing 

and sheet, 469 kt; transportation, 322 kt; and “other”, including packaging, 426.5 kt. 

The major world producers of PC resins in 2008 were as follows (% of world capacity): 

Bayer (30%), SABIC (27%), Teijin (11%), Dow Chemical (9%) and Mitsubishi Companies 

(which includes Mitsubishi Chemical, Mitsubishi Gas Chemical and Mitsubishi Engineering 

Plastics; 8%). 

The consumption by end use for 2009 in the USA was as follows (% share): optical media 

(19%), building and construction (18%), transportation (16%), appliances and 

computers/business equipment (15%), medical (10%) and “other”, including packaging 

(22%). 

In the USA, packaging applications consumed 21 kt of PC in 2007 (4% share), which is 

projected to increase to 25 kt in 2012. Large returnable, refillable water bottles (primarily 19litre, 

but also 11- and 23-litre) currently account for the majority of PC used in packaging 

applications, consuming 10 kt of PC per year. Additional products included in this category 

are food service items such as sports bottles, baby bottles, pitchers, tumblers, home food 

containers and flatware. 

1.2 Epoxy resins 

The second largest end use for BPA is epoxy resins, accounting for about 22% of demand in 

2009 in both the USA and Western Europe. Epoxy resins contain one or more epoxide (or 

oxirane) groups that are further cured by reaction with a curing agent or hardener, typically 

an amine (CEH, 2007a). 

Epoxy resins based on BPA and epichlorohydrin, also known as conventional or BPA 

diglycidyl ether (referred to as BADGE or DGEBPA) epoxy resins, account for 90–95% of 

production in the USA. Although conventional epoxies comprise the majority of epoxy resin 

consumption, four other types of basic epoxies are of commercial importance: brominated 

resins, novolac resins, cycloaliphatic resins and phenoxy resins. 

By varying the ratio of epichlorohydrin to BPA, as well as the operating conditions, 

conventional epoxy resins of low, medium and high molecular weight can be produced, with 

molecular weights ranging from as low as 350 (liquid epoxies) to as high as 8000 (solid 

epoxies). Liquid resins consist of 80–90% BADGE, with the remaining 10–20% composed of


higher molecular weight oligomers. The common process for the manufacture of 

(conventional) solid epoxy resin is the so-called advancement or fusion process. In the 

presence of a catalyst, liquid epoxy is reacted with BPA and is “advanced” to a higher 

molecular weight resin. 

The consumption of epoxy coatings by end use for 2007 in the USA was as follows (% 

share): protective (or surface) coatings (48%), bonding and adhesives (14%), flooring, paving 

and construction (8%), composites (9%), electrical and electronic laminates (6%), embedding 

and tooling (4%), vinyl ester resins (4%) and other (16%). 

1.2.1 Surface coatings 

Surface coatings accounted for about 50% of all epoxy resin consumption in 2009 in the 

USA. The consumption of epoxy surface coatings by end use in 2006 in the USA was as 

follows (% share): powder (25%), containers and closures (14%), industrial maintenance and 

marine finishes (29%), automotive primers (13%), machinery and equipment (4%) and 

furniture and appliances (17%). 

Solid BADGE low molecular weight resins are the most common type of epoxy resin used in 

surface coatings. The general types of epoxy surface coatings include solvent-borne, 

waterborne, powder coatings, radiation-curable and epoxy esters. Solvent-borne coatings are 

typically used for food can interiors, whereas waterborne coatings are used in beverage can 

interiors (CEH, 2007b). 

Solvent-borne coatings, either one-component systems that are heat cured or two-component 

systems that cure at ambient temperature, account for about 40% of epoxy coating demand in 

the USA. Solvent concentration is typically more than 40% by volume. One-component 

systems consist of a combination of epoxy resin and co-reactant that can crosslink at elevated 

(baking) temperatures. These systems are used for food container interiors and coil and wire 

coatings. Two-component systems are composed of a curing agent and an epoxy resin that 

are mixed prior to use. Two-component systems are used in maintenance and marine 

coatings, tank and pipe coatings, and aircraft primers. 

Waterborne coatings, which account for 25–30% of epoxy coating demand in the USA, are 

mostly used in beer and beverage can interior coatings and automotive electrodeposition 

primers. Waterborne epoxy systems contain 15–20 solids (volume per volume), a water 

content of 75–85% and an organic content of 1–5%. 

Usually, basic resin producers sell liquid epoxy resin to large coatings producers such as 

PPG, Valspar, BASF and ICI, which advance the resin to make it suitable for coatings. 

1.2.2 Food and beverage cans 

Both solvent-borne and waterborne epoxies are applied by spraying into the interiors of food 

and beverage cans. Nearly all beverage cans produced today are of the two-piece aluminium 

type, coated with waterborne epoxies on the interior and/or can end. Coating weights on 355 

ml beer cans are in the range of 100–120 mg, whereas soft drink cans contain 150–170 mg. 

Soft drink cans require higher coating weights than beer cans because of the higher 

corrosiveness of the liquid. Thin coatings are also applied to the can exteriors for protection 

and decoration. 

4

5 


Most food cans produced today are of the three-piece metal type. Epoxy-phenolics, with 40– 

50% of the market, are used mainly as sheet or spray coatings for the interiors, bottoms and 

filler ends of cans containing potentially corrosive substances, such as vegetables, pie fillings 

and seafood. 

According to CEH (2007b), the major supplier of interior beverage can coatings is ICI- 

Glidden, which has 75–80% of the market. Akzo Nobel acquired ICI in early 2008. The other 

major supplier is Valspar. The major producers of coatings for food cans in the USA are PPG 

and Valspar. 

1.3 Polyvinyl chloride and thermal paper 

According to CEH (2010), other uses of BPA in Japan include the production of flame 

retardants, toner base resins, thermal paper developers, phenoxy resins, unsaturated polyester 

resins, polyester elastomers, antioxidants and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) stabilizers. Among 

these applications, flame retardants, namely tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), consumed 

most of the volume categorized as “other”. No specific mention of the use of BPA in thermal 

papers or PVC in the USA or Europe was contained in CEH (2010). 

BPA is also reportedly used as an antioxidant in plasticizers, primarily for PVC, and as a 

polymerization inhibitor in PVC. However, the literature contains very little useful 

information on actual use in food contact articles. 

Thermal printing is a commonly employed printing method typically used in point of sale 

receipts, such as fast food restaurants, retailers, grocery stores, gas stations, post offices and 

automated teller machines. In the direct thermal printing process, a printed image is produced 

by selectively heating specific areas of the coated thermal paper as it is passed over a thermal 

print head. The coating undergoes a colour change in the areas where it is heated, producing 

an image. Thermal paper consists of a very smooth paper with a thin coating of a leuco dye 

and a phenol developer such as BPA. This leuco dye, a dye whose molecules can acquire two 

forms, changes colour under the application of heat, pressure or laser light and is then able to 

reflect light (Biedermann, Tschudin & Grob, 2010; Mendum et al., 2010). 

1.4 Others (including flame retardants) 

Approximately 5% of worldwide BPA consumption went into various specialty applications. 

BPA is used in the production of two flame retardants, TBBPA and BPA bis(diphenyl 

phosphate) (CEH, 2010). 

TBBPA is used to impart flame resistance to epoxy resins used in printed circuit boards, PC, 

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) resins and, to a lesser extent, unsaturated polyester 

resins and other engineering thermoplastics. TBBPA is also used as an intermediate in the 

production of other flame retardants, such as brominated epoxy oligomers and brominated 

carbonate oligomers. BPA bis(diphenyl phosphate) is used as a flame retardant in 

polyphenylene oxide and PC/ABS blends. 

BPA is also used in the production of polyarylates and PEIs. PEIs compete with engineering 

resins, such as PS and PC resins, for applications in transportation, aerospace and electronics. 

PEIs coextruded with PC are used in microwave cookware.


Polyarylates compete with traditionally less expensive engineering plastics for applications in 

the automotive, electronics, aircraft and packaging industries. High cost, poor chemical 

resistance and a tendency to yellow have prevented polyarylates from gaining wider 

acceptance. 

PS resins, made from the condensation of the disodium salt of BPA with 4,4-dichlorodiphenyl 

sulfone, are noted for their thermal stability, toughness, transparency and resistance 

to degradation by moisture. They are used in electrical components, appliances, transportation, 

medical equipment, pumps, valves and pipes. 

In unsaturated polyester resins, the substitution of BPA for propylene glycol imparts 

chemical resistance to the product. Outlets for chemical-resistant resins are mainly in pipes 

and tanks. Only a small percentage of unsaturated polyester resins produced are the BPAtype. 

2. LEVELS AND PATTERNS FROM ORAL EXPOSURE 

Oral exposure from food is generally considered the major source of BPA exposure for all 

age groups for non-occupationally exposed individuals. Some additional oral exposure to 

BPA may result from the use of BPA-containing resins in dentistry. 

Several recent reviews and assessments have summarized BPA concentrations in food and 

food simulants as a result of migration from food contact materials (EFSA, 2006; Kang, 

Kondo & Katayama, 2006; Vandenberg et al., 2007; Chapin et al., 2008; Environment 

Canada & Health Canada, 2008). As discussed above, the major use of BPA in food contact 

articles is in epoxy-based coatings for food and beverage cans and PC resins for food service 

items such sports bottles, baby bottles, pitchers, tumblers, home food containers and flatware. 

2.1 Food surveys (by age group) 

By far the majority of studies on BPA concentrations reported from food surveys were from 

testing of food and beverages packaged in epoxy-coated cans and, to a minor extent, glass 

containers with lids. 

As an infant matures to a toddler, teenager and eventually an adult, the food that is consumed 

changes from breast milk and/or formula to toddler food and eventually to adult food. In the 

present context, the foods consumed by children and teenagers fall into the class of “adult” 

foods and thus are not significantly different from those consumed by adults. BPA 

concentrations in infant formula and breast milk, baby/toddler food and adult food are 

described below. (A discussion of BPA concentrations in breast milk is included for 

completeness.) 

2.1.1 Infant formula and breast milk (age 0–6 months) 

Infant formula comes in two forms (liquid and powder) and three main types of packaging 

(glass, metal and plastic). Liquid infant formula, both ready-to-feed (RTF) and concentrate, is 

sold primarily in metal and plastic containers. Powdered infant formula is available in 

composite containers, composed of paper and aluminium foil, in addition to plastic 

containers. Metal containers are coated with BPA epoxies, whereas composite containers 

6

7 


may contain BPA epoxies on the bottom of the container or in the soft foil seal that is 

intended to be discarded on first opening. 

Goodson, Summerfield & Cooper (2002) sampled four liquid formula products from easy-toopen, 

three-piece cans obtained in the United Kingdom and France. The detection limit was 

2 µg/kg, and no BPA was detected. 

Biles, McNeal & Begley (1997) reported on BPA concentrations in 14 infant formula 

products in cans (concentrates) collected in the Washington, DC, area in the USA. BPA 

concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 13.2 µg/kg, with an average of 5 µg/kg. The average “as 

consumed” was 2.6 µg/kg. 

Cao et al. (2008) reported BPA concentrations in 21 liquid infant formula products in cans (3 

RTF and 18 concentrates) collected in Ottawa, Canada, in 2007. BPA concentrations ranged 

from 2.3 to 10.2 µg/kg (average of 5.1 µg/kg). Omitting the RTF samples, the average of the 

concentrates was 5.2 µg/kg (“as consumed” average of 2.6 µg/kg). 

Cao, Corriveau & Popovic (2009b) subsequently reported on BPA concentrations in these 

same products after storage at room temperature for 10 months. The authors reported 

additional BPA migration for 9 of the 21 products, with increases ranging from 30% to 

100%. BPA concentrations in the milk-based formula products analysed in 2008 (mean of 6.8 

µg/kg) were reported to be significantly higher than those analysed in 2007 (mean of 5.0 

µg/kg), whereas the BPA concentrations in the soya-based formula products were not 

significantly different in 2008 (mean of 5.3 µg/kg) and 2007 (mean of 5.8 µg/kg). 

Kuo & Ding (2004) reported on the analysis of six infant formula and milk products (both 

powdered, presumably in composite cans) available in Taiwan, China. BPA concentrations 

ranged from not detected (ND) at 1 µg/kg (lactose-free formula) to 113 µg/kg (milk). The 

samples consisted of two infant formulas (lactose-free, ND; soya-based, 45 µg/kg) and four 

powdered milks (three normal, 44, 113 and 57 µg/kg; one hypoallergenic, 57 µg/kg). Using a 

reconstitution ratio of 135 g/l, BPA levels in formula “as consumed” were approximately 

0.3–0.4 µg/kg. 

EWG (2007) reported on BPA concentrations in six infant formula products in cans 

(concentrates) representing two brands collected in the Washington, DC, area of the USA. 

BPA concentrations ranged from ND (


The concentrations of BPA in infant formula from cans (as consumed) are summarized in 

Table 1. 

Table 1. Free BPA in infant formula from cans (as consumed) 

Reference Formula type Location Concentration range, 

mean (µg/kg) 

Goodson, 

Summerfield & 

Cooper (2002) 

Biles, McNeal & 

Begley (1997) 

Liquid United Kingdom, 

France 

Liquid 

concentrate 

Cao et al. (2008) Liquid RTF and 

concentrate 

8 

No. of 

samples 

9 


immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The mean BPA concentration was 3.4 µg/kg, with a range of 

1–7 µg/kg. 

Sun et al. (2004) reported on the analysis of free BPA in 23 human breast milk samples 

collected in Japan by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence 

detection (FD). The mean BPA concentration was 0.61 µg/kg, with a range of 0.28–0.97 

µg/kg. 

Otaka, Yasuhara & Morita (2003) reported on the analysis of free BPA in three human breast 

milk samples collected in Japan. The method consisted of base digestion, extraction and 

cleanup, derivatization and analysis by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). 

The highest free BPA concentration was 0.70 µg/kg. 

Yi, Kim & Yang (2010) evaluated two methods, LC with tandem mass spectrometry 

(MS/MS) and HPLC-FD, for the determination of BPA (free and conjugated) in 100 human 

breast milk samples collected in the Republic of Korea. They noted that while the detection 

range was broader in the HPLC-FD method, the BPA levels were lower than those for the 

LC-MS/MS method. They concluded that differences in BPA levels between the two 

methods may arise from overestimation with the LC-MS/MS method in low-BPA samples 

and some poor resolutions with the HPLC-FD method in high-BPA samples. 

2.1.2 Baby and toddler food (age 6–12 months) 

In the USA, toddler foods are primarily packaged in glass containers (2–6 dry ounces; 57– 

170 g) capped with polymer-coated metal closures or, alternatively, small plastic containers 

(~2.5 ounces; 71 g). The metal closures on the glass containers employ a PVC gasket that 

contacts both the metal lid and glass rim, thus forming a seal. The metal lid contains a “metal 

primer” coating, which does not directly contact the food, but may contain trace amounts of 

BPA. 

Few studies are available on BPA concentrations in baby and toddler food. Thomson & 

Grounds (2005) reported on BPA concentrations in infant vegetables (four types, one each) 

and desserts (three types, one each) available in Australia and packaged in glass with metal 

closures. They reported concentrations of BPA below the limit of detection of 10 µg/kg in all 

samples (Table 4). 

Table 4. BPA in infant food from closures 

Reference Medium Concentration range (µg/kg) No. of samples 

Thomson & Grounds (2005) 

Cao et al. (2009) 

LOQ, limit of quantification 

Desserts


jars with metal lids and purchased in Ottawa, Canada. The average MDL was reported as 

0.18 µg/kg for a 5 g sample. The authors made the following observations and conclusions: 

• The presence of BPA could not be confirmed and quantified in 23 of the 122 products as 

a result of interference from sample matrices. 

• For the other 99 products, the average BPA concentration was 1.1 µg/kg, with about 70% 

of the products with BPA concentrations below 1 µg/kg and about 15% of the products 

with BPA concentrations less than the MDL. 

• Across all brands, the average BPA concentrations in fruit products (0.6 µg/kg, 26 

products) and desserts (0.38 µg/kg, 9 samples) were lower than those in mixed dishes (1.1 

µg/kg, 25 samples) and vegetables (1.2 µg/kg, 39 samples). 

• One brand’s average BPA concentration (3.9 µg/kg) was higher than the average 

concentrations for the other brands (0.54–1.1 µg/kg). The highest BPA concentration for 

all samples was 7.2 µg/kg (Table 4). 

2.1.3 Food for young children (age 1–3 years) 

As noted above, the foods consumed by children, including those from 1 to 3 years of age, 

may include toddler food (discussed above) as well as “adult” foods. Wilson et al. (2003) 

reported on BPA concentrations in prepared food served to nine children at home and at 

child-care centres in North Carolina, USA. BPA concentrations ranged from less than 0.001 

to 1.16 µg/kg in liquid food and from 0.172 to 4.19 µg/kg in solid food. 

In a larger study in two cities in the USA, Wilson et al. (2007) took duplicate plate samples of 

the solid and liquid food served to children during a 48-hour sampling period in North 

Carolina and Ohio, USA. At home, the adult caregiver provided the same amount of the same 

food and beverages, excluding drinking-water, consumed by their child over the sampling 

period. The teachers provided duplicate servings of food and beverages consumed by the 

participating children while at day care. Because all children in a given classroom were 

served the same food on the same day, only one duplicate sample was provided for each 

classroom on a given day. If a child brought his/her food from home, the home caregiver was 

asked to provide a duplicate sample of that food. Composite solid and liquid food samples 

were collected separately in 2-litre glass containers. These containers were placed in provided 

coolers with blue ice until they were picked up by field staff. BPA in food was determined by 

GC-MS, with an estimated MDL of 0.3 ng/ml liquid food and 0.8 ng/g solid food. The BPA 

concentrations measured in the liquid and solid children’s food are shown in Table 5. 

Table 5. BPA in children’s food 

Reference Medium Concentration range 

(µg/kg) 

Wilson et al. 

(2007) 

NC, North Carolina; OH, Ohio 

Solid food NC:

2.1.4 Adult food (age >1 year) 

(a) Canned food 

11 


Several publications were identified on BPA concentrations in a variety of canned foods and 

beverages originating from several different countries. The publications and pertinent data, 

including number of samples analysed, average, standard deviation (SD) and range of the 

BPA concentrations, and per cent detects, are summarized in Table 6. Table 6 contains no 

canned formula or baby food. The statistics were generated using all of the available data and 

assuming half the reported detection limit for each study. 

Table 6. Summary of BPA concentrations in canned food 

Reference Country of 

origin 

Bendito et al. 

(2009) 

Braunrath et al. 

(2005) 

Brotons et al. 

(1995) 

Cao, Corriveau 

& Popovic 

(2009a) 


& Popovic 

(2010b) 


& Popovic 

(2010a) 

Consumers 

Union (2009) 

Average ± SD 

(µg/kg) 

LOD/LOQ 

(µg/kg) 

Range 

(µg/kg) 

% detects No. of 

samples 

Spain 73.5 ± 54.8 7.1


Table 6 (continued) 


origin 

Horie et al. 

(1999) 

Imanaka et al. 

(2001) 

Kang & Kondo 

(2003) 

Kataoka, Ise & 

Narimatsu 

(2002) 

Kawamura, 

Sano & 

Yamada (1999) 

Maragou et al. 

(2006) 

Munguia-Lopez 

et al. (2005) 

Podlipna & 

Cichna-Markl 

(2007) 

Poustka et al. 

(2007) 

Rastkari et al. 

(2010) 

Sajiki et al. 

(2007) 

Shao et al. 

(2007) 

Sun et al. 

(2006) 

Thomson & 

Grounds (2005) 

Vinas et al. 

(2010) 

Yonekubo, 

Hayakawa & 

Sajiki (2008) 

Average ± SD 

(µg/kg) 

12 

LOD/LOQ 

(µg/kg) 

Range 

(µg/kg) 


samples 

Unknown 30.5 ± 56.7 0.5–2 ND–212.1 53 47 

China, Greece, 

Japan, New 

Zealand, 

South Africa, 

USA 

52 ± 116.5 0.5–1 ND–602 95 28 

Japan 95.0 ± 101.5 1–3 30–212 100 3 

Japan



origin 

Yoshida et al. 

(2001) 

China, 

Indonesia, 

Japan, USA 

Average ± SD 

(µg/kg) 

13 

LOD/LOQ 

(µg/kg) 


Range 

(µg/kg) 


samples 

15.8 ± 23.7 5–10 ND–95.3 29 28 

LOD, limit of detection; LOQ, limit of quantification; ND, not detected; SD, standard deviation 

a Averaged data provided. No LOD/LOQ given. 

Total N = 983 

The publication details, including individual sample identities, country of origin and BPA 

concentrations, were tabulated and further categorized according to food classes, including 

food types such as fruits, vegetables, grains, meats, drinks and desserts. Table 7 gives the 

average, standard deviation and range of BPA concentrations, as well as the total number of 

samples. 

Table 7. Summary of BPA concentrations in canned food by food class 

Food class Average ± SD (µg/kg) No. of samples 

Fruits 9.8 ± 21.8 70 

Vegetables 32.4 ± 81.1 305 

Grains 42.7 ± 71.3 22 

Meat (no soups or seafood) 69.6 ± 125.1 70 

Soups 49.1 ± 67.0 66 

Seafood 26.6 ± 33.6 166 

Desserts 26.7 ± 55.3 11 

Drinks—carbonated (cola, beer, 

soda, tonic) 

Drinks—non-carbonated (tea, 

coffee, any other) 

1.0 ± 1.5 128 

23.2 ± 50.3 131 

Overall 26.8 ± 63.7 983 

SD, standard deviation 

The recent opinion of the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA, 2010) on BPA used two 

sources of BPA concentrations in foods and beverages for the exposures analysis. One data 

set was obtained from French trade associations (referred to as the French data, n = 319), and 

the second set was abstracted from the European literature (referred to as the European 

literature data, n = 181). 

For the French data, AFSSA (2010) obtained BPA contamination data from the following 

sources: 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

French National Association of Food Industries (ANIA), n = 5, limit of quantification 

(LOQ) = 0.1 µg/kg; 

French Association of Food-Processing Companies (ADEPALE), n = 66, limit of 

detection (LOD) = 2 µg/kg; 

French Soft Drink Association (SNBR), n = 144, LOQ = 0.5–2 µg/kg; 

UFC-Que Choisir Consumers’ Association (May 2010), n = 67, LOQ = 0.5–10 µg/kg; 

French Brewers’ Association, n = 5, LOD = 10 µg/kg;


•• 

•• 

French National Trade Association for Fruit Juices and Nectars (UNIJUS), n = 9, LOQ = 

0.1–10 µg/kg; 

L’Alliance 7, n = 23, LOD = 0.1 µg/kg, LOQ = 10 µg/kg. 

AFSSA (2010) noted that sometimes the only information on BPA concentrations in food 

that was available was below the LOD or LOQ. About 4% of the values were reported as 

non-detected, whereas almost 60% were not quantified. The LOD and LOQ values varied 

according to the analysis from 0.1 to 10 µg/kg. The raw data were not contained in the 

AFSSA (2010) opinion. 

Overall, BPA concentrations varied from the LOD or LOQ to 128 µg/kg for the highest value 

in a canned mixed food dish. About 4.4% of values were not detected, and 58.6% were not 

quantified. AFSSA (2010) concluded that the maximum values varied between the various 

food categories as follows: 17 µg/kg for canned beverages and soft drinks, 39 µg/kg for 

canned cooked pasta such as ravioli, 80 µg/kg for canned fish, 93 µg/kg for canned 

vegetables and 128 µg/kg for canned cooked dishes such as cassoulet. 

For the European literature data, the BPA concentrations were taken from Braunrath et al. 

(2005), Brenn-Struckhofova & Cichna-Markl (2006), Casajuana & Lacorte (2004) and the 

United Kingdom Food Standards Agency (FSA). The FSA data (dated 2001) appear not to be 

published and are not included in Table 7. 

AFSSA (2010) further categorized both data sets according to food groups as shown in Table 

8. For the non-detects, the statistics were determined in two ways: 

1) LOD and LOQ values set equal to zero. (The resulting statistics were used for their “low 

exposure estimate”.) 

2) LOD and LOQ set according to the values given above. (The resulting statistics were 

used for their “high exposure estimate”.) 

The statistics that AFSSA (2010) used for the “low” and “high” exposure estimates for the 

French and European data are shown in Table 8. 

Table 8. Summary of samples used in AFSSA (2010) analysis a 

Food group 

Water heated in baby 

bottles 

French data (µg/kg) European literature data (µg/kg) 

N Average ± SD 

(low; high) 

36 0.5 ± 0.8; 0.8 ± 

0.6 

Baby food 23 2 ± 3.8; 6.4 ± 

4.7 

14 

Range (low; 

high) 

0–3.4; 0.5– 

3.4 

0–15.8; 0.1– 

15.8 


(low; high) 

— — — 

— — — 

Powdered milk 3 0 ± 0; 10 ± 0 0–0; 10–10 8 0.1 ± 0.1; 1.6 ± 

0.18 

Meat products — — — 12 128.3 ± 155.7; 

128.3 ± 155.7 

Canned fish 30 18.1 ± 19.7; 

19.2 ± 18.9 

Canned vegetables 32 26.4 ± 18.2; 

26.7 ± 17.8 

0–80.0; 2.0– 

80.0 

0–93.4; 7.0– 

93.4 

— — — 

— — — 

Range (low; 

high) 

0–0.3; 0.3– 

2.0 

16.0–420.0; 

16.0–420.0


Food group 

15 


French data (µg/kg) European literature data (µg/kg) 


(low; high) 

Range (low; 

high) 


(low; high) 

Canned pulses — — 15 25.5 ± 8.4; 

25.5 ± 8.4 

Bottled water 8 0.3 ± 0.7; 0.5 ± 

0.7 

Non-alcoholic beverages, 

soft drinks and colas 

156 0.5 ± 2.1; 1.8 ± 

2.1 

0–2.0; 0.1– 

2.0 

0–17.3; 0.5– 

17.3 

— — — 

— — — 

Soups 1 77.6; 77.6 77.6 32 13.1 ± 12.5; 

14.0 ± 11.6 

Desserts 1 29.0; 29.0 29.0 8 18.6 ± 12.4; 

18.9 ± 12.0 

Canned mashed & cooked 

fruits 

Sauces 6 13.4 ± 6.7; 

13.4 ± 6.7 

1 13.0; 13.0 13.0 19 13.8 ± 11.3; 

13.8 ± 11.3 

2.4–21.0; 

2.4–21.0 

— — — 

Milk — — — 8 1.5 ± 0.7; 1.5 ± 

0.7 

Condensed milk — — — 2 12.5 ± 2.1; 

12.5 ± 2.1 

Wine — — — 59 0.4 ± 0.4; 0.5 ± 

0.4 

Beer & cider 6 0 ± 0; 8.5 ± 3.7 0–0; 1.0–10.0 11 0.5 ± 0.8; 2.3 ± 

1.6 

Mixed food dishes 6 86.5 ± 40.1; 

86.5 ± 40.1 

Cooked pasta 10 30.1 ± 6.9; 

30.1 ± 6.9 

35.0–128.0; 

35.0–128.0 

21.0–39.0; 

21.0–39.0 

— — — 

7 15.4 ± 17.0; 

16.7 ± 15.8 

Total samples 319 — — 181 — — 

Range (low; 

high) 

9.0–35.0; 

9.0–35.0 

0–37.6; 2.0– 

37.6 

0–29.7; 2.0– 

29.7 

5.0–38.0; 

5.0–38.0 

1.0–2.6; 

1.0–2.6 

11.0–14.0; 

11.0–14.0 

0–2.1; 0.1– 

2.1 

0–1.5; 1.5– 

7.0 

0–41.0; 2.0– 

41.0 

a “Low” means that the statistics were derived with LOD and LOQ values set equal to zero. “High” means that 

LOD and LOQ were set according to the values given. 

The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan (MHLW, 2010) conducted two 

surveys, in 2008 and 2009, to measure BPA migration from PC food containers (discussed 

below) and BPA concentrations in canned foods. The 2008 fiscal year survey included 

canned foods analysed using GC-MS/MS with an LOD of 1 ng/g food and an LOQ in the 

range of 3–5 ng/g food, depending on the canned food matrix. The 2009 survey included 

canned foods and beverages, retort pouch foods (including drinks) and foods for infants and 

young children (i.e. infant powdered formula and baby foods). The 2009 analyses were 

conducted using LC-MS/MS with a method LOD of 0.044 ng/ml (signal-to-noise ratio 

[S/N] = 3) and an LOQ of 0.44 ng/ml (S/N = 10). In both the 2008 and 2009 analyses, actual 

LOQs varied depending on the matrix, as described below. 

For canned food in both 2008 and 2009, MHLW (2010) investigated a total of 278 samples: 

106 seafood; 69 vegetables; 54 sauces, soup and other cooked foods; 29 meat; and 20 fruits. 

BPA was not detected in the canned fruits at an LOQ of 5 µg/kg. Of the other 258 foods, 21 

had BPA concentrations greater than 50 µg/kg, 237 (92%) had concentrations less than 50 

µg/kg and 120 had non-detectable BPA concentrations. The highest values were 460 µg/kg,


detected in canned meat (2008), and 440 µg/kg, in canned cooked food (2009). With regard 

to the types of canned foods (e.g. canned soup, canned meat), the highest detected values 

were 240 µg/kg (2008) and 440 µg/kg (2009) in canned soup and 460 µg/kg (2008) and 26 

µg/kg (2009) in canned meat. 

For 2009, retort pouch foods (including drinks) and foods for infants and young children (i.e. 

infant powdered formula and baby foods) were included. Eighty retort pouches were tested, 

including those for curry, pasta and seasoning sauces. The construction of the pouches was 

not discussed in the report. BPA was detected in only two curry sauces at levels below 33 

µg/kg. The LOQ was reported as 5 µg/kg. Twenty samples of powdered formula (10 cans and 

10 plastic) were analysed, in addition to 30 samples of baby foods (12 pouches, 8 steel cups, 

5 glass and 5 dry). BPA concentrations were not detected at an LOQ of 5 µg/kg (powdered 

formula) and 0.7 µg/kg (baby foods). 

For beverages in 2009, MHLW (2010) investigated 42 beverages, including 20 canned 

coffee, 10 canned tea, 10 canned juice and carbonated beverages, and 2 drink-type canned 

soups. An LOQ was set at 1 µg/kg for beverages and 5 µg/kg for drink-type canned soups. 

BPA was detected in 10 of the 20 coffee samples at concentrations ranging from 1 to 4 µg/kg 

and in 2 of the 10 tea samples at concentrations of 1 and 7 µg/kg. No BPA was detected from 

10 canned juice/carbonated drinks or two canned soups. 

An unpublished study from China (J. Xiao, B. Shao & Y.N. Wu, Chinese Center for Disease 

Control and Prevention, unpublished data, 2010) reported on the analysis of 30 canned foods 

(number of samples), including corn (1), mushrooms (3), corn shoot (1), green beans (1), 

ketchup (1), Chinese cabbage (1), bamboo shoots (1), fried tofu (1), beef (2), pork (2), lunch 

meat (3), sauces (3) and fish (10). The analysis was conducted using LC-MS/MS, but no 

additional information was reported on the method. BPA concentrations were all below 0.3 

µg/kg. 

Schecter et al. (2010) recently reported on the analysis of 105 foods collected in Dallas, 

Texas, USA, including fresh and canned foods, foods sold in plastic packaging and pet foods 

in cans and plastic packaging. BPA was determined by extraction, derivatization and analysis 

by GC-MS with isotopic dilution. BPA was detected in 63 of 105 samples, including fresh 

turkey, canned green beans and canned infant formula. Ninety-three of these samples were 

triplicates, which had similar detected levels. Detected levels ranged from 0.23 to 65 µg/kg. 

The authors claimed that the observed levels were not associated with the type of food or 

packaging, but did vary with pH. 

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ, 2011) commissioned an analytical survey 

to determine BPA concentrations in a range of foods and beverages available in the 

Australian market and packaged in plastic or cans. The method was GC-MS using isotopic 

dilution calibration with a recovery standard. The LOQs were 0.3, 0.6 and 3 µg/kg, according 

to the food matrix. In the survey, 70 foods and beverages in a variety of packaging materials 

were analysed, including (number of samples) infant formula (14 powdered, 1 liquid), infant 

food (2 canned, 8 glass jar with lid), beverages (2 canned, 4 plastic, 12 glass, 3 aseptic) and 

adult foods (7 canned, 18 plastic containers and film, 4 glass). The beverages included water, 

milk, juice, wine and beer, whereas the foods included vegetables, oils, peanut butter, yogurt, 

prepared meals and frozen items. BPA was identified in 31% of the samples at concentrations 

above the LOQ, ranging from 1 to 290 µg/kg. The highest detected levels were in two infant 

16

17 


dairy desserts (100 and 290 µg/kg) and canned tuna (92 µg/kg). FSANZ (2011) concluded 

that the results of this survey showed that a limited number of samples contained BPA. 

(b) Non-canned food (age > 1 year) 

Analyses of BPA in non-canned food items are limited. 

Basheer, Lee & Tan (2004) reported on BPA concentrations in seafood purchased in 

Singapore. Mean BPA concentrations were as follows (n = 5): prawns (3.3 µg/kg), crabs 

(213.1 µg/kg), blood cockle (56.5 µg/kg), white clam (27.4 µg/kg), squid (118.9 µg/kg) and 

carangid fish (


Table 9. BPA in tap water and bottled water 

Reference Country Tap/bottle Concentration range 

(mean) (µg/l) 

Amiridou & Voutsa 

(2011) 

Greece 

PET bottles 0.004–0.008 

(0.0046) 

18.5-litre PC 

carboys 

Biles et al. (1997) USA 18.5-litre PC 

carboys 

18 

No. of samples 

0.11–0.17 1 

0. 1–4.7 (1.8) 6 

Boyd et al. (2003) Canada, USA Tap water

2.2.1 Polycarbonate 

19 


BPA can leach from PC into liquid foods because of two different processes: 1) diffusion of 

residual BPA present in PC after the manufacturing process and 2) hydrolysis of the polymer 

catalysed by hydroxide in contact with aqueous food and simulants (Ehlert, Beumer & Groot, 

2008; Mercea, 2009). For dry foods, diffusion is the only relevant process. Release of BPA 

from PC containers into food depends on the contact time, temperature and type of food. 

Food simulants are often used in release studies to represent the different types of food; for 

example, 50% ethanol in water is used as a simulant for milk, and 3% acetic acid in water is 

used as a simulant for fruit juice. 

A review of the scientific literature and recent information from some European Union (EU) 

National Reference Laboratories on food contact materials show that there are relatively few 

studies on the release of BPA from PC into real food matrices. Tables 10–14 show data on 

the migration of BPA into food and various food simulants (adapted from Hoekstra & 

Simoneau, 2010). Within a given table, the data are ordered according to 1) food or food 

simulant and 2) contact time–temperature conditions. The analysis of migration is done 

mainly by HPLC-FD (this is not mentioned in the tables). Other analytical techniques are 

indicated. 

BPA was not detected in fruit juice (ECB, 2003), milk formula (Mountfort et al., 1997; 

EURL-FCM, 2009) or soup (Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation, 1998) that had been 

in contact with PC articles. It must be mentioned that results for low levels of release depend 

on the LOD of BPA in food matrices (typically in the range of 0.01–0.03 mg/kg). Instead, 

evidence of BPA release comes from the much larger number of studies that were conducted 

using PC articles, mostly baby bottles, tested with food simulants and tap water. BPA may be 

released substantially into oil-based food simulants at levels up to 1.5 mg/l (Biles et al., 1997; 

Howe & Borodinsky, 1998; Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation, 1998; ECB, 2003; 

Wong, Leo & Seah, 2005). 

Biles et al. (1997) showed that the release of BPA increases with the ethanol concentration in 

aqueous simulants, from 0.87 to 5.9 mg/l (at 65 °C after 10 days) over the range of 8–50% 

ethanol. Less extreme time–temperature conditions resulted in lower release (Howe & 

Borodinsky, 1998; Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation, 1998; Kawamura et al., 1998; 

ECB, 2003, 2008; Wong, Leo & Seah, 2005; EURL-FCM, 2009; VWA, 2008; Kubwabo et 

al., 2009). 

Most literature studies report a release of BPA from PC into 3% acetic acid below the LOD 

(Howe & Borodinsky, 1998; Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation, 1998; ECB, 2003; 

VWA, 2005, 2008; Maragou et al., 2008; Sim & Jianhua, 2008; EURL-FCM, 2009) and 

some above (D’Antuono et al., 2001; ECB, 2003). 

The release of BPA from PC baby bottles into deionized water and tap water was studied in 

detail by several research groups (see Table 14). The highest BPA concentration reported was 

1 mg/l at 65 °C for 10 days (Biles et al., 1997). 

Very few studies reported on the release of BPA from PC at more than two temperatures. 

Biedermann-Brem & Grob (2009) systematically studied the effect of temperature and pH on 

the release of BPA from PC baby bottles into water by heating in a microwave for 5 minutes. 

The BPA concentrations in tap water increased from less than 0.0001 mg/l at 50 °C to 0.0006


Table 10. Overview of BPA migration from PC into food and other food simulants 

References Samples Pretreatment Time/temperature Simulant Migration method LOD (mg/l) Results (mg/l) a 

Mountfort (1997) 

[cited in ECB, 2003] 

Mountfort et al. 

(1997) 

— 2 h sterilization, 3× rinsing 0.5 min @ 100 °C + 

20 min @ 20 °C 

— 2 h sterilization, 3× rinsing 0.5 min @ 100 °C + 

20 min @ 20 °C 

EURL-FCM (2009) 11 brands Hand washed with water 

+ domestic detergent, 

rinsed with tap water, left 

to dry 

Bayer AG (1999) 


Japan Food 

Chemical Research 

Foundation (1998) 

Japan Food 

Chemical Research 


Biedermann-Brem, 

Grob & Fjeldal 

(2008) 

2 h @ 70 °C + 24 h 

@ 40 °C 

20 

Fruit juice 250 ml; microwave 

(750 W) 

Milk formula 250 ml; microwave 

(750 W) 

Milk formula Preheated 

simulant used 

0.03


21 


References Samples Pretreatment Time/temperature Simulant Migration method LOD (mg/l) Results (mg/l) a 

Maia et al. 

(2009) 

1 brand 

(?) 

Rinsing with distilled water and 

sterilization 

LOD, limit of detection; LOQ, limit of quantification; S/V, surface to volume ratio 

a Numbers in parentheses indicate nth successive migration. 

Source: Adapted from Hoekstra & Simoneau (2011) 

1 h @ 120 °C Detergent solution (10 

g/l) 

Pieces (S/V = 

20/dm); oven; 

rinsing of pieces 

with distilled water 

between migration 

tests 

0.005 0.11 (1) 

0.024 (2) 

0.030 (3) 

0.018 (4)


Table 11. Overview of BPA migration from PC into oil or similar simulants 

Reference Samples Pretreatment Time/temperature Simulant Migration method LOD (mg/l) Results (mg/l) 

Wong, Leo & Seah (2005) 28 brands Not reported 

Howe & Borodinsky (1998) Test piece Not reported 

8 h @ 100 °C Corn oil Rim (S/V = 6.45/dm); oven 0.0008

Table 12. Overview of BPA migration from PC into ethanol solutions 

23 


Reference Samples Pretreatment Time/temperature Simulant Migration method LOD (mg/l) Results (mg/l) a 

Biles et al. 

(1997) 

CSL (2004) 

[cited in ECB, 

2003] 

Howe & 

Borodinsky 

(1998) 

Wong, Leo & 

Seah (2005) 

Simoneau 

Roeder & 

Anklam (2000) 


2003] 


Seah (2005) 

Howe & 

Borodinsky 

(1998) 

Biles et al. 

(1997) 

1 brand Not reported 

10 days @ 65 °C 8% 

ethanol 

30 min @ 100 °C 10% 

ethanol 

2 brands Sterilization 1 h @ 70 °C 10% 

ethanol 

Test piece Not reported 6 h @ 100 °C 10% 

ethanol 

28 brands Not reported 8 h @ 70 °C 

10% 

ethanol 

1 brand Not reported 24 h @ 50 °C 10% 

ethanol 

28 brands Not reported 3 days @ 70 °C 10% 

ethanol 

Test piece Not reported 10 days @ 49 °C 10% 

ethanol 

1 brand Not reported 10 days @ 65 °C 10% 

ethanol 

Test pieces; S/V = ~10/dm; 

oven; shaking 


oven; shaking 

Not reported 

~0.87 

~2.5 (1) 

~0.84 (2) 

~0.48 (3) 

~0.48 (4) 

Not reported Not reported





Seah (2005) 

D’Antuono et al. 

(2001) 

Kawamura et al. 

(1998) 

Japan Food 

Chemical 

Research 

Foundation 

(1998) 

EURL-FCM 

(2009) 

Kubwabo et al. 

(2009) 

28 brands Not reported 10 days @ 70 °C 10% 

ethanol 

4 brands Rinsing with distilled 

water 2× 

2 rice 

bowls 

15 

tableware 

2 h @ 80 °C 15% 

ethanol 

Not reported 30 min @ 60 °C 20% 

ethanol 

Not reported 30 min @ 60 °C 20% 

ethanol 

24 

Rim (S/V = 6.45/dm); oven 0.0008 mg/dm 2


25 



Biles et al. 

(1997) 

Simoneau, 

Roeder & 

Anklam (2000) 

Biles et al. 

(1997) 


ethanol 

1 brand Not reported 24 h @ 50 °C 95% 

ethanol 


ethanol 


oven; no shaking 

Filled with half volume; water 

bath horizontal shaker at 140 

cycles/min 


oven; no shaking 

Not reported ~5.9 

0.01


Table 13. Overview of BPA migration from PC into 3% acetic acid 

Reference Samples Pretreatment Time/temperature Simulant Migration 

method 

EURL-FCM (2009) 7 brands Washing with tap water and 

detergent (pH = 6.7), brushing, 

sterilization for 10 min @ 100 °C 

Maragou et al. (2008) 6 brands 12 cycles of brushing with 

detergent; sterilization for 10 min 

@ 100 °C 

30 min @ 100 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Filled @ boiling + 

45 min @ ambient 

26 

3% acetic 

acid 

CSL (2004) 2 brands Sterilization 1 h @ 70 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Maragou et al. (2008) 2 brands 

10 cycles of machine 

dishwashing (60 °C) with 

detergent; rinsing with distilled 

water; sterilization for 10 min @ 

95 °C 

4 cycles of hand dishwashing 

with brush and detergent; rinsing 

with distilled water; sterilization 

for 10 min @ 95 °C 

1 cycle of rinsing with distilled 

water 

2 h @ 70 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

EURL-FCM (2009) 5 Not reported 2 h @ 70 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Hot filling to 

capacity 

LOD (mg/l) Results (mg/l) a 

0.0001 0.000 28 (1) 

0.0012 (2) 

0.0058 (3) 

120–250 ml 0.0018



method 

D'Antuono et al. 

(2001) 

Earls, Clay & 

Braybrook (2000) 


11 brands Hand-washed with water and 

domestic detergent, rinsed with 

tap water, left to dry 

2 h @ 70 °C + 24 h 

@ 40 °C 

4 brands Rinsing with distilled water 2× 2 h @ 80 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

21 new and 

12 used 

bottles 

Steam sterilization Filled @ boiling + 

24 h @ 5 °C + ?? 

@ 40 °C 

27 

3% acetic 

acid 

VWA (2008) 30 Not reported 24 h @ 40 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

VWA (2005) 22 Not reported 24 h @ 40 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Sim & Jianhua (2008) 2 Not reported 24 h @ 40 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

EURL-FCM (2009) 10 Not reported 24 h @ 40 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Simoneau, Roeder & 

Anklam (2000) 

1 brand Not reported 24 h @ 50 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

Preheated 

simulant used 

Not reported; 

S/V = 10/dm 

100 ml; 

refrigerator; 

boiling water 

bath (40 °C) 

European 

Standard EN 

14350-2 

European 


14350-2 

European 


14350-2 

European 


14350-2 

Filled with half 

volume; water 

bath 

horizontal 

shaker at 140 



0.03 mg/l 

(LOQ) 

0.0002 

(HPLC-VD) 

0.01 (HPLC- 

DA) 




method 

Howe & Borodinsky 

(1998) 

Japan Food Chemical 

Research Foundation 

(1998) 

Test piece Not reported 10 days @ 49 °C 3% acetic 

acid 

15 tableware Not reported 30 min @ 60°C 4% acetic 

acid 

28 

cycles/min 

S/V = 

6.45/dm; oven 


0.0008 

mg/dm 2 

(LOQ) 

Table 14. Overview of BPA migration from PC into various types of water 


method 

Biedermann-Brem 

& Grob (2009) 

Bottle Not reported 

29 


LOD 

(mg/l) 

Results (mg/l) a 

1 min @ 100 °C Tap water (pH 7.5; 37°f b ) 200 ml; 0.0005




method 

Ehlert, Beumer & 

Groot (2008) 

18 brands Immersion in boiling 

water for 5 min; 

drying for 3 h 

1 min after reaching 

100 °C + 8 min @ 

20 °C 

Lim et al. (2009) Container Not reported Filled @ 100 °C + 10 

min @ 20 °C 

O. Zoller, Swiss 

Federal Office of 

Public Health, 

unpublished data, 

2004–2005 

20 bottles 15 min sterilization in 

boiling water 


boiling water 


water @ 120 °C 

Filled @ boiling + ?? 

min @ 20 °C until 

40 °C 

1–2 min @ boiling + 

?? min @ 20 °C until 

40 °C 

1–2 min @ boiling + 

?? min @ 20 °C until 

40 °C 

30 

HPLC-grade water 100 ml or 

200 ml 

(bottles > 

200 ml); 

washing of 

emptied 

bottle 3 × 50 

ml water for 

15 s + 

drying for 

3 h between 

successive 

migration 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

0.0001 

(SPE- 

GC-MS) 




method 


& Grob (2009) 

Bottle Not reported 10 min @ 100 °C 

Lim et al. (2009) Container Not reported 

Takahashi (1998) 


2003] 

MHLW (2010) 

Japan Food 

Chemical 

Research 


Filled @ 100 °C + 20 

min @ 20 °C 

Filled @ 100 °C + 30 

min @ 20 °C 

31 


LOD 

(mg/l) 


Tap water (pH 7.7; 35°f) 200 ml; 0.0005 0.0075–0.0011 

microwave 

Tap water (pH 7.5; 37°f) heating 

0.023 

Boiled tap water (pH 7.5; 37°f) 

Boiled tap water 200 ml 0.001 

0.14 

0.0018 

0.0022 

2 bottles Not reported 30 min @ 50 °C Water 200 ml Not 0.000 000 8– 

reported 0.000 018 

1 mug 

4 nursing 

bottles 

8 drinking 

bottles 

15 eating 

utensils 

30 min @ 95 °C 

Not reported 30 min @ 60 °C Water Not reported 0.000 

044 (LC- 

MS) 

0.000 056 




method 

Yoshida et al. 

(2003) 

Kawamura et al. 

(1998) 

Takahashi (1998) 

32 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

4 brands Not reported 30 min @ 95 °C Boiling MilliQ water Not reported 5 × 10 −7 

4 bottles Not reported 30 min @ 95 °C Water 

100 ml; S/V 

= 9.1–12/dm 

200 ml; S/V 

= 9.2–15 

3 mugs 150 ml; S/V 

= 8.7/dm 

Measuring 

cup 

2 rice bowls 

500 ml; S/V 

= 5.6/dm 

150 ml; S/V 

= 6/dm 

(HPLC- 

CL) 

0.0005 


0.000 008– 

0.000 19 (1) 

0.000 003– 

0.000 052 (2) 

0.000 001– 

0.000 018 (3) 



method 

MHLW (2010) 

Chang, Chou & 

Lee (2005) 


(2001) 

4 nursing 

bottles 

8 drinking 

bottles 

15 eating 

utensils 

33 


LOD 

(mg/l) 

(SPME- 

GC-MS) 

Not reported 30 min @ 95 °C Water Not reported 4.4 × 

10 −5 

3 bottles Not reported 30 min @ 95 °C + 

cooling to 20 °C 


water 2× 

EURL-FCM (2009) 7 brands Washing with tap 

water and detergent 

(pH = 6.7), brushing, 

sterilization for 10 

min @ 100 °C 

Lazaro et al. 

(2009) 

1 brand Rinsing with distilled 

water 2× 

(LC-MS) 

MilliQ water 150 ml Not 

reported 

(SPME- 

GC-MS) 

30 min @ 100 °C Distilled water Not 

reported; 

S/V = 10/dm 

30 min @ 100 °C Deionized water Filling to 

capacity 

30 min @ 100 °C Distilled water 250 ml; 

oven? 

0.0002 

(HPLC- 

VD) 


(new) 

0.000 001– 

0.000 006 5 (old) 




method 

Krishnan et al. 

(1993) 


(2008) 

1 brand Not reported 30 min @ 120– 

125 °C; total cycle 

time 75 min 

6 brands 5 cycles of brushing 

with detergent; 

sterilization for 10 

min @ 100 °C 

Filled @ 100 °C + 45 

min @ ambient 

34 

Distilled water? 250 ml; after 

10 use 

cycles with 

boiling tap 

water (10 

min), 

brushing 

and rinsing; 

oven? 

Tap water (pH 6.9; total alkalinity 

59 mg/l) 

Tap water (pH 7.6; total alkalinity 

499 mg/l) 

250 ml; 

oven? 

250 ml; 

oven? 

Distilled water 500 ml; 

autoclave 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

ED) 

Not 

reported 

(RA) 


0.0036 

0.0037 

0.0091 

0.003 

MilliQ water 120–250 ml 0.0024 0.0039–0.014 (1) 

0.0026–0.013 (2) 



method 

Biedermann-Brem, 

Grob & Fjeldal 

(2008) 

4 brands Not reported 1 h @ 80 °C Tap water (pH 6) 


h @ 20 °C 

Brede et al. (2003) 12 brands Rinsing with boiling 

water; simulation of 

use by dishwashing 

at pH 10.5–12 


& Grob (2009) 

EURL-FCM (2009) 

35 

100 ml in 

bottle, 

contact with 

all surfaces 

of bottle by 

inclined 

rotation in 

water bath 


LOD 

(mg/l) 


(8) 




method 


(2008) 


(2001) 

2 brands 

sterilization oven; rinsing 

of pieces 

with distilled 

water 

between 

migration 

tests 

10 cycles of machine 

dishwashing (60 °C) 

with detergent; 

rinsing with distilled 

water; sterilization 

for 10 min @ 95 °C 

4 cycles of hand 

dishwashing with 

brush and detergent; 

rinsing with distilled 

water; sterilization 

for 10 min @ 95 °C 

1 cycle of rinsing 

with distilled water 


water 2× 


h @ 20 °C 


& Grob (2009) 

36 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

2 h @ 70 °C MilliQ water 120–250 ml 0.0024 

2 h @ 80 °C Distilled water Not 

reported; 

S/V = 10/dm 

0.0002 

(HPLC- 

VD) 


0.024 (2) 

0.030 (3) 

0.018 (4) 



method 


h @ 20 °C 



(pH 6.7), brushing, 

sterilization 10 min 

@ 100 °C 

Hanai (1997) [cited 

in ECB, 2003] 

Howe & 

Borodinsky (1998) 


(2009) 


& Grob (2009) 

Hanai (1997) [cited 

in ECB, 2003] 

Earls, Clay & 

Braybrook (2000) 

37 

heating 


LOD 

(mg/l) 

Boiled tap water 200 ml 0.001 0.0026 

4 h @ 100 °C Deionized water Filling to 

capacity 

6 brands Not reported 5 h @ 26 °C Purified water Not reported 0.002 

(GC- 

MS) 

Test piece Not reported 6 h @ 100 °C Water S/V = 

6.45/dm; 

oven 

12 brands Rinsing 3× with 

HPLC-grade water 

Bottle Not reported Overnight @ 

ambient 

6 brands Not reported Filled @ 95 °C + 

overnight @ ambient 

21 new and 

12 used 

bottles 

Steam sterilization Filled @ boiling + 24 

h @ 5 °C + ?? @ 40 

°C 


0.0001 0.0061–0.026 (1) 

0.0094–0.061 (2) 

0.0094–0.059 (3) 

0.0008 

mg/dm 2 

(LOQ) 

8 h @ 40 °C HPLC-grade water Oven 4 × 10 −8 

Tap water (pH 7.4; 22°f) 200 ml 

preboiled 

water in 

bottle 

(GC- 

MS/MS) 

Purified water Not reported 0.002 

(GC- 

MS) 

Water 100 ml; 

refrigerator; 

boiling water 




method 

Le et al. (2008) 1 brand (new 

+ old bottles) 

Cao & Corriveau 

(2008b) 

Environmental 

Defence (2008) 

[cited in 

Environment 

Canada & Health 

Canada, 2008] 

Rinsing with 1 litre of 

distilled water; 

brushing with 

alkaline detergent; 

6 rinses with 1 litre of 

distilled water; 2 

rinses with 100 ml 

HPLC-grade water; 

3 rinses with 100 ml 

methanol 

Bottle heated to 100 

°C + filled @ 22 °C + 

24 h @ 22 °C 

Filled @ boiling + 24 

h @ 22 °C 

5 brands Rinsing with water Filled @ boiling + 24 

h @ 22 °C 

38 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

bath (40 °C) (used) 


24 h @ 22 °C HPLC-grade water 100 ml; 0.000 05 0.000 08– 


rotation of 

bottle (S/V = 

48/dm) 

(ELISA) 0.000 36 

Boiling tap water Filled to 

maximum 

capacity 

0.0005 

(SPME- 

GC-MS) 

9 bottles Not reported 24 h @ 20 °C Water Not reported Not 

reported 

Li et al. (2010) 4 brands Not reported 24 h @ 24 °C MilliQ water 240 ml; 

water bath; 

aluminium 

foil against 

photolysis 

Tan & Mustafa 

(2003) 

? brands Rinsing with distilled 

water 

24 h @ 25 °C Distilled water 100 or 250 

ml 

7 × 10 −7 

(SPE- 

GC-MS) 

0.001 

(GC- 

MS) 

0.0023–0.0046 

(new) 

0.000 66 (used) 

0.0038–0.0077 

(new) 

0.0019 (used) 

0.0017–0.0041 

LOD–0.000 06 



method 

VWA (2005) 22 According to 

instructions 

Sim & Jianhua 

(2008) 

Filled @ 80 °C + 

24 h @ 25 °C 

24 h @ 40 °C Water European 


14350-2 

2 Not reported 24 h @ 40 °C Water European 


14350-2 



(pH 6.7), brushing, 

sterilization 10 min 

@ 100 °C 


(2009) 



24 h @ 40 °C Deionized water European 


14350-2 

39 


LOD 

(mg/l) 


(used) 

LOD–0.000 13 

mg/dm 2 (new) 

0.000 011– 

0.0026 mg/dm 2 

(used) 

0.0025




method 


(2009) 


(2008a) 

Environmental 

Defence (2008) 

[cited in 

Environment 

Canada & Health 

Canada, 2008] 



3 baby 

bottles; 2 

reusable 

water bottles 

Rinsing with boiling 

water 


h @ 60 °C 


h @ 70 °C 

40 

water bath 


shaker at 

140 

cycles/min 

LOD 

(mg/l) 

HPLC-grade water Oven 4 × 10 −8 

(GC- 

MS/MS) 

Tap water (pH ~7) In oven 0.0005 

(SPME- 

GC-MS) 

9 bottles Not reported 24 h @ 80 °C Water Not reported Not 

reported 

Li et al. (2010) 4 brands Not reported 

2 days @ 40 °C 


0.0018 (range 

0.0005–0.0065) 

0.032–0.055 

0.0043–0.0083 

2 h @ 100 °C + 24 h MilliQ water 240 ml; 7 × 10 0.000 034– 

@ 24 °C 

water bath; 

0.0045 

2 days @ 24 °C 

aluminium 

foil against 

photolysis 

0.000 001 9– 

0.000 084 (1) 



method 


(2008a) 

3 baby 

bottles; 2 

reusable 

water bottles 




(2008a) 

3 baby 

bottles; 2 

reusable 

water bottles 




water 



brushing with 







methanol 


water 



brushing with 

alkaline detergent; 6 

rinses with 1 litre of 





days @ 70 °C 

41 


LOD 

(mg/l) 


(SPME- 

GC-MS) 

3 days @ 22 °C HPLC-grade water 100 ml and 



bottle (S/V = 

48/dm) 


days @ 70 °C 

0.000 05 

(ELISA) 


(SPME- 

GC-MS) 




bottle (S/V = 

48/dm) 

0.000 05 

(ELISA) 


0.000 038– 

0.000 25 (2) 

0.000 001– 

0.000 16 (3) 

0.061–0.10 

0.000 25– 

0.000 79 

0.099–0.21 

0.000 28– 

0.000 72




method 


(2008a) 

3 baby 

bottles; 2 

reusable 

water bottles 



Mountfort (1997); 

Mountfort et al. 

(1997) 


(2009) 

Howe & 

Borodinsky (1998) 


methanol 


water 



brushing with 







methanol 

24 brands 2 h sterilization, 3× 

rinsing 




days @ 70 °C 

42 

LOD 

(mg/l) 


(SPME- 

GC-MS) 




bottle (S/V = 

48/dm) 

10 days @ 40 °C Distilled water 250 ml; 

microwave 

(750 W) 

0.000 05 

(ELISA) 


0.22–0.52 

0.03



method 

5 gallon 

carboy (~19 

litres) 

43 

oven 


LOD 

(mg/l) 


Not reported 21 days @ ambient No shaking 0.0001–0.0002 

Mercea (2009) 8 bottles Not reported 54 days @ 54 °C Deionized water Not 

reported; 

heating in 

oven 

Biles et al. (1997) 5 gallon 

carboy (~19 

litres) 

Szymanski, 

Rykowska & 

Wasiak (2006) 

MHLW (2010) 12 PC tanks 

of 12 litres 

Not reported 

3 bottles No Ambient during 

storage 

Not reported Ambient during 

storage 

0.001 0.10–0.15 

84 days @ ambient Water No shaking Not 0.0004–0.0005 

273 days @ ambient 

reported 

0.0046–0.0047 

Mineral water Not reported Not 

reported 

Water Not reported 4.4 × 

10 −5 

0.000 40– 

0.000 52 


mg/l at boiling temperature, whereas the concentration of BPA in boiled tap water (pH of 

about 9.5) increased from less than 0.002 mg/l at 50 °C to 0.033 mg/l at boiling temperature. 

Biedermann-Brem, Grob & Fjeldal (2008) showed that a higher pH clearly increases the 

release of BPA and is independent from other physical considerations such as exposure time, 

temperature and heating mode (microwave/thermal oven). This has special relevance if one 

considers that some food preparation processes may cause the pH to increase above 8, which 

is normally the highest value for food. An example is boiling tap water in a pan or microwave 

for several minutes, during which carbon dioxide can be released, consequently increasing 

the pH. 

Biedermann-Brem & Grob (2009) and Mercea (2009) also showed that the mineral content of 

the simulant may influence BPA release. However, they failed to show clear evidence that the 

effect was really caused by the mineral composition and not by the pH. 

Maia et al. (2010) and Sajiki & Yonekubo (2004) reported on the aminolysis of PC by some 

amines at 121 °C for 1 hour and 37 °C as a function of time, respectively. The release was 

significantly higher compared with sodium hydroxide solutions at similar pH of 10–11. 

Aminolysis was not detected at 25 °C for 5 days. If one corrects the release data for a realistic 

surface to volume ratio of a baby bottle of about 8/dm and uses a 30-minute contact time, one 

can calculate BPA concentrations below 0.01 mg/l from the glycine and methionine data of 

Sajiki & Yonekubo (2004). These are lower than the reported LODs for milk (see above) for 

contact at 100 °C for 0.5 minute in a microwave oven and a cooling-down period of 20 

minutes and for contact at 70 °C for 2 hours followed by 40 °C for 24 hours. 1,4- 

Diaminobutane, 1,3-cyclohexanebis(methylamine), trimethylamine and 1,3-xylylenediamine 

caused much higher releases of BPA at 121 °C for 1 hour, as calculated from the data of 

Sajiki & Yonekubo (2004). It is evident that aminolysis of PC by a few amines is possible; 

however, the levels of these amines in milk may not be relevant for release of BPA. 

Some scientists studied the difference in BPA releases from new and used PC baby bottles 

and came to contradictory conclusions (Tan & Mustafa, 2003; Le et al., 2008; Mercea, 2009). 

Furthermore, the authors did not report whether the used bottles were of the same production 

lot as the new ones, so their experiments cannot be taken as conclusive on whether the release 

of BPA would decrease or increase with age of the bottle. 

Repeated testing with the same bottles clearly demonstrated that the release decreased or at 

least remained constant during successive release experiments with water (Kawamura et al., 

1998; Sun et al., 2000; Yoshida et al., 2003; Ehlert, Beumer & Groot, 2008; Maragou et al., 

2008; EURL-FCM, 2009; Lazaro et al., 2009; Maia et al., 2009). The same observation was 

made with 10% aqueous ethanol (Biles et al., 1997; ECB, 2008). One EU Member State 

laboratory (EURL-FCM, 2009) observed an increase in the release of BPA into 3% acetic 

acid during successive experiments at 100 °C for 30 minutes. 

Washing the bottles also induces chemical ageing of the internal surface, but experimental 

results on this topic are not homogeneous. Both Biedermann-Brem, Grob & Fjeldal (2008) 

and Mercea (2009) observed that the bottles released lower amounts of BPA into aqueous 

food simulants after washing. In contrast, Brede et al. (2003) observed an increase in BPA 

levels with washing. To explain the discrepancies, it has been speculated that the pH of the 

detergent solution could be crucial, but the rinsing after washing before drying the bottle may 

44

45 


also have an effect. Manual brushing for cleaning the bottles does not increase the amount of 

BPA released (Maragou et al., 2008). 

Conclusions on conditions affecting the release of BPA from PC are as follows: 

• Release of BPA from PC into aqueous liquids is caused by diffusion and hydrolysis of the 

PC, catalysed by hydroxide. 

• Main parameters affecting the release of BPA are contact time, temperature and pH of the 

food simulant, all having a positive correlation. 

• Dissolution of scale during boiling of water in the PC bottle may raise the concentration 

of BPA due to the rise in the pH. 

• Brushing of the bottle does not seem to increase the release of BPA. 

• The effect of ageing is difficult to estimate, as studies suggesting this effect were not 

based on experiments with new and used bottles of the same production lot. 

• Residual alkaline detergent remaining on the surface of the baby bottle after dishwashing 

may increase the release of BPA. 

• Some food preparation processes increase the pH above the normal pH of food, causing 

an increase of the release of BPA. 

• The possible effect of the mineral composition of the aqueous food simulant on the 

release of BPA is not clear to date. 

As part of the Japanese survey discussed above, MHLW (2010) also reported on BPA 

migration from a total of 68 PC articles as follows (number of samples): nursing bottles (4), 

drinking bottles (8), eating containers (41), eating utensils (15) and teethers (5). The articles 

were filled with water (volume not given) or, for the eating utensils and teethers, covered 

with water at 2 ml/cm 2 . The testing conditions included water at 60 ºC for 30 minutes and 

95 ºC for 30 minutes. The LOD was reported as 0.044 µg/l, and the LDL was reported as 0.5 

µg/l. BPA was not detected in the nursing bottles at both temperatures. BPA was detected in 

the extract from one of eight drinking bottles at 60 ºC (at 50 µg/l) and four of eight bottles at 

95 ºC (range of 1.3–80 µg/l). BPA was detected in extracts from 5 of 41 containers at 60 ºC 

(0.6–2.1 µg/l) and 8 of 41 containers at 95 ºC (0.5–5.5 µg/l). BPA was detected in extracts 

from 2 of 15 utensils at 60 ºC (0.6–1.7 µg/l) and 7 of 15 utensils at 95 ºC (0.6–5.7 µg/l). BPA 

was detected in extracts from three of five teethers at 60 ºC (0.5–0.9 µg/l) and four of five 

teethers at 95 ºC (0.9–2.3 µg/l). This is difficult to interpret, as the migration values were 

expressed relative to the extracts and the volume was not specified. A rationale for the high 

BPA levels from the one drinking bottle was not provided. 

The unpublished study from China discussed above (J. Xiao, B. Shao & Y.N. Wu, Chinese 

Center for Disease Control and Prevention, unpublished data, 2010) also reported on the 

analysis of 15 plastic articles, including plastic boxes, infant bottles and water cups, collected 

from supermarkets in Beijing. The articles were constructed from PC, PS or polypropylene 

(PP). The articles were tested using 65% ethanol at 60 ºC for 3 hours. The analysis was 

conducted using LC-MS/MS, but no additional information was reported on the method. BPA 

was detected in extracts from 13 of the 15 samples at concentrations ranging from 0.13 to 

0.99 mg/kg. The migration values were expressed relative to the extracts, and the volumes 

were not specified. We note that the BPA concentrations for the PC articles were not 

significantly different from those for the non-PC articles. This was not discussed in the 

report.


2.2.2 Epoxy resins 

A few studies are available on BPA migration from epoxy coatings into “other foods” and 

simulants, in addition to studies attempting to elucidate the effects of can contents, processing 

time and temperature, storage time and temperature, and even can damage. 

(a) “Other foods” and simulants 

Larroque, Brun & Blaise (1989) evaluated BPA migration from wine vats coated with epoxy 

resins. In one study, migration of BPA up to 160 mg/kg resin into wine simulants was 

reported after 4 years from resins applied to glass. In another study, BPA migration of 0.7– 

1.8 mg/kg resin into wine simulants was reported after 3 years from resins applied to an 

aluminium support, whereas BPA migration of 113 mg/kg resin after 1 year was reported 

from resins applied to a glass support. The authors suggested a BPA migration of 100 mg/kg 

resin with a 1500-litre vat lined with 10 kg resin, corresponding to a BPA concentration in 

the wine of 650 µg/l. EFSA (2006) noted that the highest migration values appeared to be 

from degraded resins. They concluded that the high migration values could be attributed to 

resin deterioration with time. 

Brenn-Struckhofova & Cichna-Markl (2006) reported on BPA concentrations in wine 

available in Austria. The wines were from vats (steel, wood and plastic), glass bottles and 

cartons, with storage times ranging from 0.25 to 11 months. In 13 of the 59 wine samples, the 

BPA concentration was below the LOQ of 0.2 µg/l. In seven samples, BPA concentrations 

ranged from 0.2 to 0.5 µg/l. The mean BPA concentration for all wine samples above the 

LOQ was 0.58 µg/l. The highest BPA concentration of 2.1 µg/l was reported for one sample 

stored for 10.5 months in a steel vat. EFSA (2006) concluded that no specific scenario is 

needed to account for BPA migration into wine. 

Bae, Jeong & Lee (2002) studied BPA migration into water from three different epoxyphenolic 

resins. BPA concentrations in water ranged from 0.1 to 1734 µg/m 2 of coatings. 

BPA leaching was shown to increase with an increase in water temperature. 

Kang & Kondo (2002b) analysed 26 canned pet food samples (15 cat food and 11 dog food) 

available in Japan. BPA concentrations ranged from 13 to 136 µg/kg in cat food and from 11 

to 206 µg/kg in dog food. 

(b) Can processing & storage 

Goodson et al. (2004) investigated the effects of different storage conditions and can damage 

on the migration of BPA into foods. Empty coated cans were filled with four foods (soup, 

minced beef, evaporated milk and carrots) and a food simulant (10% ethanol), sealed, 

thermally processed, then stored at three different temperatures (5 ºC, 20 ºC and 40 ºC) for up 

to 9 months. Fifty per cent of the cans were dented. The authors reported that 1) most of the 

BPA migration (80–100% total) occurred during can processing, 2) there was no increase in 

BPA levels with extended storage or can damage and 3) there was no noticeable difference in 

BPA migration into the foods and simulant. 

Kang & Kondo (2002a) also investigated BPA migration from prepared decaffeinated and 

non-decaffeinated instant coffee heated in coated cans (121 ºC for 30 minutes). BPA 

migration into water (no decaffeinated or non-decaffeinated instant coffee) ranged from 9 to 

46

47 


31 ng/ml (average 14.1 ng/ml), whereas BPA migration from decaffeinated instant coffee 

ranged from 33 to 107 ng/ml (average 66.2 ng/ml), and that from non-decaffeinated instant 

coffee ranged from 50 to 134 ng/ml (average 84.0 ng/ml). The authors concluded that BPA 

migration increased with the increasing caffeine content of the solutions. 

Kang, Kito & Kondo (2003) also studied BPA migration from identical coated cans as a 

function of container contents (water, glucose, sodium chloride and vegetable oil), heating 

time and/or temperature. Cans containing 5–20% glucose solution, 1–10% sodium chloride 

solution and vegetable oils (corn, olive and soya bean oil) were heated at 121 ºC for 30 

minutes. Cans containing only water (controls) were heated at 105 ºC for 30 minutes and at 

121 ºC for 15, 30 and 60 minutes, respectively. The cans containing water exhibited a noted 

increase (about 4 times) on increasing the temperature to 121 ºC. When the cans were heated 

at 121 ºC, the presence of 1–10% sodium chloride, 5–20% glucose and vegetable oils greatly 

increased the migration of BPA from the cans in comparison with the water controls. The 

authors concluded that 1) temperature was more important than heating time on BPA 

migration and 2) the presence of 1–10% sodium chloride or vegetable oils greatly increased 

the migration of BPA from the cans. 

Kawamura et al. (2001) reported on BPA migration from four cans (three with BPA epoxies 

in the ends or side seams, one with BPA in interior body) into various simulants and under 

various test conditions. No BPA migration was observed into water at 60 ºC and 95 ºC for 30 

minutes, into 20% ethanol at 60 ºC for 30 minutes or into n-heptane at 25 ºC for 60 minutes. 

However, BPA levels in water ranged from 35 to 124 ng/ml when cans were heated at 120 ºC 

for 30 minutes (water was the only simulant tested at this temperature). The authors 

concluded that BPA migration requires heating to temperatures above 105 ºC. 

Munguia-Lopez & Soto-Valdez (2001) studied the effects of heat processing and storage time 

(up to 70 days) on BPA migration from coatings of two cans (jalapeno pepper and tuna) into 

distilled water (i.e. aqueous food simulant) under various processing conditions. For tuna 

cans, BPA levels (µg/kg) were as follows (days at 25 ºC):


at 160 days. The highest BPA level found in jalapeno peppers cans, surveyed from three 

supermarkets, was 5.6 µg/kg. 

In the second follow-up study, Munguia-Lopez et al. (2005) studied the effect of heat 

processing, storage time and temperature on BPA migration from organosol, epoxy and 

combination can coatings into sunflower oil (i.e. fatty food simulant) and tuna. For the 

organosol coating, BPA levels ranged from 403.6 to 646.5 µg/kg in sunflower oil following 

heat processing (121 ºC for 90 minutes) and storage at 25 ºC for up to 160 days. For the 

epoxy coating, BPA levels ranged from 11.3 to 138.4 µg/kg in sunflower oil following heat 

processing (111 ºC for 135 minutes) and storage at 25 ºC over 1 year. For the combination 

coatings, BPA levels were below the LOQ (10.0 µg/kg) in sunflower oil following heat 

processing (121 °C for 50 minutes) and storage at 25 ºC for up to 1 year. Migration of BPA to 

tuna ranged from less than 7.1 to 105.4 µg/kg during long-term storage at 25 ºC. BPA levels 

in tuna cans purchased from three local supermarkets ranged from less than 7.1 to 102.7 

µg/kg. The authors concluded that the highest BPA migration levels were found following 

heat processing at temperatures as high as 121 ºC and at times as long as 90 minutes. 

Takao et al. (2002) studied nine different food cans packed with water and processed at 80 ºC 

or 100 ºC for 30 minutes. The food cans contained epoxies on the body and/or seams. Low 

BPA levels were detected in water from all unheated cans, with BPA levels less than 5 µg/l 

for all cans and both temperatures, except for one (32 µg/l). The authors concluded that 

reducing the thermal processing temperature to 80 ºC could reduce the BPA concentration by 

up to two thirds. The can that recorded the highest BPA concentration in water after heating 

was found to have epoxies on all components (lid, bottom and body). 

As part of the Japanese survey discussed above, MHLW (2010) also studied the migration of 

BPA from 25 empty cans coated with various epoxies (nine cans), vinyl (six cans), C enamel 

(four cans) or an unidentified laminate (three cans) or uncoated (three cans) that were filled 

with water, sealed and processed at 95 ºC and 121 °C for 30 minutes. The LOD was reported 

as 0.044 ng/ml, and the LOQ was reported as 1 ng/ml. BPA was not detected in water from 

the three laminates, but it was detected in water from 15 of the 22 remaining samples, 

including those not manufactured from materials containing BPA, at concentrations ranging 

from less than 1 to 6 ng/ml. A rationale for this observation was not given in the report. 

2.2.3 <strong>Paper</strong> and paperboard 

There are few studies reporting on BPA concentrations in food packaged or packed in paper 

and paperboard containers, in addition to a few studies evaluating BPA in wastewaters from 

paper recycling processes and BPA levels in thermal paper. The results of these studies are 

summarized in Table 15. 

(a) Food packaged in paper and board 

Vinggaard et al. (2000) reported on the analysis of 20 different brands of kitchen paper 

towels, 9 made from recycled paper and 11 from virgin paper, obtained in Denmark. Ethanol 

extracts from paper towels made with virgin paper contained no or negligible concentrations 

of BPA less than the LOD of 0.2 mg/kg. In contrast, paper towels made from recycled paper 

had BPA levels ranging from 0.6 to 24 mg/kg paper. 

48

Table 15. Summary of BPA concentrations in paper/board and process water 

49 


Reference Medium Location Concentration Samples 

Vinggaard et al. 

(2000) 

<strong>Paper</strong> towels Denmark


half of the board samples at levels ranging from 0.05 to 1817 µg/kg. BPA was present, but 

less frequent and abundant, in the paper samples. BPA was detected in 40% of the paper 

samples examined, at levels ranging from 0.08 to 188 µg/kg paper. 

Sajiki et al. (2007) evaluated BPA levels in foods sold in Japanese markets. BPA 

concentrations ranged from 0 to 1 µg/kg for 16 foods in paper containers, compared with 0– 

842 µg/kg for 48 canned foods and 0–14 µg/kg for 23 foods in plastic containers. 

(b) Process water 

Fukazawa et al. (2001) reported on BPA in the effluents from eight papermaking plants in 

Shizuoka, Japan. BPA levels in the final effluents ranged from 8 to 370 µg/l for the eight 

plants. 

In a follow-up study, Fukazawa et al. (2002) reported BPA in the effluents from 20 pulping 

processes for waste paper containing thermal paper and/or other printed paper in Shizuoka, 

Japan. BPA was detected in the effluent from all plants at levels ranging from 0.2 to 370 µg/l 

(average of 59 µg/l). BPA levels were 0.2 and 0.4 µg/l at two plants using only virgin pulp. 

In another study, Terasaki et al. (2007) detected eight phenolics (one of which was BPA) in 

paper recycling process water from a papermaking plant in Japan. The water samples were 

obtained from the effluent of the process and downstream areas. The detected levels for all 

eight phenolics were up to 270 µg/l and 230 µg/g in water samples and sediment samples, 

respectively, obtained from both the outfall of the paper recycling process water and its 

downstream areas. 

Furhacker, Scharf & Weber (2000) monitored the BPA levels in industrial, household and 

municipal influents, as well as the treatment effluent of a wastewater plant, in a town in 

Lower Austria. The industrial point sources showed a maximum BPA level of 72 µg/l for the 

paper plant, with BPA levels in the influents of a wood and metal company and a chemical 

company in the range of 35–50 µg/l. 

Latorre et al. (2007) examined the efficiency of several laboratory-scale treatments (aerobic, 

anaerobic and ozone, or combinations) using two packaging board mill whitewaters in Spain. 

BPA levels in the water ranged from 13 to 1253 mg/l for mill A and from 101 to 429 mg/l for 

mill B. 

Rigol et al. (2002) reported BPA levels ranging from 54 to 110 µg/l in process water 

collected at various points in a papermaking plant in Spain. 

Lee & Peart (2000) reported on a large-scale study on BPA in Canadian municipal and 

industrial wastewater and sludge. About 200 samples were collected, including those from 31 

sewage treatment plants and 15 pulp and paper mills across Canada, as well as 13 industrial 

facilities in the Toronto area. BPA was detected in all 72 sewage samples, with 

concentrations ranging from 0.080 to 4.98 µg/l (median 0.329 µg/l) for the influent and from 

0.010 to 1.08 µg/l (median 0.136 µg/l) for the effluent. The median reduction rate was 68%. 

Levels of BPA accumulation in sewage sludge, for the 50 samples tested, ranged from 0.033 

to 36.7 µg/l, on a dry weight basis. 

50

51 


A wide range of BPA concentrations, from 0.23 to 149.2 µg/l, was observed for the 

wastewater collected from selected industrial facilities in the Toronto area. Whereas 

relatively high BPA levels were found in some of the primary treated effluent collected from 

the deinking mills, BPA concentrations in the secondary treated effluent of all pulp and paper 

mills were low, with a range from less than 0.005 to 0.406 µg/l. Except for the samples 

derived from a few deinking mills, BPA contamination in pulp and paper mill sludge was 

either low or undetected (Lee & Peart, 2000). 

(c) Thermal paper 

More recently, a few studies have appeared on the direct analysis of thermal paper for BPA 

concentrations. 

Biedermann, Tschudin & Grob (2010) reported on the analysis of 13 thermal printing papers, 

consisting of receipts from various shops and chromatographic recorders, obtained in 

Switzerland. Eleven of the 13 thermal printing papers contained BPA at levels of 8–17 mg/g. 

The investigators reported that on dermal contact for 5 seconds, roughly 1 µg BPA (0.2–6 

µg) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger of dry skin, and about 10 times 

more if the fingers were wet or greasy. 

EWG (2010) reported on the analysis of 36 printed receipts collected from fast food 

restaurants, large retailers, grocery stores, gas stations and post offices in seven states of the 

USA and Washington, DC. They reported that 40% of the receipts contained 0.8–3% BPA on 

a weight basis. 

Mendum et al. (2010) recently reported on the analysis of 10 blank cash register receipts 

obtained from businesses in suburban Boston, Massachusetts, USA. BPA was not detected in 

2 of the 10 receipts (LOD of 0.09%), was detected at a level of 0.30% in 1 of 10 receipts and 

was detected at levels ranging from 0.83% to 1.7% in 7 of 10 receipts. A level of 1.7% 

equates to about 19 mg for a 30 cm long receipt. 

2.2.4 Polyvinyl chloride 

There are very few studies reporting on BPA migration from plasticized PVC into food or 

food simulants. 

Lopez-Cervantes & Paseiro-Losada (2003) investigated seven brands of stretch film, 

including five based on PVC and two based on polyethylene, purchased locally but marketed 

internationally in Spain. The BPA content of three of the five PVC films ranged from 40 to 

100 mg/kg; BPA was not detected in one film and was present at a concentration of 500 

mg/kg in another film. Migration studies into water, 3% acetic acid and olive oil at 40 ºC for 

10 days resulted in BPA concentrations ranging from 3 to 31 µg/dm 2 , with the highest values 

reported for olive oil. The highest value for all samples was for migration from the film 

containing BPA at 500 mg/kg into olive oil. 

Yamamoto & Yasuhara (2000) examined BPA migration from nine PVC hoses to water after 

24 hours at room temperature. BPA was detected in all water samples, at levels ranging from 

4.0 to 1730 µg/l (LOD ~0.03 µg/l). BPA migration as a function of time was determined for 

one PVC hose, with BPA migration levels ranging from 8.7 to 558 µg/l from 0 to 24 hours.


2.3 Other sources of oral exposure 

The other sources of oral exposure include the use of BPA-based epoxies in dentistry, as well 

as BPA present in dust. (BPA in air will be discussed in section 3.1 below.) 

2.3.1 Dental materials 

Dental materials manufactured from BPA-derived monomers include composite resins and 

dental sealants. Several recent reviews and assessments have summarized BPA 

concentrations as a result of dental sealants and composites (Vandenberg et al., 2007; Chapin 

et al., 2008; Environment Canada & Health Canada, 2008). BPA is not used directly in dental 

materials, but BPA glycidyl methacrylate and other acrylate-based derivatives of BPA are 

used and may degrade into related species. 

Leaching from dental materials can occur from residual monomer on the surface of the 

restoration, polymer hydrolysis and polymer particulate produced by abrasion. A number of 

investigators have shown that placement of composite resin restorations and sealants can 

result in acute, transient exposures to BPA (Fung et al., 2000; Sasaki et al., 2005; Joskow et 

al., 2006). 

Olea et al. (1996) applied a total of approximately 50 mg of sealant to 12 molars in 18 

patients. Total saliva was collected continuously for 1 hour before and 1 hour after the 

application procedure. After the treatment, all samples were found to contain variable 

amounts of BPA, ranging from 3.3 to 30.0 µg/ml saliva. In contrast, Lewis et al. (1999) 

evaluated some of the same commercial sealants and reported no detectable levels of BPA in 

saliva. 

Arenholt-Bindslev et al. (1999) applied 38 mg of fissure sealant to four molars in eight 

patients and found detectable levels of BPA in small saliva samples taken immediately after 

placement of the sealant. However, no BPA was detected in samples collected at 1 hour or 24 

hours after sealant application. 

Pulgar et al. (2000) studied the elution of biphenolic components from seven composites and 

one sealant, both polymerized and unpolymerized, into water as a function of pH. They 

reported BPA in the media in all samples, with higher levels observed for the unpolymerized 

samples and at higher pH. The highest BPA levels for the polymerized samples were 0.86 

µg/mg resin (pH 7) and 1.2 µg/mg resin (pH 12). 

Schafer et al. (2000) reported the proliferative effects of BPA in cells with high levels of 

estrogen receptors. They did not detect BPA in American-made sealants. 

Fung et al. (2000) collected saliva following the application of 8 mg (applied to one surface) 

and 32 mg (8 mg applied to four surfaces) of a dental sealant to a group of 18 and 22 adults, 

respectively. BPA concentrations in saliva ranged from 5.8 to 105.6 µg/kg (LOD of 5 µg/kg) 

at 1 hour and 3 hours following treatment, but BPA was not detected immediately after 

treatment or at other time intervals (24 hours, 72 hours and 120 hours) post-treatment. 

Zafra et al. (2002) collected saliva samples from eight patients undergoing dental procedures 

and found BPA in all specimens at concentrations ranging from 15.3 to 32.4 ng/ml. 

52

53 


Joskow et al. (2006) measured BPA concentrations in saliva of 14 adults before and after the 

application of between 39.0 and 42.5 mg of two dental sealants. Mean BPA concentrations 

before treatment, immediately following treatment and 1 hour post-treatment were reported 

as 0.22, 0.54 and 0.24 ng/ml in the saliva of five patients treated with one sealant and 0.30, 

26.5 and 5.12 ng/ml in the saliva of nine patients treated with the other sealant. 

Sasaki et al. (2005) measured BPA concentrations in saliva collected from 21 patients before 

and after dental treatments using nine different commercial composite resins. The resin that 

produced the highest mean BPA concentrations (n = 3) in saliva gave concentrations ranging 

from 60 to 100 ng/ml (post-treatment) and from 5 to 19 ng/ml (after gargling). BPA 

concentrations in saliva as a result of release from the other composites were as high as 60 

ng/ml. 

Azarpazhooh & Main (2008) performed a literature search (up to 2007) to investigate the 

reported toxicity of dental materials, including dental materials manufactured from BPA and 

its derivatives in particular. In total, 377 articles were identified, of which 11 original studies 

met a set of predetermined inclusion criteria. The authors noted that none of the dental 

sealants that carried the American Dental Association seal in 2007 released detectable levels 

of BPA. Based on their review, the authors recommended “that dental providers avoid the 

potential for BPA toxicity from the dental sealants by treating the surface layer of the sealant 

to reduce the possibility of unpolymerized BPA remaining on the tooth”. 

Ortengren (2000) reported on the water sorption and solubility of six proprietary composite 

resin materials and found no detectable quantities of BPA during the test period. 

Hamid & Hume (1997) identified and quantified the major (or detectable) components 

released from seven commercially available light-cured sealants using 10 extracted third 

molars. They found that other BPA derivatives were released, but no BPA. 

Schmalz, Preiss & Arenholt-Bindslev (1999) analysed the BPA content of different fissure 

sealant resin monomers and their release of BPA under hydrolytic conditions. They found 

that no BPA was released under physiological conditions from fissure sealants based on BPA 

glycidyl methacrylate if pure base monomers are used. 

Koin et al. (2008) studied the degradation of dental composites in a simplified overlayer 

model in which BPA glycidyl methacrylate was covalently bound to a porous silicon oxide 

surface. BPA glycidyl methacrylate and several degradation products were detected in 

distilled water after 2 weeks of ageing. BPA was not detected. 

Polydorou et al. (2007) evaluated two conventional resin composite materials (a hybrid and a 

flowable) after different polymerization times (0 seconds, 20 seconds, 40 seconds and 80 

seconds), a 10-minute wait and various storage times in 75% ethanol at room temperature (24 

hours, 7 days and 28 days). BPA was not detected in the samples. 

In a follow-up study, Polydorou et al. (2009) evaluated three different core buildup composite 

materials (a chemically cured, a photo-cured and a dual-cured) to evaluate the release of 

monomers. The photo-cured samples were polymerized for 40 seconds, and the dual-cured 

samples for 20 seconds. After 10 minutes, the samples were stored in 75% ethanol at room 

temperature for 24 hours, 7 days and 28 days. BPA levels were as follows: chemical cure


(ND at all times), photo-cure (ND, 24 hours; 1.9 µg/ml, 7 days; 6.0 µg/ml, 28 days) and dualcure 

(5.2 µg/ml, 24 hours; 4.0 µg/ml, 7 days; 6.1 µg/ml, 28 days). 

Studies on the release of BPA from dental materials are summarized in Table 16. 

Table 16. Summary of BPA concentrations from dental materials 

Reference Medium Concentration Samples (N) 

Olea et al. (1996) Sealant in saliva 3.3–30 µg/ml (after 1 h) 18 patients (12 

molars) 

Arenholt-Bindslev et 

al. (1999) 

Sealant in saliva

55 


a 0.76 m 2 area of the carpet. The investigators also sampled hard floor surfaces by wiping a 

38 cm × 38 cm area if there was no carpet. Hand wipe samples were taken twice a day for 

each child, before lunch and before supper. At homes and day-care centres having recent 

pesticide applications, hard floor surface wipe, food preparation surface wipe and transferable 

residue samples were collected. Masking tape was used to mark off a 38 cm × 38 cm (0.14 

m 2 ) area of the counter. The sample was collected by wiping this part of the counter in one 

direction, folding the wipe in half and wiping the surface again in the opposite direction, then 

returning the wipe to the glass jar. All wipes consisted of a gauze pad, which was pre-cleaned 

with dichloromethane, dried and wetted with 2 ml of 75% isopropanol in distilled water, and 

stored in a glass jar. The transferable residue samples were taken using the polyurethane 

foam roller apparatus; a pre-cleaned, dry polyurethane foam sampling cylinder was rolled on 

the indoor floor surface at a rate of approximately 10 cm/s for a 2 m distance (1 m up and 

back). This procedure was repeated, using the same polyurethane foam cylinder, at the other 

two selected locations. The concentrations in dust were found to be in the range from below 

the LOD to 710 µg/kg. The medians for the BPA in dust of hard floor surface and food 

preparation surface and transferable residues were all in the same range of 0.02–0.07 ng/cm 2 . 

Interestingly, the median concentration range of BPA of hand wipes of children was observed 

to be higher, 0.3–2.8 ng/cm 2 . 

Table 17. Concentrations of BPA in dust, transferable residues and children’s skin 

Reference Medium Concentration (median) No. of 

samples 

Rudel et al. (2003) Dust


(b) Pacifiers 

The German Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung (Federal Institute for Risk Assessment) 

(BfR, 2009a,b) studied the release of BPA from pacifiers made of silicone and latex because 

an environmental organization had detected a BPA release of 10 µg/l (medium not reported). 

BfR (2009a,b) stated that it was unclear why BPA was detected in the testing and conducted 

their own testing. Eighteen pacifiers representing 70% of the German market were tested for 

release into an artificial saliva solution. Seventeen pacifiers released BPA below the LOD of 

0.3 µg/l (= 0.015 µg/pacifier), and one pacifier released 4 µg/l (= 0.2 µg/pacifier). BfR 

(2009a,b) stated that this equals 1% of the maximum allowed release based on an infant of 

4.5 kg and 12 hours of sucking per day. 

MHLW (2010) conducted a study on five pacifiers, which were not described in detail. The 

tests were performed at 60 °C and 95 °C for 30 minutes, but the surface to volume ratio was 

not reported. At 60 °C, three out of five pacifiers released detectable levels of BPA, up to 0.9 

µg/l, whereas at 90 °C, four out of five pacifiers released detectable levels of BPA, up to 2.3 

µg/l. 

3. LEVELS AND PATTERNS FROM OTHER EXPOSURE ROUTES 

Several recent reviews and assessments have summarized BPA concentrations in 

environmental media, including lake waters, ambient and indoor air, and soil (Kang, Kondo 

& Katayama, 2006; Tsai, 2006; Vandenberg et al., 2007; von Goetz et al., 2010). Dermal 

contact through dust and concentrations of BPA in papermaking process waters were 

discussed above. 

3.1 Air 

BPA is not likely to occur in the gas phase of the atmosphere, as it has a very low vapour 

pressure. However, as atmospheric releases of some 100 t of BPA per year are reported 

during production, an association of BPA with aerosol particles could be possible. 

Berkner, Streck & Herrmann (2004) reported on sampling from May to November 2001 at 

three locations in north-east Bavaria, Germany. Two sites were situated at about 400 m apart 

in the Waldstein mountain range (about 700 m above sea level), one in a spruce forest and the 

other on a clearing. The third site was located near the city of Bayreuth. BPA in the gas phase 

was adsorbed to XAD-2 resin (2 m 3 /h for 2 weeks), and aerosol samples were taken on glass 

fibre filters (60 m 3 /h for 2 weeks). BPA was not detected in gas-phase samples. 

Concentrations of BPA in aerosol were in the range of 5–15 pg/m 3 for the clear area in the 

forest, 10–15 pg/m 3 in the forest and 10 pg/m 3 in the urban area. 

Matsumoto, Adachi & Suzuki (2005) detected BPA in deposition samples in the Tokyo, 

Japan, area during 1976–1978. The total deposition was collected by a funnel with a diameter 

of 30 cm in a bottle containing a 5% aqueous hydrochloric acid solution in a residential area 

of Tokyo during 7–24 days. Total deposition of BPA was detected in five out of eight 

samples in the range of 0.04–0.2 µg/m 2 per day. 

Kamiura, Tajima & Nakahara (1997) took air samples (on a glass fibre filter) in Japan. BPA 

concentrations were found to range from 2.9 to 3.6 ng/m 3 . No information on the sample 

56

57 


locations or analytical method employed was directly available, as the paper was written in 

Japanese. The reported BPA concentration ranges were much higher than the concentrations 

reported for samples taken at considerable distances from sources of BPA. 

Matsumoto, Adachi & Suzuki (2005) collected urban ambient air on glass fibre filters using a 

high-volume air sampler (79 m 3 /h for 35.8 days) on the roof of their institute in Osaka, Japan, 

during the period between October 2000 and March 2001. BPA concentrations were in the 

range of 0.01–1.9 ng/m 3 , and the average concentration seemed to increase from autumn to 

winter and decrease from winter to spring. 

Sabatini, Barbieri & Violante (2005) sampled air on a glass fibre filter (4 litres per minute for 

8 hours) inside an electronic processing facility (in Italy) that used epoxy resins at high 

temperatures. Five pumps were placed simultaneously on the top of the machinery during a 

typical production cycle, to obtain five replicates. BPA concentrations were in the range of 

6.7–14 ng/m 3 , with a mean value of 8.8 ng/m 3 . Using an 8-hour sampling period with a 

personal air sampling pump (low flow rate of 4 litres per minute), the authors concluded that 

all the samples showed measurable concentrations of BPA that were almost 6 orders of 

magnitude lower than the limit value of 5 mg/m 3 for an 8-hour time-weighted average 

exposure adopted by Germany. 

Inoue et al. (2006) sampled indoor air on a glass and a solid-phase filter (7 litres per minute 

for 24 hours) in private houses and companies in Japan. BPA was detected in 18 out of 26 

samples, with BPA concentrations in the range from less than 0.1 to 3.6 ng/m 3 . 

In addition to the results on prepared food and dust discussed above, Wilson et al. (2007) 

sampled indoor and outdoor air on a glass cartridge containing a quartz fibre filter followed 

by XAD-2 resin (4 litres per minute for 48 hours) in private houses and in day-care centres in 

North Carolina and Ohio, USA. BPA concentrations in indoor air in private houses were in 

the range from below the LOD to 190 ng/m 3 (median 0.98–1.8 ng/m 3 ), whereas 

concentrations in indoor air of day-care centres were in the range from below the LOD to 9.0 

ng/m 3 (median of


Table 18. BPA in aerosols near the emission source, in urban and rural areas and in indoor air 

Location Concentration (median) a 

Near emission source 

(ng/m 3 ) 

58 

No. of 

samples 

Reference 

BPA production 2100–6100 (4700) 16 He et al. (2009) 

Epoxy production 1600–55 000 (7900) 145 He et al. (2009) 

Electronic industry working with 

epoxy resins at high temperatures 

Urban area 

6.7–14 (7.4) 5 Sabatini, Barbieri & 

Violante (2005) 

Germany 0.010 2 Berkner, Streck & 

Herrmann (2004) 

Japan 

USA 

0.02–1.9 (0.12–1.2) 

36 Matsumoto, Adachi & 

Suzuki (2005) 

0.070–0.93 (0.34) # 7 Fu & Kawamura 

(2010) 

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

59 


BPA is a monomer used primarily in the production of PC plastics and epoxy resins. Over 

95% of the world consumption of BPA in 2009 was for these two purposes. 

PC applications include large returnable, refillable water bottles and food service items such 

as sports bottles, baby bottles, pitchers, tumblers, home food containers and flatware. Epoxy 

applications include protective coatings for the interiors and exteriors of food and beverage 

containers as well as dental materials. BPA derivatives are used, to a limited extent, as 

additives for PVC. BPA is also present in recycled and thermal paper. 

The Expert Meeting considered BPA concentrations in food from food surveys and BPA 

migration from food contact and dental materials. BPA concentrations in air, dust and water 

were also considered. 

The Expert Meeting noted that by far the majority of studies on BPA concentrations reported 

from food surveys were from food and beverages in epoxy-coated cans and, to a minor 

extent, glass containers with coated metal lids. Similarly, the majority of studies on BPA 

concentrations in food as a result of migration from food contact materials involved PC infant 

feeding bottles. A few studies on BPA concentrations in paper were available. 

BPA concentrations in food from food survey data were broken down by food type and age: 

infant formula and breast milk (0–6 months), baby and toddler food (6–12 months) and adult 

food. Most available data are for free (aglycone) BPA. However, in some cases (e.g. for 

breast milk), one would like to use total concentrations of BPA (i.e. free plus conjugated 

BPA) for exposure assessment. 

For breast milk, three studies representing more than 200 samples generally gave total BPA 

levels below 8 µg/l; however, two of the studies were considered to be of questionable utility 

because of their analytical shortcomings. 

For canned liquid infant formula, six studies representing more than 50 samples gave free 

BPA levels below 10 µg/l as consumed. The studies are primarily from North America. One 

of the studies was considered to be questionable in terms of method validation. 

For toddler food, one study in North America, representing about 100 samples, gave free 

BPA levels of about 1 µg/kg at the mean. Another study found no detectable BPA, but the 

LOD of the method used was relatively high. 

For adult foods, 30 studies representing about 1000 samples from several countries were 

available. The data were segregated according to food type. Levels in beverages were lower 

than levels in foods, levels in fruits were lower than levels in vegetables, and levels in fatty 

foods were higher than levels in all other foods. The data on canned foods were considered to 

be sufficient for exposure assessment. 

For food contact materials, numerous studies (primarily on bottles) examined various food 

simulants, contact times, bottle handling practices (washing, detergents, etc.) and bottle age. 

BPA levels were generally higher for non-aqueous simulants, higher temperatures, higher 

contact times and increasing pH of the contact medium. The data on PC articles were 

considered to be adequate.


For the migration of BPA from PC, worst-case realistic uses were defined. For the use of 

baby bottles, the worst-case scenario was defined as filling the bottle with boiling water, 

adding milk formula and leaving the bottle to cool down. In the case of PC tableware, the 

worst-case scenario was represented by a 30-minute contact time at 95 °C. Because of the 

large distribution of available test results, a maximum migration was selected for both 

situations for use in the exposure assessment. 

Several data exist on the levels of BPA in tap and bottled water. Because the concentrations 

vary widely, a maximum concentration of BPA in water was selected for use in the exposure 

assessment. 

The concentrations of BPA in air and dust are widely distributed, and two papers show that 

there is no difference between concentrations of BPA in indoor and outdoor air. Published 

estimates of exposure to BPA from air and dust were used in the exposure assessment (see 

background paper on BPA exposure assessment). 

Few studies on BPA from paper packaging, paper treatment water and thermal paper were 

available. BPA levels were higher in recycled paper than in virgin paper. Additional studies 

on BPA migration from paper packaging to food are needed. 

BPA levels in saliva from dental materials were low. The Expert Meeting determined that 

there was no need to collect additional data on BPA levels from dental materials, as exposure 

is short term and unlikely to contribute substantially to chronic exposure. 

Table 19 summarizes the occurrence data that were deemed to be valid for use in the 

exposure assessment. 

Table 19. Occurrence data for BPA in food and beverages 

Matrix / Reference 

Concentration (µg/l or µg/kg) 

60 

Average Maximum 

Human breast milk (Ye et al., 2006) 1.9 7.3 20 

Liquid milk formula, ready to feed a 

Cao et al. (2008) 5.1 10.2 3 

Ackerman et al. (2010) 5.05 10 39 

Goodson, Summerfield & Cooper (2002)


Matrix / Reference 

Concentration (µg/l or µg/kg) 

61 

Average Maximum 


Fruits 0.6 3.7 26 

Meats 1.1 7.2 25 

Vegetables 1.2 7.2 39 

Overall 0.82 7.2 99 

Canned food, solid b 

Fruits 9.8 — 70 

Vegetables 32.4 — 305 

Grains 42.7 — 22 

Meat (no soups or seafood) 69.6 — 70 

Soups 49.1 — 66 

Seafood 26.6 — 166 

Desserts 26.7 — 11 

Overall 36.7 — 710 

Canned food, liquid b 

Drinks, carbonated (cola, beer, soda, tonic) 1.0 — 128 

Drinks, non-carbonated (tea, coffee, other) 23.2 — 131 

Migration from PC 

Baby bottles (Maragou et al., 2008) — 15 6 

Tableware (Kawamura et al., 1998) — 2 3 

Tap water and bottled water c — 1 >100 

Number of samples 

a Expressed as consumed. 

b Brotons et al. (1995); Horie et al. (1999); Kawamura, Sano & Yamada (1999); Imanaka et al. (2001); Yoshida 

et al. (2001); Goodson, Summerfield & Cooper (2002); Kataoka, Ise & Narimatsu (2002); Kang & Kondo 

(2003); Braunrath et al. (2005); Munguia-Lopez et al. (2005); Thomson & Grounds (2005); Maragou et al. 

(2006); Sun et al. (2006); EWG (2007); Podlipna & Cichna-Markl (2007); Poustka et al. (2007); Sajiki et al. 

(2007); Shao et al. (2007); Garcia-Prieto et al. (2008); Grumetto et al. (2008); Yonekubo, Hayakawa & Sajiki 

(2008); Bendito et al. (2009); Cao, Corriveau & Popovic (2009a, 2010a,b); Consumers Union (2009); Rastkari 

et al. (2010); Vinas et al. (2010). 

c Biles et al. (1997); Ghijsen & Hoogenboezem (2000); Kuch & Ballschmiter (2001); Inoue et al. (2002); Boyd et 

al. (2003); Casajuana & Lacorte (2003); Rodriguez-Mozaz, López De Alda & Barceló (2004); Stackelberg et al. 

(2004); Szymanski & Wasiak (2004); Rykowska, Shao et al. (2005); Jiang et al. (2006); Szymanski, Rykowska 

& Wasiak (2006); Loos et al. (2007); Cao & Corriveau (2008c); L. Li et al. (2008); X. Li et al. (2010); Sodré, 

Locatelli & Jardim (2010); Wang & Schnute (2010); Amiridou & Voutsa (2011). 

The following data gaps were identified by the Expert Meeting: 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

Further surveys of BPA levels in breast milk from countries other than the USA are 

needed. Such studies should employ analytical methods that determine both free and total 

BPA. 

Further surveys of BPA concentrations in infant formula from countries outside of North 

America are needed. 

Further surveys of BPA levels in toddler food from countries outside of North America, 

especially if such food is packed in metal cans, are needed. 

Additional studies on BPA migration from paper packaging to food are needed.


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